-Title-
Watering Summer Plants
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Watering Summer Plants

     A blistering summer sun along with inadequate watering often
leads to the downfall of a potentially beautiful yard containing
a healthy lawn, flowers and shrubs.

     Many times the problem isn't recognized until plants are
badly damaged or dead.  And, over-watering can be as much a
problem as under-watering.

     Here are some suggestions for getting water to the roots of
plants, and keeping it there:

     Never water strictly by the calendar.  Instead, learn to
recognize dry plants and soil, and use these symptoms as your
watering guide.

     When plants are dry, water them thoroughly.  Water lawns so
the soil becomes wet several inches down.  This encourages deep
rooting and resistance to extreme dry periods.

     Water trees and shrubs by taking the sprinkler off the end
of the hose and letting the water run slowly for an hour or so.
Be sure water is going where you want it and not just running
off.

     Symptoms for water-logged plants are about the same as those
that have been kept too dry.  Plants begin to wilt and turn
yellow.

     To hold moisture in the soil, use a mulch such as tree bark,
bagasse or pine straw.  Besides reducing evaporation, mulches
keep the soil cooler and make weed pulling easier.  Be especially
careful to keep newly planted trees and shrubs well watered.
Their developing root systems are especially sensitive to under-
watering and over-watering.
-End-
-Title-
February Gardening Suggestions
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 February Gardening Suggestions

     During February it's not unusual to begin thinking about the
warmer days of spring and the things you'll be doing outside.
But, it may be that you'll want to get outside and work in the
garden during the warm days of February because what you do
during February will certainly affect what your garden has to
offer during the spring.

     You can plant gladiolus during the latter days of January
and the first week to ten days of February.  You can prolong the
blooming season of glads by planting a few corms each week until
about the middle of March...but no later.

     Also, if you want early flowers, seed annuals in boxes and
keep them indoors.

     February is a good time to fertilize trees.  Remember, it's
best to put the fertilizer in holes in the soil.  Fertilize trees
with about a pound to a pound and a half of a balanced fertilizer
for each year of the tree's age.  A balanced fertilizer is one
such as 8-8-8.

     Shrubs should be fertilized with about a quarter of a pound
of a balanced fertilizer for every square yard of area covered by
the spread of the plant.  You can delay fertilizing your shrubs
until March.

     If you're more of a vegetable gardener, here are the
vegetables which can be planted during February...beets, carrots,
broccoli, turnips, mustard, spinach, parsley, cabbage, Chinese
cabbage, radishes, Irish potatoes, leaf lettuce, head lettuce
(during the first part of the month), snap beans and corn.  Also,
you can transplant broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, head lettuce
and shallots.

     If you're planning to plant tomatoes this spring, you can
plant tomato seeds in a greenhouse or in hotbeds during January
or by the end of February.  Tomatoes require about seven to eight
weeks from seeding until they reach transplant size.  Eggplants
and bell peppers require eight to ten weeks of growth.

     If you're considering planting a pecan tree or two, you
should get it done by late February.  The dormant season for
pecan trees ends in early March and trees must be set out before
the growing begins.  Container-grown pecan trees may be planted
on into spring as temperatures remain cool.

     Late February to early March is an ideal time to fertilize
the fruit plants in your home orchard.  An annual application of
fertilizer is critical to the maintenance of healthy, productive
fruit trees and plants.

     Here are a few other things you may want to do in February
if you grow fruit...plant blackberry root cuttings...check
strawberry plants for spider mites... apply pre-emerge herbicides
to the lawn to control spring annual weeds...plant container-
grown citrus trees...collect fig cuttings and add mulch to
rabbiteye blueberry plants.
-End-
-Title-
Ajuga
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                              Ajuga

     Ajuga, commonly called Bugleflower, is a popular ground
cover.  It's used in rock gardens and as an underplanting for
trees and shrubs.  Ajuga will grow in shade, on flat areas and on
slopes.

     Ajuga grows about five inches high.  It has a dense, compact
form.  Its dark green foliage is three to four inches long and
about an inch wide.  Some varieties turn bronze in the fall.

     Few ground covers grow as easily and as quickly as ajuga.
It spreads by runners, much like strawberries.  For a quick
cover, plant ajuga eight to ten inches apart.  It's easy to
propagate.  Even the smallest piece with roots will take hold.

     Ajuga can be planted anytime during the growing season, but
it does have a shallow root system and should be watered in dry
weather.

     Ajuga has a serious disease, crown rot, which causes plants
to wilt and die suddenly.  This disease is most common in hot,
dry weather and occurs most often on heavy, poorly drained soils.
To control crown rot, remove affected plants and the soil around
their roots.  Drench the area with a soil insecticide labeled for
ajuga.
-End-
-Title-
Boxwood
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Boxwood

     The American boxwood is a tall, evergreen shrub used for
foundation plantings.  It has long been associated with the
colonial homes of the South.

     Boxwoods thrive in well-drained, sandy, loamy soils that are
high in organic matter and have a pH of 5.5 to 7.  They like
semi-shade.  Avoid full sun and dry, hot locations.

     Boxwoods have shallow roots and cultivating around them can
disturb the root system.  Mulch boxwoods with pine needles or
other organic materials to a depth of no more than two inches.
This will help to conserve moisture, reduce weeds and help them
get established.  Be sure to water them thoroughly, but don't
plant them near drain spouts.  They don't like wet feet.

     Prune boxwoods yearly for the first few seasons after
planting.  Prune in early summer so that new growth can harden
off before the first frost.  Keep all dead twigs and branches
pruned.  They provide ideal conditions for disease-causing fungi.
After the first few years, prune the plants periodically until
you get the plants to the size you want.  Keep the stem crotches
at the base of the plant free of any accumulation of dead leaves
and other debris.  Boxwoods should be kept thoroughly watered
during the summer drought periods.

     Fertilize boxwoods in early spring.  Apply more fertilizer
in early June.  If the soil hasn't been tested, use one or two
pounds of 8-8-8 per 100 square feet of surface area.  Don't apply
fertilizer within six inches of the main stem.

     American boxwoods are especially susceptible to boxwood leaf
miners.  These are insect larvae that feed between the two
surfaces of leaves.  Other insects that attack boxwoods include
boxwood phyllid nymphs, Japanese wax scale and spider mites.  You
can control them with insecticides.

     The most common disease of boxwoods is phytophthora root
rot.  It can injure the plant seriously.  There's no chemical
cure for this disease, but the following suggestions may help you
avoid it:

     Be sure to buy healthy plants.  Don't plant boxwoods in
poorly drained areas.  If you must plant them in clay soils,
build up the beds.  Mix pine bark into the planting site to a
depth of 12 inches and remove any dead or dying branches
promptly.
-End-
-Title-
Crape Myrtle
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Crape Myrtle


     A popular small flowering tree used in landscaping is the
crape myrtle.  There are a number of reasons for the popularity
of the crape myrtle -- its availability, its long blooming
season, its freedom from serious pests, and its ability to grow
under most conditions.

     The crape myrtle begins blooming in May and you're likely to
see colors such as watermelon red, shades of lavender, red, pink,
white and even variegated colors.

     The crape myrtle is sometimes called the "Southern Lilac" or
the "Flowering Tree for l00 Days" because it blooms off and on
during a three month period.

     As soon as the flower heads fade, they should be pruned from
the plant with a knife or shears.  You should make the cut right
behind the old flower head, leaving as much foliage and stem as
possible.  New growth will appear and new flowers will follow in
about three to five weeks.  Then, as soon as these second flowers
begin to fade, they should be cut from the plant.  In many cases,
you'll find that you will get a third blooming stage in the fall.

     Crape myrtle should get full sunlight most of the day.
You'll find that crape myrtle planted in shady areas will produce
diseased, weak, and spindly plants with only a few flowers.

     Container-grown crape myrtle can be bought and transplanted
anytime of the year as long as you're careful to give them enough
water after they're transplanted.  Although crape myrtle can be
planted anytime, the best time to plant them is in the winter
when the plant is dormant.

     Crape myrtle needs to be fertilized.  Generally this tree
will need about one pound of fertilizer for every year of age of
the tree, up to ten pounds.  Apply the fertilizer by punching
holes about 12 to 15 inches deep into the soil and about two feet
from the trunk of the tree.  Use one cup of fertilizer, which is
about a half pound, in as many holes as is needed to get to the
amount needed by the tree.

     When you're looking for crape myrtle, you'll find three
general kinds -- dwarf, the improved weeping types, and the old,
standard, upright varieties.

     Unfortunately, it's hard to buy crape myrtle by variety.
Most of them are sold by color and size.  However, several named
varieties which are fairly common include "Near East" which is
flesh pink, grows vigorously and has an outstanding sculptural
form.  "Pink Ruffles" is a deep pink flowering dwarf.  "Cherokee"
is a bright, true red that is medium sized.  "William Toovey" is
the most common large watermelon red.  "Potomac" is a large,
long-flowered clear pink variety.  "Seminole" is a clear pink
plant with large flowers and several bloom cycles.  "Powhatan" is
light purple and reported to be mildew resistant.
-End-
-Title-
Gardenias
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Gardenias

     The gardenia is a popular flowering shrub, and is limited to
regions of warmer climate.  This delightful evergreen has
distinctive glossy foliage and fragrant, white, waxy flowers
which bloom in late spring and summer.  The blossoms have been a
favorite with gardeners for generations.

     Gardenias grow on a wide range of soils, but they do best in
moist, loamy, well-drained soil.  The soil pH should be between
5.0 and 6.0.  Gardenias grow best in soil mixed with organic
matter such as peat, bark and sewage sludge.  Mulching will help,
too.  Each spring, fertilize gardenias with a complete garden
fertilizer such as 8-8-8 and apply additional iron.  Apply
fertilizer a second time in early or mid-summer.  Don't fertilize
gardenias in the fall.  Doing so will stimulate tender growth
which may be killed if the temperature in winter drops below 15
degrees.

     White flies often attack gardenias.  They can be controlled
by insecticides or oil sprays.

     The oil sprays will control the white fly and remove the
black, sooty mold from gardenia leaves.  When using oil sprays,
follow the manufacturer's directions.  They cannot be used when
temperatures are very hot or cold.

     Prune gardenias after they have finished flowering.  This is
usually in late May or early June.  Prune late-flowering
varieties after flowering is completed.
-End-
-Title-
Hollies
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Hollies

     Chinese and Japanese are two of the most popular types of
hollies.  First, let's look at the Chinese holly.  When they're
left alone they will grow as tall as 20 feet, but most people
control this growth by pruning them.

     Chinese hollies are tolerant of poor soils and poor
drainage.  Of course, this makes them easy to grow.  They will
grow in shade but for best growth and fruiting, they need at
least six hours of sun each day.

     The most common mistake people make in growing Chinese
hollies is failing to prune the plants for several years after
planting.  When the pruning is finally done, it's often severe
and this results in an unattractive shrub.

     A good time to prune hollies is at Christmas.  Use the dark
green, glossy foliage and the red berries for decorating.  Prune
hollies only to shape them or to remove dead or injured branches.

     For a heavy berry crop, be sure to have both male and female
plants nearby.  Sometimes a male branch can be grafted onto the
back of a female plant.

     Fertilize Chinese hollies in mid-March or late fall.  When
scale insects attack hollies, control them with an insecticide.

     The other popular holly is the Japanese holly.  Japanese
hollies come in several varieties.  They grow slowly.  Some
varieties attain heights of only three to five feet while others
develop small tree proportions.  They can be planted in either
sun or shade and grow best in clay soils.

     The size of the leaf is the characteristic that helps you
distinguish one variety of Japanese holly from another one.  The
leaves are usually between one-half and one-inch long and from
one-fourth to one-half inch wide.  They're shiny and deep green.

     Japanese hollies have dense, slender, brittle branches that
break easily at the main stem.  They're a low maintenance plant,
so little pruning is needed except for an occasional shaping.

     When you plant Japanese hollies, be sure to mix in plenty of
organic matter with the soil.  Each spring, scatter a complete
fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, throughout the bed.  Use about two
pounds of fertilizer for 100 square feet of planting area.  Water
the plants thoroughly after you apply the fertilizer.  Don't use
more than the recommended amount of fertilizer.  If you do, you
may burn the roots of the plants.
-End-
-Title-
Hydrangea macrophylla - Big Leaf Hydrangea
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
           Hydrangea macrophylla - Big Leaf Hydrangea

     Plant hydrangeas in a semi-shaded area where the soil is
moist and well drained.  The soil should be rich in organic
matter.  Each spring, fertilize with a mixed fertilizer such as
8-8-8.

     Hydrangeas will grow at a pH of 5.0 to 8.0.  At a pH of 6.5
to 8.0, the flowers are pink.  At a pH of 5.0 to 6.5, the flowers
are blue.

     Hydrangeas have a shallow, fibrous root system.  They must
be watered during dry spells.  Some people call hydrangeas the
"indicator" plant because it can indicate the soil pH by the
color of its flower.

     It's also one of the first plants to wilt when plants are
under drought stress.  A wilted hydrangea usually indicates that
all garden and yard plants need water.  If a hydrangea becomes
too dry, it may suffer leaf "burn" or "scorch" during hot, dry
weather.

     Sometimes, hydrangeas make healthy, vigorous leaf and stem
growth but fail to bloom.  Many old, established plants stop
flowering after a few years.  Sometimes this occurs when
hydrangeas are planted near larger shrubs which cast too much
shade.  Other conditions that will result in a failure to bloom
or decreased flowering are poor soil, over-fertilization, cold
temperatures and late pruning.  Prune hydrangeas immediately
after flowering.  Flower buds are formed in the fall.  If you
wait too late to prune, you will reduce the number of flowers.

     Because hydrangeas drop their leaves in winter, they aren't
good foundation plants for a building.  Sometimes, they're
planted along the side walls or across the back of a building if
evergreen shrubs are nearby.  Hydrangeas are best when they're
planted in masses in a side or rear yard where they can be viewed
at a distance.  Mass them in beds near azalea plantings and they
will extend flower color into summer after azalea blooms have
fallen.
-End-
-Title-
Juniper
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Juniper

     There are many different kinds of juniper.  All are narrow-
leafed evergreens, but they vary in size, growth habit, color and
form.  Junipers can be grown as ground covers, foundation
plantings and screens.

     All junipers have common characteristics.  They can be grown
in full sun and they can tolerate poor soils, but they don't like
wet feet.  Plant them in well-drained soil.  Common pests of
junipers are bagworms and spider mites.  Bagworms can be
controlled by picking them off by hand.  Control spider mites by
spraying with an insecticide.

     Many junipers grow rapidly and can easily overgrow their
intended boundaries.  Learn something about the characteristics
of junipers before you plant them.  The Chinese junipers have an
upright and spreading form.  The Pfitzer variety of Chinese
juniper has branches that are at an angle of about 25 degrees to
the ground.  Pfitzer juniper has green needles and grows about
five feet tall.  Leave plenty of space if you plant this variety.

     Hetzi juniper is even larger.  It grows nine feet tall and
spreads to a width of 10 to 12 feet.  Hetzi has blue-green
foliage and branches that are at about a 45-degree angle to the
ground.

     The horizontal junipers are usually planted as ground
covers.  Their maximum height is about two feet and they have a
spread of four or five feet.  Shore juniper is a popular
horizontal juniper used as a ground cover.

     Again, learn the characteristics of junipers before you
choose one and plant it.  Most junipers should be pruned on the
tips every year.  They don't like to be pruned heavily more often
than every four or five years.
-End-
-Title-
Ligustrum
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Ligustrum

     You may have heard ligustrum called glossy privet.  This is
the name by which ligustrum is sold at most garden centers.

     Ligustrum--or glossy privet--is a tough, durable shrub that
can grow in almost any soil.  It can grow in full sun or in
partial shade.

     Ligustrum is an upright, fast-growing evergreen that often
reaches a height of 12 to 15 feet.  Its leaves are round and
smooth and medium to dark green in color.  The plant produces
small white flowers.  Although the flowers aren't showy, they are
fragrant.

     Ligustrum is most effective when it's used as a hedge.  It's
not recommended as a foundation plant because it can easily
become too large.  One current use of ligustrum is as a specimen
tree.  Simply prune off the side branches, expose the main stem,
and you have what appears to be an evergreen tree.

     The dwarf, more ornamental variety of ligustrum, is called
curly leaf ligustrum.  It is recommended as a specimen plant for
containers.  It has an interesting, twisted habit of leaf growth
and reaches a height of about four feet.  Growing conditions for
curly leaf are generally the same as those for regular ligustrum.
Growth is limited to the milder climates of the lower and middle
south.

-End-
-Title-
Liriope
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Liriope

     Liriope, sometimes called lilytuft, is among the best
evergreen ground covers available.  It's actually a lily -- a
stemless evergreen plant which multiplies rapidly and needs very
little care.  Liriope can be used under trees and shrubs, as a
mass planting on slopes and banks, or as an edging plant.

     Liriope can grow as high as 12 inches and has broad, dark-
green, grass-like leaves.  There is also a variegated variety
which has white striped leaves.

     In August, liriope produces small clusters of flowers on a
center spike, and these are followed by clusters of berry-like
fruit.

     Liriope grows at a moderate rate.  It does best in shade but
it will tolerate full sun and it can endure heat, drought and
salt spray.

     In starting your liriope, you should space the plants about
one foot  apart.  Planting should be done in fall.  The plants
will multiply, forming clumps.  It's best to dig and separate
these clumps every three to four years.  Another suggestion is to
shear off the top of your liriope with a lawn mower each spring.
The plants will then look less ragged as the new growth emerges.
-End-
-Title-
Mahonia
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Mahonia

     Mahonia, or Oregon grape as it is often called, is a member
of the barberry family and a native of the Orient.  It is an
attractive broadleaf evergreen which is useful in many
landscapes.

     Mahonia is a popular accent plant for foundations, and it
has recently been featured as a container plant for use on patios
and decks.

     Mahonia grows slowly and may reach a height of three to six
feet with a spread of three to five feet.  It grows as an
irregular grouping of upright stems.

     Mahonia has bright yellow flowers that bloom in late fall or
winter followed by bluish black fruit.

     You should plant mahonia in shade or at least partial shade,
such as that found on the north or east side of buildings.
Mahonia grows well in most soils, but it does require good
drainage.  The soil should have a pH of 6.5 to 7.  Because of
this relatively high pH, mahonia is not recommended for planting
with azaleas or camellias, which need a lower pH.

     Prune mahonias by removing one-third of the older, taller
canes to within three to four inches of the ground.  Pruning
should be done in spring and may only be needed every three to
four years.

     A related species, Mahonia bealei, leatherleaf mahonia, is a
clumsy, upright, coarse evergreen shrub growing up to 10 to 12
feet.  The foliage is a dull, dark blue-green, very leathery and
coarse textured.  The bright yellow flowers in April are more
fragrant than the Mahonia aquifolium.
-End-
-Title-
Mondo Grass
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                           Mondo Grass

     Mondo grass, or monkey grass, is an evergreen ground cover
with dark green leaves that are grass-like in texture.  Plants
spread rapidly by underground root stalks.  They can cover an
entire area fairly quickly, converting it into a mass of dark
green foliage.

     Mondo grass grows best in milder climates and in shaded
areas with rich soil and good drainage.

     Plant mondo grass in the fall and space your clumps of grass
about five inches apart.

     Mondo grass is nearly maintenance free.  It requires no
pruning, and there are no insects or diseases that bother it.
-End-
-Title-
Nandina
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Nandina

     Nandina, which some people call Heavenly Bamboo, is a
versatile landscape plant.  Nandina is grown as a foundation
plant and most recently as an accent plant or specimen plant for
containers.

     Nandina grows as a mass of upright, unbranched stems.  The
leaves will range from deep green in shady locations to a light
green or reddish purple in the sun.  Nandina blooms in mid-spring
but has only moderately showy, white flowers.  The shrub is
appreciated most for its bright red berries in the fall and
winter.

     For best results, nandina should be planted in partial
shade.  Try to choose a spot with rich soil and good drainage.
Don't plant nandina between curbs and sidewalks because the soil
temperature will be too high for it.

     After several years, the plant will become "leggy."  That's
when the inner canes or stems should be removed starting near the
ground.  This should be done in late winter or early spring.
You'll end up with a more compact plant with foliage from ground
level upward.

     By selectively pruning nandinas yearly, you won't sacrifice
its flowers and berries.

     Nandina comes in the standard size which grows to five feet
or more.  Compact varieties grow to a height of two to four feet,
while dwarf nandinas seldom grow taller than two feet.

     Nandina has few insect and disease pests, however, the dwarf
kinds are susceptible to powdery mildew.
-End-
-Title-
Palms
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                              Palms

     Most palms are too large to use as house plants, but the
pygmy palm and the parlor palm can be used indoors.

     The pygmy palm grows best in diffused light and is happy in
an east window where it can get morning sun.  If it shows signs
of leaf burn, move it a few feet from the window or put sheer
curtains between it and the glass.  It can eventually grow as
tall as 12 feet, but it takes many years before it even begins to
form a trunk.

     The parlor palm grows rapidly to about eight feet in height.
It is tolerant of dim light, so it's ideal to use against an
inside wall of a room.

     Both palms grow best in a regular potting soil mixture
containing one part peat, one part garden loam and one part sand.
Keep the soil evenly moist, except in winter.  In winter, let the
soil become dry to the touch before watering.  Sponge the leaves
with a damp cloth about once a week.  Palms like a warm
temperature--about 76 to 78 degrees.

     Large containers, like tubs, are good for palms.  They can
grow for years in the same container, but do re-pot them every
few years.  While many foliage plants require daily care, once
palms adjust to home conditions, they need little care.
-End-
-Title-
Photinia
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Photinia

     Photinia, usually called "red tip," is an excellent choice
for a screen or hedge planting.  This evergreen shrub is a native
of China and a member of the rose family.

     Photinia grows to a height of 15 to 20 feet, and it can be
grown as a multi-stemmed large shrub or as a small tree.
Repeated pruning may be necessary to get the form and intensity
you want.

     The new growth on photinia is a brilliant red.  This is why
it's sometimes called "red tip."  The red changes to dark green
as the growth matures.

     Photinia grows well in most soils as long as they aren't too
wet.  In wet, poorly drained soils, photinia is subject to root
rot.  The plant likes either full sun or partial shade.

     The most popular variety is the hybrid Frazieri.  It is
tolerant of most growing conditions and most weather conditions.
It can be damaged by a late frost though.  Other photinias that
grow well in heavy soils are Chinese photinia and red leaf
photinia.  Don't plant photinia too close to a building.  It
should be at least five or six feet away from the foundation.
-End-
-Title-
Pyracantha
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                           Pyracantha

     Pyracantha, commonly called firethorn, is a shrub that is
often misplaced in the landscape.  This rapid growing, broadleaf
evergreen is not recommended for planting around the foundation
of a single story building.  It grows too large too fast.

     On the other hand, pyracantha makes an excellent hedge.  It
can be espaliered against a wall, but you should realize how much
maintenance is required to prune a pyracantha.  Also, if
pyracantha is planted under an overhang or eaves where direct
rainfall cannot hit the branches, pests such as spider mites are
likely to be a problem.

     Pyracantha can grow to a height of 8 to 15 feet, and it can
spread to be that wide.  Pyracantha grows upright.  In fact, old
plants become almost tree-like.  Pyracantha produces good fall
color because its clusters of berries turn red then.  The berries
will last until spring.  Pyracantha should be planted in a sunny
place.

     Pyracantha has one distinct characteristic.  Instead of
young stems terminating in a bud or additional shoot, they seem
to die and develop into a spine-like point.  These points can be
quite painful if you get stuck by them.

     Flowers and berries of pyracantha are produced only on
growth that is at least one year old.  So, some of the older
growth must be left on the plant when it is pruned if you expect
to have any flowers and berries.

     Pruning can be done at almost any season, but winter or
early spring pruning is recommended.  If you wait until early
spring when flowering occurs, you can selectively prune to leave
flower clusters so you will have berries in the fall.  Some
pruning may be necessary during spring and summer to remove
excessive growth.  Remember, always leave some of the growth made
each year so you'll have flowers and berries.
-End-
-Title-
Vines
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                              Vines

     Gardeners have vines for every season and almost every
reason for use in landscaping.  There's even some species that
appear designed for the impatient gardener who wants an instant
landscape.  These include the morning glory, hyacinth bean, and
cypress vines.

     Seasonal varieties feature such spring species as the
Carolina jasmine, wisteria and red honeysuckle.  Popular early
summer specimens are the star, often called the Confederate
jasmine, morning glory, hyacinth bean, cypress vine, and the Rosa
de Montana or coral vine.  The Virginia creeper and autumn
clematis are two fall favorites.  Some of the varieties, such as
Carolina jasmine, Confederate jasmine, and Rosa de Montana, may
not grow well in cooler climates.

     These vines have many functional as well as attractive uses.
Unsightly chain-link fences can be decoratively draped and patios
screened for privacy with evergreen vines.  English ivy
flourishes in partial or full shade while Confederate jasmine
drapes well in shade or sun.

     When vines are used overhead for shade over sunny patios or
as backdrops at pool side, select a variety that will lose its
leaves in cold weather to allow warm rays from the winter sun to
filter through.  Popular vines for overhead structures include
wisteria, grapes, morning glory and Rosa de Montana.

     In spite of their beauty, keep in mind some fast-growing
vines such as wisteria and common honeysuckle can be a nuisance.
Such rapid spreading vines demand fast and routine control to
keep them in place.  If allowed to spread, their profuse growth
can cover the tops of shrubs, cutting off proper light and
aeration.  Also, large twining vines, such as wisteria, can
injure a tree by choking off the flow of food from the roots.

     A better variety to plant near trees is the English ivy
which doesn't feed off their trunks and branches.
-End-
-Title-
Wax Myrtle
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                           Wax Myrtle

     Wax myrtle is a most versatile landscape shrub.  You can use
wax myrtle as a screen or hedge, as a specimen plant for a patio
or deck, or you can prune away the lower branches and use it as a
small tree.  But don't use wax myrtle as a foundation plant.  It
gets too big to be a foundation plant.

     Wax myrtle is a broadleaf evergreen which grows to a height
of 15 to 20 feet and spreads to a width of 10 to 12 feet.  The
leaves are dark green and have a pleasing odor when they're
crushed.  Wax myrtle tends to develop multiple stems and the bark
is attractive, which is why some people like to use it as a small
tree.

     Where other broadleaf evergreens have trouble growing
because of such things as poor soil and poor drainage, you can
usually use wax myrtle.

     One word of caution -- wax myrtle is difficult to transplant
from native areas, but it can be purchased at most garden
centers.
-End-
-Title-
Air Layering
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Air Layering

     If your tropical plants have that worn out, ragged look
after spending a winter inside the home, there's a way they can
be revitalized without spending money on new ones.

     In most cases they can be rejuvenated by an uncomplicated
process known as air layering.  And, the materials needed to put
new life into old plants can be found around the home.

     Ideal candidates for air layering include such plants as
schefflera, dracaena, dieffenbachia and rubber plants that have
become very tall and spindly with age.  This condition causes
leaves at the bottom to drop off and leave a cluster at the top
of the stalk.

     In making an air layer, you're going to root the top portion
of a plant while it is still attached to the trunk.  You will
need a sharp knife, moist peat moss or sphagnum moss, heavy
plastic or kitchen foil and a freezer or bread bag tie.

     Begin by making a small v-shaped cut around the stem at the
place where new root growth is desired.  Place a cluster of moist
peat moss or sphagnum moss around the cut.  Wrap the heavy
plastic or foil around the moss and use the freezer bag or bread
bag tie to hold the covering in place around the cut.

     Roots should begin forming in three to four weeks.  Once you
observe a heavy mass of roots, cut below the root formation and
plant the new cutting in a standard potting mix.
-End-
-Title-
Controlling Powdery Mildew on Shrubs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
              Controlling Powdery Mildew on Shrubs

     Powdery mildew can affect many shrubs.  The severity of this
disease depends on several things:  the age and condition of the
plants, when the plant is infected, and the weather conditions
during the growing season.

     Plants that can be affected seriously by powdery mildew are
roses, zinnias, crape myrtle and euonymous.  Infected plants
typically have a grayish-white, powdery coating over the leaves.
Later in the season this coating may be dotted with small brown
or black specks.  Infected leaves are often distorted, curled or
twisted.  They may be smaller than normal.  Leaves that are
affected seriously may be yellow with small patches of green.
They may fall prematurely.

     Mildew likes warm weather.  It can be found in mid-summer
when most fungi have stopped growing.  Mildew is most severe on
young, succulent tissue resulting from heavy nitrogen
fertilization and watering.  The disease is usually more common
in crowded plantings.

     Because environment plays a large role in the development of
powdery mildew, you may be able to control the disease by making
the environment less attractive to it.  Space plantings so air
can circulate, and avoid poorly drained soils.  Collect and
remove lawn clippings.  Don't apply too much water and
fertilizer.  Rake and burn infected leaves and shoots to destroy
the overwintering stages of the fungus.

     Chemical control of powdery mildew is effective.  Use it if
the disease is serious enough to justify the expense.  Because
most of the mildew fungus is external, this disease is among the
few that can be controlled after infection has occurred.  Several
fungicides are available for mildew control.  Use them with care
and according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
-End-
-Title-
Espaliering Shrubs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Espaliering Shrubs

     Espalier is the practice of controlling plant growth so that
it grows flat against something such as a wall.  Should you
decide to use an espaliered plant in your landscape, be sure you
select a plant which can be managed on the wall.  Large, fast-
growing plants like pyracantha require a huge walled area and
they need many hours of pruning every year.

     On the other hand, Camellia Sasanqua grows much slower and
can be managed in a small area fairly easily.  But this variety
is limited to the lower or middle southern growing region.

     Most nurseries have several different plants that have
already had the first pruning to give them their basic shape.
However, almost any young plant can be used this way.

     You should put the plant very near the wall and set it in
the ground just as you would most other plants.  As the plant
grows, you will need to anchor it to the wall.  You can get the
small anchoring devices from your nursery or garden center.

     You should keep in mind that in most situations, you will
not want more than one espaliered plant in a given area.  The
exception would be if the plant looked very natural or was not
prominent.

     An espaliered plant can be a very distinctive feature in
your landscape and can often be used where no other plant can be
used.
-End-
-Title-
Fertilizing Shrubs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Fertilizing Shrubs

     Late winter is the recommended time to fertilize shrubs that
are already established in your lawn.  Soil tests indicate that
the three elements most often needed by the soil are nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.  There are several specialty
fertilizers on the market for various plants and they all do a
fine job of providing the elements the plants need.  There are
special formulations for azaleas, camellias, roses and lawns,
just to name a few.  However, a complete fertilizer such as 8-8-8
will also do a good job as an all-purpose plant food.

     How much fertilizer the plant gets depends on several
things, such as the age of the plant, fertility of the soil and
the texture of the soil.  A soil test in advance of fertilization
is recommended to determine if and how much fertilizer is needed.
But, in general, for individual shrubs, you should apply from
one-half cup to a full cup of a complete fertilizer for each
plant.  For newly-planted shrubs, you would use only half this
much.

     To fertilize shrubs, scratch through the mulch beneath the
plant until you get down to the soil.  Spread the fertilizer
evenly around the plant.  Don't apply it in bands and don't touch
the stem of the shrub with the dry fertilizer.

     Usually, there is enough rain to activate the fertilizer so
you probably won't need to add water.
-End-
-Title-
Ground Covers
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Ground Covers

     Ground covers play a major role in landscape developments.
However, protecting these ground covers against weeds and grasses
can be frustrating, especially during the early days following
planting.

     The saying "the first year ground covers sleep, the second
year they creep, and the third year they leap" is an easy way for
you to remember the growth rate of ground covers.  The first two
years, you must be patient yet persistent in keeping your bed
free of weeds.  Once the weeds take over, there's not much chance
of saving the ground cover.

     The best way to control weeds is to pull them by hand
regularly.  You can kill the weeds with herbicides, but you're as
likely to kill the ground cover as you are the weeds.

     You can make the weeding job easier by keeping a thick layer
of mulch around the ground cover.  Water the bed well before you
weed it and you'll find it much easier to dig up the weeds.

     To make sure you get enough coverage, your ground cover
plants need to be set out just right.  For example, the grass-
like ground cover plants, like border grasses, need to be set
about eight inches apart to provide coverage in two years.

     When there is enough moisture, about an inch each week, from
either rainfall or irrigation, ground covers will thrive on
regular fertilization.  Don't fertilize after October.

     Once the ground is covered with your chosen plants, they
will compete with the weeds and grasses, making your job easier.
Then you can sit back and enjoy your almost maintenance free
ground covers.
-End-
-Title-
When to Prune Flowering Shrubs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 When to Prune Flowering Shrubs

     Spring flowering shrubs should be pruned as soon as the
flowers have disappeared.  By pruning the shrubs as soon as the
flowers have disappeared, the plants will have time to grow new
shoots before the middle of the summer.  This is when they
produce the buds for next spring's flowers.

     Some of the shrubs that should be pruned during late winter
include azaleas, flowering quince, forsythia, bridal wreath,
nandina and primrose jasmine.

     You should prune most flowering shrubs so that about a third
of the oldest and tallest shoots are removed each year.  Cut
these leggy shoots to within four to six inches of the ground.
The stubs left after pruning will produce new shoots to fill in
near the bottom.  This should make the plant more compact.

     After you've finished this pruning, thin out the top of the
plant.  You do this by making random cuts, being careful not to
make the plant look as though it's been butchered or severely
sheared.  An annual pruning is much better than a severe one that
is done after several years of growth.
-End-
-Title-
Planting Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Planting Trees

     Shade trees add much to the landscape of your home, and
their shade can cut your heating and cooling bills.  If you don't
have trees shading your home, you may wish to plant some.  The
task isn't hard, and the tree should survive if you follow seven
basic steps.

     First, dig the hole before moving the tree.  It's important
for you to put the tree in the ground as quickly as possible, so
wait to move the tree until the hole for it is ready.

     If the tree is bare-rooted, dig the hole large enough to
spread the roots out naturally.  If you're planting a balled or
burlapped tree, make the hole large enough to add at least six
inches of prepared soil on all sides of the ball.

     Next, keep the roots moist while the tree is out of the
ground.  Balled or container trees should be watered frequently
to prevent drying of the roots.  If you're not going to plant the
tree for an extended period, "heel in" the tree.  This means
covering the roots with loose soil or organic matter, such as
wood shavings, pine bark or compost.

     The third step is to place the tree in the hole at the same
depth, or just slightly higher, than it grew before
transplanting.  Remember to spread the roots of bare-rooted trees
to prevent crowding.  You should place them in the same position
they were growing before transplanting.

     Now you're ready to replace the soil around the roots.  A
good planting mixture is essential if the tree is to establish
new roots.  At least two-thirds of the parent soil from the
planting hole should be incorporated in the backfill.  You can
mix one-third of the parent soil, topsoil, organic matter and
sand to make your own planting soil.  Firm the soil several times
while filling to make sure that no air pockets form.  You can
build a mound or small levee around the tree to help hold water
and add a mulch of leaves or straw around the tree to conserve
moisture.

     Trees should be watered after planting.  For bare-rooted
trees, you should water while placing the soil around the tree.
Watering while planting eliminates air pockets.

     The sixth step is to wrap the trunk.  Wrapping the trunk
slows evaporation of moisture from the bark, protects the bark
from the hot rays of the sun, which can cause sunscald, and
prevents wood borers from attacking the tree.

     Finally, you should stake the tree.  For larger trees, use
two-by-two-inch wooden or metal pipe stakes to hold the tree in
place while it grows.

     There are two ways you can stake the tree.  One way is to
use two stakes placed close to the trunk of the tree.  A wire is
tied to each stake and around the tree to hold it upright.  The
wire around the tree is threaded through a short section of
garden hose so the wire won't rub on the young tree.

     For trees in the open away from where people walk and grass
is mowed, place three stakes in a triangle about five to six feet
from the tree.  Support wires from the tree to the stakes give a
lot of anchorage.  Wrapping the support wires with a colorful
material can help prevent accidents caused by not being able to
see the thin wires.

     Leave the stakes in place for at least one growing season.
-End-
-Title-
Radishes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Radishes

     Radishes are easy to grow.  They're productive, grow quickly
in cool weather and can be ready to eat only 30 days after you
plant them.  Radishes are excellent for an intermediate crop.
Grow them in early spring and again in fall.

     Two types of radishes are grown by home gardeners.  The type
seen in grocery stores is an annual that grows only in cool
weather and matures in 25 to 35 days.  Successive plants can be
made every 10-14 days from the time soil can be worked in the
spring until early summer, then again in late summer for fall
harvest.  During hot weather, plants produce seed stalks and
roots become very hot.

     Seeds are often started with carrots, parsnips, or beets to
mark the rows of these slower-growing plants or between slow-
maturing vegetables such as cabbage, pepper, and tomatoes.
Overcrowding causes poor root development and slow development
results in hot or woody roots.  Therefore, good water and
nutrient supplies are needed to encourage quick growth for better
quality.  Over fertilization, however, can cause excessive top
growth and poor root development.

     Winter or storage radishes are biennials that are planted in
mid-summer for fall or winter harvest.

     They are slower growing, requiring 45-70 days to maturity.
They are often planted in the space in which early corn or onions
were planted.  Varieties range from mild to very hot and produce
roots up to 50 pounds.

-End-
-Title-
Substitutions for Granulated Sugar
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Substitutions for Granulated Sugar

     Granulated sugar is made from beets or cane.  Both are
similar and may be used interchangeably.

     Brown or Barbados sugar is a moister beet or cane sugar.  It
comes light or dark--the dark variety being more strongly
flavored with molasses.  To substitute brown sugar for granulated
sugar, use equal amounts but firmly pack the brown sugar into the
measuring cup.

     Raw sugar is processed from cane.  Because of its
impurities, the U. S. Department of Agriculture considers it
unfit to use as a food ingredient.  Turbinado sugar is raw sugar
that has been partially refined.  It contains the molasses
portion of the sugar and resembles demerara sugar, often called
for in English recipes.  To substitute turbinado for granulated
sugar, use equal proportions, but be aware of turbinado's heavy
molasses flavor.

     Fructose, the natural sugar in fruits, has about the same
caloric value as granulated sugar cup per cup.  However, because
it often tastes from 1 to 1.7 times sweeter than granulated
sugar, you may only need to use two-thirds as much.

     Confectioners' or powdered sugar is a very fine sugar used
in icings.  It doesn't substitute well for granulated sugar in
baking.  In other uses, substitute one and three-fourths cups
confectioners' sugar for one cup granulated sugar.

     Corn syrup is half as sweet as sugar.  Therefore, for the
same sweetening power, substitute two cups of corn syrup for one
cup sugar.  For best results, never replace more than half the
sugar called for in a recipe with corn syrup.  Also, reduce the
liquid by one-fourth cup for each two cups of corn syrup used.

     Honey is one and one-fourth times sweeter than granulated
sugar.  It also has 1030 calories per cup compared with 770 per
cup of granulated sugar.  To substitute honey for sugar, use one
cup less three tablespoons honey per cup of sugar called for.
Also, reduce the liquid in the recipe by three tablespoons for
each cup of honey substituted and add a pinch of baking soda to
neutralize the acidity of the honey.  If honey is substituted in
jams, jellies, and candies, a higher degree of heat must be used
when cooking.

     Molasses is not as sweet as granulated sugar; therefore, use
one and one-third cups molasses or sorghum for each cup of
granulated sugar.  For best results, don't replace more than half
the sugar called for with molasses.  For each cup of molasses
substituted, reduce the other liquids by five tablespoons, add
one-half teaspoon baking soda, and omit or decrease the baking
powder by one teaspoon.

-End-
-Title-
Freezing Poultry
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Freezing Poultry

     All types of poultry are suitable for freezing including
chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, or capons.  If you follow the
proper techniques, freezing will cause little change in flavor,
texture, or nutritive value.  Poultry may be frozen cooked or
uncooked, whole, in halves, or in serving size pieces.

     When you select poultry to freeze, choose well-fleshed birds
without skin blemishes.  Choose poultry according to how you plan
to use the frozen product.  Young poultry is suitable for
roasting, frying, and broiling.  Mature birds can be used for
braising and stewing.

     Use strictly sanitary procedures when you prepare to freeze
any food, but especially animal products.  Freezing doesn't
sterilize food; the extreme cold simply slows down changes that
affect quality or cause spoilage in food.  Since raw poultry may
contain a type of bacteria called salmonella, be sure to wash
your hands, cutting boards and utensils with hot, soapy water
after working with uncooked poultry.

     Proper packaging is a "must" to prevent "freezer burn" or
drying on the surface of frozen foods.  Freezer burned foods are
safe to eat but their taste and nutritional quality may be
lessened.  If you package your own poultry, use a packaging
material which is moisture proof or moisture resistant.  Such
materials include heavy foil, heavy plastic, and freezer-weight
paper which is waxed or plastic coated.  Clean, thin plastic
store wraps are not suitable for freezing.  You should rewrap
poultry purchased from a grocery store in one of the moisture
proof or moisture resistant materials just mentioned.  Freezer-
weight plastic bags are available in several sizes for freezing
whole or half birds.  Rigid containers are handy for cooked
poultry frozen in its broth--just remember to leave head space
for expansion.

     Do not stuff raw poultry before freezing.  When freezing
leftover stuffed poultry, remove the stuffing and freeze it in a
separate package.  When freezing poultry in halves or pieces,
pack with a double layer of freezer paper or waxed paper between
them.  Remove as much air as possible when packaging any food to
be frozen.  Seal and label properly.

     Freeze immediately at or below zero degrees Fahrenheit.  At
this temperature, whole, uncooked chickens and turkeys should be
used within 12 months.  Cut-up chickens should be used within six
to nine months.  Whole, uncooked ducks and geese maintain high
quality up to six months.  Cooked poultry pieces or slices
covered with broth or gravy keep well up to six months.  If not
covered with broth or gravy, cooked pieces or slices should be
used within one month.  Use fried chicken within four months.
-End-
-Title-
Freezing Baked Goods
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Freezing Baked Goods

     Most cakes and cupcakes can be frozen successfully.  Butter,
sponge, angel, pound, and chiffon cakes freeze especially well.
Fruit cakes freeze better after they have been aged.  Bake the
cake as usual, but use pure vanilla and fresh spices to avoid
development of off-flavors.  Cool completely.  Cakes are better
frozen without icing but if you must frost a cake, choose a
butter and confectioners' sugar icing.  Cooked icings do not
freeze well.  Cakes without icing can be frozen after packaging
them properly.  Iced cakes should be frozen first and then
properly wrapped for freezer storage.  In general, do not store
iced or uniced cakes longer than four months.  Fruit cakes are an
exception and can be stored up to 12 months.  Do not freeze cake
batters.  From the standpoint of time, work and quality of the
finished product, cakes baked before freezing are more practical.

     Almost all types of cookies freeze well.  After baking, put
cooled cookies in layers in a freezer container with paper
between each layer.  Wrap and seal properly, label, and freeze.
Some cookie doughs and batters can be frozen, but the cookies may
not rise as much when baked due to changes caused by the freezing
and thawing process.  Dough and batter have to be thawed before
using, so little time is saved by freezing.  One exception to
this is the "roll-and-slice" type cookie dough which can be
frozen and wrapped in roll form.  Most baked cookies can be
stored up to six months; cookie dough up to four months.

     Fresh baked fruit or nut breads, muffins, biscuits, and
yeast breads and rolls freeze well.  Use fresh spices when
preparing them.  Thoroughly cool all baked goods before wrapping,
sealing, labeling, and freezing.  Unbaked bread dough can be
frozen in loaves.  Use double the amount of yeast in preparation.
Defrosting will take about four hours.  Allow loaves to rise
before baking.  Storage time varies greatly among bread-type
items which are baked before freezing.  If stored at or below
zero degrees Fahrenheit (-18 degrees Celsius), biscuits should be
used within two months; coffee cakes, fruit and nut breads within
four months; muffins and yeast breads within six months.  Unbaked
yeast dough for bread or rolls is best if used with two weeks.
-End-
-Title-
Thawing Frozen Foods Safely
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Thawing Frozen Foods Safely

     Meat, fish, poultry, combination main dishes, cream sauces,
meringues, cream pies and foods that contain these ingredients
may cause food poisoning if they are thawed at room temperature.

     The outer edges of foods thaw quickly which allows any
bacteria present to grow on the product even though the central
part of the food may still be thawing.  It only takes two to
three hours of bacterial growth to make these foods capable of
causing illness.

     Thawing frozen products safely isn't difficult if you follow
one of the recommended methods.  Wrapped foods may be thawed
completely in the refrigerator, which is the preferred method.
This keeps the temperature always below 45 degrees.  The amount
of thawing time needed will vary with the food and the size of
the package.  An alternative is to thaw the food in a water-tight
package under cold running water or completely immersed in cold
water.  But you must change the water often to maintain a cold
temperature.  Always cook food promptly after it's thawed.

     Food can be cooked while it's frozen.  However, you'll need
to cook the food approximately one-and-one-half times longer than
if you were cooking the same food already thawed.  For example,
if a fresh or thawed roast needs two hours to cook, a frozen
roast the same size may need as much as three hours to cook.

     There are some foods which can be thawed safely at room
temperature.  These include frozen breads, cookies, cakes, fruits
and vegetables without sauce.

     The key to thawing frozen foods safely is to allow the food
to get warm enough to thaw and still be cool enough to slow down
germ growth, particularly on the surface of meat.

-End-
-Title-
Selecting Containers for Freezing
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Selecting Containers for Freezing

     Retaining quality in frozen foods depends on protection
against exposure to air and moisture which can result in a loss
of vitamins, a change in appearance, and the development of off-
flavors.  Frozen foods can also dry out or become "freezer
burned" if improperly packaged.  These undesirable changes in
frozen foods can be prevented or minimized by using proper
freezer containers.

     A good freezer container should be moisture-vapor-proof or
at least moisture-vapor-resistant.  The container should not give
off a flavor of its own, and it should be clean and durable.  It
should be easy to seal, and the seal itself must be moisture-
vapor-proof or resistant.  It is not always easy to recognize
whether a container is suitable for freezer use; therefore,
always read manufacturers' labels whenever possible.

     Freezer containers can be divided into two general groups--
rigid and non-rigid.  Rigid containers hold their shape and can
be made of different materials.

     Some plastic containers are specially manufactured for
freezer use.  They are round or rectangular with straight or
tapering sides and closely fitting lids.

     Glass jars, preferably those with wide mouths, tapering
sides, and screw-on lids, can be used.  Remember that glass
breaks easily.  Also, be sure to leave room for expansion when
packing food.

     Some casserole dishes with covers can be sealed with freezer
tape.  Alternately, the entire dish can be properly wrapped.

     Aluminum foil trays, dishes, and pans hold certain food
items well but will need to be properly wrapped.

     The second group of containers are non-rigid types.  These,
too, must be moisture-vapor-proof or resistant and are made of a
variety of materials.

     Freezer paper is heavy waxed or plastic-laminated paper
which is frequently used for packaging meats.

     Heavy-weight aluminum foil can be used, but protect the foil
from tears and punctures by another wrap of freezer paper.

     Freezer weight plastic bags are useful for many frozen
foods.  These include the regular freezer bags, the plastic bag-
in-a-box, and the special "cook-in" or "boil-in" pouches.

     Polyethylene wraps are heavy plastic and can be used in the
freezer successfully.  These plastics are different from the
lighter, cellophane type wraps for everyday use.  Do not use
these lighter plastic wraps without wrapping another material
around them.
-End-
-Title-
Sack Lunches - Good Safety Tips
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 Sack Lunches - Good Safety Tips

     You can prevent food poisoning and food-borne illness if you
remember three simple rules -- keep food clean, keep food cold,
keep food hot.  This is true for sack lunches where good sensible
sanitation, personal hygiene, and sound food care will prevent a
bug from being carried in the brown bag lunch.  Following a few
simple, easy precautions will save you and your family a lot of
problems.

     First, cook food thoroughly.  If it's meant to be hot, keep
it hot.  If it's meant to be cold, keep it cold.  Bacteria
thrives best between 45 and 120 degrees.  If bacteria is present
in the food, it will grow rapidly between these temperatures.

     Second, keep the utensils and counter tops you use in
preparing lunches clean.  Clean hands are a must, and thoroughly
washed vacuum or thermos bottles which are rinsed in boiling
water are standard food safety rules.

     If a refrigerator is handy, store sack lunches in it until
you're ready to eat.  If a refrigerator isn't handy, put a
freezer gel or a block of ice in a plastic bottle into your lunch
container to keep food cold.  Certain sandwiches may be frozen;
they thaw in time for lunch.  This will also help to keep the
rest of the lunch cool.

     Cooked meat or poultry products can be used in sandwiches if
you handle them properly.  Make sure fruits and vegetables are
well scrubbed.

     Remember, letting your lunch sit in a warm place, like on
top of a radiator, lets any bacteria present grow.  The longer it
sits, the greater the potential problems.

     Food-borne illness and food poisoning can be prevented.

-End-
-Title-
Food Safety Tips for Handling Leftovers
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
             Food Safety Tips for Handling Leftovers

     Leftovers should be handled carefully to prevent bacteria
from contaminating food which can cause illness.  Food-borne
illness and food poisoning can be prevented.  Food left at room
temperature for more than two hours, including preparation time,
allows germs to grow to dangerous numbers.  These germs seldom
change the taste, odor, or look of the food.  Therefore, you must
be careful all the time.

     Refrigeration is the best way to quickly cool hot leftovers.
Contrary to previous belief, putting hot foods in the
refrigerator won't overheat the refrigerator or cause the food to
spoil.  You should chill or freeze perishable foods quickly and
hold them at 40 degrees Fahrenheit or below.  Food can be spread
in shallow pans so cool air will reach all surfaces quickly and
evenly.  An alternative, which is particularly useful for large
pans of food, is to set the pan of hot food in ice water to speed
the initial cooling process, stirring the food frequently to
speed cooling, and then refrigerating.

     Food should be cooled to reach 75 degrees Fahrenheit in one
hour and 45 degrees Fahrenheit within three hours.

     Leaving food in an oven with the temperature set on low or
warm or on top of a warm hot plate is another safety hazard.
Food must be kept above 140 degrees Fahrenheit, and to be really
safe, above 165 degrees Fahrenheit.  These temperatures are not
achieved in the warm oven or on the stove top.

     When reheating leftovers, cover the food to retain moisture.
Reheat so all the food is above 165 degrees Fahrenheit.  Bring
soups, gravies, and sauces to a full boil.

     In the winter months, you can leave food on the back porch
to thaw or cool.  This is a safe practice if the food is well
covered and the porch or outside temperature is less than 40
degrees Fahrenheit.  The temperature must never get above 40
degrees at any time.

     Remember the three key rules to food safety -- keep hot
foods hot, keep cold foods cold, and keep food clean.  These
rules apply to handling leftovers.  When you couple these
suggestions with good sense, you'll protect your family from food
poisoning.


-End-
-Title-
Tips on Storing Commercially Canned Foods
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
            Tips on Storing Commercially Canned Foods

     To minimize nutrient and quality loss, store commercially
canned foods in a clean, cool, dark, dry place.  For best flavor,
texture, and color, use these canned foods within six to twelve
months.

     Keep in mind, however, that commercially canned foods may be
kept indefinitely.  It's true that long storage may have some
effect on quality and nutritive value, but commercially canned
foods should still be safe to eat; that is, if there are no signs
of spoilage.

     There are several reasons why short storage in a cool, dry,
dark place is desirable.

     The primary nutrients that are lost during prolonged storage
are vitamin C and thiamin.  These losses are worth considering
since fruits and vegetables are our main sources of vitamin C.
Research has shown that losses of vitamin C and thiamin in canned
foods will be insignificant over a year's time if storage is at
45 degrees Fahrenheit in a dry, dark place.  If canned goods are
stored at 65 degrees, you can expect a five to fifteen percent
vitamin loss.  But if stored at 85 degrees, you can expect to
lose one-third or more of the vitamin content.

     If stored canned foods are where they might freeze, be sure
to insulate the cans by wrapping them with blankets, cardboard,
or newspapers.  Unless the ends of the cans bulge and break the
seal or the jars break, freezing won't cause canned food to
spoil.  But canned foods that have been frozen won't be the same
quality you'd expect from properly stored foods.

     Storage in a dark area is only necessary for products canned
in glass jars.  For such foods, dark storage will help keep light
foods from darkening and dark foods from bleaching out.

     A dry storage area is important as dampness can cause cans
to rust which results in pinholing.  These are small holes that
break the vacuum seal and eventually allow spoilage.

     If storage conditions are less than ideal, careful rotation
of canned foods is especially important.  One way to be sure the
oldest can is used first is to mark all cans and packages with
the date purchased before putting them on the shelves.  It's also
important to check canned food jars in storage periodically for
any visible signs of spoilage.

     It's easy to determine if food in the can has spoiled.  Look
for cans with bulged ends or signs of leakage.  If the cans
haven't been stored in a dry place, some rusting may occur after
a period of time.  Discard any can that has rust near any of its
seams.

     If you buy dented cans to save a few cents, be sure to
inspect them for leakage, bulging ends, and rusting.  Never buy
foods in cans that are so badly dented they can't be stacked or
opened with a can opener.

-End-
-Title-
Cooking Without Salt
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Cooking Without Salt

     Instead of seasoning your food with salt, bring out the
natural flavors of food by venturing into the exciting world of
herbal cooking.

     Use fresh herbs when possible, especially in salads.

     Use lemon juice, wine, and fresh ground pepper to accent
natural flavors.

     Combine three herbs or less in one dish.

     Orange juice serves as an excellent base for meat marinades.

     Some ideas:

     For poultry, try garlic, mushrooms, cranberries, orange
slices, wine, curry, paprika, parsley, sage, onion.

     For fish, try bay leaf, dry mustard, tomato, lemon, green
pepper, paprika.

     For beef, try bay leaf, marjoram, onion, fresh mushrooms,
dry mustard, green pepper, ginger.

     For pork, try applesauce, apples, garlic, onion, sage.

     Experiment with different spices and you'll see just how
delicious your meals with taste -- even without salt.

-End-
-Title-
So You Want to Cut Down on Salt . . .
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
              So You Want to Cut Down on Salt . . .

     A good place to start is with canned and convenience foods
which tend to be much higher in sodium than fresh or home-cooked
foods.

     Next, put a padlock on the salt shaker.  More than half of
the salt in the diet is added to food during preparation or at
the table.

     If you get brave and decide to throw the salt shaker away,
replace it with an HERB shaker.

     Combine:

          2 teaspoons thyme
          1 1/2 teaspoons sage
          2 teaspoons rosemary
          2 1/2 teaspoons marjoram
          2 1/2 teaspoons savory

     Shake this mixture on meats, vegetables, casseroles, and
other foods to give them saltless appeal!
-End-
-Title-
Too Much Sugar - Here's What To Do
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Too Much Sugar - Here's What To Do

     Are we consuming too much sugar?  Estimates indicate that
Americans eat an average of 130 pounds of sugars and sweeteners a
year.  Although this has been the trend for about 50 years, the
source of sugar intake has changed.  In the past, most sugar was
added in home preparation of baked goods, canned fruits, jams,
jellies, candies, ice cream, and in beverages, cereals, and
desserts.  In the 1980s about 70 percent of sugar intake is
already in prepared foods, and only some 30 percent is added at
home or in restaurants.

     Cutting back on sugar -- meal time, snack time, or special
celebrations -- all food events need to be considered when
cutting back on sugar.

     Celebrate special events or holidays in ways that do not
require sweets.  Cut down on buying sweets or making gooey, rich
desserts.

     Look for recipes that use spices for flavoring instead of
sugar.  Oregano, basil, and thyme are used in many tomato or
barbecue sauces.  Cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves are useful to help
reduce the amount of sugar in desserts such as custards,
cobblers, or stewed fruit.

     Use less sugar to sweeten coffee, tea, cereal, and fruit
and/or cut down the use of sweets such as colas.

     Buy fruit packed in its own juice or light syrup instead of
heavy syrup.

-End-
-Title-
Talking Turkey
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Talking Turkey

     We usually associate turkey with Thanksgiving, even though
it's a good menu item year-round.

     To feed 16 to 20 people, an eight to ten pound turkey is
needed.  A 14 to 18 pound turkey will feed 28 to 36 people.  If
you're purchasing a boneless turkey roast, you'll need three
ounces of cooked meat per person.  The age of the bird is the
determining factor in how tender it is; young turkeys are more
tender than older ones.

     Thawing a frozen turkey is best done in the refrigerator.  A
large, whole bird will take two to three days to thaw; a small,
whole one will thaw in one to two days.  Turkeys sealed in
watertight wrappers can be thawed in cold water to shorten
thawing time.  Change the water often, and allow two to six
hours, depending on the size of the bird.

     The turkey should be cooked promptly after thawing, and it
should be completely cooked at one time.  Don't partially cook it
early and finish it later, and don't leave it in the oven at
night at a very low temperature.  In both of these cases, the
turkey spends too much time at temperatures that promote
bacterial growth.  Also, do not stuff the turkey until time to
roast it; stuffing is a great place for bacteria to grow.

     Roast the turkey according to the directions appropriate for
the method you select -- covered, uncovered, on the grill, etc.
Using a meat thermometer is a good way to test for doneness; 185
degrees Fahrenheit is the temperature needed to insure the turkey
is done.  The drumstick and thigh joints will also move easily
when cooking is completed.

-End-
-Title-
Selecting a Water Bath Canner
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Selecting a Water Bath Canner

     A boiling water bath canner is essential for canning acid
foods like fruits, tomatoes, pickled beets, and pickles.  Also,
jams and other preserves that will be sealed with the two-piece
metal lids should be processed in the boiling water bath canner.

     Boiling water bath canners are available on the market in
several sizes.  Any large metal container may be used as a
boiling water bath canner if its sides are at least two inches
higher than the top of the jars to be processed.  This is needed
to allow space for an inch of water over the top of the jars plus
an inch or more of boiling space.

     The container must also have a tight fitting cover and a
metal or wooden rack to hold the jars off the bottom of the
kettle.  The tight fitting cover helps bring water to a rolling
boil and keep it at a gentle boil during processing.  The metal
or wooden rack helps allow the water to circulate freely around
the jars and will also prevent breakage of the jars.

     A canner with a corrugated or ridged bottom is better on a
gas burner because the heating surface is increased.  However, a
canner with a smooth flat bottom is better for an electric burner
and is essential if a ceramic-type range is used.  If a ridged
bottom canner is used on an electric burner, make sure the canner
does not lop over and rest on the porcelain part of the range
top, thus cutting off air circulation to the burner.  Also, to
make sure that all jars will be adequately processed, the
diameter of the canner should be no more than two inches larger
than the burner on which it's used.

-End-
-Title-
Selecting Canning Jars
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Selecting Canning Jars

     The Cooperative Extension Service recommends that you use
standard glass canning jars in half-pint, pint, and quart sizes.
These jars have been designed to last for several canning
seasons.

     We don't recommend using the two-quart or half-gallon jars
because the processing time required to reach the temperature
needed in the center would be so long that the product would be
overprocessed on the outer edges.  In addition, the half-gallon
containers may be too tall to allow the steam or water in the
canner to circulate properly.

     Other jars, such as peanut butter or mayonnaise jars, are
not recommended for home canning.  Most of these specialty jars
are thinner than the standard glass canning jars.  They may not
withstand the higher temperature of the pressure canner.

     Here's another problem.  The lids that are made for standard
glass canning jars may not seal if you try to use them on
commercial specialty jars.

     Before you select jars for canning, examine the sealing edge
of each jar for nicks, cracks, or sharp edges that would prevent
a seal.  Throw away any jars that aren't perfect.

     Home canning jars that contained spoiled food can be reused.
However, they should be examined very carefully for defects
first.  If acceptable, sterilize them before reusing.
-End-
-Title-
Discoloration of Jar Lids
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Discoloration of Jar Lids

     The underside of metal lids sometimes become discolored
because natural compounds in various foods corrode the metal and
make brown or black deposits on the lid.  This does not mean the
food is unsafe to eat.

     However, any time you open a jar of home or commercially
canned food, it's a good idea to check for signs of spoiling.
Spurting liquid, gas bubbles, soft-mushy-slimy or moldy food,
leaking jars, bulging caps, and an unnatural odor or color are
all signs of spoiled food.  When cooking, additional signs of
spoiled food are indicated when the liquid foams or if the food
has an unnatural odor.
-End-
-Title-
White Sediment in Canned Foods
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 White Sediment in Canned Foods

     A white or yellow sediment or granular residue in the bottom
of jars of canned vegetables may or may not mean spoilage.

     Sometimes small yellow specks or crystal deposits appear on
green vegetables several weeks or months after canning.  When the
jar is vigorously shaken or the contents heated, the deposits
dissolve and disappear.  There is no bad odor or unusual flavor
and the green color in green vegetables is not affected.  Such
deposits are harmless and are thought to be due to soil and
climate conditions during growth.

     White sediment may be caused by starch from the food or
minerals in the water.  If either of these two items caused the
sediment, the food is probably safe to eat.

     But if the white sediment is accompanied by a cloudy liquid,
be especially cautious.  This might be a sign of spoilage.

     Be sure to check all home or commercially canned foods
before you eat them.  Signs of spoilage are spurting liquid, gas
bubbles, mush or moldy food, leaking jars, bulging caps and an
unnatural odor or color.

     When cooking foods, additional signs of spoilage are liquids
that foam or have an unnatural odor.  If any such signs are
evident, discard the food.

-End-
-Title-
Cloudy Canning Liquid
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Cloudy Canning Liquid

     If canned foods have a large amount of cloudy liquid around
them, be cautious.  Cloudiness is often a sign of spoilage.

     Check the food for a disagreeable odor.  If the food smells
bad, throw it away.  If the food smells all right, boil it for 15
to 20 minutes before tasting it.  If it foams or doesn't smell
normal after heating, toss it out.

     There are other things that can cause cloudiness besides
food spoilage.  They are:

     The starch content in too mature beans and peas usually
causes cloudiness.

     Uneven grading can result in cloudiness.  Small tender peas
cook to pieces by the time older ones are heated through.

     Minerals in hard water may cause cloudiness.

     In kraut or fermented dill pickles, fermentation causes
cloudiness.  It's normal and isn't harmful.

     Again, check all canned foods before serving them to your
family.  If you see signs of spoilage, discard the food.

-End-
-Title-
Darkening of Food Near the Top of Jars
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
             Darkening of Food Near the Top of Jars

     Darkening of food at the top of jars may be caused by
oxidation--that's air left in the jar.  Or it may be caused by
not enough heating or processing to destroy enzymes.  Another
reason may be that the liquid or syrup in the jar didn't cover
the food because not enough liquid was put into the jars before
processing or the liquid was lost during processing.

     To prevent food at the top of the jar from darkening, remove
all air bubbles before sealing the jars.  Do this by gently
running a narrow rubber spatula or plastic knife between the jar
and the food product.  Also, cover food with liquid before you
cap the jar.  Leave the recommended amount of head space and use
recommended canning practices and procedures.

     Darkened food at the top of the jar doesn't always mean the
food is unsafe to eat.  It is wise, however, to check all home or
commercially canned foods for signs of spoilage.



-End-
-Title-
Canning with Sweeteners Other Than Sugar
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
            Canning with Sweeteners Other Than Sugar

     Sugar isn't necessary to prevent spoilage of correctly
processed fruits.  Sugar is added to help fruit keep its texture,
flavor, and color.

     Several sweeteners can be substituted for all or part of the
sugar.  Juice may be substituted for as much of the sugar syrup
as you like.  You may use commercially prepared juice or make
your own from fully ripe, juicy fruit.  To make your own juice,
crush the ripe fruit in a pan and bring it to a simmer over low
heat for several minutes, stirring gently.  Finally, strain the
hot pulp through a jelly bag or cheese cloth.

     Semi-refined raw sugar may be substituted for white sugar to
taste, but its sweetening power is different than that of white
sugar.  Also, raw sugar darkens the fruit and tends to change its
flavor.  Because of this, raw sugar is best used only with fruits
that have a strong flavor and dark juice.

     Mild flavored honey and light corn syrup may be used to
replace as much as half of the white sugar called for in your
canning syrup.

     Honey is one-fourth sweeter than granulated sugar, cup per
cup.  Therefore, somewhat less may be needed.  Honey will also
add flavor and color to the fruit, depending on what type of
honey is used.  Since honey may darken during storage, it's best
to use fresh honey.

     Maple syrup can be used to replace up to one-fourth of the
sugar called for, but it will affect the natural flavor and color
of the fruit.

     It's best not to use molasses, sorghum, dark corn syrup or
other strong flavored syrups when canning fruit.  These
sweeteners darken the fruit and overpower the fruit flavor.

     Non-nutritive sweeteners like saccharin may be used to
sweeten canning syrups.  It's usually recommended that such
sweeteners be added when the fruit is served rather than when
it's canned.  This reduces problems with a bitter or metallic
aftertaste.

     Most of the sugar substitutes mentioned here will cost more
per cup than granulated sugar.  Only the non-nutritive sweetener
and fruit juices will produce a canning syrup lower in calories
than a medium syrup made with granulated sugar.  Replacing one-
third of the sugar in a medium syrup recipe with an equal amount
of honey will add about 30 calories and one percent of the U. S.
Recommended Daily Allowance of iron, riboflavin, vitamin C, and
niacin per pint of fruit.  Replacing one-third of the sugar with
corn syrup will add 20 calories but will also add eight percent
of the U. S. Recommended Daily Allowance for iron and two percent
of the U. S. Recommended Daily Allowances for calcium per pint.

     Although substituting molasses or sorghum for part of the
sugar syrup would add somewhat larger amounts of calcium, iron,
and B vitamins per jar, this procedure isn't recommended because
the flavor and color of the fruit would change so strongly.

     If you have never used some of these sweeteners before,
experiment with small batches to check for acceptability before
making large quantities.

-End-
-Title-
Canning Green Beans
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Canning Green Beans

     Always process green beans in a pressure canner for the time
recommended in a modern reference.

     Green beans may be packed raw or hot into jars.  Here are
the directions for using the raw pack method.

     First, select a variety of beans that cans well.  Then
harvest the pods when they are tender and snap easily.  If
possible, can them on the same day they are picked.

     Prepare the canning jars by washing them in hot, sudsy water
and rinsing well.  Next, prepare the lids following the
manufacturer's instructions.

     Wash the beans well in several changes of water.  Trim or
break the ends from the beans and cut or break the beans into
one-inch pieces.  Next, place the raw beans into the clean, hot
canning jars.  Pack tightly, leaving a half-inch space at the top
of each jar.

     Add one teaspoon canning salt to each quart and one-half
teaspoon to each pint jar.  Cover the beans with boiling water to
one-half inch from the top.  Work out any air bubbles with a
thin, narrow spatula or plastic knife.  Add more liquid if needed
to allow one-half inch space at tops of jars.

     Wipe the top sealing edge of the jars with a clean, damp
cloth.  Place the lids on the jars as the manufacturer directs.

     Process the jars in a steam pressure canner at 10 pounds
pressure.  Keep the pressure constant at the desired pounds by
regulating the heat.  The weight should jiggle two to three times
a minute during processing.

     When the processing time is up, remove the canner from the
heat and let the pressure return to zero.  This will take about
30 minutes.  When the pressure reaches zero, wait three more
minutes and then slowly open the petcock to let any remaining
steam escape.  Unfasten the lid and carefully remove it, lifting
it away from you so the steam does not hit your face.  Take the
jars from the canner without touching the lids or screw bands.
Place the jars right side up on a towel or a rack away from
drafts to cool for 12 to 24 hours.

     The next day check the seals and remove the screw bands.
Wipe the jars clean and label with the name of the product, the
processing method and date, and store the jars in a clean, cool,
dark place.




-End-
-Title-
Cloudy Pickle Causes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Cloudy Pickle Causes

     A cloudy appearance or a white sediment on pickles may
indicate the use of table salt rather than pickling salt.  Table
salt contains an anti-caking ingredient.  It could also be that
yeasts have developed and settled to the bottom of the jar.  Or
it may be the result of a normal reaction during fermentation
caused by the bacteria which produce fermentation.

     The presence of a small amount of white sediment is normal
in a jar of firm pickles.  If the pickles are soft, however,
they're spoiled so don't use them.






-End-
-Title-
Using Dried Dill or Dill Seeds in Pickles
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
            Using Dried Dill or Dill Seeds in Pickles

     When making pickles, you may substitute dried dill or dill
seeds for fresh dill.  Here's how.

     Three heads of fresh dill equal three dried dill plants or
one tablespoon dill seed.

     The question is often asked, "What is a head of dill?"  A
head of dill is the complete top or flowering part of one stem.

     People enjoy different amounts of the flavor of dill in
pickles.  You may wish to start with about three heads of fresh
dill to one quart jar of pickles.
-End-
-Title-
Substitutions for Flour
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Substitutions for Flour

     All-purpose flour is a blend of soft and hard wheat flours.
It comes bleached and unbleached.  They may be used
interchangeably.

     Cake flour is made of soft wheats.  Products made with cake
flour have a finer, less firm texture than those made with all-
purpose flour.  Although results will differ somewhat, you may
substitute seven-eighths cup of all-purpose for one cup cake
flour.

     Pastry flour is a soft, finely milled, low-gluten flour,
primarily used for quick breads and pastries.  Again, substitute
seven-eighths cup all-purpose flour for each cup of pastry flour.

     Bread flour is not always available, but is highly desirable
for bread making because it makes the dough more elastic.
Remember to use equal proportions of bread and all-purpose flour.

     Self-rising flour contains the right amount of leavens for
baking at sea level.  If your recipe calls for self-rising flour,
one cup is the equivalent of one cup all-purpose flour plus one
and one-half teaspoons baking powder and one-fourth teaspoon
salt.

     Whole wheat flours retain many of the vitamins, minerals,
salts, fats, and other unknown compounds lost during the refining
of white flours.  To make up for some of these losses, most all-
purpose white flours are enriched with iron, thiamin, riboflavin,
and niacin.  To substitute whole wheat flour for all-purpose
white flour, use one cup minus one tablespoon whole wheat flour
for each cup of white flour.  If this results in a product that
is too heavy, try using half whole wheat and half white flour.
Two other alterations that improve the nutritional contribution
of the flour in your products are one-eighth cup soy flour or
wheat germ and seven-eighths cup all-purpose flour.

     If you're allergic to wheat flours, you may substitute the
following for one cup all-purpose flour:  one-half cup barley
flour; seven-eighths to one cup cornmeal; five-eighths cup potato
flour; seven-eighths cup rice flour; one and one-third cups
rolled oats; one and one-fourth cups rye flour; or thirteen-
sixteenths cup gluten flour.  Another substitute is one-half cup
cornstarch plus one-half cup rye, potato, or rice flour.  This
mixture can be sifted together several times and stored for later
use.  Because of its lower gluten content, mix it with two
tablespoons of baking powder per cup of flour when making quick
breads.

     If you are using the flour as a thickener, you may
substitute one of the following for one tablespoon of white all-
purpose flour:  one-half tablespoon of corn, potato, or rice
starch, one-half tablespoon of arrowroot; one tablespoon quick-
cooking tapioca; one tablespoon waxy rice or corn flour; or two
tablespoons granular cereal; or one egg.

-End-
-Title-
Selecting and Using Canning Jar Lids
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
              Selecting and Using Canning Jar Lids

     When you're buying canning supplies, keep in mind that the
two-piece metal lid is the kind most often recommended for home
canning.  This self-sealing lid offers the greatest assurance of
obtaining good seals and preventing spoilage by re-contamination.

     The flat metal lid with a sealing compound under the outer
edge is held in place by a metal screw band.  This seals at the
top edge of the jar.

     Before using the two-piece lids, check the manufacturer's
instructions for lid preparation.  Wipe the jar rims clean after
you've packed the jars with the food.

     Then place the clean, hot metal lid, with the sealing side
down, on top of the jar.  Screw the band on tightly, following
the manufacturer's instructions.

     Heat process the jars following up-to-date processing
procedures such as those given in publications available from
your local Extension office.

     After canning, remove the jars from the canner and cool them
on a rack or folded towel.  However, don't retighten the metal
screw bands as this may interfere with the self-sealing process.

     After 12 to 24 hours of cooling, remove the metal screw
bands to avoid rusting.  Clean and dry them thoroughly and store
them in a dry place.

     If the screw bands are in good condition, they can be
reused.  However, the metal lids with the sealing compound can be
used only once.  When you purchase new metal lids, try to select
the same brand of lids as screw bands that you'll be using.  This
will give you greater compatibility between bands and lids.
Also, check the new metal lids carefully before using them to
make sure there aren't any gaps in the sealing compound around
the edge.

     A variation of the two-piece metal self-sealing lid is a one
piece self-sealing lid.  Some brands advertise that they can be
reused and others that they may be used only once.

-End-
-Title-
Making Syrups for Canning
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Making Syrups for Canning

     For canning, you'll probably use one to one and one-half
cups of syrup or boiling water for each quart of fruit.

     But you do have the option of how sweet the syrup will be.
Here are recipes for extra thin, thin, medium, and heavy syrups.

     For an extra thin syrup, use four cups of water or juice to
one and one-half cups of sugar.  This will yield four and one-
half cups of syrup with 258 calories per cup of syrup.

     For a thin syrup, use four cups of water or juice to two
cups of sugar.  This will yield five cups of syrup with 307
calories per cup.

     For a medium syrup, use four cups of water or juice to three
cups of sugar.  This will yield five and one-half cups syrup with
420 calories per cup.

     For a heavy syrup, use four cups of water or juice to four
and three-fourths cups sugar.  This will yield six and one-half
cups syrup with 562 calories per cup.

     If you wish, you may use light corn syrup or mild-flavored
honey to replace as much as half the sugar called for in your
recipe.  But don't use brown sugar, molasses, or other strong-
flavored syrups.  Not only will their flavor overpower the fruit
flavor, they could cause the canned fruit to turn dark.

     To make the syrup, mix the sugar and water or juice together
and heat until the sugar is dissolved.  Skim off the top if
necessary.

     For your convenience, you can make syrup ahead of time and
store it in the refrigerator.  Then, when you're ready to pack
your canning jars, take the syrup out of the refrigerator and
reheat it.


-End-
-Title-
Feeding a Crowd - Food Safety Tips
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Feeding a Crowd - Food Safety Tips

     When you're feeding a crowd, be sure you have clean work
surfaces and utensils before you start to prepare food.  Also,
insist that everyone who helps you follows good food preparation
practices.

     Be sure to check and see if you have enough dishes and
utensils for serving.  Disposable dishes are convenient.

     If you prepare foods in advance, don't keep them in the
refrigerator for more than a day or two.  If you have to cook
food several days ahead of your party, freeze it.

     When serving, keep all hot foods hot.  Protein foods, such
as seafood, poultry and cooked meats, should be kept hot using an
electric try or chafing dish.  Serving dishes warmed with small
candles may not provide enough heat to keep your foods at a hot
serving temperature.

     Don't put large quantities of cold foods out at one time.
Serve only what is needed and add more food when needed, so foods
will be kept as cold as possible.  Serve food in containers that
can be stored in the refrigerator and brought directly to the
table.

     After the party is over, don't let huge quantities of
leftovers fill your refrigerator for days.  Plan in advance for
ways that you can use the leftovers, then freeze the rest.

-End-
-Title-
Freezing Broccoli
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Freezing Broccoli

     To prepare broccoli for freezing, first select tender, dark
green stalks.  Wash, peel and trim stalks.  To remove any insects
in the flower portion, soak the broccoli for 30 minutes in a salt
solution made by mixing four teaspoons of salt per gallon of
water.  Rinse and drain broccoli.  Split lengthwise into pieces
not more than one and one-half inches across.  Then blanch.  If
you choose to steam blanch, heat the broccoli for six minutes.
If you use the boiling water method, blanch for four minutes.
Cool and drain the broccoli.  Then dry pack or tray pack without
head space.

     If you use the dry pack method, place the blanched, cooled,
and drained broccoli into meal-sized freezer bags or containers.
Seal and label the container properly.

     If you choose to tray pack the broccoli, place the blanched,
cooled, and drained stalks in a single layer on shallow trays or
pans.  Place in freezer until firm.  Then remove and quickly fill
labeled bags or containers suitable for freezing.  Seal
containers and place them immediately in the freezer.  Tray
packed foods do not freeze in a block but remain loose so that
the amount needed can be removed and the container or bag
resealed.

     Label packages with the type of vegetable and the freezing
date.  Store all frozen foods at or below zero degrees
Fahrenheit.  At this temperature, most vegetables maintain high
quality for 12 to 18 months.  Longer storage will not make food
unfit to use, but it may lessen the quality.

-End-
-Title-
Substitutes for Sugar in Jams and Jellies
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
            Substitutes for Sugar in Jams and Jellies

     Honey or corn syrup can be used as satisfactory replacements
for part, but not all of, the sugar in jam and jelly recipes.

     In recipes made with added pectin, it is generally
recommended that honey be substituted for no more than two cups
or one-fourth of the sugar in the recipe, whichever is less.  In
recipes made without added pectin, honey can replace up to one-
half the sugar in the recipe.  Use the same amount of honey as
sugar being replaced.  For example, substitute two cups honey for
two cups of sugar.

     Jams and jellies made with honey will have a darker color
and slightly different flavor than those made with sugar only.
For best results, use light colored, mild flavored honey.

     Light corn syrup can be used to replace up to one-half the
sugar in jam and jelly recipes made with powdered pectin.  In
recipes made with liquid pectin, it is generally recommended that
light corn syrup be used to replace no more than two cups of the
sugar in the recipe.  In recipes made without added pectin, light
corn syrup can replace up to one-fourth of the sugar in jellies
and up to one-half the sugar in jams and other preserves.  As
with honey, substitute an equal volume of corn syrup for the
sugar being replaced.

-End-
-Title-
Making Uncooked Freezer Strawberry Jam
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
             Making Uncooked Freezer Strawberry Jam

     Either fresh or frozen strawberries may be used to make
uncooked freezer strawberry jam.  When using frozen strawberries,
you must know how much added sugar is in the frozen berries and
use it as part of the total sugar called for.

     When using fresh strawberries, sort and wash fully ripe
strawberries.  Then drain and remove the caps and stems.

     To make five to six half-pint containers of freezer jam,
you'll need two cups of finely crushed strawberries, four cups
sugar, one package powdered pectin, and one cup water.

     To make the jam, combine the two cups of crushed berries and
four cups of sugar in a large mixing bowl.  Mix well and let
stand 20 minutes, stirring occasionally.

     Next, mix the package of pectin with one cup of water and
bring to a boil.  Boil rapidly for one minute, stirring
constantly.  Then remove the pectin mixture from the heat and
pour into the berry-sugar mixture.  Stir the jam constantly for
two to three minutes.  This step is important to help prevent
separation.

     Pour the prepared jam into freezer containers or clean
canning jars, leaving one-half inch at top of jars.  Cover
containers and let stand at room temperature for 24 hours or
until the jam has set.

     Label with the name of the product, date and processing
method and store in the refrigerator or freezer.  Uncooked
freezer strawberry jam will keep in a refrigerator up to three
weeks or in a freezer up to a year.

     Freezer jam should not be stored at room temperature.  At
this temperature, it will ferment or mold in a short time.

-End-
-Title-
Making Jam in a Microwave
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Making Jam in a Microwave

     Microwave ovens can be used to make jams and jellies with or
without added pectin.  The following recipe makes two cups of jam
and is made without added pectin.  The recipe calls for two cups
of diced or crushed fruit, one and one-half cups sugar, one-half
teaspoon butter or margarine, and one to two tablespoons lemon
juice, depending on the amount of acid in the fruit.  For
raspberry, plum, peach or nectarine jam, use one tablespoon lemon
juice.  For strawberry jam, use one and one-half tablespoons
lemon juice.  For apricot jam, use two tablespoons lemon juice.

     Wash, sort, pit, peel as necessary, and chop or crush two
cups of raspberries, plums, peaches, nectarines, strawberries, or
apricots.  Place the prepared fruit into a two and one-half to
three quart ceramic or glass container.

     Add one and one-half cups sugar, one-half teaspoon butter or
margarine, and one to two tablespoons lemon juice.  Again, for
raspberries, plums, peaches, or nectarines use one tablespoon
lemon juice.  Use one and one-half tablespoons lemon juice for
strawberries and two tablespoons lemon juice for apricots.

     Allow the mixture to stand about 30 minutes or until juices
begin to form.  If necessary, crush the fruit with a potato
masher or fork to help mix the sugar with the fruit.

     Next, microwave the mixture, uncovered, on high power for 13
minutes.  Stir as soon as the mixture starts to boil and every
two to three minutes thereafter.

     At the end of 13 minutes, spoon one tablespoon jam into a
custard cup and cool in the freezer for five to seven minutes;
then test for consistency.

     If the jam is not as thick as desired, reheat it to boiling,
boil two minutes, and repeat the freezer test.

     If it is the right consistency, pour immediately into
freezer containers or clean canning jars, leaving one-half inch
space at the tops of containers.

     Label with the name of the product, date and processing
method, and store in the refrigerator or freezer.

-End-
-Title-
Freezing Sandwiches
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Freezing Sandwiches

     You may find it's convenient to make sandwiches ahead of
time for work or school lunches, picnics, or parties where you
want to serve small sandwiches or canapes.  Frozen sandwiches are
a good way to use leftover meat and other foods.  An alternate
time saver is to freeze just a filling and make the sandwiches at
a later date.  However, you'll have greater success with freezing
sandwiches and fillings if you follow a few hints.

     Avoid the following fillings which can cause problems when
they're frozen:

     Whites of hard-cooked eggs become tough when frozen.  Fruit
jellies, mayonnaise, and salad dressing will make bread soggy.
Raw vegetables like tomatoes, lettuce, cucumber, etc., lose their
appetizing crispness.  These vegetables can be added just before
serving.

     Sandwiches with the following fillings can be frozen
successfully:

     Ground meats, poultry, and fish; cream cheese and cheddar-
type cheese; cooked, sieved egg yolk.  Other fillings that freeze
well are peanut butter and other nut pastes, dried fruits,
olives, and pickles.

     When you make the sandwiches, work quickly so the bread
doesn't dry out.

     Spread the inside of each slide of bread with softened
margarine or butter to keep the bread from absorbing the filling.

     After filling the sandwiches, if they are open-faced, freeze
them on cookie sheets before wrapping them.  Store the sandwiches
with a double piece of freezer paper between each layer.  For
regular sandwiches, package them as they'll be used, one or two
to a package.  Wrap them properly for freezer storage.

     Proper packaging materials are those that are moisture/vapor
proof or moisture/vapor resistant.  These include heavy foil,
heavy plastic and freezer weight paper which is either waxed or
plastic coated.  Rigid plastic freezer containers are also
suitable and may keep the sandwiches from being crushed.
Sandwich fillings can be frozen by themselves in suitable sealed
containers.

     Sandwiches can be stored three to four weeks.  Fillings can
be stored for three months.

-End-
-Title-
Difference Between Honey and Sugar
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Difference Between Honey and Sugar

     Both honey and sugar should be regarded as energy foods
although they differ in the types of sugars they contain.

     Honey contains 40 percent fructose, 34 percent glucose, 2
percent sucrose, 2 percent other sugars, 17 percent water, and
less than 1 percent minerals.

     Sugar contains 100 percent sucrose and less than 1 percent
water.

     Sucrose splits into glucose and fructose when digested.
Fructose is sweeter than glucose, so honey is slightly sweeter
than sugar.

     Honey is also higher in calories measure per measure.  Sugar
is 720 calories per cup; honey is 1,030 calories per cup.

     One cup of honey has the following percentages of the U. S.
Recommended Daily Allowances:  2 percent protein and calcium, 10
percent iron, 8 percent riboflavin, and 6 percent niacin and
vitamin C.  These percentages are low enough that honey should
not be considered a good source of these nutrients.

     Honey has a very distinct flavor.  The flavor and color of
honey depends on the type of flowers the bees gathered their
nectar from.

     To substitute honey for sugar in recipes, use the same
amount but decrease the liquid in the recipe by one-fourth cup
for each cup of honey used.  When making plain cake, it is best
to substitute only one-third to one-half of the sugar so the
texture does not change too much.  Also for baked goods, add one-
fourth teaspoon of baking soda to counteract the acids in honey.
When making jellies without pectin, replace only one-half of the
sugar called for with honey.

     Honey is not a "safe" sugar for diabetics.  Although
fructose does not require insulin to break down, the glucose and
sucrose does.  Also, some of the fructose found in honey is
converted to glucose in the liver.  Also, it is not recommended
that honey be used in infant formulas.
-End-
-Title-
Aucuba
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Aucuba

     Aucuba is a member of the dogwood family.  This native plant
of Japan is valued for its glossy green leaves and bright red
berries.  It is dioecious; plant both sexes to ensure fruit.

     A coarse-textured, broadleaf evergreen, it has a moderate
growth rate and reaches a height of seven feet with a spread of
up to five feet.  Aucuba has dense, dark green foliage.

     It grows best when it's protected from full sun, heat and
high winds.  When the aucuba is exposed to these adverse
conditions, the leaves turn brown to black.  Aucuba is tolerant
of most insect pests and requires little maintenance when it's
grown in moderately acid, high-organic soil.  Fungus may infest
the leaves, however, and cause the stems to turn black.  You can
control fungus diseases with a copper spray.

     When you use aucuba around a building, plant it at least
three or four feet away from the foundation.  If you want
berries, be sure to plant both male and female.

     The most popular variety of aucuba is called "Gold Dust."
The name comes from its yellow-green variegated leaves.  Another
variety called "Nana" is a dwarf form that grows to about two
feet in height.
-End-
-Title-
Problems with Magnolias
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Problems with Magnolias

     Southern magnolias have heavy leaf drop, some serious insect
problems and are sensitive to injuries.

     Before planting a southern magnolia, be sure heavy leaf drop
doesn't bother you.  Leaves will fall off throughout the year,
but especially in the spring and fall.  Spring is the season for
leaves on evergreens, such as the magnolia, to turn yellow and
drop off.

     Leafspot also causes leaves to fall off.  Spots are usually
caused by either algae or fungus, and you can treat it by
spraying with a fungicide at the proper time.

     Magnolias have two serious insect problems -- scale insects
and leaf miners.  Scale insects look like miniature seashells and
feed on young twigs. If uncontrolled, they can weaken the tree.
Leaf miners feed on the inside of the leaf tissue.  As the name
implies, they mine out the inside of the leaves.  There is no
control at present for leaf miners.

     The trees are also vulnerable to diseases that enter through
mechanical injuries.  So, be careful not to skin the trunk with
the lawn mower.

     Magnolias are also sensitive to placing soil on its roots.
If you cover the roots of a magnolia with too much soil, the tree
will die.  The trees are also subject to root rot, so you should
plant the tree on natural ridges or gently sloping ridges.

     They prefer rich, slightly acidic soils.

     Southern magnolias are beautiful trees, but they do have
some problems.
-End-
-Title-
Problems with Pines
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Problems with Pines

     Pines are one of the favorite trees to plant around homes.
But, if you're planning to plant pines in your yard, you should
know some of the problems you might have.

     Pines planted around homes can develop several problems.

     One of the most common, and the most serious, is fusiform
rust.  This disease causes weak places in the trunk, making the
tree more likely to break in windstorms.  Fusiform swellings look
like indentations on the trunk.  Sometimes a boring insect gets
in this indentation.  As it bores, pine pitch, a sticky, white
material, oozes out around the swelling.  Usually it's best to
remove trees with fusiform rust.

     Most people get upset when their pine's needles turn yellow
or orange and begin dropping off.  In the fall, the dropping of
interior needles is natural.  Don't be alarmed about natural
needle drop during the fall; but, if yellowing occurs, have the
tree checked by an expert.

     Pines also have several insect problems.  The most serious
is the bark beetle.  The beetle that attacks most pines in
landscapes is the IPS beetle.  It usually invades weakened trees
or those stressed by drought.  You'll notice small holes in the
trunk, a fine sawdust, and pine pitch may ooze out and harden
into what looks like popcorn.  Finally your tree will turn orange
and brown.  By the time the tree has turned completely, the
insects may have already attacked another tree.  So, you should
remove a dead tree with beetle symptoms before the insects
spread.  Also, spray neighboring pines with a recommended
insecticide as soon as possible.
-End-
-Title-
Birch Problems
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Birch Problems

     Birch trees are beautiful and graceful.  Used mainly on
lawns, they are susceptible to several fungus parasites and
insect pests.  Of these, the bronze birch borer is the main
killer of birch trees used in ornamental plantings.

     The bronze birch borer beetles feed on foliage and deposit
their eggs in slits in the bark.  They make flat, irregular,
winding galleries just beneath the bark of the main trunk.  Heavy
infestations can kill trees.  To control the bronze birch borer,
spray the trunk and branches thoroughly and the leaves lightly
with an insecticide.  Spray in early June and twice more at two-
week intervals.  Keep trees healthy by feeding and watering them
as needed.

     Other pests of birch trees are leaf blister, leaf rust, leaf
spot, die back, wood decay, case bearer, birch leaf miner, birch
skeletonizer and other fungi and insects.

     Leaf blister is caused by fungi.  Two types of fungi produce
red blisters and curling of leaves on birch trees.  Another
fungus forms yellow blisters.  To control leaf blister, gather
and burn all fallen leaves.  Spray trees with a fungicide just
before buds open in the spring.

     Leaf rust causes spotting and defoliation.  The rust
pustules are bright reddish-yellow.  The spores from these
pustules carry the infection from leaf to leaf.  In ornamental
planting, the disease rarely becomes destructive enough to
warrant special control measures.

     Leaf spot is the name of several fungi which attack birch
trees.  They may cause premature defoliation.  Control can
usually be obtained by gathering and burning fallen leaves.  To
prevent leaf spot, spray the tree with a bordeaux mixture or any
other copper spray in the late spring.

     Die-back fungus attacks trees weakened by drought.  It
causes a progressive die-back of upper branches.  Infestations of
the bronze birch borer may cause similar symptoms, too.  Prune
the affected branches to sound wood.  Fertilize and water the
trees heavily to help revitalize them.

     A number of wood decay fungi attack birches.  Once they
become extensive, they can't be controlled.  Avoid wounding the
trees and maintain good vigor by fertilization.  These are the
best preventative practices.

     Birches are also subject to several other fungus diseases
such as powdery mildew and leaf spot.  Several fungicides are
available to help control these fungus diseases.

     Two aphids affect birch trees --  the European birch aphid
and the common birch aphid.  The European birch aphid is yellow.
It infests cut leaved and other birch varieties.  The common
birch aphid is large and green.  It produces honeydew followed by
sooty mold.  Spray trees thoroughly with an insecticide as soon
as these aphids appear.

     The case bearer, a light yellow to green caterpillar with a
black head, also attacks birch trees.  The pest overwinters, or
lives through the winter, as a larva in a case attached to the
bark.  Spray in late July or early August with a standard
insecticide solution or spray in late spring, before growth
begins, with one part of concentrated lime sulfur in eight parts
of water.

     The birch leaf miner, a small white worm, causes leaves to
turn brown in late spring or early summer.  The adult is a small
black sawfly which lives through the winter in the soil.  The
first brood causes the most damage because it attacks tender
spring foliage.  Broods hatching during the summer cause less
damage because they feed only on leaves on sucker growths and on
newly developing leaves in the crowns of trees.

     To control the leaf miner, spray with an insecticide.  For
best control, make two additional applications at 10-day
intervals after the first spraying in early spring.

     Birch skeletonizer is another insect pest of birch trees.
As a result of its feeding, the lower leaf surface is chewed and
the leaf is skeletonized and may turn brown.  To control the
birch skeletonizer, spray the upper and lower sides of the leaves
with an insecticide about mid-July.
-End-
-Title-
Sycamore Problems
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Sycamore Problems

     The most serious disease of sycamore trees is leaf blight,
also known as anthracnose and scorch.  The destructiveness of
this disease is often under-estimated.  Although a single attack
is seldom harmful, repeated attacks can weaken trees and make
them susceptible to winter injury and damage by borers.

     The first symptom of leaf blight is the sudden browning and
death of single leaves or clusters of leaves as they're expanding
in the spring.  This is often confused with frost injury.  Later,
brown, dead areas appear along and between the veins of other
leaves.  Trees may be defoliated and remain bare until late
summer when new leaves are formed.  Leaf blight may attack and
kill small twigs, too.  Cankers appear on the leaf spurs and on
twigs; they look like sunken areas with slightly raised margins.
Trees moderately infected with leaf blight will have scattered
clusters of dead leaves which contrast sharply with unaffected
foliage.

     A fungus with several distinctly different types of spores
causes blight.  The fungus may live through the winter in the
vegetative stage in fallen infected leaves and in twig cankers.
In the South, it spends the winter in the spore stage on dormant
buds.  The first infections of the young leaves in spring may
originate from spores that lived through the winter on leaves on
the ground, from spores developed on infected twigs, or from
spores on the dormant buds.

     The prevalence and severity of attacks are determined by
weather conditions.  Frequent rains and cool temperatures favor
rapid spread.  The severity of the shoot blight stage depends
largely on the average temperature during the two weeks after
leaves first emerge.

     To help control diseases of sycamores, gather and burn all
the fallen leaves in the autumn.  This destroys the organism that
lives through the winter and produces spores for the next
spring's infections.  Whenever it's feasible, prune infected
spurs and dead twigs and burn them.  Some control can be provided
by spraying fungicides.  Apply the first spray just before the
leaves unfurl, the second when leaves are half-grown, and the
third when the leaves are fully grown.  If trees suffer from
repeated attacks, fertilize them heavily in the fall or the next
spring to increase their vigor.

     Insects can be a problem on sycamores, too.  They include
the giant bark aphid, the sycamore plant bug, sycamore tussock
moth and scales.

     The giant bark aphid often attacks the twigs of sycamore
trees and may gather in clusters on the undersides of the limbs.
They exude great quantities of honeydew, a sweet fluid which
often turns blackish.  To control aphids, use an insecticide.

     Sycamore plant bugs suck out the plant juices on the upper
sides of sycamore leaves, leaving a poisonous material which
results in yellow or red spots.  As the leaves grow, the injured
areas drop out, leaving holes.  To control the sycamore plant
bug, spray trees with an insecticide in early April and again two
weeks later.

     The sycamore tussock moth is a problem on sycamores in the
northeastern United States.  The caterpillar stage of the moth is
yellow and has yellow to white hairs on its body.  Spraying with
an insecticide will help control this moth.

     Several species of scale insects occasionally infest
sycamores.  To control them, spray your trees with an insecticide
in late spring when the young scales are crawling.  A dormant oil
spray should be applied in early spring if infestations are
unusually heavy.
-End-
-Title-
Grayish Green Growth on Tree Trunks
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Grayish Green Growth on Tree Trunks

     Cloudy, wet weather is ideal for algae and lichens.  These
organisms grow profusely on trunks, limbs and twigs of many trees
and shrubs.

     Algae are the simplest form of green plants.  They were
probably the first food-producing organisms and are present
nearly everywhere.  They grow in any place that has enough
moisture -- on tree trunks, twigs, shrubs, soil, rocks and walls.

     Lichens have two parts:  a fungus and an algae living in
association with one another to give the appearance of one plant.
Lichens grow on soil, trunks, branches and rocks.  Like algae,
lichens manufacture their own food.  They occur in several forms.
Some are leaf-like; others look like a tuft of horse hair hanging
from branches.  They may be crusty growths of white, green,
yellow or gray.

     Because all of these primitive plant forms make their own
food, they don't directly injure the plant on which they grow.
Heavy growth, however, may have a suffocating effect and can
reduce the sunlight reaching the leaves.  Some people like these
hitchhiking plants because they add color to shrubbery and trees
in winter.  But when the growth becomes unattractive, it should
be controlled.

     The presence of lichens, algae and mosses on plants may mean
the plant is in poor condition and not growing vigorously.  To
control lichens, algae and mosses, spray trunks with a copper
fungicide such as bordeaux mixture or a fixed copper.

-End-
-Title-
Identifying Tree Insect Problems
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Identifying Tree Insect Problems

     Insect problems in trees take the form of holes,
defoliation, drying twigs, foliage discoloration or growth
malformations.

     Insect holes in trees usually exude some kind of fluid.  In
most cases, borer infestations in trees are due to stress or
previous damage to the tree.  Usually, most people blame ants for
damaging a tree; but, it's more likely that they were attracted
to the tree after damage was done, perhaps to feed on insects
already infesting the tree.

     Defoliation may be caused by caterpillars or scale insects,
although  stress can cause it in some cases.  Caterpillars, such
as the buck moth in early spring, are easy to find.  Scales are a
little more secretive in that you're not likely to notice their
damage until large populations have developed.  In addition to
foliage discoloration or spotting, scales may cause tip die-back.

     Several gall forming insects may cause malformations on
trees.  Stems may become swollen and misshapen, buds may be
retarded or killed, and leaves may have fluffy, fuzzy or unusual
growths on them.  The galls may be caused by small wasps, flies
or mites.  When they first start, many of these formations appear
decorative.  However, persistent, continuous infestations can
cause terminal die-back.

     Many of these insect-like problems must be carefully checked
because some diseases may cause the same symptoms, particularly
where galls and scale damage are involved.
-End-
-Title-
Leaf Burn in Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Leaf Burn in Trees

     Tree leaves can turn reddish or brown for many reasons.
Leaf spot diseases and the leaf blister disease are among the
causes of this browning on hardwood tree leaves.  These diseases
usually start as spots and progress through the leaf.  They don't
always do serious harm, and you can control them with chemical
sprays.

     You can lessen the effects of leaf burn by fertilizing your
trees and keeping them pruned properly.  Remember, though, that
over-fertilization, dry weather and chemical damage can cause
leaves to turn brown.
-End-
-Title-
Mistletoe in Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Mistletoe in Trees

     Mistletoe may be nice to have for decorating around
Christmas, but it's not very good for the tree it's growing on.

     Mistletoe is a parasite, that is, it lives off trees by
stealing some of the water and nutrients that would normally
nourish the tree.  Oaks, hackberries, elms and pecan trees seem
to be favorites of mistletoe.

     Controlling mistletoe is hard, because it attaches itself to
the tree's vascular system, the part which carries water and
nutrients to all parts of the tree.  If you simply break off the
mistletoe, it will just grow back.  To remove mistletoe for good,
you have to remove the chip of the tree's vascular system to
which it's attached.

     Paint the cut with tree wound paint.  This will keep wood
rotting organisms from getting into the cut.

     If mistletoe is on small limbs, cut the limb about a foot
ahead of the spot where the mistletoe is growing.  Again, you
should paint the cut.

     Mistletoe is spread primarily by birds which carry the seeds
on their beaks after eating the white berries of the mistletoe.
When birds wipe their beaks on a tree, the seed finds a home.

     Cutting out the mistletoe is the only way to control it.
Chemicals that kill mistletoe also hurt the tree.
-End-
-Title-
Protecting Trees During Construction
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
              Protecting Trees During Construction

     Saving trees around a house or building that you're
constructing is a big plus for beauty and the pocketbook.

     You probably enjoy the shade and beauty trees offer, but may
not know saving trees saves money.  Shade trees cut cooling and
heating costs, and can add from five to ten percent to the real
estate value of a home.

     Unfortunately, many who try to save trees around a new home
or building are disappointed later when the trees die.  But, with
careful construction your trees can survive.

     The number one killer of trees during construction is
damage.  Those clearing your lot sometimes damage the roots or
trunks of trees.  Or, they may smother the roots by packing the
soil with heavy equipment or with fill dirt over the roots.
Construction crews sometimes cut roots when they make way for
concrete slabs and driveways, install underground utilities, or
grade the lot.

     Most of the vital feeder roots of trees are in the top foot
of soil and extend even beyond the drip line of tree branches.

     If you're building, here's what to do to save the health and
maybe the life of your trees.

     First, you must be firm with the builders.  Even then,
supervise them closely.

     Insist on proper care during lot clearing.  Build barricades
around trees to prevent damage.  Crews may need to clear most of
the lot by hand and use heavy equipment only on the house site
itself.

     Clear lots during dry weather.  Heavy equipment damages
roots more during wet weather.

     Have equipment enter and leave the site from one location,
preferably the driveway site.

     Try to have underground utilities laid away from tree roots.
But, if they have to pass close to a tree, insist that corridors
be tunneled under major roots instead of trenched.  You should
ask to have all utilities laid in one corridor, if possible.

     If you have to change the drainage pattern or grade of the
lot, use retaining walls to protect your trees.

     For driveways, walks or patios that extend over root zones,
use a pervious material such as turfstone, gravel or shell.

     To save trees, you have to begin planning even before the
lot is cleared.  If you buy a "spec" house from a builder, you
may be disappointed a year or two later to find he was not
careful, and your trees are dying.  Then, you are faced with the
expense of removing dead trees.  If you paid a higher price for
the lot because of the trees, you've also lost your investment.

     If you're thinking about buying a house already under
construction, look for symptoms of construction damage.  Look for
injuries to tree trunks, exposed or cut roots, a slab too close
to trees or a patio surrounding them.  Other clues are thinning
and yellowing of leaves, or die-back at the top or on branch
ends.

     Sometimes trees can be doctored back to health after
construction.  Fertilization, watering and aeration of compacted
soils are all good medicine for trees suffering from construction
stress.  Other aids are wound repair, dead limb removal and
pruning to compensate for root loss.
-End-
-Title-
Pruning Mature Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Pruning Mature Trees

     The first rule in pruning trees should be -- do no cutting
without a reason.  But, there may be several reasons for needing
or wanting to prune a tree -- reasons such as convenience,
safety, sanitation, or appearance.

     Remember, removing live limbs is a dwarfing process, and
because of this a heavily pruned tree will never be as large as
an unpruned tree.

     Pruning can be done anytime of the year, but generally the
best time is during late winter or early spring before new growth
begins.  The worst time to prune is right after new growth
begins.

     The most common mistake made by most people doing their own
tree pruning is using improper pruning techniques.  Whether
you're cutting large or small branches, all final cuts should be
made smooth and flush with the tree.

     The bark of a branch is usually marked by a swelling, or
"collar," where it joins the trunk or large limb.  The final cut
should be made where the swelling or the collar begins.  Be
careful not to leave a stub on the tree because this is an
excellent place for decay and fungi to get started in the tree.
You may want to apply a tree wound dressing on the cut.

     If you're not careful, you can seriously damage your tree
when pruning large branches.  You can accidentally create large
wounds on the tree if you allow a large branch which is being
removed to strip bark as it falls from the tree.  This damage can
be prevented by making multiple cuts or by using the so-called
stub-cutting method.  Make the first cut from below at two inches
from the trunk, half way through the limb, then cut off the limb
from above.  Then, remove the stub with a cut where the swelling
or collar begins at the trunk of the tree.

     Many large, old trees are sun-scaled if they're heavily top-
pruned or if they were part of a forest and most of their
companion trees were cut.  Their bark is killed when suddenly
exposed to full sunlight after growing in the shade.  This can
happen to your trees if they aren't pruned properly.

     To prevent sun-scald, prune only part of the tree top in any
one year.  If you need to thin a grove of trees, do it by cutting
the unwanted trees over a period of years rather than all at one
time.

     One other pruning practice, pollarding, is sometimes used on
old trees.  Pollarding is the cutting off of the top of the tree,
leaving only the major limbs.  These limbs then are expected to
produce a new crown.

     Pollarding can be recommended only for unusual situations.
It works well on only a few trees such as silver maples, poplars
and willows.  However, even these trees have an unpleasing
appearance until they can grow new crowns.  Protect all
pollarding wounds with a wound paint especially recommended for
trees.
-End-
-Title-
Repairing Tree Injuries
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Repairing Tree Injuries

     If a tree in your landscape is injured, prompt action can
save it from becoming unsightly or dangerous, and may save the
tree's life.

     Injuries that expose wood or kill the bark can let disease
and decay organisms enter the tree.  You should treat these
wounds to protect the tree until they heal.

     To treat it, cut away all damaged bark and removed scraps of
bark in the wound.  These scraps will usually die anyway and
don't help the healing.

     For faster healing, shape the edge of the wound into an
elongated ellipse as much as is possible.  If you can't make it
into an elongated ellipse, make a point at the top and bottom,
even if you have to enlarge the wound.

     Remove all splintered wood and smooth the surface of exposed
wood.  Disinfect the wound with alcohol or shellac and apply the
tree wound paint.  Large, slowly healing wounds may need
additional paint after two or three years.

     You should inspect large wounds occasionally to be sure the
paint is not cracking.  Breaks in the paint should be repainted.
If decay has developed in the wound, it should be cut away and
the wound re-treated.

     If one of your trees is struck by lightning, you won't be
able to tell for about a year how badly it was injured.  Trees
that seem to be badly damaged may live, while others appearing to
be only mildly damaged may die.  Go ahead and remove all
shattered parts and dangerous limbs.  On pines, you might help
the tree resist pine beetles by spraying it.

     Split trunks, crotches, limbs or branches can sometimes be
mended by  putting the damaged part back in position and holding
it there permanently.

     To repair split trunks and crotches, smooth the damaged
parts, then disinfect the wound with denatured alcohol or
shellac.  Using bolts inserted in holes drilled straight through
the separated parts, bring them together.

     Cover the crack with antiseptic paint.  Split crotches
usually require cables to support the weight of the branches.
For serious damage, you should contact a tree surgeon.

     Sometimes you can save uprooted trees by promptly restoring
them to their position.  Be sure not to let the roots dry out.
You should hold the tree in place with guy wires and fertilize
and water it.  Watch it closely for insect infestations.


-End-
-Title-
Transplanting Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Transplanting Trees

     Many native or wild plants can be used in the home
landscape.  Native trees tend to be hardy to local weather
conditions and local soils.  They may be more tolerant of local
garden insects and diseases, too.  Most are easy to grow, but the
task of transplanting the desired native tree from the woods to
your lawn can be a hard one.

     The wet, cold days of winter are ideal times for
transplanting native plants.  But, if you can't provide similar
growing conditions to those in which the native plant is growing,
leave the plant to nature.

     Before digging, decide which native plants will fit your
landscape needs.  For instance, don't select a dogwood for a
sunny location when the tree needs shade or overhead protection.

     Also, don't try to transplant a large specimen.  Small
plants are usually more vigorous, grow much faster, and are
easier to handle.  You might want to tag the plant in the woods
while it has leaves or berries.  This way you can be sure of a
positive identification.

     In the case of a large tree, prune the root system of the
selected native tree before digging.  Prune the plant's lateral
roots one growing season before you plan to transplant it.  Do so
by making spade cuts around the plant in winter.  Allow the soil
to remain in place, however.

     When transplanting, lift the plant with a ball of dirt, if
possible.  Plant the native tree immediately at its normal
growing depth.  Water it well and mulch with leaves, straw or
leaf mold.

     To compensate for the loss of root area and to encourage new
branching and foliage in the spring, prune the upper branches and
end shoots of limbs.  On evergreen plants, strip away some of the
foliage.

     Native plants which can be transplanted successfully include
dogwood, redbud, river birch, sassafras, cherry laurel, red
cedar, American holly, yaupon, native hawthorns, French mulberry,
native oaks, elms, and maples.  These are desirable and abundant.
-End-
-Title-
Tree Cavities
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Tree Cavities

     Tree cavity repair is a difficult and specialized job.  For
this reason, it is recommended that you consult a competent tree
surgeon in your area.  Look in the telephone directory for a list
of tree surgeons in your area.
-End-
-Title-
Hiring a Tree Service
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Hiring a Tree Service

     Before you hire a tree service company, decide what you want
done to your trees because the services performed by different
companies varies considerably.  On one extreme are those
companies which only remove trees.  On the other extreme are
full-service companies which do cabling and bracing, insect and
disease spraying, fertilization, pruning, tree removal, stump
grinding, planting and cavity filling.

     You may find that you will want a full-service company
because the employees are generally better trained.  A full-
service company can perform more than one type of operation and
if, at a later date, additional service is needed or your trees
have a different problem, you can call on a company with which
you are familiar.

     After you decide which service you need for your trees,
decide on which company you want and check it out.  Ask for
references.  The hour or so you spend checking out a tree service
is not likely to make any difference in whether your trees live
or die.

     Ask about the type and amount of liability insurance the
company carries.  Many tree trimmers have little or no liability
insurance.  If you hire a company which doesn't carry liability
insurance, you will be responsible for injuries or damages
incurred to or by the tree trimmers while they're working on your
property.

     Get a written estimate from more than one tree service.  Ask
what the price includes because you can get varying prices
depending on whether the tree service company cleans up the mess,
whether the wood will be left or resold and, in the case of
spraying the trees, who will provide the water.  Five-hundred
gallons of water through your water meter could be an expensive
hidden cost.

     Carefully analyze all the information you get when
selecting a tree service, and don't be pressured into something
you don't need.
-End-
-Title-
Trees for Shady Locations
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Trees for Shady Locations

     Most trees need at least some sun, but there are some trees
which need less than others.  Trees which grow well in shady
locations include species of various shapes and sizes.  Before
you plant trees in your landscape, get some professional guidance
or compare the situation in your yard to a location where the
tree you want to plant is already growing.

     Trees which survive in shady locations include magnolia,
white bay, American holly, drummond red maple, sourwood, dogwood,
silverbell, redbud, cypress, wax myrtle, American beech and red
bay.
-End-
-Title-
Yellowing and Dropping of Leaves
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Yellowing and Dropping of Leaves

     Probably the most common problem of ornamental trees and
shrubs is a general decline associated with a dieback of twigs
and yellowing of leaves.  This often begins as a marginal dying
on the edges of the leaves or with a bleaching and yellowing of
most of the plant.  The injured plant often dies.

     Unlike leaf spots which are usually scattered at random,
this dieback of twigs and yellowing of leaves is caused by roots
which are not functioning properly in transporting water to the
upper parts of the plant.

     Possible causes for this problem are:

     Drought stress -- This often results in a gradual yellowing
of the entire plant, beginning with leaf margins.  Even large
trees have feeder roots located in the upper portion of the soil.
Without adequate moisture, these feeder roots dry out.

     Over-watering -- Too much water suffocates the root system
and helps disease-producing organisms establish themselves in the
plant.

     Transplant injury -- Newly planted ornamental trees and
shrubs can be affected by "transplant shock" if roots are damaged
before transplanting or if they are subjected to poor soil
preparation and poor care at planting time.  Soil should be
worked up and mulched for several feet around the planting site.

     Adaption problem -- Different plants have different
requirements for sunlight and moisture.  Selecting a site that is
suitable for the plant can avoid many problems.

     Iron chlorosis -- This abnormally yellow color of plant
tissues can be observed in parts of the state where soils have a
high pH.  It's also observed on plants growing near cement walks,
driveways and other kinds of construction.  Often the soil pH in
these areas has been raised by chemicals used in construction.

     Fungus root rots and nematodes -- These are common pathogens
on many ornamental trees and shrubs.  The lower stem and roots of
severely infected plants are rotted and discolored.  If the bark
is peeled from the plant, you can see dark streaks or fungal
strands.  Once above-ground symptoms are observed, little can be
done to save a plant attacked by root-rot organisms.  The best
control for root rots is to prevent them by maintaining good
drainage, fertility and a proper environment for the plant.
-End-
-Title-
Buying Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Buying Trees

     Generally, nurseries will have shrubs and trees for sale in
three categories -- balled and burlapped, in containers, or bare
rooted.

     First, the balled and burlapped type.  A ball of soil is
wrapped in burlap and pinned with nails.  When you're handling
this kind of plant, never lift it by its stem or trunk and don't
remove the burlap when you plant the tree.  Rough handling can
loosen the ball of soil and endanger the life of the plant.

     Balled plants are usually larger than container-grown plants
of the same price.  Also, they are usually field grown and may be
better adjusted to conditions in your lawn.

     Second, container-grown plants are also popular with
nurseries.  The most common sizes of containers are one gallon,
two gallon and five gallon.

     One of the real advantages of container-grown plants is that
there is less shock when the plant is transplanted.  The
container should be cut with special shears by the nurseryman so
the plant can be lifted out of the container easily without
disturbing the soil.

     Third, bare rooted plants are commonly offered by nurseries.
But these plants are a little more risky than the two mentioned
previously, especially during the spring.
-End-
-Title-
Why Trees Die in New Subdivisions
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Why Trees Die in New Subdivisions

     Many homeowners who move into a new subdivision and live
there for six months or a year are distressed to find that some
of the established trees on their lot die for no apparent reason.

     But there are reasons for these trees dying.  One of the
most common reasons is the change in the soil grade around the
tree. Three or more inches of soil added over tree root systems
often cuts off oxygen to the roots which eventually kills the
roots and this eventually kills the tree.

     Also, grading two or three inches or more under the spread
of a tree often disturbs the feeder roots and causes them die.

     If the subdivision was developed in an area where the trees
were growing in thick groves and many of the trees had to be
removed to make room for the houses, the trees which are left are
exposed to more light and wind than they can handle and may die
in two or three years.

     Generally, heavy construction equipment is used in preparing
home sites and in the actual building of the house.  Because this
equipment is so heavy, it tends to pack the soil which may kill
tree roots.

     In addition to all this, when new subdivisions are
developed, there's a change in the water table because of the
addition of such things as streets, storm sewers, and deep
ditches which remove water from the lots -- water that ordinarily
would have soaked into the soil for use by the trees.
-End-
-Title-
Fertilizing Shade Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Fertilizing Shade Trees

     Shade trees exist in nature without much care, but
transplanting them to man-made conditions can cause them some
problems.  It's especially helpful to fertilize shade trees
during the second growing season and thereafter.  Don't fertilize
trees during the first year after planting or the top growth may
become more than the roots can feed which could cause the tree to
die.  Fertilizer may also benefit established trees that appear
less than healthy.

     Fertilizer for trees should have nitrogen, phosphorous and
potash.  Examples of some fertilizers to look for are 8-8-8, 13-
13-13 and 12-4-4.  Common garden fertilizers such as 8-8-8 are
satisfactory.  Be careful of weed and feed type fertilizers since
they contain herbicides which could harm trees or these
fertilizers could even kill trees if they're used long enough.

     Fertilize established trees only as needed.  Mid to late
winter is the best time.  If additional nutrients are needed,
make a second application in early summer.  Don't fertilize trees
in late summer because it may cause them to continue to actively
grow into the winter months and be damaged by cold weather.

     Use one to two pounds of fertilizer for each inch of tree
diameter.  Trees less than six inches in diameter need about two
pounds of fertilizer each year.  To determine the diameter,
measure the distance through the tree, not the distance around
the tree, and measure at chest level.

     Surface application is one of the easiest ways to apply
fertilizer.  It can be used on established trees where the soil
beneath the tree is free of vegetation such as grass or ground
cover.  Apply fertilizer evenly under the tree branches.  Don't
put fertilizer within one foot of the trunk as it can injure the
root collar.

     If the soil is compacted, or if grass is growing under
trees, punch holes six to eight inches deep in the soil and put
the fertilizer in the holes.  Don't put more than a handful of
fertilizer in each hole.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Tree Stumps
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Removing Tree Stumps

     You can remove stumps from your yard manually, mechanically,
or by helping the natural processes of decay.

     A stump that's eight inches or smaller in diameter can be
dug or pulled out manually with an axe, grub hoe, shovel and
perspiration.

     Larger stumps can be easily removed by mechanical devices
that have rotary blades which cut and chew the stump to the level
below the ground that you want it.  You may be able to get these
mechanical stump removers from rental outlets.  Most tree service
operators have them for custom work.

     A very practical, but slower, way of removing stumps is to
speed up the natural process of decay.  Drilling holes in stumps
and filling them with a high-nitrogen fertilizer can create a
good place for rot fungi to grow.  Also, fertilizer may be
sprinkled on the top of the stump.  The stump must be kept moist
for the fertilizer to work.  Use mulch and water if you need to.
-End-
-Title-
Estimating the Value of Trees and Shrubs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
            Estimating the Value of Trees and Shrubs

     Storms, lightning, vandalism, automobile accidents and other
incidents can sometimes make it necessary for you to place a
value on your trees and shrubs for insurance, tax or legal
purposes.

     If you're trying to recover damages to your trees and shrubs
by means of a lawsuit, you will need to get an evaluation from an
expert.  Acceptable experts for court purposes are consulting
arborists, consulting foresters, representatives of tree service
companies and sometimes county agents.  All of these experts will
use a nationally accepted guide to determine the value of damaged
or destroyed trees or shrubs.

     If you're trying to recover damages by means of an insurance
claim, you will need to check first with your insurance agent to
determine if such damage is covered by your policy.  If the
damages are covered, the loss or reduction in the fair market
value of your property must be determined by a real estate
appraiser.  Most insurance policies have a maximum that they
allow for tree loss.

     If you're trying to recover damages by means of a state or
federal tax deduction, you will have to use the amount of fair
market value not covered by the insurance.  Federal tax
regulations allow deductions, but you should check IRS provisions
for reporting such losses.

     Whether you can obtain insurance compensation or a tax
deduction for the casualty loss of a tree or shrub may depend on
how well you can document the before and after value of the
plant.

     Old and new photographs, plus a written statement from an
appraiser, will, in most cases, be sufficient evidence to
document reasonable claims.
-End-
-Title-
Operating a Chain Saw Safely
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Operating a Chain Saw Safely

     Over 30,000 chain saw accidents are reported every year in
the United States.  Many of these can be prevented with just a
little common sense.  For example, when you're operating a chain
saw, dress appropriately.  Don't wear a neck tie or leave a
handkerchief or your shirt tail hanging out.  Any of these things
could get sucked into the air intake of the saw or get caught in
the chain.

     Wear shoes with non-slip soles.  More than one-fifth of the
reported accidents were the result of insecure footing.  Plant
both feet firmly on the ground and always wear a safety hard hat.
Limbs falling from above or saw kickbacks make a hard hat
essential.

     Kickbacks can occur when the tip of the blade strikes a
small limb, the ground or other objects.  Be alert to conditions
that can cause kickbacks and avoid them.  Hold your saw firmly in
both hands to help overcome the effects of kickback if it does
happen.  Give your undivided attention to the cut you're making.
Don't take children or pets to the woods with you.

     Chain tension is another important safety consideration.  If
the chain is too loose, it will wear out more quickly.  If the
chain is too tight, it will move when the engine is idling.  A
saw with either of these conditions is dangerous.  Your owners
manual should describe the correct tension.

     A sharp saw not only cuts easier and faster, but it's safer
to use.  A dull saw jumps in the cut and produces fine sawdust
rather than chips.  You should learn to recognize this condition.

     Your operators manual will list many tips and safety rules.
Study and practice them.  Your power saw can be highly productive
and satisfactory to use.  Use it properly.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Trees
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Removing Trees

     It is not recommended that homeowners try to remove trees
from city lots.  It's best to get a competent and bonded tree
surgeon for this job.  The telephone directory lists tree removal
specialists in your area.

-End-
-Title-
Anticipating Shade Needs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Anticipating Shade Needs

     Trees are among our most permanent plants.  Some can live
and enhance a landscape for 100 years or longer.  So, it's
important that you select shade trees very carefully.  You'll be
planting them not only for yourself, but for future generations.

     Winter is the best time to plant trees.  But, winter is not
the best time to decide where to plant the trees.  Summer is
better for deciding where to plant because of the greater need
for shade then.

     Winter is the best time to plant trees because the dormant
condition of plants, the cooler temperatures and the high
moisture content of the soil all help a newly-planted tree get
off to a good start.  Nurseries also have a good selection of new
plants in winter so you can choose from a wide and varied
selection.

     As for deciding where to plant trees, watch the sun on your
house during the summer and notice the path that it travels.  The
direction of the sun's travel and the angles at which sunlight
hits your house and the things around it during the summer are
quite different from the way it travels and hits your house
during the winter, so be careful when you're making your decision
for shade.

     When the sun is low, you could have smaller trees, but when
it is high, you need larger trees.  Decide if you want evergreen
trees or deciduous trees which lose their leaves in the winter.
Deciduous trees are good for summer shade and they allow the sun
to penetrate in winter when their leaves fall.

     Many people want "instant" shade.  This just isn't possible.
The trees that grow the fastest are often the most short-lived.
The best and most enduring species usually grow a little more
slowly.  Their lifespans are sometimes two to four times that of
man.

     It's hard to measure in dollars the value of a mature oak,
maple or other tree sheltering your house from the summer sun,
but it's definitely an asset.  On the other hand, a weak, short-
lived tree can be a source of constant worry and frustration.
-End-
-Title-
Landscape Views From Inside
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Landscape Views From Inside

     Neither the summer nor the winter are particularly good
times to get outside for any length of time, especially when
you're doing gardening chores.  Because most people prefer the
comforts of air conditioning or heating, depending on the season,
outside activities are usually limited to only those which are
necessary.

     And because so much time is spent indoors, the view of your
landscape from the inside of your house or business is important.

     You don't have to be physically in a garden to enjoy it.
Some of the most famous gardens of the world are only seen from
within a building.  People are not allowed to move into these
gardens at all.  You can take the same idea and apply it to your
needs.

     You should plan your garden so the living area looks as
though it moves outdoors.  It will be a better view than looking
at a heavily draped window or wall, and it will make the room
appear much larger.

     On the other hand, a planting that's carefully placed 75 to
100 feet away on the rear property line doesn't do much for the
inside and really doesn't "pay its way."  From long distances,
many plants look alike, especially evergreens.

     A variety of trees and shrubs have seasonal color changes,
and can add a new and distinctive look to your homesite.  You can
open the draperies in your living and sleeping areas and reveal
the beauty of the natural world.  A piece of garden sculpture or
a water feature critically placed can further enhance the view.

     In the late summer, make a checklist of ways to improve the
interior-exterior relationship of your house and garden and make
the view from within a memorable part of family living.
-End-
-Title-
Low Maintenance Landscapes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Low Maintenance Landscapes

     Probably one of your highest priorities in landscape
planning is low maintenance.  But you should know that attempts
to reduce maintenance should begin with planning, not later after
the plants are in the ground.

     During the spring, it's easy to over-plant because you tend
not to think about having to care for all those plants during the
hot summer months.

     The basic questions that should be answered at the outset
are, "How much maintenance do you want to do?" and "How much can
you do?"  Certainly, you don't have to keep your landscape in the
tradition of formal gardens when a more natural and casual
appearance is acceptable and sometimes preferred.

     When you are preparing your landscape, don't take shortcuts
when you're preparing the bed.  Good soil preparation will help
the plant to grow and generally the plant will take care of
itself in a fairly short time.

     Mulch your plantings to reduce weed competition and to let
you get rid of the weeds and grasses easier.

     Eliminate small patches of grass in places where it's hard
to mow.  You might consider a ground cover for these areas.

     Carefully consider the amount and location of planting beds
which will need extra care.

     Keep the planting design simple.  Accept the fact that
elaborate plantings require a great deal of attention.

     Remember, the coolness of spring will give way to the heat
of summer.  Don't become over-enthusiastic when you're planning
and planting your landscape.
-End-
-Title-
Planters in the Landscape
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Planters in the Landscape

     Planters have many uses in the landscape, such as defining
traffic patterns, providing accent and relieving monotony.

     The overall design of a planter should be in harmony with
its surroundings.  Using the same material in the planter that's
used in the house helps unify the landscape and the building.

     Sometimes plants don't perform well in planters and one of
the most common reasons is poor drainage.  To get good drainage
in your planter, use a planting mix of at least 50 percent
organic matter and a generous amount of sand.  Bottom drainage
should be provided in all planters.

     You will need to water plants growing in planters more often
than plants growing in the ground -- this is particularly true
during the summer.  If planters are attached to your house, the
house wall should be thoroughly waterproof to avoid water
problems with interior walls.

     When you're selecting your plants for the planter, choose
those which grow under more arid conditions and be sure not to
mix plants with different growing requirements.  For example, you
wouldn't want to put plants that need a lot of sun in the same
planter as plants that need a lot of shade.

     Spring is a good time for planting annuals for spring and
summer color. Most nurseries have a good assortment of plants
during the spring.
-End-
-Title-
Wood in the Landscape
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Wood in the Landscape

     When you're choosing wood for your landscape structures,
such as fences and decks, you have three main choices.  Pressure-
treated Southern timber is usually the most reliable and
economical choice.  Fences and decks built with pressure-treated
wood should last at least 25 years.  Buy pressure-treated wood
from a reputable supplier and ask if the wood is intended for use
above ground or in the ground.  In-ground treated wood should be
used when the wood touches the ground.  It will last much longer
than above-ground wood for outside uses.

     You can also select heartwood of natural decay and insect
resistant woods such as black locust, redwood, white oak, cedar
and cypress.  Naturally resistant heartwood has a more variable
lifespan than pressure-treated wood.  Of the naturally resistant
woods, black locust and osage orange are excellent for fencing.
Black locust posts with three or more inches of yellow-brown
heartwood and eight or more rings per inch will last at least 15
years in the ground.  Osage orange heartwood will last about that
long, too.

     Cedar, cypress, redwood and white oak heartwood posts will
last from five to 15 years in the ground.  Sap pine, hickory, red
oak, spruce, sweet gum and yellow poplar heartwood posts will
last from two to ten years.  But, locating heartwood is the
biggest problem.  There's just not much "true" heartwood
available today.

     The heartwood of the naturally resistant woods such as
cedar, cypress and redwood can be used above ground in decks or
fences as well as for fence posts.  The lighter-colored sapwood
of all naturally resistant species decay in one to five years in
the ground.  You should trim off sapwood posts before you set
them.

     If you have plenty of Southern pine, you can treat it
yourself if you intend to use it above ground.  The best
treatment is to soak the lumber or posts for at least several
weeks in a pentachlorophenol solution.  Brushing or spraying pine
with preservative solutions won't give enough protection if it is
to be used in the ground.  This wood needs to be soaked or
pressure treated.  Pentachlorophenol is toxic to plants and
should not be used for planters or plant bed edgings.

     Don't use untreated sap pine, fir or spruce for fences or
decks.  However, if you've already built structures with
untreated wood, you can brush or spray all the surfaces with a
water-repellent preservative.  You should do this at least twice
and then reapply the preservative every year or two.  This will
prolong the life of the structures.
-End-
-Title-
Wood Fences
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                           Wood Fences

     Your choice of building materials for a fence is just about
the most important decision of the whole project.

     If you use the wrong materials and a poor design, the fence
is destined to a short life.  This is especially true when it
comes to fence posts.  Because fence posts come in contact with
the soil, they should be pressure-treated to protect them from
decay and insects.

     Horizontal parts of the fence, which connect the posts,
should be made of either naturally decay-resistant wood such as
cypress, cedar, or redwood, or it should be pressure-treated with
a preservative for above-ground use.

     The vertical boards should also be either naturally decay
resistant or pressure-treated.  Don't allow the vertical board to
come in contact with the soil.

     The boards should be fastened with hot-dipped galvanized
nails so rust from the nails won't discolor the wood.  Also, if
at all possible, don't join the fence to the house.  This could
be a way for termites to enter your house.

     If you paint your fence, it can become a continual chore
keeping it painted.  Instead, consider a penetrating stain which
contains a preservative and water repellent.
-End-
-Title-
Arbors
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Arbors

     An arbor is an excellent way to make an outdoor room for
both people and plants.  It is inexpensive to build and you can
get garden manuals on outdoor structures that give complete
instructions which make it an easy project.

     An arbor serves many purposes.  It can add to the living
space of a family room, dining room, or can offer an opportunity
to use plants in many different ways, such as hanging vines and
potted plants.

     Not only do arbors offer shelter for people and plants, but
it serves a practical purpose as well.  Large areas of glass that
are exposed to the afternoon sun can be shaded with the addition
of an arbor.  Vines covering the structure give shading in the
summer, and if you choose a vine which loses its leaves in the
late fall, the exposure to the winter sun will help heat your
house.

     An arbor gives an otherwise dull outdoor space more appeal,
and at the same time adds to the living space of your house.  The
practical and visual advantages of an arbor make it a worthwhile
project.
-End-
-Title-
Growing Cucumbers
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Growing Cucumbers

     Cucumbers are warm season vegetables.  Plant seeds after the
danger of frost has passed.

     Cucumbers will grow and produce well on just about any soil,
but loose, rich soils are best.  Clay and sandy soils should have
plenty of compost worked into them for best results.

     Loosen the soil with a shovel and dig as deeply as the
shovel will go.  Add several inches of compost, then mix well,
making sure no clumps remain.  Work the soil when it's moist, not
dry or wet.  Use one cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer for every 15 feet
of row.

     Because cucumbers form vines that run along the ground, they
need more space than many other vegetables.  However, cucumbers
can be grown successfully on a fence or trellis.  You'll have to
help them get attached to the support, but once attached they
will intertwine and hold themselves up.  Trellising cucumbers can
actually increase yield and quality over those grown on the
ground.

     To plant cucumbers, put two or three seeds in hills 12
inches apart.  As the plants come up, thin them to one plant per
hill.  You may want to try some of the bush varieties sold in
seed catalogs.  These varieties don't grow more than two feet
across.

     Because cucumbers must have clean rows to produce well, pull
weeds as soon as you see them.  A thick mulch of leaves will keep
most annual weeds down, but many gardeners like to use black
plastic for mulch because the soil warms earlier and plants bear
fruit earlier.

     Cucumbers are closely related to squash, melons and gourds.
Most varieties produce separate male and female flowers on the
same plants.  Insects such as bees carry pollen from the male
flowers and pollinate the female flowers.  Because of this, you
must be careful not to kill the bees when you use chemicals to
kill insects.  So, apply pesticides late in the afternoon when
bees are no longer active.

     Pick cucumbers every other day.  Pick fruit carefully by
breaking it off the vine with your thumb.  Be careful not to step
on vines and leaves.  Old cucumbers left on the vine will reduce
later yields, so be sure to pull them off and discard them.
-End-
-Title-
Eggplants
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Eggplants

     Eggplants are a warm-season vegetable that requires more
warmth than many other vegetables.  Eggplants are sensitive to
cool temperatures and frost, so they don't perform well when
planted too early while temperatures are low.  In fact, the cool
weather tends to harden and stunt the eggplants, from which they
recover very slowly.

     The best time to set out eggplants is when the daily
temperature averages 65 to 70 degrees.

     The standard eggplant produces egg-shaped, glossy, purple-
black fruit six to nine inches long.  The long, slender Japanese
eggplant has a thinner skin and more delicate flavor.  Both
standard and miniature eggplants can be grown successfully in
containers; but, standards yield a better crop.  White,
ornamental varieties are available and edible yet are poor eating
quality.

     Warm to hot weather throughout the season is necessary for
good production.  Seeds germinate quickly at 70 to 90 degrees
Fahrenheit; plants should be grown for eight to nine weeks before
setting them out.  Cold temperatures will stop plant and root
growth reducing plant vigor and yields.  Using hot caps or
cloches protects plants from cold conditions.

     Though eggplants do well in hot weather, they must have well
drained soil and do not thrive in very humid areas.  When plants
are about six inches high, nip back the growing tip to encourage
branching.  Pick fruits when immature--about two-thirds maximum
size.  Mature fruit should not be left on the plant as this will
reduce overall productivity.

-End-
-Title-
Garlic
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Garlic

     Garlic, a member of the onion family, may be grown
successfully in most Virginia home gardens.  There are early
(White or Mexican) cultivars and late (Pink or Italian)
cultivars.  The early cultivar does not store well and has poorer
quality, but out yields the later type.  Garlic must be planted
very early in Virginia (March or April) to permit full
development.  Fall preparation of the soil is desirable so the
soil can be fertilized and planted with minimum tillage in the
spring.

     Garlic is started by planting cloves that are divisions of
the large bulb.  Each bulb contains a dozen or more cloves; each
clove is planted separately.  The larger cloves yield larger size
mature bulbs at harvest.  Do not divide the bulb until ready to
plant--early separation decreases yields.  Select "seed bulbs"
that are large, smooth, fresh, and free from disease.

     Plant the cloves three to five inches apart in an upright
position (to assure a straight neck), and cover them to a depth
of about one inch.  Allow 12-24 inches between rows.  Garlic also
lends itself well to a wide row system of planting, spacing
cloves three to four inches apart in rows a foot wide.  This
requires considerably less garden space for the same yield.

     Garlic grows best on well-drained garden loam soils that are
fertile and high in organic matter.  Gardeners who grow good
onion crops can grow garlic.  Garlic does well at high fertilizer
levels.  When preparing soil for planting, apply four to five
pounds of 10-10-10 fertilizer per 100 square feet.  Bulbs will be
small if the soil is excessively dry and irregular in shape if
the soil becomes compacted.

     Harvest bulbs when the tops start to dry, usually in August.
Place in trays with screens or slatted bottoms and remove tops
when dry.  Mature bulbs are best stored under cool, dry
conditions.

     Garlic is used both cooked and raw in a wide variety of
dishes.

-End-
-Title-
Herbs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                              Herbs

     Herbs are aromatic plants used to flavor foods.  They've
been used for flavor and for medicine since ancient times.  One
or more parts of the plants can be used, including the seeds,
fruit, buds, bark, leaves, stems, or roots.

     For a small herb garden, choose a well drained area that
receives full sun most of the day.

     Prepare the soil as you would for a regular garden.  In
heavy soil, build high rows for good drainage.  Fertilize lightly
to moderately with a complete fertilizer.  You may use one cup of
10-10-10 for each 30 to 40 square feet of plant bed.

     Many herbs are perennial, including chives, mint, thyme,
tarragon, catnip, and sage.  Many more are either annuals or can
be treated as annuals and grown from seed.

     Herbs that are started easily from vegetative parts include
chives bulblettes, cuttings of thyme, rosemary, sage, and winter
savory.  Mints are aggressive, and can be propagated easily from
runners or crowns. You may need to place mint in a barrier to
keep it from spreading throughout the garden.

     When planting seeds, cover them lightly with only 1/16 or
1/8 inch of soil.  If you grow herbs in containers, use three
parts of garden soil and one part of compost.  Add sand if the
garden soil is heavy.  Because most herbs are grown for their
oils, don't encourage too much growth.  Excessive growth tends to
dilute these oils and make the herbs weak in taste.  So go easy
on fertilizers, and don't over-water.

     Pinching back the bushes will keep the herb plants stockier.
The fresh, tender leaves that are at or near full maturity will
have the most oils.  So, these are the ones you should harvest.

     If vegetative parts are to be harvested, a plant's
productive period may be extended by pinching off the flower buds
as they begin to develop.  Wash harvested leaves and stems in
cold water and dry them.  Hang them in a dark, airy room to air
dry to a crumbly condition.  Then store them in airtight
containers and place them in a darkened cupboard.  Never store
herbs in paper containers because the containers will absorb the
oils which contain the herbal flavor.  Harvest seed crops when
the seeds are mature--usually when their color changes from green
to brown or gray.

-End-
-Title-
Lettuce
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Lettuce

     Lettuce, a cool-season vegetable crop, is one of the easiest
to grow.  Lettuce withstands light frost; however, sunlight and
high summer temperatures usually cause seed stalk formation
("bolting") and bitter flavors.  Slow-bolting or heat-resistant
varieties are available and are recommended for extending the
lettuce-growing season.

     There are several types of lettuce commonly grown in
gardens:

     Crisphead, also known as iceberg, is the lettuce most widely
available as a fresh market type.  It has a tightly compacted
head with crisp, light green leaves.  Many gardeners find this
type difficult to grow because it requires a long season and some
of the most advertised varieties are not heat-resistant and tend
to go to seed as soon as temperatures go up.  Select a slow-
bolting variety and start seed indoors in late winter or late
summer for best results.  Transplant in early spring or fall to
take advantage of cool weather and mulch well to keep soil
temperatures from fluctuating and to hold moisture in.  An
organic mulch is more suitable than black plastic after soil
warms up.  Mulching also keeps soil off the leaves, reducing
chances of disease from soil-borne organisms.

     Butterhead, or Bibb, lettuce is a loose-heading type with
dark green leaves that are somewhat thicker than those of iceberg
lettuce.  Butterheads develop a light yellow, "buttery"
appearance and are very attractive in salads.  A miniature
variety of butterhead, "Tom Thumb," is very easy to grow,
requiring a short growing time; one head of this lettuce is about
right for one or two servings, so this is one lettuce to plant in
succession, about two weeks apart.  It may be started indoors for
an even longer season.  Bibb lettuce will develop bitterness
readily if temperatures get too high.

     Romaine, or Cos, is less commonly grown by gardeners, but is
a very nutritious lettuce that deserves more attention.  It, too,
is relatively easy to grow, forming upright heads with rather
wavy, attractive leaves.

     Most gardeners who grow lettuce raise the leaf type, either
with green or reddish leaves.  This type is fast-growing, long-
lasting lettuce used for salads, sandwiches, and in the popular
"wilted lettuce" recipe.  Leaf lettuce basically needs only to be
planted and harvested.

     Sow leaf varieties in rows, 10-20 seeds per foot, in rows 8-
12 inches apart.  Thin individual plants 4-8 inches apart,
depending on variety.  Leaf lettuce also grows very successfully
in a wide bed arrangement; seedlings are thinned to 4-8 inches on
all sides.  Cos and head types should be sown or transplanted 12-
18 inches apart.  If in rows, allow 30 inches between rows.

     Cultivate carefully as lettuce is shallow-rooted.  Use
frequent, light waterings to encourage rapid growth, but do not
overwater, as this may cause disease of roots or leaves.
Overhead watering should always be done in the morning to give
plants time to dry off.  As mentioned above, mulches are helpful
in maintaining soil moisture and keeping leaves off the ground.

     Lettuce planted in very early spring should be given full
sun so that the soil will warm enough for rapid growth.  For
long-season lettuces, plant so that crops such as sweet corn,
staked tomatoes, pole beans or deciduous trees will shade the
lettuce during the hottest part of the day when temperatures are
over 70 degrees.  Inter-planting, i.e., planting between rows or
within the row of later-maturing crops like tomatoes, broccoli,
and Brussels sprouts, is a space-saving practice.  Some lettuces,
like "Tom Thumb" and leaf lettuces, are attractive in flower
borders.

     Lettuce is best planted in succession, or using different
varieties that mature at different times.  Thirty heads of
iceberg lettuce harvested at once can present a major storage
problem!  Leaf and Bibb lettuces do well in hotbeds or
greenhouses during the winter and in cold frames in spring and
late fall.

-End-
-Title-
Okra
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                              Okra

     Okra is one of the oldest and best known vegetables grown in
southern gardens.  Its popularity probably results from its use
in soups and gumbos and its ability to tolerate a wide range of
soil and hot weather conditions.

     The tough seed coat on okra slows its germination, so you
may want to soak seed overnight before planting. Warm soil is
essential for seed germination.

     Okra can be planted from early April through July.  Prepare
beds a week or two before you plant.  Apply two to three pounds
of 10-10-10 fertilizer per 100 feet of row.  After harvesting the
first few pods, side-dress the row with one-half to three-fourths
pint of ammonium nitrate or an equivalent source of nitrogen.  A
second sidedressing may be needed about four to six weeks after
the first one.  If one is needed, use one-half pound of ammonium
nitrate for each 100 feet of row for each sidedressing.  Okra is
sensitive to high amounts of nitrogen and will stop setting pods
if over-fertilized.  Be sure to withhold the sidedressing until
fruiting begins.

     Plant okra seed one-half inch deep.  Thin the plants to 12
inches apart.  Keep cultivation shallow, about one inch deep, to
remove competing weeds and to prevent injury to the shallow-
growing okra roots.

     Okra plants that are constantly harvested and cared for will
continue to bear until frost.  Harvest pods every other day while
they are tender.  If pods are left to mature on the plant, the
plants will stop producing new pods.  Pods that bend without
snapping are too tough to eat.  When harvesting pods for seed,
pick them when thoroughly dry.
-End-
-Title-
Onions
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Onions

     Onions are often grouped according to taste.  The two main
types of onions are strong flavored (American) and mild (often
called European).  Each has three distinct colors--yellow, white,
and red.  In general, the American onion produces bulbs of
smaller size, denser texture, stronger flavor, and better keeping
quality than European types.  Globe varieties tend to keep longer
in storage.

     Onion varieties also have different requirements as to the
number of hours of daylight required to make a bulb.  If the seed
catalog lists the onion as long day, it sets bulbs when it
receives 15-16 hours of daylight and is used to produce onions in
Northern summers.  Short day varieties set bulbs with about 12
hours of daylight and are used in the deep South for winter
production.

     Use sets, seeds or transplants in spring for bulbs and for
green or bunching onions.  Seeds may be started indoors eight
weeks before setting out.  Use sets in the fall for perennial or
multiplier types of onions.  Avoid sets more than an inch in
diameter because they are likely to produce seed stalks.  Too
early planting and exposure to cold temperatures also causes seed
stalk development.  Some people have best bulb production using
seedlings or transplants rather than sets.

     Onion seeds have a hard seed coat.  Plant them shallowly,
about one-eighth inch deep.  Shallow cultivation is necessary due
to shallow root systems.  Do not hill up soil on onions as this
can encourage stem rot.

     You may want to cover the seed with a light-weight potting
soil, compost, vermiculite or similar material.  Keep the soil
moist so the seed coat will soften and the seed will germinate.
It may take up to two weeks for the seed to germinate.  Seeds can
be planted in the row and then thinned to the desired three to
four inches between plants.  Or, they can be planted thickly in a
bed and then transplanted to a row.  Or, they can be grown in
wide rows evenly spaced over a bed three feet wide.  About four
to six inches on all sides of an onion plant are sufficient for
it to grow normally.

     Soil on which onions are to be grown should be fertilized
with four to five pounds of 10-10-10 fertilizer per 100 feet of
row before planting.  Use starter solution for transplants, and
sidedress one to two weeks after bulb enlargement begins (three
tablespoons 33-0-0 per 10 feet of row).

     Onions should be harvested when about two-thirds of the tops
have fallen over.  Careful handling to avoid bruising helps
control storage rots.  Onions may be pulled and left in the field
for several days to dry then cured in a well-ventilated attic or
porch for one to two weeks out of direct sun.  Leave at least one
inch of the top on when storing.  Thorough curing will increase
storage life.
-End-
-Title-
Southern Peas
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Southern Peas

     Southern peas are also called cowpeas, field peas, purple
hulls and crowders.  The crop is popular in warm areas.  It
produces large amounts of an edible product on a fairly small
space and it's easy to produce.  Peas are high in nutrients,
especially protein, and are easy to can or freeze.

     The southern pea group contains several types of plant, pod
and seed color characteristics.  The main ones are the black-eyed
types, the purple hull types and the cream types.  Within each
type, there can be crowders.  This means simply that the seeds
are crowded together in the pod.

     Southern peas grow best in warm weather, so delay spring
plantings until the soil has warmed to 60 degrees or more for
several days in a row.  Southern peas are subject to root rots in
cold, wet soils.  After the soil has warmed to a suitable
temperature, you can plant through the first week of July.
Staggered planting dates will give longer harvest periods.

     Southern peas have the ability to capture atmospheric
nitrogen and convert it into a form the plant can use which is
useful to crops that follow it in the garden as the nitrogen is
released after the roots decompose.  Apply two pounds of a
complete fertilizer for each 100 feet of row.  On highly fertile
river bottom soils, little or no fertilizer will be needed.
Over-fertilization will cause Southern peas to make a lot of vine
and few pods.

     Southern peas may also be grown to improve soil fertility
and structure.  When peas are grown for this purpose, work the
plants into the soil when they begin to bloom.

     You can use Southern peas dry or fresh.  They also make an
excellent frozen or canned vegetable.
-End-
-Title-
Peppers
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Peppers

     Peppers are a popular crop in the home garden.  They are
high in vitamin C, low in calories and are a tasty seasoning.

     Peppers generally have a long growing season and suffer slow
growth during cool periods.  Therefore, set out transplants after
soil has thoroughly warmed in the spring.  Start seed indoors six
to eight weeks prior to this date.

     In heavy soil, develop well-hilled, high rows for good
drainage and aeration.  Before planting, chop in two pounds of
10-10-10 fertilizer per 100 square feet.  To extend the growing
season, sidedress fertilizer after first fruit set with no more
than one pound of 10-10-10 per 100 feet of row and about every
four weeks thereafter.  Be careful not to over-fertilize,
especially if soil is rich.  Over-fertilizing will cause flower
drop and loss of fruit set.  Hot summer weather will cause flower
drop or the formation of small, distorted fruit.  Don't let the
peppers develop until the bush has gained some size or it may not
grow any larger.  You may need to pinch off a few of the peppers
until the bush gets a little larger.  Mulching can help conserve
water and reduce weeds.

     You can harvest sweet peppers at any stage of growth.  They
are still good to eat after they turn red.  To get maximum yields
from sweet peppers, harvest while still green.  This stimulates
the plant to continue flowering and producing new fruits.
However, allowing the fruit to mature and turn red increases the
vitamin A and C content.  Cut instead of pulling to avoid
breaking branches.  Entire plants can be pulled and hung just
before full frost.  Some varieties are yellow or golden.  Pick
hot peppers when they have turned to the desired color for that
variety.  There are many good sweet peppers and good hot peppers
that come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors.

     Most peppers are classified according to their degree of hot
or mild flavor.  The mild peppers include Bell, Banana, Pimiento
and Sweet Cherry while the hot peppers include the Cayenne,
Celestial, Large Cherry, and Tabasco.

     Bell peppers, measuring three inches wide by four inches
long, usually have three to four lobes and a blocky appearance.
They are commonly harvested when green, yet turn red or yellow
when fully ripe.  About 200 varieties are available.  Banana
peppers are long and tapering and harvested when yellow, orange,
or red.  Pimiento is a conical, two to three inch wide by four
inch long, thick walled fruit.  Most Pimientos are used when red
and fully ripe.  Cherry peppers vary in size and flavor.  Usually
they are harvested orange to deep red.

     Slim, pointed, slightly twisted fruits characterize the hot
Cayenne pepper group.  These can be harvested either when green
or red.



-End-
-Title-
Potatoes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Potatoes

     Both white-skinned and red-skinned potatoes can be grown as
an early crop for new potatoes and as a late crop for storage.
Choose an early maturing variety and a medium-to-late maturing
variety.  Plant potatoes early, from March 15 to April 20,
depending on your location.  Hard frosts and freezes may set back
growth.  Potatoes prefer cool springs and moisture throughout the
growing season.  Crops can be successfully planted as late as
June for fall harvest and storage, but yield may be reduced.

     A soil pH of 6.0 to 6.5 is most desirable.  In addition to
the base application of fertilizer, add about one-fourth pound of
10-20-10 for each 75 foot row.  Work this into the furrow and mix
with the soil before planting.  Avoid a garden site in a turned-
under lawn as grub worms may damage developing tubers unless soil
insecticides are used.

     When preparing your garden for potatoes, build a high bed so
the water will drain well and the potatoes will have some loose
soil to grow in.  Build rows about three feet apart.

     As you get ready to plant, cut seed potatoes into pieces
about the size of an egg and be sure each piece has at least one
eye.  The eye is where the plant gets its start.  Seed potatoes
should be firm and unsprouted.

     If the temperature of the soil is below 65 degrees, hold the
cut potatoes at room temperature for three or four days.  This
will encourage wound tissue to form over the cuts and help
protect the potatoes from diseases after they are planted.

     When you plant the seed, space them about 12 to 15 inches
apart in the row with the cut-side down.  Plant about 15 pounds
of seed potatoes per person in your household.  Plant the seed
pieces three to five inches deep.  Later crops should be planted
five to six inches deep.

     You should begin to see plants break through the soil in
three or four weeks.  In about 100 to 120 days from the time you
planted the seed, you should be able to dig potatoes.  As the
potatoes grow, cultivation should be shallow to avoid root
damage.

     Dig early potatoes when tubers are large enough to eat.
Harvest potatoes for storage two weeks after the vines die down
or just after the first light frost nips the vines, before heavy
freezing.  Avoid skinning tubers when digging and avoid long
exposure to light.
-End-
-Title-
Pumpkins and Winter Squash
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Pumpkins and Winter Squash

     If you're considering winter squash or pumpkins for your
home garden, the first decision you'll need to make is whether or
not there's enough room.

     Neither fits well into the average size home garden because
the plants become too large.

     If your decision is to plant, then you've selected a crop
that is easy to grow and one that fairs well in a variety of
soils.

     Pumpkins and winter squash prefer loose, well-drained
organic soil; however, they fare well in almost any soil that is
re-worked with compost and fertilizer.  For sandy or clayish
soil, dig the beds to the depth of your shovel blade, break up
all clumps of dirt and mix two inches of compost into the soil.

      Spacing between hills and rows will depend on the type of
plant selected.  Bush varieties are popular for smaller gardens
because they require less space than vine plants.  Three feet is
the number to remember when you're planting bush varieties.
Allow three feet between rows and plant two or three seed in
hills spaced three feet apart.  Add two pounds of 10-10-10
fertilizer per 100 square feet.

     For vine plants, use beds six feet wide.  Plant two or three
seed in hills four feet apart and use two pounds of 10-10-10
fertilizer per 100 square feet.  Sidedress with the same
fertilizer when the bush plants reach a foot in height and when
the vine variety lays down and begins to run.

     Bees are needed for pollination, so spray insecticides in
the late afternoon or early evening.

     Although pumpkins and winter squash can be harvested while
tender and cooked like summer squash, it's best if they're
allowed to mature to a tough skin on the vine.  A harder skin
will allow the fruit to store better.  Harvest when the fruits
turn a deep, solid color and the rind hardens.  Allow to ripen on
the vine.  Harvest after the vine dries up before heavy frost.
Cut the stem two to three inches from the vine as fruit without a
stem tends not to store well.
-End-
-Title-
Shallots
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Shallots

     If you'd like to have a supply of green onions almost year
round, grow shallots in your garden.  Shallots, a member of the
onion family, have the ability to divide into a clump of several
plants from one bulb or set.

     For fall planting in warmer areas, use the dry sets.  These
are generally available at local garden centers or seed stores.
Plant the dry sets in August and September.  They'll be ready to
harvest in 50 to 60 days.  In cooler regions, plant sets one to
two inches deep in early spring.

     Shallots like a rich, loose soil; mix plenty of compost,
decomposed manure or other organic matter into bed before
planting.  If shallots for planting are sold in clumps, divide
into individual sets (bulbs) before planting.  Plant as soon as
soil can be worked in spring.  Plant with pointed tip up; tip
should be just below soil line or barely poking through.  Mulch
or cultivate to keep weeds from competing for moisture.  Shallot
roots are shallow so cultivation must be carried out with care.
Shallot bulbs develop on top of ground.  Do not cover with soil.

     Shallots have a mild flavor prized by gourmets, and are
often used in the green onion stage, but bulbs may also be used.
Pull green shallots when they are about one-fourth inch in
diameter and store in a cold, moist place for short periods.
Mature, dry bulbs are dug after the tops die back, usually in
mid- to late summer.  Cure in a warm, dry place for about a week.
Store in mesh bags in cool, dry conditions.  Replant the smaller
bulbs or use them first since they will not keep as well.

-End-
-Title-
Vegetable Soybeans
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Vegetable Soybeans

     Rising food prices have fostered a lot of interest in
soybeans.  Soybeans are high in protein, minerals and vitamins.
They can be substituted in part for higher priced meats and fish.
Whole soybeans have a high oil content, but it is mostly removed
in the manufacturing process for soybean products.

     Soybeans are easy to grow.  Insect and disease problems are
seldom severe.  Grow soybeans where you've had success with snap
beans and sweet corn.  You'll be able to grow both field and
vegetable varieties, but green vegetable varieties are preferred
because of their larger seed size, tenderness and flavor.
Soybeans are not commonly cultivated because of large space
demand.

     Most seed catalogs feature vegetable soybean seed in packet
sizes for home gardeners.

     Soybeans prefer sandy loam soils, but they can be grown on
heavier textured soils if drainage is adequate.  Soil pH should
be 6.0 to 7.0.  A moderately fertile soil is best.  Too much
nitrogen may delay pod formation.  In non-manured gardens, use
about a pound of 6-24-24 fertilizer for 100 feet of row.  Apply
the fertilizer evenly down the center of the row and work it into
the soil.  Over-fertilization will cause blossoms to drop before
fruit is set.

     Plant the crop in rows 28 to 32 inches apart.  Space seed
four to five inches apart in the row and plant them one inch
deep.  For a succession of crops, plant soybeans at 10-day
intervals beginning in April and continuing through June.  Fresh
green beans should be ready for eating about two months after
seeding.

     Control weeds by cultivating shallowly soon after seedlings
emerge.  Continue cultivation throughout the growing season if
necessary.  Insect and disease problems will be similar to those
affecting snap beans and lima beans, so use the same control
measures.  Rabbits like soybeans, and you may need to fence them
out.

     Soybeans are ready for harvest when the pods are plump and
the seeds have just reached full size but are still completely
green.  Pods at this stage are green or just turning yellowish-
green.  Don't delay harvesting until the beans begin to dry.
This will reduce their tenderness.  You can pick the pods in the
garden or cut the plants off and remove the pods elsewhere.

     Pods are shelled best by pouring boiling water over them or
by blanching.  Let them remain in the hot water for about five
minutes, then drain and cool.  Break the pods crosswise and
squeeze the beans out.  Cook them like you cook fresh peas or
lima beans.  Soybeans do not soften like peas or limas, however,
and will retain a nutty texture.  One caution, don't eat soybeans
before they're cooked.  They're mildly harmful when large amounts
are eaten raw.
-End-
-Title-
Spinach
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Spinach

     A relative of beets and Swiss chard, spinach is a hardy,
cool season crop that can survive temperatures of 20 degrees
Fahrenheit without injury.  On the other hand, high temperatures
and long days cause spinach to bolt to seed, making it less
desirable.  In general, it is a short season crop, maturing in
about six to ten weeks, depending on planting dates and climate.

     Spinach is very sensitive to strongly acid soils, that is,
soils with a pH below 5.5.  On strongly acid soils, it will be
stunted and yield little or nothing.  For satisfactory growth,
add lime to the soil to bring the pH to at least 6.0.

     Recommended varieties are Melody and Virginia Savoy Hybrid.
     To fertilize spinach, apply three to four pounds of a
complete fertilizer like 5-10-10 per 100 feet of row.  Apply
several days before planting.  Sidedress with about one-half
pound of ammonium nitrate for each 100 feet of row about one
month after planting.

     The seeding rate is about one-fourth ounce of seed for a 100
foot row.  The seedling will look like a beet when it sprouts.
Thin the plants to about six inches apart within the row.  If you
have trouble getting spinach seed to germinate, mix the seed with
a moistened potting soil and pre-germinate them in a can or jar
for two or three days, then plant them in the row.

     When harvesting spinach, cut the whole plant at the soil
level.  If you want a second harvest, cut the outer leaves just
above the soil line and the plant will renew its growth from the
center.  As soon as three or four leaves appear after the first
cutting, cut the plant back again.
-End-
-Title-

                          Summer Squash
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-

                          Summer Squash

     Summer squash is harvested when young and tender.  These
warm-season vegetables can be grown from spring to frost.  They
are easy to grow, very productive and fit well into urban
gardens.  You'll need to plant only two plants for each person in
your family.

     Most summer squash are bushy.  The yellow butter types come
in straight neck or crookneck varieties.  Recommended straight
neck varieties include Goldbar and Butterbar.  Patty Pans are
shaped like tops and have scalloped edges.

     Summer squash thrives in soil that is well drained, loose
and high in organic matter, but it will grow in almost any soil
that is well prepared.  Clay and sandy soils should have lots of
compost worked into them to make them loose.  Work the soil when
it's moist, not wet or dry.  Be sure to break all clumps.

     Loosen soil with a shovel and go down 8 to 10 inches.  Add a
two-inch layer of compost and use the shovel to mix it with the
soil.  Apply one cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer for every 15 feet of
row.  Rows should be three feet wide.  Sidedress the plants when
they are about a foot tall for bushy types, or when they begin to
lay down and run for vining types.  Use one-half teaspoon of
ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate per plant, and water it in
well.  Sidedress again about a month later.

     Plant a few seeds every three feet on rows three feet apart.
When they come up, thin plants so there are only one or two
plants every three feet.  Pick fruit regularly to keep plants
producing well.  Don't wait longer than two or three days between
pickings.

     Cultivate often and shallowly to control weeds.  Or, better
still, use black plastic or leaves for a mulch.  Few weeds will
emerge, and you'll have less work.

     Summer squash are related to cucumbers, watermelons and
gourds.  They produce both male and female flowers on the same
plant.  Honeybees carry pollen from the male flowers to pollinate
the female flowers, so don't kill bees.  If you use insecticides
to control chewing insects, use it late in the afternoon when
bees have stopped flying.  Insecticides can kill bees, too.
-End-
-Title-
Swiss Chard
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                           Swiss Chard

     Swiss chard can be grown easily in most gardens.  This
green, cool season vegetable has good heat resistance, too, so
it's almost a year-round vegetable.

     Seeds or young plants can be planted in late winter and
spring.  Chard will produce fresh greens even through the summer.
It's an excellent choice for small gardens.

     The large, fleshy leaf stalks can be white or red, with
broad, crisp, green leaf blades.  The leaf blades can be cooked
like spinach or other greens, and the midribs or stalks can be
cooked like asparagus.  In many ways, Swiss chard is similar to
Chinese cabbage.  It's an attractive plant and can be planted in
ornamental flower beds because it's so pretty.  But, if you want
Swiss chard, you'll have to grow it.  It's not available in most
markets.

     To extend the harvest of Swiss chard, pick only the largest
leaves instead of the entire plant.  Do not allow leaves to reach
full maturity as they become tough and new growth is reduced.

     Soil preparation and fertilization of Swiss chard are easy.
Loosen the soil with a shovel.  Dig 8 to 10 inches deep, or as
deep as the shovel will go.  Add a two-inch layer of compost and
mix it with the soil.  Be sure to break up all clumps.  Work the
soil when it is moist, not too wet or dry.

     Put down one cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer for each 15 feet of
row.  Put it where the rows will be and rake up the row on top of
it.  Make raised beds so that the 10-10-10 is under them.  Make
rows three feet wide.  Sidedress the plants when they are about 6
to 8 inches tall, using one-half teaspoon of ammonium nitrate or
ammonium sulfate for each plant.  Water it in well.  Sidedress
regularly, about every four to six weeks.  This will keep plants
growing well for a long time.

     Plant seeds thick, then cook the greens that you thin out.
Seeds do best if they're planted about one-fourth to one-half
inch deep, with about 8 to 10 seeds per foot.  After thinning,
the young plants should be about 9 to 12 inches apart.  If you're
setting out transplants, space them about 9 to 12 inches apart.

     Cultivate often and shallowly.  Better still, control weeds
by using mulches--leaves, thick layers of newspapers or other
organic mulches.  If a few weeds come up, you can pull them while
they're still small.

     If you're thinking of planting Swiss chard this year,
consider the following varieties:  Red Midrib, Burgundy, Ruby,
Rhubard, White Midrib, Fordhook Giant, Geneve, Large White
Broadrib and Perpetual.
-End-
-Title-
Tomatoes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                            Tomatoes

     Tomatoes are excellent vegetables for gardeners.  Only a
few, well-cared for plants will produce tomatoes for a long time.
You'll need only two or three plants for each member in the
family.  One plant can produce five or six pounds of fruit.

     Tomatoes are warm season, tender vegetables, so plant them
after danger of frost has passed.

     Tomatoes need a well-drained soil with plenty of organic
matter.  Both clay and sandy soils can be improved by adding
generous amounts of compost or well-rotted manure to them.  This
organic matter will help keep the clay soil loose and make sandy
soil able to hold water that you apply.  Also, as it breaks down,
the organic matter provides some nutrients.

     Loosen the soil with a garden fork.  Go as deep as the fork
will go--8 to 10 inches.  Add a two-inch layer of compost, mix
with the soil, and break up all clumps.  Work when the soil is
moist, not wet or dry.  Put down one cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer
for each 15 feet of row.  Apply fertilizer where you will build
rows.  Make raised beds so that the 10-10-10 is under them.
Plant transplants two feet apart in the row.  When the first
tomatoes begin to swell, sidedress with two pounds of 10-10-10
per 100 feet of row.  Repeat every four weeks.

     If you use black plastic as a mulch, just punch or cut a
hole in the plastic and set the plants in place.  Firm the soil
around roots.  If the transplants are too tall, remove the leaves
from the lower one-third of the stem and bury the stem
horizontally two inches deep.

     Stake plants upright with five or six-foot stakes while they
are still small.  Fasten the vines to the stakes by looping the
vines with cloth or cord.  Don't use string and don't bind the
vines.  Prune side branches to a height of one to two feet.
Then, let them bush.  Or use cages to contain the plant upright.

     Water is important for tomato production.  Water your
tomatoes every five to eight days if they don't get at least an
inch of rain per week.  Water by flooding or trickle irrigation.
If you must water with a sprinkler, water early in the morning so
plants will dry quickly.

     Tomatoes come in several sizes, shapes and colors, depending
on the variety.  Some varieties can develop large fruit under
favorable conditions.  Others, such as the small cherry or patio
tomatoes, develop only small fruit.  These small fruited
varieties set better during the hot months than large fruited
varieties.

-End-
-Title-
Greens
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Greens

     Greens are popular vegetables for home garden.  They are
easy to grow and produce a good return for the amount of space
they occupy.  Greens that can be planted in the fall include
mustard, collards, spinach, kale, and turnip.

     A short, but active, growing season characterizes most
greens.  Rapid growth occurs if greens have a good supply of
plant nutrients and ample moisture.

     Since each of these vegetables is small-seeded, you will
need to prepare a good seed bed to insure good contact between
the soil and the seed.  Mustard and turnip seed may be scattered
over the bed and raked in or planted in several closely spaced
rows.  If plants are too crowded, thin them.  Use the thinned
plants as greens.

     Kale, which is like collards but smaller, should be spaced
about six inches apart at its final thinning.  Space spinach
about three or four inches apart.

     Greens will grow on a fairly wide range of soil pH.  On
highly acid soil, add enough lime to bring the pH to 6.0.
Fertilize these crops at the rate of three or four pounds of a
complete fertilizer for each 100 feet of row on soils of medium
to low fertility.

     On highly fertile soils, you may need to apply only one-half
pound of ammonium nitrate per 100 feet of row.  If plant leaves
begin to yellow, sidedress again with one-half pound of ammonium
nitrate per 100 feet or row.

     For tender greens, harvest when the leaves are young.
-End-
-Title-
Why Plants Fail to Set Fruit
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Why Plants Fail to Set Fruit

     Many gardeners will worry about plants that fail to set
fruit or plants that produce only poorly developed fruit this
summer.

     In most cases, the weather, not the gardener, is to blame.
For fruit to set on a healthy plant, pollen must be transferred
from the anther to the stigma of the flower.  Then it must go
quickly down into the ovary and fertilize an egg cell.  This
activity results in the formation of one seed.

     The natural development of fruit depends on seed
development.  When you think about all the seeds found in a
tomato, you realize a lot of fertilization must occur.
Otherwise, the flower may drop off, the plant may not set fruit,
or irregular-shaped fruit will develop.

     Many things affect pollination and fertilization.
Unfavorable daytime temperatures, which means temperatures above
90 degrees Fahrenheit or below 55 degrees Fahrenheit, or
nighttime temperatures in the mid-70s may cause sterile pollen or
irregular pollen growth for tomatoes and other crops resulting in
poor seed development.  Low light, too much nitrogen, too little
potassium or manganese, low humidity and low temperatures may
cause irregular flower or pollen development.  This may lead to a
blockage of fertile pollen transfer and irregular growth of the
fruit.

     Plant corn in blocks or groupings.  It is wind-pollinated,
and several short rows together are better than one or two long
rows.  Grouped plants can help pollinate each other.  Squash and
the vining cucurbit crops have separate male and female blossoms.
They are pollinated by bees, so be sure to use insecticides
carefully.  Use them in the late afternoon when bee activity is
low.  Also, before you decide you have a squash pollination
problem, check to see if both male and female flowers are present
by looking at the base of the flower just below the petal.  On
female flowers, this area is noticeably swollen.
-End-
-Title-
Caterpillars--Tent, Webworm, Walnut
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Caterpillars--Tent, Webworm, Walnut

     The first signs of spring are the webbings of the eastern
tent caterpillar in the crotches of cherry and willow trees.
These webbings get larger as the worms grow larger.  The eastern
tent caterpillar is velvety brown with a yellow line down its
back and long yellow hairs over its body.

     Its first cousin, the forest tent caterpillar, has a blue
head and body and a series of yellow keyhole shaped spots down
its back.  Unlike the eastern tent, the forest tent builds no
web, but moves around in large masses on sweet gums and oaks.
Both of these caterpillars live through the winter as an egg.
The eggs are laid the summer before and look like a shiny brown
crystalline mass around the small stems of host trees.

     The walnut caterpillar feeds on pecan, walnut and other
trees which lose their leaves in the winter.  The larva of the
walnut caterpillar are black with gray lines and covered with a
lot of long, gray hairs.  The immature larvae are reddish-brown
with yellow lines that run the length of the body.  They usually
move in mass and feed and hang on branches in large clusters.

     The fall webworm has two or more generations, but the first
one usually goes unnoticed.  The later generations build large
webs in pecan and other hardwood trees.  The larva has a black
head and is pale yellow to gray or brown.  The fall webworm lives
through the winter as pupae in the soil with adults emerging in
the spring as a small white moth.

     You should try to control these caterpillars in the late
afternoon or early evening with insecticides.
-End-
-Title-
Slugs and Snails
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Slugs and Snails

     Slugs and snails are members of the mollusk family and can
be a problem around the house and garden because they eat plants
and leave glistening trails of slime wherever they crawl.  Also,
their soft bodies and slimy appearance make them repulsive to
some people.

     Both slugs and snails have soft, fleshy, legless bodies that
vary in color from light tan to black--most are mottled with
shades of gray.  Their eyes are carried on the ends of stalks or
appendages on their head.  They move slowly and grow to between
one-half inch and four inches long.

     Slugs and snails need moisture to survive.  Normally, they
hide during the day to avoid the sun.  So, you're likely to find
them under pieces of wood, pottery, bricks, plants and heavy
mulches.  They're active, generally, at night or on damp, cloudy
days.

     Slugs and snails feed on leaves, flowers, stems or roots of
plants by scraping off the tissue or eating holes in the leaves
or flowers.  Their slime trails remain for days on the rocks,
plants and buildings they crawl over.

     You can control slugs and snails by trapping and collecting
them from under boards or flower pots set out to attract them, by
collecting them from plants at night, or by using commercially
prepared baits.  Use these baits after a rain or after you water
your plants.  This is when the slugs and snails are more active.

     One other method of controlling slugs and snails is the beer
trap.  Put a pint jar or aluminum pie pan in the ground so that
the upper lip is flush with the soil.  Pour beer in the container
until it's about half full.  Several slices of banana may be
added to make it more attractive.  Snails and slugs really like
beer and they will crawl into the beer and drown.
-End-
-Title-
Aphids
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                             Aphids

     Aphids are one of the most diverse groups of insects around
because they attack many different kinds of plants and cause
several different kinds of damage.  Plants infested with aphids
can be stunted, dwarfed, deformed, infected with disease or
killed.  Aphids appear as soon as you begin to plant or as plants
begin to sprout.

     Most aphids have been given names that associate them with
the plant they most often attack, for instance, the rusty plum
aphid, the rosy apple aphid, the wooly apple aphid, the green
peach aphid, the potato aphid or the cabbage aphid.  Aphids are
not very large.  The smallest one is the cabbage aphid and it's
about the size of bird shot, but they go on up to the largest
which is the giant bark aphid.  This is the aphid you're likely
to find on oaks and other shade trees in the fall and early
spring when the weather is cool.

     Aphids can feed on any part of a plant by using its
piercing, sucking mouthparts to get the nutrients out of plants.
As the aphids feed, they take in more than they can use and the
excess is excreted as a sticky substance called honeydew.  This
honeydew causes two problems.  First, it attracts ants and wasps
and, second, it promotes the growth of a fungi called sooty mold.
Sooty mold usually looks like a black mat that may cover the
entire leaf surface.

     Many insecticides are labeled for aphids depending on what
crop or plant they are on.  Be sure to follow the label
instructions when applying insecticides.

-End-
-Title-
Scale Insects
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Scale Insects

     Scale insects represent about 75 to 80 percent of the
problems that occur on ornamental plants.  Scale insects are
extremely devastating to many plants and they multiply rapidly.
Once they infest a plant, they're difficult to control.

     Many people believe that spraying plants for scale insects
once or twice a season is enough to control the pests.  While
this is possible, it's not very likely.  Usually, those scales
which are the most trouble produce several generations in one
season.

     As an example of just how devastating scale insects can be,
listen to this example of how they can reproduce.  One female of
the white peach scale can lay about 80 eggs.  They can go through
about five generations a year.  Assuming that only half of each
generation is female, at the end of a single season one female
can have offspring that number more than 260,000.  The point is,
they can get out of hand before you know it.

     Check your plants periodically.  Look closely and pay
particular attention to anything that seems out of place on the
stems, branches and foliage.  It's important that you find scale
insects and control them before they begin to develop and
reproduce.

     Here's what to look for.  Scales are tiny insects that feed
with a piercing, sucking mouthpart like aphids.  The most common
one is the mealybug.  This group of scales is very mobile and
capable of walking from one plant to another at any time.

     However, most scales are not very mobile except when they
first hatch from the eggs.  At that point, they may be blown by
the wind to other plants or carried to other plants on the feet
of birds.

     Scales usually leave a white powdery, waxy layer on the
stems.  You can also recognize scales by the crusty appearance
they give various plants when there are large numbers of them on
the plant.  Also, the excessive wax excretion or secretion of
some scales like the Florida wax scale make them readily
noticeable.

     How you control scale insects depends on the kind of scale
it is and what kind of plant the insect in on.  Several
insecticides, including oils, will work for control of scale
insects.  Be sure to read the label and follow instructions when
applying insecticides.
-End-
-Title-
How Dangerous are Pesticides?
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  How Dangerous are Pesticides?

     When a word ends with the letters i-c-i-d-e, the word means
to kill.  A pesticide is something, usually a chemical, which
kills pests.  Because pesticides are formulated to kill, they
are, by their very nature, toxic and some of them are hazardous
to people.

     The term pesticide is a general category with a large number
of subcategories.  For example, an insecticide kills insects, a
herbicide kills plants, a miticide kills mites, and a rodenticide
kills rodents.

     There are some other chemicals which control pests and are
classified as pesticides but they don't have the letters i-c-i-
d-e at the end of their names.  For example, a repellent will
keep away pests, an attractant will lure pests, a plant growth
regulator stops, speeds up, or otherwise changes normal plant
processes, and desiccants and defoliants are harvest aid
chemicals used to remove or kill leaves and stems.

     Pesticides can also be grouped according to what they do.
Many work in more than one way.  Read the label to find out what
the one you plan to use does.

     Here are some of the ways pesticides work.  Contact
pesticides kill pests simply by coming in contact with them.
Stomach poisons kill by being swallowed by the pest.  Systemics
kill pests by being taken into the blood of the animal or sap of
the plant on which the pest is feeding.  Translocated herbicides
are pesticides which kill plants by being absorbed by leaves,
stems, or roots and moving throughout the plant.  Fumigants are
gases which kill when they are inhaled or otherwise absorbed by
the pests.  Selective pesticides are those which kill certain
kinds of plants or animals whereas non-selective pesticides are
those which kill most plants or animals.

     You can tell how toxic a pesticide is by reading the signal
word and symbol on the label.  The signal word "Danger" means
that the product is highly toxic.  You will find the skull and
crossbones and the word "Poison" on the label of these products.
Rarely are the pesticides in this toxicity category available for
home use.

     The signal word "Warning" means that the product is
moderately toxic.  The signal word "Caution" means that the
pesticide has a low toxicity or is comparatively free from
danger.

     There is a statement of practical treatment or first aid
directions on the label of every pesticide container.  This
statement tells you what you should do if the pesticide is
accidentally inhaled, swallowed, or brought in contact with skin.
If the product is highly toxic there will be a note to physicians
on the product label.  The pesticide label is the most important
information you can take to the physician when someone has been
poisoned.

     The label on the pesticide container is the best source of
information about that particular product.  The directions for
use will tell you (1) the crop, animal or other item the product
can be used on, (2) how the product should be applied, (3) how
much to use, (4) where the material should be applied, and (5)
when it should be applied.

     When using a pesticide, you should read the label carefully
before using it.  Don't use the pesticide and then read the
label.
-End-
-Title-
Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles

     Both clothes moths and carpet beetles infest fabrics made
from animals or fabrics which have an animal origin, primarily
wool.  However, they will infest furs, hides and anything else of
animal origin.  Clothes moths and carpet beetles cannot survive
on synthetic fabrics or cotton.  But, if clothes made from cotton
or synthetic fabrics have been worn and have not been cleaned,
sometimes the larvae of these insects will chew holes in the
fabric feeding on the particles of skin left on the clothing.

     The most effective means of controlling clothes moths and
carpet beetles in clothing is to prevent them from getting on the
clothing in the first place.  At the end of the winter season,
clean and store all woolen garments in an insect-proof storage
container.

     The adults of both the clothes moth and the carpet beetle
cannot penetrate plastic bags, paper bags, or cardboard boxes.
So, be sure to use a container made of one of these products and
one that can be sealed.  Before you put your garments in the
insect-proof container, add some moth balls, moth crystals or
napthylene crystals.  These crystals don't kill the insects, but
they do repel them and keep them from entering the storage
container and laying the eggs from which the larvae develop.
After the storage container is sealed with the napthylene
crystals or moth balls inside, the garments should be safe from
insects until fall.

     If you find that some of your clothes already have an
infestation of clothes moths or carpet beetles, the garments
should be laundered or dry cleaned.  Putting the garments out in
the sun for a day will help drive away some of the insects, but
this will not kill larvae in the clothing and these could still
grow to be adult moths and beetles.

     Also, you can use a no-pest strip containing the insecticide
Vapona.  If you use the no-pest strip, hang it up and seal the
closet for several days, allowing the fumes from the strip to
penetrate all the areas of the closet, killing the remaining
larvae and adults.
-End-
-Title-
Pantry Pests
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Pantry Pests

     Several kinds of insects can infest food in your pantry.
Foods such as rice, corn, wheat, oats, barley and other grain-
type foods are quite susceptible to infestations by the Indian
mealmoth, Angoumois grain moth, cigarette beetle, drugstore
beetle, saw-tooth grain beetle, flat grain beetle, red flour
beetle, and several others.

     All of these insects are controlled the same way.  The first
thing you should do is determine the source of the infestation.
If you have a lot of beetles in one cabinet, it usually means
that something in that cabinet is heavily infested.  Find the
source of the infestation and remove it because it won't do any
good to use an insecticide unless you find and remove that
source.  Once the source of the infestation has been removed, the
problem will eliminate itself.  Use a vacuum cleaner to clean
cabinets.

     If you need to take further precautions, there are two non-
chemical methods of controlling these pantry pests.  One method
is to place the remaining foods in the deep freeze at zero
degrees Fahrenheit for 48 hours.  The second method is to place
the food in the oven at 140 degrees for approximately 20 minutes.
Either of these methods will reduce and kill all stages of the
pantry pests.
-End-
-Title-
Silverfish and Earwigs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Silverfish and Earwigs

     Silverfish and earwigs are completely unrelated insects;
however, they are two pests which are frequently found in houses.

     The silverfish is an insect which grows continually
throughout its life and feeds primarily on the glue used in book
bindings, cardboard boxes and the like.  So, the places you're
likely to have problems with silverfish are around books and
bookshelves.  Silverfish are capable of destroying books and
other valuable papers so if you find them in your house, you'll
need to control them.  Any of the so-called household
insecticides are capable of killing silverfish.

     The earwig is a different problem.  It's usually a pest in
newer subdivisions where houses have been built in what was a
wooded area.  Actually, it's not a case of the earwigs moving in
on people, but people moving in on the earwigs.

     Earwigs don't harm people.  They don't bite, sting, or
pinch.  But, they do look bad and they have an unpleasant odor
when you step on them.  Of course, they can be a nuisance when
they get inside the house.  They feed exclusively on insects and
related animals.

     Your first line of defense against earwigs should be
physically keeping the insects out of your house by blocking
areas around doors, windows and other places where they might
enter the house.

     If you see that you need to resort to chemicals, spray in
and around doorways, around patio areas, and indoors along
baseboards.
-End-
-Title-
Advantages of Breast-feeding Your Baby
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
             Advantages of Breast-feeding Your Baby

     The American Pediatric Society recommends breast-feeding for
infants because of the advantages breast-feeding offers both
mother and baby.  Because the nutrients in breast milk are easily
digested and ideally suited to a baby's needs, breast milk alone
can provide every nutrient a baby needs for the first six months
of life.  Usually, no vitamin or mineral supplements are needed,
but sometimes doctors may prescribe vitamin D and iron for some
babies, and they may urge mothers to give their breast-fed babies
fluoride supplements.

     Besides getting the nutrients they need, nursing babies also
get other health benefits.  Nursing infants have fewer
gastronomical illnesses, such as vomiting and diarrhea, and fewer
respiratory illnesses, such as colds and infections.  Breast-fed
infants also have fewer allergic reactions than do babies fed
with bottles.

     Another advantage of breast-feeding is that nursing mothers
don't have to buy, prepare and sterilize bottles and formula.
Breast-feeding also helps new mothers return to their pre-
pregnancy weights because of the extra calories needed for milk
production.

     Nursing mothers also report that the time spent breast-
feeding their babies is a special time for mother and baby.  This
closeness is another advantage of breast-feeding.

     Breast-feeding gives babies a good start on life.  It can be
a wonderful experience for mother and baby.
-End-
-Title-
Contraceptives And Nutrition
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Contraceptives And Nutrition

     Oral contraceptives have been widely used since the sixties.
With the widespread use of these medications, there has been much
interest in the possible effects of oral contraceptives on
nutritional status.

     The oral contraceptives in common use contain varying
proportions of estrogens and progestogens.  The metabolic effects
of these medications are similar in some respects to those of
pregnancy.

     Numerous studies have been done on the metabolic changes
occurring from the use of oral contraceptives, but these reports
have often been contradictory. Biochemical changes have been
shown to occur with the use of oral contraceptives, but actual
clinical signs of nutritional deficiency are rare.

     The biochemical changes are more likely to be seen in women
whose nutritional status is poor rather than in those who are
well-nourished.  Some of these changes include both increases and
decreases in body concentrations of nutrients.

     Considerable emphasis has been placed on vitamin B-6 for
oral contraceptive users.  Alterations in the metabolism of
vitamin B-6 have been shown to occur in some women using oral
contraceptives.  However, the Food and Nutrition Board of the
National Research Council did not recommend increasing the
recommended dietary allowance of vitamin B-6 for oral
contraceptive users in the most recent revision of these
guidelines.

     Evidence indicates that changes observed for vitamin B-6 and
other nutrients in contraceptive users can be reversed by
improvement of diet alone.  Routine supplements of vitamin B-6
and other nutrients do not seem to be justified.  Foods eaten in
the recommended amounts from the basic food groups, including
milk, meat, poultry, fish and beans, breads and cereals, and
fruits and vegetables, will provide the nutrients needed for good
health.
-End-
-Title-
Diet for Expectant Mothers
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Diet for Expectant Mothers

     When you first learn you are pregnant, you begin to think
about how you will care for your baby, how you will dress it and
how you will decorate the nursery.  The most important way you
can care for your baby before it comes, however, is to take care
of yourself and eat well.

     If you're pregnant, your nutritional needs will change as
your body changes and as your baby begins to grow.  You'll need
extra nutrients to take care of your baby's needs and for your
own body, especially if you plan to nurse your infant.  Current
research shows that expectant mothers should gain about 24 to 28
pounds during the nine months of pregnancy, so pregnancy is not
the time to diet. Pregnant women should gain about one pound a
month during the first three months and about three-fourths of a
pound a week for the last six months.

     You'll need more calories while you're pregnant, but the
extra calories should come from foods such as milk and milk
products, lean meat, poultry, fish, dried peas and beans, nuts,
fruits and vegetables, and whole grain breads and cereals.  Don't
get your extra calories from high calorie, low nutrient items
like candy, cake and soft drinks.

     During pregnancy, your body will need extra protein to help
form your baby's tissues.  Get this extra protein from milk,
cheese, meat, poultry, fish, dried peas and beans.  Eat at least
three servings every day of these protein-rich foods while you
are pregnant.

     Vitamin and mineral needs are also greater during pregnancy.
Expectant mothers should be sure to eat foods rich in vitamin C
and vitamin A.  Foods rich in vitamin C include citrus fruits,
greens and tomatoes.  Foods rich in vitamin A include carrots,
spinach and sweet potatoes.

     If you are pregnant, your blood volume will increase.  To
make red blood cells for this increased blood volume, you'll need
foods that are high in iron.  Iron-containing foods include
liver, red meats, dried peas and beans, fortified breads and
cereals, and dark green vegetables.  Eat some of these foods at
each meal.  Besides eating iron-rich foods, you'll need to eat
foods rich in vitamin C because vitamin C helps your body to use
iron more effectively.

     You'll need more calcium, too, because it is used to form
your baby's bones.  Many nutritionists tell expectant mothers to
drink a quart of milk a day.  Other milk products have calcium,
too, and you can use them to provide the calcium you need.  Some
dark green vegetables contain calcium, but the body isn't always
able to use this calcium effectively.

     Doctors often prescribe vitamin and mineral supplements just
in case the increased needs caused by pregnancy aren't met.

     If constipation is a problem while you are pregnant, eat
more high fiber foods such as fruits, vegetables and whole
grains.  Be sure to drink enough fluids, too, because fluids help
prevent constipation.

     If you are troubled by morning sickness, nausea or
heartburn, try these hints for relief:  Eat a few dry crackers
before you get out of bed in the morning.  Eat small, frequent
meals and snacks instead of three large meals a day. Drink
liquids between, rather than with, meals.

     Expectant mothers want healthy, happy babies, and good
nutrition will play a major part in helping babies get the best
possible start in life.
-End-
-Title-
Feeding Solid Foods to Babies
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Feeding Solid Foods to Babies

     Although many parents are eager for their babies to start
eating solid foods, most doctors advise parents not to start
feeding their babies solid foods until they are at least three
months old.  Some doctors want parents to wait until six months
to start babies on solids.

     Feeding babies solid foods before three months may result in
problems like allergic reactions or overweight.  When babies
start eating solid foods too early, they may fill up on food and
not drink enough milk.  This could mean they will grow slowly
because they aren't getting enough protein.  Breast milk or
formula provide all of the nutrients in the proper form, and it's
all most infants need for the first few months.

     Baby's first food is usually cereal -- rice cereal, barley
or oatmeal.  Start by feeding one or two tablespoons of cereal
mixed with formula.  Feed this mixture with a spoon, not from a
bottle or infant feeder.  Babies need to learn to eat from a
spoon.  Boxed cereals are more nutritious and less expensive than
those packaged in jars, so start your baby on boxed cereal.

     Vegetables and fruits will probably be the next foods your
baby will eat, and you can use those you prepare at home or you
can buy commercial products.  Offer only one new food to baby at
a time.  Try it for three or four days at a time so you can see
if an allergic reaction develops.  Allergic reactions include
hives, vomiting or diarrhea.  Fruit juices may be started with
fruits, but many doctors advise waiting until your baby is about
a year old to start citrus or fruit juices.

     Meats are usually started after vegetables and fruits, and
these, too, may be prepared at home or bought.  Choose single
ingredient commercial meats, not combinations, for your baby's
first meats.  Items like chicken and noodles or vegetables and
beef have less protein than single meat products.

     When your baby begins to eat solid foods, try to make
feeding time a relaxing time.  Don't try to feed other hungry
children at the same time.  You might want to give baby a little
formula or breast milk so he'll be hungry, but not starving.
Then feed solids and finish with more milk.
-End-
-Title-
Food Additives
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Food Additives

     Food additives are used only to maintain or to improve
quality of food or to give it some added quality that consumers
want.  The Food and Drug Administration monitors the use of
additives and allows them to be used only if proven information
has shown that the additive will accomplish the intended effect
in the food.  Also, the amount used cannot be more than is needed
to accomplish the intended effect in the food.

     Additives are used to achieve one or a combination of four
purposes...to maintain or improve nutritional value...to maintain
freshness...to help in processing or preparation...or to  make
food more appealing.

     Without additives or preservatives, some food would soon
spoil or it would taste bland.  If some foods were not made
storable, there might be considerable waste of food.  Also, if
some foods aren't stored properly they can cause illnesses.

     Here are some of the additives which  benefit food.
Nutrient supplements.  Vitamins and minerals are added to foods
to make them more nutritious and sometimes to replace those
nutrients lost during processing.  Examples...bread that has been
"enriched," milk with vitamin D added and margarine with vitamins
A and D added.

     Non-nutritive sweeteners are added to some foods...these in
the form of sugar substitutes.

     Preservatives.  There are several kinds of preservatives
which are effective in preventing spoilage in a particular type
of food or against a particular organism.

     Emulsifiers.  These products improve the uniformity of a
food...the fineness of grain...the smoothness and body of foods
such as bakery goods, ice creams and confectionery products.

     Stabilizers and thickeners.  These products add smoothness,
color uniformity and flavor uniformity to such things as ice
creams, chocolate milk and artificially sweetened beverages.
Stabilizers and thickeners are labeled as pectin, vegetable gums
and gelatins.

     Flavors and flavoring agents.  Some of these such as spices
and liquid derivatives of onion, garlic, cloves and peppermint
enhance flavor.  Synthetic flavorings which resemble natural
flavors have been developed and these have the advantage of being
more stable than natural flavors.

     Bleaching agents and maturing agents.  These speed the aging
process which improves the bread making quality of flour.
Freshly milled flour is yellowish and makes very poor bread.

     Colors.  Although colors don't improve eating quality they
are considered important.  The chances are you're so used to food
being a specific color that you would refuse to buy it if it were
some other color.

     Additives have many other uses too.  These uses include
hardening, drying, leavening, anti-foaming, firming, crisping,
anti-sticking, whipping, creaming, clarifying and sterilizing.

     Without additives to help in the processing of food, today's
grocery stores would need a lot less room to sell what foods
would be left.  Tested and approved food additives are a part of
today's modern food technology.
-End-
-Title-
Food Fads and Fallacies
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Food Fads and Fallacies

     The promotion of nutrition misinformation has become a
multi-billion dollar business.  There's almost no end to the
nutrition tests and treatments, special foods and food
supplements, pills, gadgets, diets, books and magazines that are
produced daily to take advantage of the public's new health and
fitness awareness.

     Health quacks capitalize on people's fears...fears that
they're being poisoned by food additives and pollution...and
fears that their diets are being adversely affected by modern
processing methods.  These quacks capitalize on people's
hopes...hopes of looking and feeling young forever...of being
free from illness...and of performing at exceptional levels.
Health quacks seem to have all the answers.  "Super nutrition" is
the magic cure for any all problems.

     Let's try to burst eight of the bubbles of common food
myths...

     The first one...athletes need more protein than the average
person.

False--Exercise increases the need for calories...or energy...not
protein.  Also, muscles increase in size with stimulation...not
excess protein.

     The second...if small amounts of a vitamin are good for you,
then large amounts are even better.

False--Taking more vitamins than your body needs does not do it
any good.  Extra amounts of water-soluble vitamins...B complex
and vitamin C...are excreted.  Too much of  fat-soluble
vitamins...A,D,E or K...can be toxic.

     The third...foods grown with chemical pesticides and
fertilizers are slowly poisoning us.

False--The proper application of pesticides insures that the
chemical level is harmless before the crop is harvested.
Chemical fertilizers supply the same chemical elements that
natural fertilizers supply.  Soil condition, fertilizers and
pesticides all affect crop yield...not nutritional quality.

     The fourth...large doses of vitamin C...ascorbic acid...will
cure the common cold.

False--The claims that vitamin C cures colds are still being
studied.  Excessive intake of ascorbic acid...or vitamin C...may
lead to kidney stone formation.

     The fifth...hair analysis can be used to diagnose a need for
vitamins and minerals.

False--Hair analysis is a waste of money because the state of
your body's health may be completely unrelated to the chemical
composition of your hair.  There are no vitamins in hair and the
mineral composition is affected by many other factors.

     The sixth...bee pollen can boost athletic performance.
False--Tests have shown that bee pollen offers no benefits over a
balanced diet.  It is expensive and what is worse, it can cause
dangerous allergic reactions.

     The seventh...vinegar makes you lose weight by melting away
your fat.

False--Fat cannot be melted away by vinegar, grapefruit juice, or
any other acid.  Exercise and a lower calorie diet can use up the
calories stored as fat.

     And finally, the eighth..."natural" foods--those without
chemical additives--are better for you than foods containing
additives.

False--Foods packaged without additives or preservative are no
more healthful than others.  Additives must now pass extensive
tests before they can be used to help maintain the quality and
safety of a product.  Research doesn't support claims that
additives cause hyperactivity in children.  Treatment should be
directed by a physician.

     If you hear some claim which promises miraculous
results...or belittles the medical profession or normal
foods...or appeals to your emotions...you should question its
usefulness.
-End-
-Title-
Foods High in Dietary Fiber
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Foods High in Dietary Fiber

     Dietary fiber is the indigestible part of plants that has a
definite benefit in treating and preventing constipation.  Eating
more foods which are high in dietary fiber has also been linked
to preventing and treating other health problems such as colon
cancer and diverticular disease, but evidence is incomplete and
inconclusive at this time.

     Dietary fiber occurs naturally in all plant foods including
grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, peas and beans.  People in
developed countries generally eat fewer foods with dietary fiber,
mainly because they eat less cereal grain.  Although fiber adds
no essential nutrients to the body, it does play an important
role in the diet.

     Foods which are high in fiber include: peas and beans;
fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (especially sweet potatoes and
Irish potatoes cooked in their skins); and whole grain breads and
cereals.  Bran, one of the most common types of dietary fiber, is
found in whole grain breads and cereals.  Cereals that are 100
percent bran usually have about seven grams of fiber per ounce.
Cereals with bran in the name contain less, but they do have more
fiber than do other cereals.

     Eating a balanced diet which includes fruits, vegetables,
whole grain breads and cereals will give you adequate fiber and
help to promote a healthy lifestyle.
-End-
-Title-
Foods on a Low Sodium Diet
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Foods on a Low Sodium Diet

     Salt is one of the most commonly used seasonings in America.
The salt shaker is a common sight in most kitchens, and salt is
also part of many of the products that enter our homes.

     Table salt is a compound known as sodium chloride.  It is
made up of 40 percent sodium and 60 percent chlorine.  Sodium is
an essential mineral because your body needs it to maintain fluid
balance and to help transmit nerve impulses.  Sodium also helps
muscle fibers to contract and expand.  But, even though sodium is
necessary, most people probably eat more than they need.  The
Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences now
recommends that we eat only about 1100 to 3300 milligrams of
sodium a day.  This is a safe, adequate amount.

     Only one teaspoon of table salt contains about 2,000
milligrams of sodium.  About one-fourth of most of our sodium
intake comes from salt added to food.  Sodium occurs naturally in
foods, too, but usually in small amounts.  If your doctor
prescribes a low-sodium diet for you, you'll be eating a lot of
fresh fruits and vegetables.  But even certain vegetables contain
considerable amounts of sodium.  These include artichokes, beets,
beet greens, carrots, celery, mustard greens, spinach and
turnips.

     You'll also be eating meats, poultry, fish, peas, beans,
bread, cereals and milk products, but the amounts of some of
these may be limited because meat, poultry, fish, dairy products
and eggs have greater amounts of sodium than fresh fruits and
vegetables.  Frozen lima beans and frozen peas are also high in
sodium.

     Processed foods are usually much higher in sodium than fresh
foods.  For example, a fresh tomato has only 14 milligrams of
sodium and one cup of commercial tomato soup has 932 milligrams.
A cup of canned tomato sauce has 1,498 milligrams.  Many other
foods have salt added in processing.  These include cheese,
bacon, sausage, ham, pickles and sauerkraut.

     Packaged foods like mixes, cereals, canned food, chili
sauce, ketchup, mayonnaise and mustard, and frozen, prepared
foods all contain added sodium or salt.

     Reading labels can help you find other sources of salt. Some
of the most common sources of sodium used in processing are
monosodium glutamate, sodium benzoate and di-sodium phosphate.
If the label doesn't give the exact amount of sodium, remember
that ingredients are listed in order of quantity.  If you're
cutting down on sodium, don't buy products if sodium is among the
first three ingredients listed.

     Baking powder and baking soda are almost as high in sodium
as table salt.  Many commercial antacids and alkalizers are high
in sodium and shouldn't be taken for heartburn by people who must
restrict sodium.

     The drinking water in some areas also has a high sodium
content.  You can find out the sodium content of your drinking
water by calling your local health department.
-End-
-Title-
Preparing Your Own Baby Food
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Preparing Your Own Baby Food

     You can prepare baby food at home for less cost than you can
buy it.  Besides being easy to prepare, baby food made at home is
healthful and nutritious.  All you need is the food, a food mill,
blender, fork or strainer.  Wash your hands and all equipment
with hot, soapy water before you start to make baby food.

     Wash fruits and vegetables, peel them and remove any seeds.
You can use some fresh fruits, like bananas or ripe pears,
without cooking them first.  Other fresh fruits and vegetables
should be cooked in a little water or steamed until they are
tender.  Cook or steam them without adding salt, sugar or
seasonings.

     To fix meats for baby, boil or bake them until they are
tender.  Don't add fat, salt or seasonings.  When the meat is
well-done, remove all bones, skin and fat.

     Use a food mill, blender or fork to make food smooth.  Add
liquids such as cooking water, juice, milk or formula to thin the
food as needed.  Store home-prepared baby foods in the
refrigerator.  Keep cooked fruits and vegetables no longer than
three days, and keep raw fruits and cooked meats only two days.
Be sure to cover the foods tightly.

     If you want to freeze some of your homemade baby food, put
it in ice trays, cover and freeze it until it's solid.  Remove
cubes, place them in plastic bags, then label and date.  These
frozen baby foods can be kept for one month.

     When you get ready to serve food you've frozen, thaw it in
the refrigerator, then heat the food cube in a double boiler or
in a heat-proof dish in a small amount of water either in the
oven or on top of the range.  Heat until warm, but don't
overcook.

     If you feed the baby directly from the "heating" container,
throw away any food the baby doesn't eat.  Saliva and germs can
contaminate the food that's left.

-End-
-Title-
Risks in Feeding Infants Whole or Skim Milk
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
           Risks in Feeding Infants Whole or Skim Milk

     Until just a few years ago, human milk was the mainstay of
most infants' diets.  Recently, many formulas which closely
resemble human milk have been developed.  Most physicians now
recommend breast-feeding for most infants with formulas the next
best choice.

     Some mothers wonder about feeding whole cow's milk to their
infants and how it compares to human milk.  Cow's milk contains
more protein than human milk, so it must be diluted before it's
fed to babies.  The pattern of amino acids in human milk is more
appropriate for infants than that found in cow's milk.  Also, the
fat in human milk is better absorbed than the fat in cow's milk.

     Human milk contains higher levels of vitamins A, C and E
than does cow's milk.  The iron in human milk is more efficiently
absorbed by babies than the iron in cow's milk and because of
this, anemia is less likely to be a problem among nursing
infants.  And, as for calcium, human milk contains less calcium
but it is more easily absorbed than the calcium in cow's milk.

     In addition to the nutritional benefits, human milk provides
some protection for infants against various intestinal and
respiratory illnesses.  Also, babies who are fed human milk are
less likely to develop allergies than those babies on cow's milk.

     Many nutrition experts recommend whole milk after children
are 12 months of age.  They do not recommend that skim milk be
given to children until they're at least two years old, even if
they're overweight.
-End-
-Title-
Storing Baby Foods
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Storing Baby Foods

     Storing baby foods properly helps to insure the good health
of your baby.  You can store unopened commercial baby foods on
the pantry shelf at room temperature.   Opened jars of baby foods
should be closed tightly and stored in the refrigerator.  They
may be kept only three days.

     Don't feed your baby directly from the jar because the spoon
with which you feed the baby will have saliva and germs on it.
This can make the food spoil more quickly.  Transfer the amount
you think your baby will eat into a small bowl, and feed the baby
from this bowl.

     You can keep home-prepared, cooked fruits and vegetables for
three days in the refrigerator, but don't keep raw fruits and
cooked meats longer than two days.  Put this food in glass or
plastic jars and cover them tightly.

     You can also freeze home-prepared baby foods.  Fill an ice
tray with food, cover it with waxed paper, and freeze until food
becomes solid.  You can then remove the cubes of food and freeze
them in a plastic bag.  Label and date the bag.  You can keep the
frozen food cubes for one month.

     To serve the frozen baby food, thaw the food in the
refrigerator, then heat the cubes in a double boiler or in a dish
surrounded by hot water on top of the stove or in the oven.  Heat
just until it's warm--don't overcook.
-End-
-Title-
Teenage Pregnancy Nutritional Risks
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Teenage Pregnancy Nutritional Risks

     As a teenager who is pregnant, you must be sure to eat well
because your body needs food for its own growth and development
and for the growth and development of the baby you're carrying.
How you eat during pregnancy will affect your own health as well
as your baby's health.  If you eat right, you'll be less likely
to have complications.  You're also more likely to have a healthy
baby and be better prepared to breast-feed if that's what you
want to do.

     Current research indicates that weight gain during pregnancy
should be about 24 to 28 pounds.  If you begin your pregnancy
below your desirable weight, then your doctor may suggest that
you gain more than this.  If you were overweight when you became
pregnant, your weight gain during pregnancy should still be about
24-28 pounds.  Pregnancy is not the time to diet.  The way you
gain weight during pregnancy is very important, too.  A weight
gain of one pound per month for the first three months and then
three-fourths of a pound each week for the remaining six months
is the appropriate pattern.

     Pregnant teenagers should eat a simple, well balanced diet
which includes a variety of foods.  The daily diet should include
the following food groups:

     MILK -- One quart of whole milk, low fat milk, or skim milk
to provide protein for body tissues and calcium for bones and
teeth.  Other milk products, including cheese, cottage cheese,
yogurt and ice cream, may be substituted for some of the milk.

     MEAT, POULTRY, FISH AND BEANS -- Two or more servings are
needed daily to provide iron for red blood cells and additional
protein for body tissues.

     VEGETABLES AND FRUITS -- At least four servings are needed
each day to provide vitamins and minerals.  A good source of
vitamin C is important, and it can be citrus fruits, melons
tomatoes or greens.  Dark green and yellow vegetables or fruits
provide vitamin A, which is also needed.  Foods that contain
vitamin A are carrots, spinach, squash or apricots.

     BREADS AND CEREALS -- You should eat five or six servings of
whole grain or enriched breads and cereals each day so you'll
have the energy, B vitamins and minerals you need. Whole grain
products also provide fiber, which helps to prevent constipation.

     A fifth group of foods is labeled FATS, SWEETS AND ALCOHOL.
Alcohol should be avoided during pregnancy.  Candy, soft drinks
and other sweets may be eaten once in awhile.  If you need extra
calories, you should use margarine, butter oils or salad dressing
to complete your meals.

     By eating well and taking care of yourself, you can help
yourself have a safe pregnancy and a happy, healthy baby.  Your
nutritional needs reflect both your own requirements and those of
your developing baby.
-End-
-Title-
How Long Does Frozen Food Keep?
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 How Long Does Frozen Food Keep?

     Your home freezer can be a real time-saver for today's busy
lifestyle.  It can store meats, fruits and vegetables and many
items which can be prepared ahead:  casseroles, main dishes,
foods for parties or snacks, and even entire meals packaged in
individual portions.

     You do need to remember three important points about keeping
frozen foods fresh and safe to eat:  one, choose quality food
products; two, maintain the freezer temperature at zero degrees
Fahrenheit or lower; and, three, use appropriate freezer
packaging materials.

     You need to choose quality food products because a frozen
food item will be only as good as the original product.  Follow
recommended procedures for preparing foods for freezing, such as
blanching for fresh vegetables.

     A freezer temperature of zero degrees or below is essential
for keeping frozen foods safe and delicious.  Use a freezer
thermometer to check the temperature of your freezer.

     If you use containers and materials designed for home
freezing, you can avoid freezer burn.  This means using moisture-
vapor-proof plastic bags and wraps, freezer wrap, freezer
containers and heavy-duty foil.

     When you package the foods, date them with an expiration
date based on maximum storage times.  Storing foods longer isn't
dangerous, but flavors and textures may change when foods are
stored longer than recommended times.  Be sure the temperature in
your freezer is zero degrees or lower.

     Here are some of the maximum storage times recommended by
USDA for maintaining good quality:  fruits and fruit juice
concentrates, l year; vegetables, 8 to 12 months; bread, rolls
and doughnuts, 3 months; cakes, 2 to 4 months; fruit cake, l
year; pound cake, 6 months; unbaked pies, 8 months.

     Beef, such as hamburger meat, steaks and roasts, 2 months;
cured pork, 2 months; fresh pork chops, 4 months; pork roasts, 8
months; and pork sausage, 2 months.  Veal cutlets, chops and
roasts, 9 months; cooked meat dinners, meat pies or Swiss steak,
3 months; cut-up chicken, 9 months; whole chicken, l year;
chicken livers, 3 months;  duck, goose and cut-up turkey, 6
months; whole turkey, l year; cooked chicken or turkey dinners or
pies, 6 months; fried chicken, 4 months.

     Fish fillets, 3 to 6 months; crab meat, 3 months; oysters, 4
months; shrimp, l year; cooked fish and shell fish, 3 months; and
ice cream or sherbet, l month.
-End-
-Title-
Picnic Foods and Safety
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Picnic Foods and Safety

     Warm weather often means picnics and outdoor fun.  Too
often, food-borne illness is associated with picnics.  Follow
these suggestions to keep your picnic foods safe to eat.

     Choose your picnic menu carefully.  Disease-producing
bacteria prefer foods high in protein and moisture.  These foods
include milk products, eggs, poultry, meats, fish, shellfish,
cream pies, custards and potato salad.  If you can't keep foods
at the proper temperature to prevent bacterial growth, don't plan
to take these foods on a picnic.  The temperatures which prevent
bacterial growth are either above 140 degrees or below 45
degrees.  If temperatures are a problem, choose canned, preserved
or dehydrated foods and fresh fruits and vegetables.

     Food preparation is another important aspect of getting
ready for a picnic.  Before you prepare food, be sure to wash
your hands and the utensils and equipment you will use.  Cook
food thoroughly to the proper temperature.  Cook pork, poultry,
custards and cream fillings to a temperature of 165 degrees.  Use
a meat or cooking thermometer to make sure food reaches 165
degrees.

     Keep prepared food hot (above 140 degrees) or refrigerate it
immediately after preparation.  Use frozen bread and chilled
fillings for sandwiches to help keep them cold.

     Storing foods properly can help keep your picnic free from
food-borne illness, too.  Hot foods should be stored and
transported in insulated containers such as an ice chest, for
short trips.  For longer trips, refrigerate foods at 45 degrees
or colder, then reheat them before you eat them.

     Cold foods can be kept below 45 degrees in an ice chest.
You can use ice, dry ice or cold packs to keep temperatures low.
If you use dry ice, put it on top of the food.  Store foods to be
chilled in shallow containers.  They provide more surface area
for foods to stay cold.

     When you're serving picnic foods, place them on a clean
tablecloth spread on the picnic table or ground.  After the meal,
put leftovers back in the ice chest immediately.  If food has
stayed out at unsafe temperatures, throw it away.  Do not take a
chance on eating foods which might make you sick.

     Follow these suggestions for food safety.  Make sure your
picnic is an enjoyable experience.
-End-
-Title-
Preventing Botulism
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Preventing Botulism

     Botulism is a deadly type of food poisoning caused by
bacteria in soil and is carried into the home on clothing, hands,
food, etc.  It grows best at temperatures between 70 degrees and
110 degrees Fahrenheit -- in other words, at room temperature.

     The bacteria itself is easily destroyed by boiling
temperatures, 212 degrees Fahrenheit.  The problem is that the
bacteria produces spores which are very resistant to heat.  These
spores produce the poison that causes the deadly food poisoning
called botulism.

     The poison, or toxin, is so powerful that one teaspoon of
the pure substance can kill thousands of people.  Researchers who
study the botulism organism must be extremely careful to avoid
contact with it.  The only way to destroy these spores is to heat
them to 240 degrees Fahrenheit, a temperature much higher than
boiling.  This high temperature can be reached only by equipment
in commercial canning operations or by using a standard pressure
canner in home canning.

     Because the bacteria live and grow without air, home canned,
low acid foods which have been improperly processed at
temperatures lower than 240 degrees are prime targets for
botulism growth.  Botulism is rarely found in commercially canned
foods;  it is much more often associated with home canned foods.

     In the warm, moist, air-free environment of low acid, home
canned foods which have not been processed at the correct
temperature, the organism grows easily and produces its toxin.
Low acid foods include meats, vegetables and milk.  Most fruits
contain enough acid to prevent botulism growth and can be
processed using a water bath.  Any time food is processed at
home, it is imperative to follow tested recipes for processing
times and temperatures.

     The botulism poison can be destroyed by brisk boiling in an
open pan for about 15 to 20 minutes.  Any home canned, low acid
food about which you have the slightest question should be boiled
for 15 to 20 minutes before you taste it.
-End-
-Title-
Reheat Gravies, Dressings and Meats to Boiling
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
         Reheat Gravies, Dressings and Meats to Boiling

     Gravies, dressings, meats and other protein-containing foods
are excellent sources for bacterial growth which cause food
poisoning.  Food poisoning is caused by preparing and storing
foods improperly.  Lack of sanitation, insufficient cooking and
improper storage are major causes of food poisoning.

     Highly perishable foods including meat, poultry, dressing,
gravy, seafood, cream pies, puddings, potato salads and dishes
made with eggs are those most likely to become contaminated.

     To prevent food poisoning, use tested recipes with reliable
tables for temperature and time.  Using a meat thermometer can
help you make sure that meats are cooked thoroughly.  Internal
temperatures of beef, veal and lamb should reach at least 140
degrees Fahrenheit.  Poultry should reach 165 degrees and pork
should reach 170 degrees.  Bacteria can survive in partially
cooked meats, so don't plan to cook meats, poultry or fish only
partially and hold for final cooking until later.

     Dressing is a common source of food-borne illness.  Store
dressing and meat separately in the refrigerator.  Stuff thawed
poultry, fish or meat just before roasting.  Put dressing in
lightly without packing to allow adequate heat penetration.  Make
sure that dressing, either inside meat or cooked separately,
reaches a temperature of at least 165 degrees Fahrenheit during
cooking.  Use a meat thermometer to make sure.  Keep cooked meat,
fish, poultry and dressing hot (above 140 degrees) until they are
served.

     To serve leftover meat, dressing and gravy, heat thoroughly.
Boil leftover broth and gravies for several minutes before eating
them.  Boiling will help to make sure bacteria are destroyed.
-End-
-Title-
Defrosting Your Freezer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Defrosting Your Freezer

     A thick layer of frost makes your freezer work less
efficiently.  High temperatures and humidity will make the
problem worse.  If frost builds to more than one-quarter of an
inch on freezer walls, it's time to defrost the freezer.

     For routine defrosting, you don't need to turn off the
electricity.  Transfer frozen items to the refrigerator or wrap
them together in several layers of newspaper and put them in an
insulated picnic cooler.  Or, move them to one side of the
freezer while you scrape off and scoop out excess frost with a
plastic scraper or wooden paddle.  Never use an ice pick or
electric defroster which might damage the inside of the unit.

     Every once in a while, you need to defrost the unit
completely and clean it.  Choose a time when the freezer is
nearly empty, if possible.  To defrost the freezer completely,
unplug the freezer.  Remove frozen foods and wrap them in several
layers of newspapers.  Cover packages with a blanket or put them
in a picnic cooler.  Food will stay frozen for several hours if
temperatures aren't too high.  If temperatures are extremely
high, add dry ice.

     Remove storage baskets and food dividers, wash in warm,
sudsy water, rinse and dry.  If freezer has a defrost water
drain, connect the hose adaptor to the drain.  Place a flat pan
under the drain or direct the water hose to a convenient drain.

     You can speed the defrosting by placing pans of warm water
inside the freezer or by directing air from an electric fan or
vacuum cleaner exhaust into the freezer. Scrape off the rest of
the frost with a plastic or wooden scraper.  Never use a sharp
object or an electrical defroster.

     After all the frost melts, wash the box with a solution of
warm water and baking soda, using one tablespoon of soda in a
quart of water.  Rinse with clear water and wipe dry with soft
cloths or paper towels.  Turn the current on, and let the freezer
cool for 30 minutes or more before replacing frozen food.

     Freezers differ in their construction and procedures for
defrosting.  If you have a question and you no longer have the
manual to consult, send the model number of your freezer to the
manufacturer and ask for the proper booklet.  The model number is
stamped on your freezer.
-End-
-Title-
Defrosting Your Refrigerator
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Defrosting Your Refrigerator

     Today's refrigerators have one of three defrost systems:
manual defrosting, partial automatic or cycle defrosting, and
frostless or no-frost.  The systems are defined by the
Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers as follows:

     No-frost or frostless refrigerator:  A no-frost refrigerator
or freezer is operated automatically to prevent the permanent
formation of frost on refrigerated plates or coils in the freezer
and refrigerator.  No ice or frost forms on the stored food.  The
water from defrosting is disposed of automatically.  These
frostless or no-frost models never need defrosting, but they do
need cleaning periodically.

     Partial automatic or cycle defrosting refrigerator/freezer:
In these models, the refrigerator has automatic defrosting but
the freezer must be defrosted manually.  The automatic or cycle
defrosting units can be recognized by the cold plate at the
interior back of the refrigerator cabinet.

     The third type is a manual defrosting refrigerator.  Few
refrigerators manufactured today must be defrosted manually.
These models usually have a single door and a small freezing
compartment at the top.  They are usually found in apartments and
cottages or as second refrigerators.

     If you have a manual defrost unit or one in which a buildup
of frost is visible, you'll need to defrost it when the frost is
about one-fourth inch thick.  Otherwise the refrigerator won't
work as well as it should.

     To defrost or clean the freezer, turn the cold control to
off or defrost and remove ice cubes and other frozen items.  Wrap
items together in several layers of newspaper or put them in an
insulated picnic hamper or cooler.

     To defrost quickly, place pans of warm water in the freezer
unit, warm the area with a hair dryer, or use the crevice tool of
your vacuum cleaner, attaching the hose to the exhaust end of the
cleaner.  To avoid the possibility of shock, unplug the
refrigerator.  Don't chip off the frost with a sharp object
because you may damage the compartment.  Collect and throw away
the defrost water.  Wash the compartment with a baking soda
solution, rinse it and wipe dry.  Wipe off any moisture on the
frozen food before returning items to freezer.

     All refrigerators, whether they are defrosted manually or
not, need to be cleaned periodically.  The best time to clean a
refrigerator is when the food supply is lowest.  Throw away any
spoiled food.  Refrigerators can absorb odors from spoiled or
strong-smelling foods.  To remove odors and spills, clean the
inside with a clean cloth wrung out in a solution of one
tablespoon of baking soda to one quart of warm water.  Rinse with
clean water and wipe dry.  Clean the folds in the gasket seal
around the door with mild, sudsy water, rinse and wipe dry.
Vacuum or dust the condenser coils or fins located on the back or
bottom of the refrigerator.  Removing dust from these areas and
not allowing frost to build up will help the refrigerator run
more efficiently.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Freezer Odors
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Removing Freezer Odors

     Objectionable odors in the freezer may be caused by food
that has been left in the freezer too long, food that has been
packaged improperly, or by food that has spoiled when the
electricity was off.  Several different solutions can be used to
clean the interior surface of the freezer.  Try them one at a
time.  Rinse the freezer surfaces well and dry them before trying
another.  Don't mix ingredients in different solutions.

     Baking soda and water may do the job.  Use two tablespoons
of baking soda to a quart of water.  If the odor remains, try a
vinegar and water solution.  The formula is one cup of vinegar to
one gallon of water.  Household ammonia and water is another
choice.  Use one cup of ammonia to a gallon of water.  Household
chlorine bleach may be effective.  Use one-half cup of bleach to
one gallon of water.  No matter which solution you choose, rinse
well with clear water after cleaning.

     If odor remains, leave crumpled newspaper in the freezer for
a time.  Charcoal briquettes or activated charcoal in an open
container may help remove remaining odor.  Other choices include
coffee grounds or kitty litter left in the freezer in an open
container.

     If odor-causing moisture has been absorbed by the insulation
of the freezer, the odor may be impossible to remove.  Odor-
retaining moisture that has wet the insulation is usually the
source of odor if the interior surface has been cleaned and
rinsed and an unpleasant odor still remains.  In this case, all
you can do is hope the insulation dries out if you don't want to
replace the expensive insulation.

     Heat and air circulation may help.  In the meantime, if you
use the freezer for storage, double wrap all food placed inside.
As soon as you take food from the freezer, remove the outer
wrapping before the food thaws.  The odor should be in the outer
wrapping, so food will not be affected.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Odors from a Refrigerator
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
               Removing Odors from a Refrigerator

     If you leave food in the refrigerator too long or store
improperly packaged food, it may leave an unpleasant odor in the
refrigerator.  The same thing happens if food spoils while the
electricity is off.  To remove the odor, try one of the following
solutions.  If the first solution you try doesn't work, then try
another.  Do not mix ingredients in these solutions.  Here are
four solutions for you to try, one at a time:

(1)  Baking soda and water.  Mix two tablespoons of soda with a
     quart of water.

(2)  Vinegar and water.  Use one cup of vinegar for a gallon of
     water.

(3)  Household ammonia and water.  Use one cup of ammonia for a
     gallon of water.

(4)  Household chlorine bleach.  Use one-half cup of bleach for a
     gallon of water.

     Apply the solution you choose with a soft cloth, rinse and
dry surface area well before trying another solution.  If odor
remains, try leaving one of the following in an open container in
the refrigerator:  coffee grounds, kitty litter, baking soda or a
few charcoal briquettes.  Cotton balls saturated with vanilla
extract and placed inside may help cover remaining odor.

     If the odor is in the insulation, no amount of scrubbing or
absorption material will help.  In this case, all you can do
besides replacing the expensive insulation is to hope the
insulation will eventually dry out.

     Sometimes heat and air circulation will help remove odors.
In the meantime, double-wrap food that you place in the freezer.
As soon as you remove the food from the freezer to thaw it for
use, remove the outer wrapping.  Generally the odor will be in
the outer wrapping and the food won't be affected.  Keep all
other foods covered while they are in the refrigerator.

     To prevent odors from being absorbed by refrigerator
surfaces, clean the surfaces regularly with mild detergent and
water or a solution of baking soda and water.  Use a soft cloth,
and avoid abrasive cleaners.

     Defrost manual freezer units regularly, at least when frost
is one-quarter inch thick.  Remove and discard ice from trays or
ice maker periodically because ice retains odors.  If you spill
food in the refrigerator, wipe and clean it immediately.  Food
spills create odors and stains.

     The defrost pan on automatic defrost models needs to be
cleaned periodically, too.  It's usually located under the grill
at the bottom of the refrigerator.  Remove the grill and you'll
see the pan on one side and the condenser coils on the other.
Pull the pan out and clean it.  Remove dust from the condenser
with a brush or the dusting attachment of your vacuum cleaner.
Wipe up any spills on the floor around the bottom of the
refrigerator and under the grill.  Periodic cleaning will help to
remove odors in and around the refrigerator.
-End-
-Title-
Drying Figs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                           Drying Figs

     Dried figs are rich in flavor and great for snacks and for
baking cookies, cakes, muffins or breads.

     If you plan to dry figs in the oven, select and wash fully
ripe figs.  Dissolve one cup of sugar in three cups of water and
bring the mixture to a boil.  Add the figs and simmer them for
ten minutes.  Remove the figs by lifting them from syrup.  Drain
and cool the figs and place them in a single layer on a drying
rack.  You can use a broiler pan rack or cake rack for a drying
rack.  Set your oven at its lowest temperature.  A low, even
temperature of 115 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit should be maintained
for 10 to 20 hours.  Leave the door propped open slightly so
moisture can escape.  If you use a gas oven, be sure that it
doesn't go out.

     Dry the figs until the outsides are firm to the touch and
the insides are soft with no signs of syrup when squeezed.

     To save energy, you may want to sun-dry figs.  Figs will dry
well outside on hot, sunny days.  They should dry in about two
days.  Bring them in each day at sundown.  They will also dry
well in a car parked in the sun.

     To dry figs in the sun, wash fully ripe figs, leaving stems
on.  Cut the figs completely in half to the stem and turn the cut
side up on the drying rack.  Cover the figs with a piece of
cheesecloth or nylon net to keep insects off.  Put the drying
rack on a table, a car or a roof in full sun.  Dry until outside
is leathery, but pliable.  Inside should be soft, with no sign of
juice.

     For longest storage life, place the dried figs in the
refrigerator or freezer in moisture-proof bags or containers.
Figs can be stored at room temperature if they're completely free
of juice.  To store, first reheat the figs at 160 to 180 degrees
Fahrenheit for 10 to 15 minutes, then place them in moisture-
proof containers.  If you use glass jars, heat clear jars in oven
until they are dry and hot.  Pack the hot figs into the hot jars
and seal.  When they are cool, examine the jars for signs of
moisture.  If you find moisture, reheat the figs and repack them
in hot, dry jars.  Moisture will cause mold to grow which will
spoil the figs.
-End-
-Title-
Drying Peaches
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Drying Peaches

     Dried peaches can be a real space saver when it comes to
storing peaches for later use.  Dried peaches are a great snack
and they're delicious in breads, pies and cakes.

     To dry peaches in the oven, select about three pounds of
fully ripened peaches.  Wash, peel, pit and slice them into
wedges.  Mix one cup of sugar in three cups of water and heat the
mixture to boiling.  Add the fruit and simmer it for ten minutes.
Remove the peaches from the heat and let them stand in syrup ten
minutes or longer.  Drain well and spread them in single layers
on a drying rack such as a broiler pan.  Then, put the peaches in
the oven to dry.  A low, even temperature of about 115 to 120
degrees Fahrenheit should be maintained for 10 to 15 hours.  You
may increase the temperature to 150 degrees toward the end of
drying time.

     Prop the oven door open two to four inches so excess heat
and moisture can escape.  A small fan directed inside the oven
will circulate the air and shorten the drying time.  If you have
a gas oven, be sure it doesn't go out.

     If you plan to store peaches in the refrigerator or freezer,
dry the fruit until it is firm but not leathery.  The inside
should be soft with no sign of syrup when squeezed.  They may be
compressed in moisture-vapor-proof bags and need very little
space for storage.

     To store at room temperature, dry the peaches until they're
leathery but still pliable.  Cool the peaches and pack them in
dry, scalded containers that are airtight and insect-proof.
Close the container tightly and store it in a cool, dark, dry
place.  Check containers from time to time to see if moisture has
collected on the inside of containers.  If there is moisture,
reheat the peaches, cool and repack.  Moisture causes spoilage.
-End-
-Title-
Drying Pears
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Drying Pears

     To dry pears in the oven, select about two pounds of fully
ripened pears.  Wash, peel, core and slice the pears.  If the
pears are a hard variety, you may need to pre-cook them in a
little water until they are soft.  Dissolve one cup of sugar in
three cups of water and heat the mixture to boiling.  Then,
remove it from the heat and let the fruit stand in the syrup for
10 minutes.  Drain pears well and spread them in single layers on
a drying rack.  Put the pears in the oven set at its lowest
temperature.  Keep the oven at an even temperature of about 115
to 120 degrees Fahrenheit for 10 to 15 hours.  Temperature may be
increased to 150 degrees toward the end of drying time.  Prop the
oven door open an inch or two so excess heat and moisture can
escape.  If you use a gas oven, be sure it doesn't go out.

     If you plan to store pears in the refrigerator or freezer,
dry pears until they're firm but not leathery.  The inside should
be soft but it should show no sign of syrup when the pears are
squeezed.  Compressed in moisture-vapor-proof bags, dried pears
require little storage space.

     If you store pears at room temperature, dry them until they
are leathery but still pliable.  Pack pears in hot, dry jars and
seal them immediately.  Store in a dark, cool place.  Be sure to
check the containers often to see if moisture is collecting on
the inside.  Moisture will cause pears to spoil, so if there is
moisture, reheat the pears and repack them in hot, dry jars.

     Dried pears are good snacks and are flavorful additions to
cookies, muffins, breads, fruit cakes and mincemeat.
-End-
-Title-
Cooking Dry Soybeans
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Cooking Dry Soybeans

     Before you cook dry soybeans, sort them and remove any beans
that are discolored, cracked or shriveled.  Wash the beans
thoroughly and soak them at least four hours or overnight.  To
soak, add four cups of warm water and two teaspoons of baking
soda to each cup of dry beans.  One cup of dry beans will yield
about two and one-half cups of cooked beans.

     After the beans have soaked, bring them to a boil in the
soaking water and simmer for 20 minutes.  Then, drain the beans
and rinse them in fresh water.  Rub the beans between your
fingers and most of the husks will float to the top of the water
and can be rinsed away.  Cover the beans completely with boiling
water and add more water while they're cooking if needed.  Add
one to two teaspoons of oil or margarine to reduce foaming.  Add
one teaspoon of sugar, and salt and pepper to taste.  Simmer the
beans for one-and-a-half to two hours or until they're tender.
Serve cooked dry soybeans like you serve other dry beans or use
them to make baked beans.

     Remember:  The protein in soybeans is almost comparable in
quality to animal protein.  To be a complete protein, it needs
only to be combined with a small amount of meat, milk or a cereal
grain such as rice.  Soybeans are also rich in calcium, iron,
phosphorus and some of the B vitamins.
-End-
-Title-
Cooking Green Soybeans
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Cooking Green Soybeans

     Fresh, green soybeans are available in some areas in late
summer or fall.  Vegetable soybeans are the kind used for
cooking.  They are larger and milder than the field soybeans used
for making oil and commercial flour.  Vegetable soybeans look
like butter beans or lima beans.  When you're buying vegetable
soybeans to cook, each pod will usually have two beans and the
pods should be bright green and plump.  Soybean pods are fuzzy on
the outside and you don't eat them.

     To shell fresh soybeans, first cover them with boiling water
and let them soak for three minutes.  Remove the beans and rinse
them in cold water.  Break the pods crosswise and squeeze out the
beans.  One pound of beans in the pod will yield about one and
two-thirds cups of ready-to-cook beans.

     To cook soybeans, add two cups of shelled soybeans to one
cup of boiling water.  Add one-half teaspoon of salt or salt
substitute.  When the water and the beans return to a boil, cover
them and cook them gently for 10 or 20 minutes.  The beans will
become tender as they cook, but won't get mushy because they
contain a lot of protein and oil and almost no starch.  Soybeans
are a good source of vitamins A and C, too.  Season the beans
with margarine and serve them as a vegetable or use them instead
of limas in some of your favorite recipes.

     Children may like green soy nuts.  Prepare soy nuts by
cooking  unshelled green soybeans in boiling, salted water for 30
minutes or until they're tender.  Eat the soy nuts like boiled
peanuts.
-End-
-Title-
Cooking Green Vegetables
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Cooking Green Vegetables

     Don't overcook green vegetables!  To ensure the best flavor,
color, texture and food value, cook vegetables only until they
are tender.  The less water you use in cooking, and the shorter
the cooking time, the more nutrients will stay in the vegetables.
Dark green vegetables are excellent sources of vitamins A and C.

     Green vegetables contain chlorophyll, the green pigment.  If
you overcook vegetables, or cook them in an acid liquid, they
will lose the attractive green color and become drab olive-green
or brown.  Leave the lid off for the first five minutes of
cooking.  This will allow the plant acids to escape in the steam
and help to prevent some of the discoloration.

     Here are some suggestions for cooking green vegetables:

     Cook green vegetables quickly in a small amount of boiling,
salted water.

     Cook until just tender.

     Don't add acid, such as lemon juice or vinegar, to
vegetables.

     Never add a pinch of baking soda to vegetables.  It will
preserve the green color because it makes the water alkaline, but
it destroys vitamins and makes vegetables mushy.

     You might want to stir-fry green vegetables like broccoli.
Cook and stir chopped vegetables in a small amount of hot oil in
a frying pan or a wok.  Remove vegetables from oil as soon as
they are crisp-tender.  If you serve green vegetables often, you
can cut calories and overall food costs and, at the same time,
improve the nutritional quality of your meals.
-End-
-Title-
Cooking Red or Purple Vegetables
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Cooking Red or Purple Vegetables

     The red, blue and purple pigments found in vegetables such
as red cabbage, radishes and beets dissolve easily when they are
cooked.  Tap water that contains a lot of minerals may cause an
even greater color change in these vegetables.  If you want to
intensify the color, add a weak acid such as lemon juice or
vinegar to these vegetables when you cook them.

     Try these suggestions to retain the color and flavor of red
and purple vegetables.

     Cook red vegetables in a moderate amount of lightly salted
water.  Cook them with the lid on.  Add lemon juice, orange juice
or diluted vinegar to make the color brighter.

     When you are cooking beets, leave the skins and roots on and
part of the stem intact.  If you don't, much of the color will
dissolve in the cooking water.  Peel beets after cooking.

     To keep cabbage from turning blue when it's cooked, add an
apple, a little lemon juice or a little vinegar during cooking.
-End-
-Title-
Cooking Sweet Potatoes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Cooking Sweet Potatoes

     The easiest ways to cook sweet potatoes or yams are also the
best ways to cook them.  Yams are more flavorful and more
nutritious when they are cooked in their jackets either by
boiling or baking.  Baking makes the most of the natural sugars
found just under the skin, caramelizing these sugars for a
delicious, syrupy taste.  Baking or boiling yams in their jackets
also preserves the vitamin C which is located just under the
skin.  After potatoes are baked or boiled, the skins will slip
off easily.  Eat the baked or boiled yams just as they are or use
them in sweet potato dishes.

     Whether you're baking or boiling sweet potatoes, select
potatoes about the same size for even cooking.  Scrub them well
and dry them.  Don't cover potatoes with foil if you bake them.
Instead, rub them with fat or oil.  Place them on a baking sheet
or on the oven rack in an oven preheated to 400 degrees
Fahrenheit.  Bake for 15 minutes, then reduce heat to 350 degrees
Fahrenheit and bake until soft, about one and one-half hours.
For baking, use only cured potatoes.

     To boil yams, put them in a pot with enough lightly salted
water to cover them.  Cover pot and boil potatoes until they're
tender.  Drain immediately so they won't get soggy.

     Serve baked or boiled yams plain or mashed with milk, juices
and spices.  One medium-sized baked sweet potato contains about
155 calories.  A tablespoon of margarine adds 100 calories.

     Baked or boiled yams can be frozen for later use.  If you
plan to freeze sweet potatoes, bake potatoes only until they're
about three-fourths done, then cool them, wrap them individually
in foil, and store them together in a freezer bag or freezer
paper.  Leave the potatoes in foil to thaw and finish baking.

     To prepare boiled or mashed yams for freezing, cook with
skins on until almost tender.  Cool, peel, cut or mash.  Dip
potatoes in orange or lemon juice to keep them from darkening.  A
solution of ascorbic acid will also keep them from darkening.
Pack tightly in containers, leaving half an inch of head space.
Cover surface snugly with a layer of freezer paper or film, seal
and freeze.
-End-
-Title-
Making Homemade Ice Cream
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Making Homemade Ice Cream

     Homemade ice cream is a favorite treat for young and old.
Ice cream made at home offers characteristics somewhat different
from those of commercial ice cream.  It usually has a higher fat
content, a heavier body and a coarser texture.  There's also less
air forced into the homemade mixture than in the commercial ice
creams.

     Because homemade ice cream is frozen slowly, the ice
crystals are larger and the end product is coarser than rapidly
frozen commercial ice cream.  Besides being delicious, ice cream
is a nourishing dairy food that provides calcium, protein,
vitamin A, riboflavin and thiamin.

     Here are some tips that will make your homemade ice cream
even better:

     Try to prepare the ice cream mixture the day before you plan
to freeze it.  This gives the mixture added smoothness and
volume.

     If you haven't made the custard early enough to refrigerate
it for a day, at least cool it before you freeze it in the ice
cream freezer.  Cool the container and the dasher thoroughly
before freezing the ice cream.  Don't try to freeze a warm
custard -- the ice cream will have a buttery flavor and texture.

     Use cream that can be whipped.  Whipping helps make the ice
cream smoother by incorporating air into the cream and
distributing the fat evenly.

     Fill the freezer only two-thirds full to leave room for the
ice cream to expand as it freezes.

     After placing the ice cream container in the bucket, fill
the bucket one-third full of ice before you start to add salt.
Alternate salt and ice until the bucket is full.

     Use one part salt to eight parts ice.

     If the ice cream is granular, you may have added too much
salt to the ice or you may have put too much ice cream in the
container.  If you used a hand-cranked freezer, you may have
turned it too rapidly.

     For variety, add ripe, mashed fruit to your ice cream
mixture.
-End-
-Title-
Poaching Eggs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Poaching Eggs

     If you are watching your weight, a poached egg served over
steamed vegetables is a delicious combination.  One large egg has
only 80 calories.  Two eggs are equivalent to one serving of
meat.

     To poach an egg all you need is a deep skillet or saucepan.
The pan should be two to three inches deep so that it will hold
enough water to cover the egg.

     If you would like to use a poaching ring to help keep the
egg in an attractive shape, make one by using tuna cans or other
small cans with both ends removed.  The rings work best in more
shallow pans such as skillets.  Set the rings in the simmering
water and slip the eggs into the rings.

     Poaching is one of the easiest ways to cook an egg.  Eggs
should be as fresh as possible and cold.  This helps to prevent
the egg white from spreading -- producing a more compact poached
egg.

     To properly poach eggs, heat two to three inches of liquid
to boiling.  You may use water, broth, tomato juice, soup or
milk.  When the liquid begins to boil, reduce the heat to keep it
gently simmering.  Break cold eggs, one at a time, into a saucer
or a custard cup.  Hold the dish close to the liquid's surface as
each egg is slipped into the pan.  Cook the eggs in the simmering
liquid for about three to five minutes.  After about three
minutes of cooking, the egg whites will be firm, but the yolks
will still flow.  Yolks will harden after five minutes of
cooking.  Once the eggs are poached as desired, lift them out
with a slotted spoon and drain them in the spoon or on paper
towels.

     Eggs provide high-quality protein and are very low in cost.
Since a dozen eggs weighs one and a half pounds, their cost per
pound is only two-thirds of the price per dozen.  With the
exception of vitamin C, eggs are a good source of many vitamins
and minerals.  They make a low-calorie, low-cost, nutritious
contribution to any meal.

-End-
-Title-
Toasting Pecans
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Toasting Pecans

     You can toast pecans with or without spices.  If you like
them plain, stir three cups of shelled pecans and a half-stick of
melted margarine into a shallow baking pan.  Roast the pecans in
a slow oven, 275 to 300 degrees, for about 45 minutes to one
hour.  Stir them every 15 minutes.  When the pecans are done,
drain them on absorbent paper and add salt while they are warm.
Be careful not to over-toast pecans.  Smaller pecans cook faster,
so taste them as you toast.  The amount of moisture in pecans
affects cooking time, too.

     If you like spicy hot pecans, toast the pecans in a mixture
of one stick of melted margarine and one-half cup of
Worcestershire sauce.  This is enough to coat one and one-half
pounds of shelled pecans.  Bake in a 250 degree oven.  Stir every
15 minutes and bake until the nuts absorb all the liquid.  Remove
them from the oven and sprinkle with salt and cayenne pepper.
Stir the nuts well to distribute seasonings.  Cool and store the
pecans in a covered, airtight container.

     You can also toast pecans in an electric skillet or in a
skillet on top of the range.  Be sure to use low heat and stir
the pecans often.  Toasted pecans are great party treats and
snacks.  They're a good source of protein and B vitamins, too.
-End-
-Title-
Using Leftover Turkey
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Using Leftover Turkey

     To get the best from leftover turkey, take care of it from
the beginning.  Refrigerate it immediately after the meal.
Remove stuffing and put in a separate container for storage.
Take the turkey meat off the carcass and put it in an airtight
container in the refrigerator.

     Unfortunately, the practice of leaving the holiday feast in
a warm oven or on the table at room temperature for the evening
meal is not -- repeat not -- safe.  Certain foods at these
temperatures can harbor bacteria that cause food poisoning.  The
leftovers that you put in your refrigerator will need to be used
in two or three days.

     You may want to freeze some of your turkey leftovers for
later use.  Wrap the meat in freezer paper or heavy-duty aluminum
foil, or you can use a freezer carton or bag.  Be sure to press
all the air out and wrap it securely to keep the meat from drying
out.  For the best quality, you shouldn't store cooked turkey
more than a month.  Although the meat will be safe to eat for
longer than a month, the quality begins to deteriorate after that
length of time.

     Now that you know how to store the turkey safely, let's move
on to using leftover turkey.

     Casseroles are always a favorite, and there are many recipes
from which you can choose.  You can stir-fry turkey and vegetable
pieces together to camouflage what was once part of a holiday
meal.  Not only is this delicious, it's low-fat and low-calorie.
Leftover turkey can also be combined with frozen green peas,
fresh mushrooms, and water chestnuts.  Chunks of leftover ham or
beef with other vegetables could also be prepared in the same
way.

     Of course, there are always the infamous turkey sandwiches,
but try them with a new twist.  Try pita bread, sometimes called
pocket bread, lined with lettuce then filled with turkey salad
made with turkey chunks, celery for crunch, tomatoes and hard-
cooked eggs.

     One last thought -- don't throw away the turkey carcass.
Boil it and make turkey and corn chowder, turkey-noodle soup or
even turkey gumbo.

-End-
-Title-
Cooking Chicken in the Microwave
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Cooking Chicken in the Microwave

     Chicken is one of those foods that makes you happy you have
a microwave oven.  Not only does chicken cook to perfection in a
microwave oven, it does it in a fraction of the time required by
conventional cooking methods.

     Also, a microwave oven is ideal for defrosting frozen
chicken.  To defrost chicken, simply take the chicken from the
freezer, unwrap it and place it in a casserole or baking dish
that is safe for microwave cooking.

     If your oven doesn't have a defrost power level, you might
try alternating a heating period of three to five minutes with a
standing period of three to five minutes for each pound of frozen
chicken.  Rotate the dish at the end of each heating period.
Separate pieces for faster thawing.

     When cooking chicken in the microwave oven, you should allow
about six to seven minutes of cooking time for each pound of
meat.  However, not all microwave ovens cook at exactly the same
rate, so you should follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

     Here are a few suggestions which should help make your
microwave cooked chicken dinners more appetizing.  To brown
chicken, coat it with soy sauce, paprika, barbeque sauce, brown
bouquet, Worcestershire sauce, or special microwave browning
products.

     Chicken usually cooks best when the oven cooking level is
set on "high."  For less than three pounds of chicken, you may
want to use a cooking level of "medium high" to "high."

     When cooking chicken parts, put the larger, meatier parts
near the outside and tuck the giblets under the breast.

     To keep moisture in the meat and to avoid spatter, cover the
chicken with wax paper, a glass cover, or plastic wrap with one
corner folded back for a vent.

     Remember, standing time is important because chicken
continues to cook after the oven is turned off.
-End-
-Title-
Converting Recipes for Microwave
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Converting Recipes for Microwave

     After you have some experience with a microwave oven, you'll
probably want to begin converting some of your favorite recipes
for use with the microwave.  You'll be able to convert some
recipes very easily; others may require more experimentation.

     Because microwave ovens cook more quickly and with less
evaporation, you will need to reduce the moisture in the
conventional recipe by one-fourth.  For example, if your recipe
calls for one cup of water, reduce it to three-fourths of a cup.
For this same reason you should use herbs and spices sparingly.
These flavors don't evaporate when they're used in a microwave
oven.

     To help you determine cooking times, remember that one cup
of tap water boils in two and a half to three minutes.  The
average food takes one-fourth the time required in a conventional
oven.  If your favorite casserole takes one hour in a
conventional oven, it should cook in about 15 minutes in a
microwave oven.  The microwave cooking time may take longer than
one-fourth the conventional cooking time for items normally
cooked on top of the stove.  In fact, you may find that you save
very little time, if any at all, by cooking this type food in a
microwave oven.

     Factors which affect the cooking time include such things as
the temperature of the food when you begin cooking it, the shape
of the food, the volume of the food, the density of it or the
weight of it, and the wattage of your oven.

     Look through your microwave cookbooks to find a recipe
similar to yours.  This can sometimes be a big help when you
determine which setting to use to cook your dish.

     As you experiment with converting your recipes, you may find
that you will have to try them more than once before you get the
best results.  Make a note of changes so you will remember them
the next time.
-End-
-Title-
Microwave Utensils
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Microwave Utensils

     Generally, glass, ceramic, pyroceramic, and pottery
containers can be used in the microwave oven.  Use utensils which
have no metal trim anywhere -- this includes trims of gold and
silver.  Some paints or glazes contain metallic oxides made of
substances that shouldn't be put in the oven.

     To test a dish to determine whether it's safe for the
microwave oven, put one cup of tap water in the oven with the
dish and set the timer for one minute.  If the dish is still cool
when you take it out it can be used.  A hot dish is a warning
that the dish is not suitable for use in a microwave oven.
Corning Ware can be used except for Centura dinnerware and cook
ware covers and the Corelle Living Ware closed handle cups.  The
cups with open handles may be used in the microwave oven.

     The use of plastic utensils is a "maybe" kind of situation.
Tupperware is best used for storing food, not cooking it.
Melamine Ware, Melmac, has a tendency to absorb energy so it
should not be used.  Plastic foam cups and dishes can be used for
a short time.  Some of the heavy duty plastic wraps on the market
may be used in the microwave oven for short periods of time.
Other lightweight plastic wraps have a tendency to become
distorted in the microwave oven.  Wax paper or paper towels are
good covers to use in the microwave oven.  Spatulas and spoons
for non-stick pans can be left in the oven for a short time.
Made-for-microwave products can be used for cooking almost
anything you might cook in a microwave oven.

     Paper such as napkins, towels, plates, cups, frozen food
cartons, freezer wrap and heavy cardboard is suitable for
microwave oven use.  They may help to absorb moisture and prevent
splatter if they're placed over the food.  Rolls and breads can
be heated in a napkin or cloth to prevent them from becoming
soggy.  Avoid cooking foods on paper for long periods.  It is
best to use white paper products.

     Straw or wooden baskets with no metallic paint or staples
can be used for reheating breads.  Wooden spoons can be left in a
dish in the microwave for a short time.  Don't use a wooden spoon
or a dish with a varnish or lacquer finish or one that has been
seasoned with cooking oil.  The heat could ruin the finish.

     Small amounts of aluminum foil can be used to shield those
parts of food that are unevenly shaped, or are overcooking, or
you just don't want to cook.  What you must remember is that you
must have a total of two cups of food in the oven.  Be sure the
aluminum foil used for shielding does not touch the sides of the
oven and that it is smooth.  A spoon accidentally left in the
dish, a foil-lined paper sack, a metal ring on a dish, or a metal
tie on a loaf of bread will act as an antenna and cause arcing in
the oven.
-End-
-Title-
Adolescent Weight Control
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Adolescent Weight Control

     The best way for teens to lose weight is to increase their
activity.  Activity uses up calories.  Teens are still growing,
so it is dangerous to restrict their calorie intake severely.
Too few calories may mean they won't grow in height or that
developing body organs may be damaged.

     Teenage boys need 2,700 to 2,800 calories each day, and
teenage girls need 2,100 to 2,200 calories.  Choosing foods
wisely will supply both the energy and nutrients needed for rapid
growth and hormonal changes.

     Teenagers who want to lose weight should cut down on foods
which provide calories but few nutrients.  These foods include
fats, sweets and alcohol.  Soft drinks and candy bars are good
examples.

     A realistic weight loss of one to two pounds a week is best.
Weight lost slowly is more likely to stay off.  Keeping a food
diary chart for a few days can help young people realize that
eating habits are tied to activities like watching television and
to moods such as boredom.  A food diary should include
information on foods eaten, as well as when, where and how much
food was eaten.

     Two serious disorders affect mainly teenagers.  They are
anorexia nervosa and bulimia.  Anorexia nervosa is really self-
starvation.  It can result in severe and even life-threatening
malnutrition.

     Bulimia is excessive eating followed by forced vomiting.  It
can lead to tooth decay, throat and esophageal irritation,
dehydration and stomach rupture.  Therapy for these two disorders
includes medical attention, psychological counseling and
extensive nutrition education aimed at making sufferers aware of
the effects of their behavior on their health.

     When teenagers eat and exercise properly, they are happier
with their self image and feel more in control of their life.
-End-
-Title-
Calories Do Count
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Calories Do Count

     No matter what claims are made by weight loss plans, the
only proven way to lose weight is to eat fewer calories than your
body needs.  The best way to do this is to reduce the amount of
food eaten and increase physical activity.

     You may associate calorie cutting with weight control, but
may not understand exactly what it is you're counting.  A calorie
is a measure of energy or the ability to do work.  The food you
eat is your energy intake and physical activity is your energy
output.  The calorie is defined as the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius.

     Carbohydrates, fats and protein -- three of the nutrients
that food provides -- also have the capacity of producing energy.
The amount of energy food contains is measured in 1,000-calorie
units, which are called "kilocalories."  Although the calories
you add up for a day's meals and snacks are actually
kilocalories, the term "calorie" is used to designate this food
energy.

     The number of calories you need depends on the amount of
energy your body uses.  Because people are different, their
caloric needs are different, too.  These calorie differences are
due to differences in basal metabolic rate for basic body
functions such as breathing and heart beating. They're also due
to differences in levels of physical activity, health status,
body size, body composition, and growth stages.  When you
normally take in more calories than your body needs for all of
these activities and functions, the extra calories are converted
to fat and you gain weight.

     The best way to lose this body fat is to decrease food
consumption and increase physical activity.  However, you should
never drastically reduce your food intake.  Diets which contain
too few calories can lead to nutritional deficiencies and poor
health.

     A well-balanced diet, including foods from the basic food
groups, along with a regular program of physical activity,
provides the best means of weight control.
-End-
-Title-
Changing Food Habits
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Changing Food Habits

     Losing weight and keeping it off usually requires changes in
eating habits.  Since human beings are creatures of habit, we
often do things we are not aware of that cause us to either gain
weight or keep us from losing weight.

     A good way to decide if you have some habits that are
keeping you from achieving your weight loss goals is to keep a
food diary for several days or for a week.  A food diary will
help you become aware of how much you are eating, why you are
eating, and your eating patterns.

     In your food diary you'll want to write down the following
things each day: the types and amounts of foods you eat; the
times you eat; the number of minutes you spend eating; the places
you eat; how hungry you are when eating; how you felt when you
were eating; and, other activities related to eating.

     When you enter the types and amounts of foods you eat in
your diary, remember to write down all foods -- meals, snacks and
nibbles -- immediately after you have eaten them.  Do not write
them down before eating.  Wait until you're finished, so you'll
be sure to record exactly what you had.  You may be surprised at
the amounts and kinds of foods you eat regularly.

     By entering the number of times you eat, you may find that
you nibble quite often.

     The number of minutes you spend eating could reveal that
you're eating too fast.  Overweight people often eat fast.
Learning to eat more slowly helps you to recognize when you're
full, and it helps you to enjoy your food more.

     You may eat out often, or when at home you may eat in areas
of the house other than the dining room or the kitchen.  Allowing
yourself to eat only in specified places of your home may help
you reduce your food intake.

     To find out how hungry you are when you're eating, rate your
hunger on a scale of one to four, with one being the least hungry
and four being starved.  If you're not sure whether you're
hungry, ask yourself these questions:  has it been three or four
hours since I last ate?; have I been more active than usual
today?; and, would I be satisfied with a meal of fish or lean
meat and vegetables?  If you answer yes to all these questions,
you're probably hungry.

     Our moods may lead us to want to eat.  How you feel when
eating could effect your eating habits.  Boredom, nervousness,
and loneliness can all cause eating binges.

     Sometimes other activities, such as watching TV or a movie,
working or reading, may be activities you associate with eating
without being conscious of it.

     By examining your food diary, you'll learn a great deal
about your eating habits.  Perhaps you'll find you eat large
amounts when bored, depressed, or frustrated.  You may find a lot
of your eating is just routine, as in joining your children for
cookies and juice when they come home from school.

     Learning more about yourself through your food diary will
help you make changes that can help you achieve your weight loss
goals.
-End-
-Title-
Cooking Methods to Cut Calories
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 Cooking Methods to Cut Calories

     When it comes to cutting calories in cooking, one of the
first things you need to be able to do is recognize high calorie
foods.  Generally, high calorie foods have these characteristics-
 thick, oily or greasy-crisp, slick, smooth or gooey, sweet or
sticky, compact or concentrated alcohol.

     Generally, low calorie foods have these characteristics--
thin, watery or diluted, bulky or with lots of fiber or
coarseness, water-crisp.

     Now, down to cooking to cut calories.  First, avoid adding
fat to cooked vegetables.  Instead, combine different vegetables
to get variety, for example, green beans and mushrooms, peas and
onions.  Also, cook without added butter, margarine, fat back or
bacon.  Let each person season his or her own food.

     You can also cut down on calories by removing all visible
fat from meat.  Most fish are low in fat.  Fat in poultry is
usually just under the skin, so removing the skin will reduce the
calories.  Use meat drippings after the fat has been skimmed off,
and stay away from "country-style" preparation.  Cooking in
gravies or sauces adds many calories.

     Remember, alcoholic beverages are high in calories.  And
there are loads of calories in the snacks often eaten with
alcoholic beverages.  The famous three martini lunch contains 420
calories and you haven't eaten anything.  Dry wines are lower in
calories than sweet wines.

     And finally, use items containing sugar substitutes in
moderation.  Train your tastes toward fewer sweets.
-End-
-Title-
Dangers of Fad Diets
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Dangers of Fad Diets

     The latest weight reducing diets and aids, like hula hoops
and other fads, are here one day and gone the next.  These diet
fads appeal to many people because they promise an easy, quick
way to lose weight.  Some popular diets allow very little food or
even promote fasting for certain periods.  Other diets promise
miraculous results through the eating of particular foods or the
combination of certain foods.

     The problem with most of these diets is that they're not
balanced and don't provide the necessary nutrients.  If you
follow any of them for a long period of time, they may be
harmful.  In addition, most of these diets don't change your
dietary habits so as to produce lasting weight loss.

     Some weight control fads include low carbohydrate diets.
These diets prescribe foods rich in protein and fat with very
little carbohydrate.  Because  little or no carbohydrate is
allowed, these diets quickly lose their appeal.  The weight loss,
especially the large amount at the beginning of these diets, is
primarily water.

     Low carbohydrate diets also lack essential vitamins and
minerals and could cause elevated blood cholesterol levels and
ketosis.  Ketosis occurs when carbohydrates are not available to
the body for energy.  Substances called ketones build up in the
blood causing it to become acidic.  Symptoms of ketones include
fatigue, weakness, nausea, dehydration, and bad breath.

     Liquid protein or supplemented fasting is supposed to burn
fat while sparing body muscle.  Since most of these diets provide
only three hundred to five hundred calories per day, they are
nutritionally incomplete.  Muscle breakdown may occur due to the
very low calorie content of the diet.  Side effects you may
experience from these liquid diets include nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, constipation, muscle cramps, fatigue, and heart
irregularities.  Some deaths have been attributed to these diets.

     Fasting is an extreme way to try to lose weight.  One of the
main problems with fasting is that not only is fat burned, but so
is lean body tissue -- which is muscle.  Since no carbohydrate is
eaten with this diet, ketosis occurs with its symptoms.

     Fasting can cause many deficiencies since it lacks all
essential nutrients.  Because your body has mechanisms to adapt
to fasting or starvation, it begins to conserve energy, resulting
in the slowing of weight loss.

     Another weight control fad is diet pills.  These include
appetite suppressants which curb your appetite.  The pills
usually only work a few weeks at the most and may produce
unpleasant side effects.  There is also a danger of potential
abuse of these drugs.

     To lose weight safely and keep it off, your best choice is a
combination of nutritious, well-balanced meals and snacks using
the basic food groups, and a program of regular exercise.  When
you're considering a plan to lose weight, make sure the reducing
plan you're trying is nutritionally sound, does not promise
miraculous results with no effort, and is one that fits your
lifestyle and pocketbook.
-End-
-Title-
Dieting During the Holiday Season
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Dieting During the Holiday Season

     The holiday season with its rich food and drink may be a
disaster for you if you're trying to lose weight or keep from
gaining any.  The thing to remember at holiday time is that it's
a lot easier to keep pounds off than it is to take them off.

     One way to handle this problem is to be ready for the foods
before you see them.  Learn which party foods are high in
calories and which are low so you can choose the ones which will
help you with your weight program.

     A calorie counter book can help you with this.  If you're
not familiar with a certain food, you can usually judge its
calorie level by certain characteristics.  For example, a food is
usually low in calories if it is thin and watery or crisp with
watery or bulky-like greens.  On the other hand, a food is likely
to be high in calories if it is greasy or oily, smooth and thick,
or sweet and gooey.

     Alcoholic beverages are often the downfall for people
watching their weight.  A highball usually contains about 150
calories, and a sweet after-dinner drink may contain even more.
A half-cup of eggnog, about four ounces, contains about 170
calories.  Add a half-jigger of alcohol to the eggnog and the
calorie content jumps to 215 calories.  Remember, the higher the
alcohol content of a drink, the higher the calorie content.  A
glass of dry white wine has a lower calorie content of 90
calories.

     Eating fewer calories in regular meals during the holiday
season can help leave room for those extra calories you're likely
to pick up during parties and family gatherings.  But, remember
that the calories in all those sweet snacks you eat during the
holidays count, too.
-End-
-Title-
Exercise and Weight Control
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Exercise and Weight Control

     A good weight loss program should include moderate exercise
on a consistent basis.  Most nutrition experts agree that it is
wiser to increase your activity rather than cutting your calories
drastically.  Too low calorie diets can result in nutritional
deficiencies and poor health.

     The type of exercise you choose should be something you like
to do.  Your exercise program should be based on your age, health
and physical condition.  Be sure to check with your physician
about the exercise program before you begin.

     The most beneficial exercise for weight loss and control
involves the use of large muscle groups.  The exercise should be
rhythmic and aerobic, such as walking, running or swimming.  For
good results, you should exercise at least three days a week for
20 to 30 minutes.  Brisk walking for two to three miles at least
three times a week is an excellent choice of exercise.

     When you exercise, you use energy.  A man weighing 150
pounds uses 80 calories walking one mile.  A woman weighing 121
pounds uses 63 calories.  If the man runs one mile, he uses 120
and the woman uses 94 calories.

     Regular exercise also strengthens your heart, improves
muscular endurance, muscular power, flexibility, coordination and
makes you feel better.

     For a winning weight control combination, remember to eat
nutritious, well-balanced meals from a variety of foods and to
exercise regularly.
-End-
-Title-
Foods Lower in Calories
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Foods Lower in Calories

     Some foods or groups of foods, such as the potato, "starchy
foods" and "white foods", have gotten the reputation of being
fattening.  The truth is that since all foods contain calories or
food energy, eating too much of any has the potential for leading
to excess pounds of fat gained.

     Of course, some foods do contain more calories than others.
For example, fat provides twice as many calories per gram as
either protein or carbohydrate.  Foods that contain large amounts
of sugar plus fat are usually higher in calories, also.

     Most vegetables and fruits are fairly low in calories
because many are high in fiber and water.  Since fiber is not
digested it has no calories.  It takes greater amounts of
vegetables and fruits to equal the amount of calories  in foods
containing large amounts of fat or concentrated sweeteners.
Fresh fruits or fruits packed in natural juices or water are also
lower in calories than fruits packed in syrups.

     The way foods are prepared determines how many calories they
contain. For example, a plain boiled or baked potato has about
100 calories while that same potato served as hashed browns would
have 235 calories.

     Dietetic foods are not always low calorie either.  These
foods usually contain sweeteners other than sucrose--table sugar.
These sweeteners, such as sorbitol, yield as many calories when
eaten as table sugar.  For instance, dietetic ice cream provides
about as many calories as regular ice cream.

     There are  also some reduced calorie salad dressings,
margarines and cheeses that contain fewer calories than regular
products because of smaller amounts of fat.  You can find the
number of calories per serving by reading the labels.
Nutritionally sound diets for weight control include a variety of
foods from the basic food groups:  milk and cheese; meat,
poultry, fish and beans; vegetables and fruits; and, bread and
cereal.  These basic foods are usually limited on a weight
control diet, but all are included because they provide not only
calories, but necessary nutrients for good health as well.

     The meat group provides such nutrients as protein, iron, B
vitamins and zinc.  The bread-cereal group gives us carbohydrate,
B vitamins and iron and the whole grain varieties provide fiber.
The vegetable-fruit group is rich in vitamins A and C, as well as
fiber.  The milk-cheese group supplies protein, calcium,
riboflavin and vitamins A and D.

     There's also a food group called the fats, sweets and
alcohol group.  This group includes items that contain fat,
concentrated amounts of sugar or alcohol.  We get food energy or
calories from this group but few other nutrients.  For this
reason, the group is usually drastically limited on weight
control diets.
-End-
-Title-
Menu Planning for the Dieter
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Menu Planning for the Dieter

     Low-calorie meals don't have to be boring.  Many people who
thought that low-calorie meals consisted only of such foods as
plain cottage cheese, celery sticks and steamed spinach are
finding excitement in preparing low-calorie gourmet food.  You'll
find that foods don't have to be dripping with rich sauces or
coated with batters to be delicious.

     Some low-calorie main dishes you may want to try include the
following:

     Roll up cooked, tender, crisp broccoli spears in thin slices
of cooked chicken or turkey.  Top them with thin slices of
mozzarella cheese, a sprinkle of parsley and pimento strips.
Then, heat until the cheese melts.

     Try cooking trimmed lean beef or pork strips which have been
marinated in lemon and serve over a vegetable mix of cauliflower
florets, peas, carrots and asparagus pieces.

     Use an outdoor grill to cook lean beef, veal or lamb shish
kebabs.  Trim the fat from the meat and cut it into cubes.  Then
marinate the cubes in a mixture of lemon juice, ginger and
coriander.  Alternate the meat cubes with cherry tomatoes, green
pepper chunks, fresh mushrooms and pearl onions. Then, baste the
shish kebabs with marinade while you're grilling them.

     For a tasty low-calorie fish dish, roll flounder or cod
fillets around tender, crisp green beans cooked in two
tablespoons of chopped onion.  Top with tomato sauce seasoned
with oregano, basil and garlic powder, sprinkle of grated
Parmesan cheese and bake until the fish is tender and flaky.

     The bread and cereal group needs to be included in any
weight control program.  Some ideas for lower calorie grains
include the following.

     Cook rice in a flavored beef or chicken broth for an
interesting taste without lots of calories.

     Top a baked potato with a tablespoon of plain yogurt, a
sprinkle of grated, low fat cheese and some chives to reduce
calories.

     Steam vegetables until they're tender and crisp.  Then,
season with lemon juice, herbs or spices instead of using salt
and high calorie sauces made with butter and margarine.

     For dessert, use fresh fruits in season.  If you use canned
or frozen fruits, choose fruits that are canned in natural juices
or water and unsweetened frozen fruits.

     A scoop of frozen lemon yogurt served on a slice of honeydew
melon, topped with fresh raspberries makes an elegant dessert
that's not loaded with calories.

     Don't let yourself get in a rut on your weight control diet.
Try developing your own new tasty menu ideas.
-End-
-Title-
Tricks to Make You Slim
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Tricks to Make You Slim

     If you're trying to lose weight or keep off the weight
you've already lost, try these tricks.

     Drink a glass of water before meals.

     Control those mealtime hunger pangs about a half hour before
a meal with a small amount of carbohydrate, such as a glass of
vegetable juice, some fruit, or a couple of crackers.

     Eat slowly and put your fork down after each bite.

     Try eating with the wrong hand or with chopsticks if you
can't slow your eating pace.

     Serve your plate from the kitchen rather than leaving
serving bowls of food on the table which might tempt you to eat
more.

     Learn to stop eating before you feel full.  The hunger you
may still feel will disappear within about 20 minutes after you
stop eating.

     Eat meals regularly and on schedule.  You're much more
likely to overeat later or grab high calorie snacks if you've
missed a meal.

     Keep low calorie snacks handy for hunger attacks.

     As much as possible, be flexible with your diet.  Learn how
to budget calories to take advantage of holiday and special
meals.

     Stay busy with things you like to do.  This helps keep your
mind off of food.

     You can burn extra calories by walking instead of driving to
work or by parking at the far end of the lot if you drive.  Take
stairs instead of the elevator and walk during coffee or lunch
breaks.

     A good way to control your weight is to organize an exercise
club with your friends at work or close to home.

-End-
-Title-
Your Daily Calorie Requirement
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 Your Daily Calorie Requirement

     A commonly asked question by those interested in weight
control is, "How many calories do I need every day?"

     The number of calories or the amount of food energy you need
depends on many different factors such as your age, health, body
type and size and your activity.  Some very active persons are
able to eat larger amounts of food and not gain weight while
those who are less active do gain weight.  People who have
rounded, soft body types--called endomorphs--seem to gain weight
more easily than those who have slender, wiry body types--called
ectomorphs.

     The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research
Council has suggested an intake of 2,700 calories a day for men
between the ages of 23 and 50 and 2,000 calories a day for women
between these ages.  These caloric allowances are suggested
averages for adults performing light work.  Your individual
calorie need may be more or less.

     One way to find out how many calories are needed to maintain
your present weight is to multiply the amount of energy you use
times your weight.  If you are inactive, use 14 to 16 calories to
multiply.  If you're moderately active, use 16 to 18 calories.
If you're very active, multiply your weight by 18 to 20 calories.
For example, an inactive woman weighing 120 pounds would multiply
120 by 14, which would equal 1,680--the amount of calories needed
each day to maintain her present weight.

     If you want to lose weight, you have to burn more calories
than you take in.  One pound of body fat represents 3,500
calories.  In order to gain one pound, you must eat 3,500
calories more than your body needs.

     Therefore, in order to lose a pound of body fat, you must
eat 3,500 calories less than your body needs.  If you reduce your
caloric intake 500 calories a day for a week, the projected loss
in body fat would be one pound.  Remember that you are looking at
pounds of actual body fat loss, not just changes in body weight.

     Weight loss may vary for several reasons.  On some types of
weight control diets, more fluid is lost at first, resulting in
sharper weight drops initially.  As weight loss continues, the
body requires fewer calories for its functions so the rate of
weight loss may be slow.  Daily changes in body fluid also affect
your weight.  Just because you weigh one pound more in the
evening than you weighed that morning doesn't mean that you've
gained one pound of body fat.

     The best combination for losing weight and maintaining it is
eating a variety of well-balanced, nutritious foods from the
basic food groups and following a program of regular exercise.
-End-
-Title-
Ballpoint Ink
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Ballpoint Ink

     If you keep getting ballpoint ink stains on your clothes or
other fabrics, you might want to get a product called Inknix.
You pretreat ink stains with it before washing or sponging the
fabric with a dry cleaning solvent.

     Inknix is available in some stationery office supply stores.
It's manufactured by Ozburn-Janesville Corporation of Janesville,
Wisconsin.

     If you don't have Inknix, here is another method. Sponge the
ink mark with rubbing alcohol.  Next, rub detergent into the
stain.  Then rinse with warm water.

     If the stain remains, try applying lukewarm glycerine.  You
can buy glycerine at drug stores and department stores.  To use
glycerine, rinse a cloth in hot, sudsy water.  Squeeze it almost
dry, then pour a little glycerine on the warm cloth and rub into
the stain.  Let it set a minute or two, then work the glycerine
into the stain.  Now, rub the stain again.  Rub briskly if the
stain is on a sturdy fabric, but carefully if it's a delicate
fabric.  Let the glycerine set a minute or two longer.  Rub again
and rinse the stain.

     If the stain remains, repeat the process.  If the fabric is
bleachable, you can remove any remaining stain by washing it with
detergent and chlorine bleach.  But, be sure to follow the
directions on the bleach container.

     For valuable items, take them to the dry cleaners as soon as
possible after the stain is discovered.  Be sure you point out
the stain to the dry cleaner.  You shouldn't try to remove ink
stains from suede or leather garments at home.  Always take these
to the dry cleaners.

     The Cooperative Extension Service is not endorsing Inknix.
There may be other products that will work equally well in
removing ink stains.  You may find these by checking labels or
asking for such products where cleaning supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Candle Wax from Fabrics and Surfaces
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
          Removing Candle Wax from Fabrics and Surfaces

     Don't try to remove fresh candle wax from furniture by
scraping it with your fingernail.  It's tempting, but the hot wax
softens the furniture's surface and makes marring easy.  Wait
until the wax hardens, then scrape it gently with a dull knife or
thin piece of plastic, such as a credit card.  If you're using a
credit card, hold the card in both hands.  Tilt the card slightly
and scrape gently so you can remove the wax without gouging the
surface.

     After removing as much of the wax as possible, wipe the area
with a cloth wrung out in warm, sudsy water or dab the spot with
cleaning fluid.  You might try a product called Energine, Carbona
or Renuzit.  Dry the surface, then wipe it with your choice of
furniture polish, wax or oil.  Rub with the grain until no sign
of the stain remains.

     To remove candle wax from table linens, first scrape away as
much wax as possible with a plastic card or dull knife.  Next,
place a piece of blotting material, such as a white paper towel
or napkin, under the stain.  Place another piece of blotting
material over the wax stain.  Press it with a warm iron.  The
warm iron will melt the wax into the paper.  Change the paper as
it becomes soiled.

     If a colored dye remains, sponge the dye stain with
denatured alcohol diluted with two parts of water.  If the
article is washable, wash it in warm, sudsy water.  If it's not
washable, sponge it with a dry cleaning solvent.

     Wax that has dripped onto the curves and crevices of a metal
candlestick is hard to remove.  To speed up the process, put the
candle holder in the freezer.  Once the wax freezes, it can be
peeled off easily.

     Change candles before they burn too low.  Extinguish flames
by snuffing rather than blowing.  This way you will be less
likely to get wax on linens and furniture.

     There may be other commercial products available that will
work equally well to remove candle wax stains.  Check labels or
ask for these products where cleaning supplies are sold.

     No endorsement is implied nor is discrimination intended by
mentioning commercial products in this program.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Chewing Gum From Fabric
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Removing Chewing Gum From Fabric

     If you've gotten yourself into a sticky situation by getting
chewing gum on your clothes, there are ways to get it off that
are safe for your garments.

     First, using a dull knife, lift the gum off the fabric.
Then, rub ice on the stain.  This will help harden the rest of
the gum so you can lift it off more easily.

     If the fabric is washable, you should spray the stain with a
pre-wash spray.  Let it set for five or ten minutes.  Now,
saturate the stain again with the pre-wash spray, rubbing the
gummed area to dissolve the gum.  Work some laundry detergent
into the stain, then rinse it well with hot water.  You should
hold the stained area under the faucet so the gummy residue can
be rinsed off.

     If the gum remains, repeat the process.  If not, launder the
item using a bleach that is safe for that fabric.

     To remove gum stains from non-washable items, you should
sponge the stained area with a cleaning fluid such as Energine,
Renuzit or Carbona.  You can usually get these products in drug
stores or houseware departments.

     Always test cleaning fluid in a place that doesn't show.  If
the fluid doesn't seem to hurt the fabric, you can use it.  Place
the stained side of the fabric face down on a clean paper towel.
Sponge the back of the stain with cleaning fluid.  If the paper
towel doesn't absorb the gum, tap the back of the stained area
with a spoon.  The sturdier the fabric the harder you can tap.
Repeat the process until the stain is gone.

     For valuable, dry-clean-only items, have the stain removed
professionally.  Be sure to point the stain out to the dry
cleaner.

     The Cooperative Extension Service is not endorsing any
products mentioned.  There may be others that work equally well
to remove chewing gum stains.  Check labels or ask for such
products where cleaning supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Coffee and Tea Stains
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 Removing Coffee and Tea Stains

     Stains left by coffee or tea spilled on washable garments
are a cleaning job you can do yourself.  But, if the stain is on
a non-washable fabric, you should take it to the dry cleaners.

     If your washable garment was stained by black coffee or tea
without sugar or milk, mix a solution of one quart warm water, a
half teaspoon liquid dishwashing detergent and a tablespoon of
white vinegar.  Soak the garment in this solution for 15 minutes.
Work detergent into stain, rinse, and launder.

     If the stain persists, soak the garment for 30 minutes in a
solution of one quart warm water, a tablespoon of an enzyme
product, such as Biz.  Launder it again, and use a bleach that is
safe for the fabric to remove the last traces of the stain.
Directions on the bleach container will give you the amount of
bleach to use.

     If the coffee or tea contained cream, start by sponging the
stain with a dry cleaning solvent such as Carbona, Energine or
Renuzit.  Or, saturate the stain with a pre-wash soil and stain
remover.

     Next soak the garment for 15 minutes in a solution of a
quart of warm water, a half teaspoon of liquid dishwashing
detergent and a tablespoon of white vinegar.  Rinse with water,
sponge the stain with alcohol and then launder.  You may add a
bleach safe for the fabric to the wash to remove the last traces
of the stain.  Follow directions on the bleach container.

     If the coffee or tea had both sugar and cream in it, you
should immediately sponge the stain with cold water.  Next, soak
the stained area in a solution of a quart of warm water, a half
teaspoon of liquid dishwashing detergent and a tablespoon of
white vinegar.  Let the garment soak in the solution for 15
minutes.  Then rinse it with water, sponge it with alcohol and
launder it.  You may want to use a bleach safe for the fabric to
remove the last traces of stain.

     To remove coffee and tea stains from washable fabrics and
linens, you may also use one of the products that clean coffee
and tea pots. Follow directions on the container.

     The Cooperative Extension Service does not endorse any of
the products mentioned.  There may be other products or
procedures that will remove coffee and tea stains equally well.
Check labels or ask for such products where cleaning supplies are
sold.
-End-
-Title-
Cosmetic Stains
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Cosmetic Stains

     Cosmetic stains usually don't ruin garments.  Generally,
these stains can be removed from clothing with just a little
effort.

     Cosmetics come in two types - greasy and non-greasy.  Non-
greasy cosmetics include powdered makeup, eye shadow, blusher and
similar items.  Greasy cosmetics are lipstick, rouge, liquid or
cream makeup, and mascara.

     Remove non-greasy cosmetic stains by dampening them with
water first.  Then, rub the area with a paste made from detergent
granules and water.  You also can use liquid detergent and water.

     If the stain is from oily cosmetics, pre-treat the area with
a pre-wash soil and stain remover.

     Or, you can place the stain face down on paper towels and
sponge the back of the stain with a dry cleaning solvent such as
Renuzit, Energine, Carbona, or some other spot remover.  You can
buy these at drug stores and grocery stores, and sometimes in
clothing and department stores.

     As you sponge the back of the fabric, move the fabric to a
clean area of the paper towel frequently so the towel will take
out more of the color.  Dampen the stain with water and work
detergent into the stained area.

     Rinse and launder the garment.  If the stain is still there,
treat it with chlorine bleach, if that's safe for the fabric.  If
the item is non-colorfast, use a bleach that's safe for colors.

     For stains on suedes, leather garments and other valuable
non-washable items, have them professionally cleaned.  It's
safest not to try to remove stains from these garments at home.
When you take the garment to the cleaners, point out the stain to
the clerk.

     In emergency situations, non-greasy spots may be dabbed with
club soda.  The bubbling of the carbonated water will generally
remove the stain.  Don't over wet the spot, though.  Follow the
club soda dab with a brisk rub using a clean, dry paper towel or
handkerchief.

     The Cooperative Extension Service does not endorse any of
the items mentioned.  There may be other products that will work
equally as well.  Check labels or ask for such products where
cleaning supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Crayon Stains
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Removing Crayon Stains

     If crayons go through the laundry and leave spots on
clothes, don't despair.  There are ways to remove crayon stains.

     With just a few spots on a washable garment, you can remove
the surface crayon wax with a dull knife.  Next, you should place
the stained area between paper towels and press it with a warm
iron.  Place the garment with the stain face-down on the paper
towels and sponge the back of the remaining stain with a pre-wash
spray or a dry cleaning solvent.  You might use Renuzit,
Energine, Carbona, or other solvent spot removers.  You can buy
these spot removers at drug stores and grocery stores, as well as
some clothing and department stores.

     After sponging with the solvent, let the fabric dry, then
launder it with soap.  If traces of color remain, you can wash it
again using chlorine bleach, if that's safe to use on that
fabric.  If not, soak the garment in an enzyme pre-soak or oxygen
bleach with the hottest water safe for the fabric.  Now, launder
the garment.

     But, if crayon stains have spread throughout a load of
clothes, you need to follow this procedure.  First, wash the
items with the hottest water safe for the fabric, using a laundry
soap and a cup of baking soda.  If color still remains, launder
the items with detergents or soap, using a chlorine bleach if
it's safe for the fabric.  Or, you can soak the garment in an
enzyme product or oxygen bleach, using the hottest water safe for
the fabric.  Now, launder.  Remember - do not dry stained fabrics
in the dryer.  The heat of the dryer causes many stains to set
permanently.

     For valuable, non-washable items, you should have them
professionally cleaned as soon as the spot is discovered.  Point
out the stain to the cleaners.

     You can use a dry cleaning solvent to remove crayon stains
from most upholstery fabrics and other dry-clean-only items.
Don't use the solvents on leather, suede or vinyl upholstery.  If
you're not sure if a solvent is safe to use on your dry-clean-
only clothes, check the label.  Test the solvent on a place that
doesn't show to see if it will harm the fabric.  If the fabric
isn't harmed, sponge the solvent onto the stained area.  Sponge
it again if the stain remains.

     When sponging the solvent on piled fabric, rub in the
direction of the pile.

     If you get crayon stains on vinyl, clean them with a heavy-
duty liquid laundry detergent, or make a paste with dry laundry
detergent and warm water.  If the stain remains, sponge the vinyl
with rubbing alcohol.  But, remember to test alcohol on a place
that won't show before putting it on the vinyl.

     If suede or leather get crayon stains, you shouldn't try to
clean these at home.  Take these items to the cleaners.

     The Cooperative Extension Service is not endorsing any
products by mentioning them.  There may be other products that
will work equally well.  Check labels or ask for such products
where cleaning supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Food Stains from Carpet
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                Removing Food Stains from Carpet

     According to the old saying, "There's many a slip 'twixt the
cup and the lip."  And those slips can result in stains.

     Blot up spills as soon as they occur with a clean, dry cloth
or paper towel.  If you spill moist food onto the carpet, you
should clean it up before it seeps down into the carpet and the
carpet backing.  Scoop up the spill with a spoon, knife or
spatula.  Try not to press the spill into the carpet.

     You should blot the soiled area with a cloth or sponge wrung
out in a quart of water mixed with a teaspoon of liquid
dishwashing detergent and a teaspoon of white vinegar.  Don't wet
the carpet more than necessary, and towel dry the area after
cleaning.  You can cover the area with a padding of paper towels
to absorb the remaining moisture and speed up drying.

     For greasy, oily stains that won't dissolve in water, blot
the stained area with a cleaning solvent or spot remover.  You
can buy these at drug stores and grocery stores or in some carpet
and department stores.  Businesses that rent rug cleaning
equipment often have carpet spot removers.

     Read container directions and follow them.  Some cleaners
can't be used on foam or rubber.  Test the spot remover on a
place that won't show before putting it on the stained area.  If
it doesn't appear to harm the carpet or the pad, apply it.  After
the stain is gone, brush the pile lightly.  Don't step on the
cleaned area until it dries.

     If the stain persists, call a professional cleaner.  Some
food and beverage stains contain red coloring and can't be
removed.

-End-
-Title-
Removing Food Stains From Upholstered Furniture
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
         Removing Food Stains From Upholstered Furniture

     Knowing what kind of stain you have on your upholstered
furniture is the key to removing the stain.

     A word of caution, though.  Some upholstered fabrics shrink
or their colors bleed when they get wet.  Always test the
cleaning method on a hidden area before cleaning.  If bleeding or
shrinking occurs, get professional advice.  For example, some
velvets can't be cleaned by home methods.

     But, once you know the kind of stain, many upholstery
fabrics can be cleaned with home methods.

     For hard candy, which is basically sugar and water, scrape
off the candy with a dull knife or rounded spoon.  Sponge the
stained area lightly with a cloth dampened in cool water.  If
this doesn't work, sponge the area with a solution of water and
detergent.

     To remove fruit stains, scrape off the pulp.  Next, blot the
area with a clean cloth and cool water.  Mix clear vinegar with
detergent and water and sponge the stained area, then blot it
dry.  Rinse the stained area with cool water to remove traces of
vinegar.

     To treat an egg stain, remove as much of the egg as possible
with the dull side of a knife.  Sponge the stained area lightly
with a solution of ammonia and cold water.  Note - use cold
water, not warm or hot water.

     Stains from dairy products, soft candies such as chocolates,
and greasy spills require a cleaning solvent.  You can buy
solvents at drug stores and grocery stores, and in some furniture
and department stores.  Among the spot removers you might look
for are Goddard's, Energine, or Carbona.  Lightly sponge the
solvent onto the stained area, then blot with a clean, absorbent
cloth.

     Dry cleaning solvents can damage some vinyl.  So, you should
wipe stained areas on vinyl with heavy duty liquid laundry
detergent or a paste made from dry laundry detergent and warm
water.  If the stain remains, sponge with rubbing alcohol.  But,
remember to test all solutions on a hidden area before trying it
on the stain.

     To be safe, don't try to remove major stains on suede and
leather upholstery with home methods.  Have these professionally
cleaned.

     The Cooperative Extension Service intends no endorsement of
the products mentioned.  There may be other products that will
work equally as well.  Check labels or ask for such products
where cleaning supplies are sold.

-End-
-Title-
Removing Stains Caused by Fruit Juices, Berries, Jam, Jellies
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
  Removing Stains Caused by Fruit Juices, Berries, Jam, Jellies

     The most important rule to remember in treating stains
caused by fruit or fruit juices is never to use soap.  Soap will
set the stain.

     Instead of using soap, apply an enzyme pre-soak, such as
Biz, to stained areas or soak the stains in cold water.  Next,
work a liquid detergent into the stain, then launder the garment,
using the bleach recommended for that fabric.

     If the stain is set, you may need to sponge it with white
vinegar; then work a detergent into the stained area before
laundering.

     For fabrics that can stand it, pour boiling water through
the stain.  You do this by placing the stained area over a bowl
and holding the fabric in place with a rubber band.  You still
may see some discoloration.  Work detergent into the stain and
launder the garment, using the right bleach for the fabric.

     The Cooperative Extension Service is not endorsing any
products mentioned.  There may be other products which will work
equally well to remove stains.  Check labels or ask for such
products where cleaning supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Gray Dingies in Your Laundry
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Gray Dingies in Your Laundry

     If your white laundry has a bad case of the "gray dingies,"
it might be caused by a number of things.

     Sometimes the gray dingies are caused by washing white and
colored items together.  Little by little, colored dyes may
transfer to the white items.  The cure - sorting the items you
wish to keep white.  If you don't have the time or desire to do
this, it might be best not to buy white items.

     Many items such as underwear, bed linens and towels are now
available in a variety of colors.  If you choose related colors,
like blues and greens, or beiges and tans for example, you won't
have to sort as much.  This could save you time, and if your
piles have been smaller than a full load, it can save money.

     Gray dingies can also be caused by not using enough
detergent.  Usually it's safe to follow the directions on the
detergent container.  But, detergent manufacturers' directions
are for washing a "normal" load of clothes with "average" soil in
16 gallons of water with "average" hardness.  In hard water, or
if the laundry is extremely dirty, you may have to add extra
detergent.  You put in less detergent if your water is soft, if
clothes are just lightly soiled, or if the load is small.  But,
more laundry problems are caused by too little detergent than by
too much.

     Another cause of the gray dingies is overloading the washing
machine's tub or basket.  You've probably had the urge to pack
clothes into the washer basket.  But, when you do this, the
clothes cannot move freely, resulting in poor washing and
unremoved soil.  To estimate the right-sized load, place dry,
unfolded clothes in the washer loosely until it is about three-
quarters full.

     But, if you're planning to use the low-water level, load
clothes until the washer basket is less than a third full.

     Non-phosphate detergents, particularly the granular type,
can cause the gray dingies.  If you're using a non-phosphate
detergent, use the hottest water possible and dissolve the
detergent in the water before adding the clothes.  If you have
hard water, you might want to add about a third to a half cup of
packaged water softener along with the detergent.

     Not using hot enough water is a cause of the gray dingies.
Lowering the thermostat on the hot water heater saves energy but
can cause laundry problems.  Water heated to 140 to 150ø removes
soil best.

     If the gray dingies have already struck your laundry, here's
what you can do.

     Check labels to be sure fabrics can be washed and bleached.

     Fill the washer with water as hot as possible.  You may even
want to add some boiling water to washer as it is filling if the
water temperature is not very hot.  Add twice as much detergent
as you would normally use.

     Place grayed clothes in washer and agitate for about four
minutes on the regular cycle.

     Stop the washer to add one cup of chlorine bleach diluted in
one quart of water.  If your washer has a bleach dispenser, add
the bleach to the dispenser.  If you don't have a dispenser on
your washer, add the bleach and water solution slowly, so the
bleach can mix with washer water before touching clothes.

     Be careful using bleach.  It helps laundry by disinfecting,
removing soil and whitening fabrics, but it can also remove
color, rip, tear or burn holes in clothes.  Never pour bleach
directly on garments.  Always dilute it with at least four parts
of water and mix well before adding to clothes.

     Agitate clothes in the bleach solution for another four
minutes.

     Now, stop the washer and let the clothes soak for about 15
minutes.

     Reset the washer so it has about 10 minutes of wash time,
then restart the machine and let it complete the cycle.

     If your clothes still are grayish, repeat the process until
they are white.

     On bright, sunny days, hang white clothes out and let
nature's bleach, the sun, continue the whitening process.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Grease from Fabric
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Removing Grease from Fabric

     To remove grease stains from washable fabric, pre-treat the
stains with a pre-wash spot remover or a cleaning fluid.  Rub the
stain with detergent.  Launder the garment in warm water, using
plenty of detergent.  Then, rinse it.  Repeat the process if the
stain remains.

     For nonwashable items, sponge a dry cleaning solvent on the
stain.  You may want to try Energine, Carbona, or Renuzit.  Other
commercial products may work as well.  Check labels or ask for
these products where cleaning supplies are sold.

     Grease stains on upholstered furniture are common in active
households.  When you're treating these, it's important to pre-
test the fabric for color bleeding and shrinkage.  Try the
recommended cleaning method and solution on a hidden area other
than a seam.  For a sure test, allow the fabric to set from one
to two hours after the treatment.  If it bleeds or shrinks,
you'll need to ask for professional advice and help.

     To treat grease stains, remove as much of the stain as
possible by scraping the area with the dull side of a knife.
Then, using a dry cleaning solvent, sponge the area lightly.
Blot, rather than rub, the fabric.  Use a clean portion of the
cloth as you sponge, so you won't return grease to the fabric.
Be careful not to soak the fabric with solvent.  Apply it
sparingly.

     If discoloration from dirt in the grease or oil remains,
sponge the area with lukewarm detergent and water.  To remove the
detergent solution, sponge the area with a clean cloth that's
been dampened with clear, cold water.  Dry the treated area with
an absorbent cloth, tissue or sponge.  This will keep the liquids
used in cleaning from reaching the filling material.

     The Cooperative Extension Service is not endorsing any
products mentioned.  There may be other products which will work
equally well to remove stains.

-End-
-Title-
Removing Mildew from Clothes
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Removing Mildew from Clothes

     Mildew on clothes is a common problem in the summer when
temperatures and humidity are high.  Mildew leaves a musty odor,
it discolors fabrics and it sometimes causes fabrics to rot.
Molds which cause mildew are always in the air, but they need
moisture to grow.  Items that are left damp or dirty are prime
targets for mildew.  Clothes dampened by rain or perspiration
should be dried before being hung in a closet or put into the
clothes hamper.

     If your house is moist, leave drawers and cabinets open for
several hours occasionally.  This stirs up the enclosed air and
keeps moisture from accumulating.  To dry out the air in a
closet, leave a small electric light burning continuously for a
day or two.  Hang a mildew inhibitor in an enclosed closet.  Some
mothballs and moth cakes contain mildew inhibitors.

     Store shoes on shelves at the top of the closet rather than
on the floor if you think the situation is right for mildew.

     If mildew has already appeared on clothing or household
fabrics, remove the spots as soon as you discover them.  Mold can
weaken materials.  Begin by brushing off mold outdoors so you
don't scatter mildew spores in the house.  On washable fabrics,
pre-treat by rubbing detergent into the dampened stain.  Then,
launder the items in hot water, detergent and chlorine bleach, if
it is safe for the fabric.  If the item isn't bleach safe, soak
it in an oxygen bleach that is safe for colors, then wash it.
Take non-washable fabrics to the dry cleaners and tell them what
the stain is.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Nail Polish from Fabric and Carpet
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
           Removing Nail Polish from Fabric and Carpet

     When you're trying to remove nail polish from fabric,
carpeting or upholstered furniture, you have two problems:  the
first one is removing the polish and the second one is removing
the color stain left in the fibers.

     Both nail polish and polish remover can damage fibers
seriously, especially acetate.  If the spill occurred on fabric
or carpets that contain acetate, you'll need to call a
professional cleaner.

     Also, some dyes are not colorfast to polish remover.  So,
before you put polish remover on a fabric, test it by applying a
drop or two in an inconspicuous area.  If there's no damage to
the spot, use the following suggestions to remove the polish.

     If the nail polish is still wet, absorb as much of it as
possible on a dry cloth or tissue.  Be careful not to spread the
stain.  Then, go over the stained area with a nonflammable
cleaning solvent.  Apply solvent with quick, light motions.  Wipe
the stained area repeatedly with a cloth dampened in clear water.

     If the nail polish has hardened, apply polish remover to the
stained area with an eyedropper.  Wait a few minutes for the
polish remover to penetrate and soften the polish.  If necessary,
repeat the treatment.

     Here's an alternative for removing hardened nail polish.
First, using a spoon with a dull edge, scrape off as much polish
as possible.  Then, apply polish remover to the stained area and
blot the excess.  Go over the stained area with a cloth saturated
with nonflammable cleaning fluid, using light, quick motions.
Then, wipe the stained area with a cloth dampened in clear water.
Don't forget -- always pre-test before you use nail polish
remover on any fabric or carpet.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Perspiration Stains and Odors from Fabric
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
       Removing Perspiration Stains and Odors from Fabric

     To remove perspiration stains from a washable fabric, pre-
treat the garment by soaking it in an enzyme pre-soak product.
Then, wash or sponge the area with a solution of heavy-duty
liquid detergent and water.  You may also treat the discoloration
of fresh stains with a weak solution of colorless, clear ammonia
and water.

     If the stain or odor persists, don't put the garment in a
dryer and don't iron it.  Heat will set the stain.  Instead, soak
the garment overnight in a warm salt solution that contains
three-fourths tablespoon of salt for each quart of water.  Then,
rinse it.  Treat the stained area with an all-purpose detergent
paste and let it stand for 30 minutes.  Then, rinse it again.  If
the stain still persists, treat it with a three percent solution
of hydrogen peroxide and let it stand for another 15 or 20
minutes.  Rinse the garment and launder it.  Repeat the process
if necessary.

     You should take stained, nonwashable clothing to a reliable
dry cleaner.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Rust Stains
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Removing Rust Stains

     If you're attempting to remove rust stains from fabric, you
may want to use a commercial rust remover.  They're available
where cleaning supplies are sold.  Be careful to follow the
directions on the package.  Rust removers can burn your skin, so
be sure they're rinsed well from the fabric.

     If rust stains remain in clothing, apply a mixture of salt
and lemon juice to the stained area.  Let the fabric dry in the
sun, then rinse it and repeat the operation.  Garments made from
synthetic or manmade fibers should be taken to the dry cleaner.

-End-
-Title-
Removing Smoke Odors and Stains from Fabrics
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
          Removing Smoke Odors and Stains from Fabrics

     Families whose homes have caught fire are faced with an
almost impossible task -- removing smoke odor and stains from the
remaining clothes and furniture.

     Smoke seeps through crevices, damaging clothes in closets,
drawers and cabinets.  Two kinds of smoke damage may occur--
visible deposits of burned material and odor.

     To reduce odor after a fire, remove all evidence of charred
or burned surfaces.  Then, wash surfaces and fabrics well to
remove smoke dust particles.

     Visible and odorous smoke damage on washable apparel can
generally be removed by five launderings. If the items can be
bleached, use a laundry detergent in combination with liquid
chlorine bleach.  Follow directions on packages for the amounts
to use for removing stains.

     Send non-washable items to the dry cleaners.  Mask remaining
odor with a pleasant perfume or room deodorizer.  Pure vanilla
extract can help mask smoke odor effectively.  Place small
portions of vanilla extract in open bowls or dab extract on
cotton balls or toweling and place these near air conditioning
and refrigerator vents.  This will circulate the aroma.

     Some dry cleaners have a process that removes smoke odor.
It's called an ozone treatment.  Some dry cleaners and cleaning
establishments have portable ozone-generation units which they
can bring to a home or building to treat the air and all the
items in the area.  These are generally effective in removing
smoke odor.

     There may be commercial products available to help remove
smoke odors and smoke stains.  Ask for them where cleaning
supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Stain Removal from Carpets and Upholstery
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
            Stain Removal from Carpets and Upholstery

     The first rule of stain removal is to remove stains promptly
after they occur.  Many spots are hard to remove if they're
allowed to "set."  Start by scrapping off any excess stain or
blot off liquids with a dry, clean towel or cloth as quickly as
possible.

     Next, pretest the cleaning method you're going to use.
Before you try any solution on a stain, test it to determine what
effect it will have on the fabric or carpet dyes, but be sure you
do your test in an inconspicuous spot such as on the backside or
underside of the chair cushion or in the corner or behind the
drapery area of the carpet.  If it looks as though the solution
doesn't harm the fibers or the dyes of the fabric, that is, if
the colors don't run or bleed or the fabrics don't shrink, then
proceed with removing the stain.  If, on the other hand, the
fabrics do seem to be adversely affected, contact a professional
cleaning service.  Some rayon upholstery fabrics are susceptible
to shrinkage and color bleeding.  Don't use water on these
fabrics - instead use a dry-cleaning fluid.

     New upholstery fabrics sold after 1970 may have a letter
code which indicates the cleaning method that can be used safely.
Check for the code before you apply cleaning or spot removal
materials.

     If the letter "W" is seen, then water and cleaning agents or
foam mixed with water may be used.  If the letter "S" is seen,
then use only dry-cleaning solvents.  Don't use water.  If the
letters "W-S" are seen, then either water-based methods or dry-
cleaning solvents may be used.  If the letter "X" is seen, then
don't use any liquid or foam cleaning agent.  Remove soil by
brushing or vacuuming only or refer the problem to professional
cleaners.

     When you use cleaning materials, always apply them
sparingly with a blotting or patting motion.  Don't soak the
fabric with the cleaning solution.  Dry the area immediately with
an absorbent cloth, a tissue or a sponge to keep the liquids from
reaching the filling materials of cushions or the backing or
pads under carpets.

     Solvent cleaners will soften and destroy natural rubber
foam.  Synthetic fillings react less to solvents, but repeated
excessive applications could cause damage.  Be sure you're in a
well-ventilated room whenever you use dry-cleaning solvents.

     Remove greasy and oily stains such as chocolate, ice cream
or lipstick, with a dry-cleaning solvent such as Energine,
Carbona, or Renuzit.

     In removing chewing gum, candle wax and adhesive tape, rub
them with ice to harden them.  Then scrape off as much as you can
with a dull knife.  Then, wipe any remaining stain with dry-
cleaning solvent.

     Egg and blood stains can be sponged with a diluted solution
of ammonia.  Mix three teaspoons of ammonia in one quart of
water.  If the stain has set, sponge it with a three percent
hydrogen peroxide solution, then add a drop of ammonia to the
stain on top of the peroxide.  Tamp the stain with the back of a
spoon.  Repeat the process if necessary, then blot the area with
clear water.

     You should sponge urine stains with white vinegar diluted
with water, then detergent and cool water.  Finally, blot the
area with clear, cool water.

     Mildew stains should be scraped off, then sponged with mild
suds and wiped with alcohol.

     Milk and vomit stains should be sponged first with dry-
cleaning solvent, then blotted and dried.  Next, apply a solution
made of a small amount of ammonia, mild detergent and water.

     After you've cleaned upholstery fabrics, brush pile fabrics
while they are still damp - brush against the pile after it has
dried.  For carpets, after wetting the surface during cleaning,
place a dry towel or other absorbent material over the area and
weight it down.  If the absorbent material becomes wet, replace
it.  Let it stay on the cleaned area for eight hours and then
remove it.  Brush the area to blend the pile with the surrounding
carpet.

     No endorsement is implied nor discrimination intended by the
mention of commercial products in this program.  There may be
other commercial products available which work equally well in
the removal of stains.  Check labels or ask for such products
where cleaning supplies are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Stains from Clothing
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Removing Stains from Clothing

     The first rule in removing stains is treat the spot
promptly.  If stains are allowed to "set" there is less chance of
removing them.  For washable items which can be laundered in hot
water with chlorine bleach, removal of a majority of stains is
relatively simple.  Hot water, detergent and chlorine bleach will
remove most of the common stains including catsup, chocolate,
cocoa, coffee, cosmetics, cream, crayon, dye, egg, fruit, grass,
grease, mildew, mustard and urine, to name just a few.

     It is, of course, necessary that you remember undiluted
chlorine bleach should never come in direct contact with fabric.
Always dilute the bleach in at least one quart of water.  Many
washers do this automatically if the bleach dispenser is used
correctly.

     Caution:  Liquid chlorine bleach should not be used on wool,
fiberglass, acetate, Spandex, silk or on any garments where the
label warns against its use.  For stains on these fabrics and
other washable fabrics that can't be bleached with chlorine,
launder them with a generous amount of detergent and oxygen
bleach or perborate bleach--ones that say "safe for colors" or
"all purpose."

     For blood stains which have set, apply hydrogen peroxide.
You can get a three percent solution at drug stores.  Add a drop
of household ammonia to the stain on top of the peroxide.  Leave
it there.  Then, repeat the process until the blood stain fades.
Rinse the fabric well and be sure you work in a well-ventilated
area.

     Pre-treat spots and stains such as fresh paint, tar and
asphalt on washable fabrics with a dry cleaning solvent or pre-
wash product.  Some solvents are flammable and others are
poisonous.  Always observe warnings on product labels.  After
pre-treating, launder greasy stains with very hot water and a
generous amount of detergent.

     Don't put the garment in the dryer if the stains remain.
The heat of the dryer may set the stains.  Instead, repeat the
stain removal process.

     For stains on fabrics that cannot be washed, sponge the
stained area lightly with clear water or club soda.  Then, blot
the area dry.  Use a dry cleaning solvent on greasy and oily
stains according to the directions on the package.  Take valuable
non-washable items to a reliable dry cleaner.  And, be sure to
point out the stain to them.

     Sometimes you will get a stain and you won't know what type
it is, which makes it difficult to know what to do.  In these
situations, use the following procedure until the stain is
removed.  Some of these steps may result in the loss of color,
but that may be what it takes to remove the stain.

     First, soak the stain in cold water for at least 20 minutes.

     Second, work a laundry detergent into the stained area and
let it stay there for 30 minutes, then rinse.

     Wash the fabric using a chlorine bleach on white or
bleachable colored cottons, nylons, acrylics, polyesters or
linens.  Use an oxygen bleach on all other fabrics.  An oxygen
bleach is one that's labeled "all-purpose" or "safe for colors."

     If the stain still remains, rub a laundry detergent into the
stain or treat the area with a special laundry additive designed
for pre-soaking according to package directions.  Soak the fabric
from one hour to as long as over night.

     This time launder the fabric in hot water using a generous
amount of laundry detergent.  Set the washer for a full ten-
minute wash and allow it to go through the complete cycle.
However, for washable wool and silk articles, and on non-
colorfast fabrics, use warm rather than hot water and agitate it
only briefly, if at all.

     If the stain still remains, sponge it with a dry-cleaning
solvent such as Kar or Carbona.  If it's necessary, repeat these
steps, rinse thoroughly and launder.

     If the stain still remains, treat it with a rust remover
product such as "RoVer Rust Remover" or "Rit Rust Remover."  Be
sure to follow the manufacturers' directions.  Rinse well.  Or,
moisten the stained area with a solution of one tablespoon of
oxalic acid to one cup of warm water.  Oxalic acid is available
at most drug stores.  CAUTION:  Oxalic acid is highly poisonous.
Use rubber gloves to avoid skin irritation.  Mix the solution in
a plastic or glass container.  Rinse the treated garment
thoroughly to avoid fabric damage.  Never use oxalic acid in the
washer.

     If this doesn't work, place oxalic acid crystals directly on
the stain, moisten it with hot water and allow it to stand for a
few minutes.  Then, rinse the fabric thoroughly.  Use warm water
on wool, silk and non-colorfast fabrics because hot water may
affect them someway.

     If, at this point, the stain still remains and the item can
be bleached, mix equal parts of liquid chlorine bleach and water.
Apply the solution to the stain with an eye dropper.  Large
stained areas can be dipped in the solution.  Repeat the process
if necessary and then launder.  CAUTION:  Liquid chlorine bleach
should not be used on non-colorfast items, wool, silk, fiberglass
or any garment when the label warns against it.  On these
fabrics, sprinkle oxygen bleach directly on the stain and dip it
briefly into hot water.

     If the stain remains after you've gone through all the steps
just mentioned, then most likely nothing can be done to remove
it.

     No endorsement is implied or discrimination is intended by
the mention of commercial products in these recommendations.
There may be other commercial products available that will work
equally well to remove stains.  Check labels or ask for such
products where cleaning products are sold.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Urine Stains from Carpets and Upholstery
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
        Removing Urine Stains from Carpets and Upholstery

     If you have a pet or young child, you're faced with the
possibility of having to remove urine stains.  All stains can't
be removed, nor will all urine accidents result in stains.

     Urine removes waste from the body, so the urine content of
animals, for example, will vary widely with age, sex, breed,
temperament, diet and health.  So, a urine stain, is never
exactly the same material and may produce different reactions
with fabrics and fibers at different times.

     Here's a special note about cat urine.  Unless the stain is
removed immediately, there will be little chance of completely
eliminating the odor.

     Most urine stains, however, can be removed if you work on
them within the first couple of hours.  But, if the stain is not
completely removed, a slow reaction of the urine and carpet or
fabric dyes may occur after a time.  In this case, the only way
to restore carpet color is to apply dye.  A professional carpet
cleaner may be able to re-dye the stained area.  On carpets, one
possibility is to cut out and replace carpet with another
matching piece.  If the urine is completely removed, however,
discoloration is generally not a problem.

     To remove urine, blot the excess liquid as quickly as
possible with clean, absorbent materials such as paper towels or
cloths.  Sponge the area with white vinegar diluted with water;
then sponge the area with detergent and cool water; finally blot
the area with clear, cool water.  Blot the spot as dry as
possible with a clean cloth or towel.

     It's possible to remove the urine from the face of carpet or
upholstery so no stain will develop and still have a problem with
the odor because the urine may have penetrated the padding,
cushioning or underlay.

     If this occurs and there is no way to clean these materials,
after the surface has been cleaned, it may help to disinfect the
area by saturating it with denatured or rubbing alcohol; then
rinse with clear, cool water.  Blot the area as dry as possible.
Place dry, absorbent material over the wet area and press it to
remove moisture.  If the absorbent material becomes wet, replace
it until as much moisture has been removed as possible.
-End-
-Title-
Removing Urine Stains from Clothing and Linens
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
         Removing Urine Stains from Clothing and Linens

     As with all stain removal, it's important to act quickly
with urine stains.  It's especially important to act quickly
because urine may react with fabric dyes causing discoloration.

     For washable fabrics that can be bleached, presoak them in
cold water for at least 30 minutes.  Launder these fabrics in hot
water using detergent and chlorine bleach according to the
directions on the bleach container.

     For washable, non-bleachable items, sponge the stained area
with a solution of equal parts of household ammonia and water,
then launder the item in warm water and detergent.  Rinse it
well.

     For non-washable items, sponge just the stained area with
clear water to which a few drops of ammonia have been added.
Then, sponge with clear water only.  In an emergency, club soda
can be used to sponge the stained area.  Blot the stained area
quickly with a dry absorbent material.  If the color doesn't
change, apply denatured alcohol or rubbing alcohol with a
dampened pad or cloth.  But, be sure to pre-test the alcohol on
an inside seam to be sure it doesn't harm the fabric.  Sponge
again with clear water.  Blot dry with an absorbent material.

     Take valuable, non-washable items to a reliable dry cleaner
as soon as possible.  Point out the stain and indicate what kind
it is.
-End-
-Title-
Auto Insurance--Buying
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Auto Insurance--Buying

     Most people know something about automobile insurance, but
many don't understand all parts of an automobile insurance
policy.  The first two coverages you need to know about are types
of liability insurance.

     Bodily injury liability coverage is designed to provide
money to pay claims against you and for the cost of your legal
defense if your car injures or kills another person.

     Property damage liability provides money to pay claims for
damage by your car to various types of property.  This will also
provide money for your legal fees if you are involved in a
lawsuit as a result of a liability insurance claim.

     Both types of liability protection provide coverage for you
and your car as long as you drive it or it is driven by members
of your family or others who drive with your permission.  This
coverage also applies to you and your immediate family when
driving another person's car with permission.

     Medical payments insurance provided through auto insurance
companies pays for medical expenses resulting from accidental
injuries, regardless of who is at fault.  Medical payments cover
you, members of your family and guests in your car.

     Uninsured motorists protection pays for injuries caused by
an uninsured motorist or by a hit-and-run driver.  It provides no
coverage for any property damage, but provides for your medical
claims and for those of your immediate family and guests in your
car.

     Collision insurance pays for damage to your car resulting
from a collision or from a car overturning.  You can collect
regardless of who was at fault in the accident.  If the other
driver appears at fault, however, your insurance company may
collect from the other insurance company.

     Comprehensive physical damage insurance pays for damage when
your car is stolen or damaged by fire, flooding, hail, vandalism,
or other perils such as a rock breaking a windshield.  It doesn't
pay for damage done when you are in a collision.
-End-
-Title-
Auto Insurance--How Much Do You Need?
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
              Auto Insurance--How Much Do You Need?

     Because many kinds of automobile insurance are available,
each person must decide what coverage he or she needs.  Consider
your financial responsibility in choosing your policy.  Every
driver is responsible for driving safely and for injuries or
damages he or she causes.

     You should consider buying more auto liability insurance
than required by law.  Insurance experts recommend buying the
highest limits you can afford.  Most recommend nothing less than
$100,000 for any one bodily injury, $300,000 for all bodily
injuries and $50,000 for all physical damages.  The difference in
price is small, and it is well worth the price for the added
protection you get.

     If you're involved in an accident, you must prove that you
are insured or that you can pay the damages required by law.  If
you drive an older car and do not have a loan on it, you might
consider the cost of collision insurance compared to the car's
value.  If the car has a low resale value, you may want to drop
the collision coverage.  One way to lower your insurance cost is
to take the highest deductible allowed.  This deductible is the
amount you would pay for damages before the insurance company
would begin to help you.  The deductible comes in specified
amounts, such as $50, $100, $200 or $500.

     The more of the loss you can absorb, the lower the cost of
your insurance.  By cutting the cost of processing small claims,
the insurance company can pass its savings along to you in a
lower cost for your insurance.

     You must decide whether you prefer full coverage with a
small deductible and its higher premium or if you want the higher
deductible and a lower premium.

     Before buying auto insurance, talk to several company
representatives.  Ask friends to recommend agents or companies.
Check the yellow pages of the phone book.  Find out about the
laws in your state and decide what coverage is best for you in
relation to your financial situation.

     If your car is older and you are considering a replacement
car, contact your insurance agent to see what the insurance
charges will be.  Do this before making a final decision on the
car.  If you are considering one or more cars, you may want to
base your decision to buy on the cost of insurance coverage.
Repair records of certain cars have caused insurance companies to
set different rates based on the repair costs of different
models.  You may be able to cut insurance costs by checking with
insurance companies before buying a car.
-End-
-Title-
Coupons Save Money
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Coupons Save Money

     Eighty percent of all shoppers now use coupons when
shopping.  Coupons are another way that manufacturers advertise
and encourage the use of their products.  The average coupon is
about 18 cents off, or 15 percent off, the regular price of the
product.

     A smart shopper can use coupons to save money.  First, look
for cents-off coupons.  You can find coupons in weekly newspaper
supplements, magazines, on product boxes, on labels, displays or
tear-off pads on the supermarket shelf or bulletin board.  Some
may be mailed to you.

     One good way to save money is to start a coupon swap club to
take advantage of refunds and coupons.  Be a courteous shopper
and tell the clerk at the checkout counter that you have coupons
to redeem.  This gives the checker time to examine the coupons
for expiration dates and any other policies regarding the store's
acceptance of coupons.  Collecting and organizing coupons becomes
easier the longer you do it.  Here are a few steps to follow:

     Clip and sort the coupons according to specific categories:
dairy foods, meats, pet food, cleaning products, paper products
and any other category that fits your lifestyle.  You may want to
use separate envelopes for each category, or sort your coupons in
a small box. If your shopping list is organized in a similar
fashion, you can find your cents-off coupons quickly before
shopping.  As you file coupons, put those with the earliest
expiration dates in front so you won't forget about them.

     Don't forget that you don't save money by buying an item
simply because you have a coupon.  Check your shopping list
carefully and use coupons only for items on the list.

     Make sure the brand-name product for which you have a coupon
is not more expensive, even with the discount, than similar house
brands and generics.  It doesn't make much sense to buy the
brand-name item just to use the coupon.

     Using coupons will save you money only if you follow these
simple rules for careful shopping:

     Always shop with a list of what you plan to buy.

     Avoid impulse buying, and don't buy anything your family
will not use.

     Study papers for store specials before you shop.  Look for
additional specials advertised in the store.

     Check prices carefully.  Don't be misled by end of the aisle
displays.  Always read signs near products.

     If your retailer doubles the face value of your coupons on a
certain day, plan to do your major shopping on that day.
-End-
-Title-
Stretch Your Dollars
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Stretch Your Dollars

     Families at all income levels are having trouble buying the
things they want or need.  One way to help fight rising prices
and to enjoy your income is to try new ideas that can help
stretch your dollars.

     Here are 12 suggestions:

     DON'T BUY IT.  Ask yourself if you really need the item.  If
it's a "want" item rather than a "need," ask yourself if there is
anything you want more.  Give yourself a day or two to think
about it.  Most items can wait a day or two; a "last chance" to
buy isn't often really a last chance.  If you have a hard time
not buying, stay out of stores, or when you do shop, take only
the money you must have for real needs.

     BORROW.  Sometimes you can borrow an item you need,
especially if it's something you don't need often.  Return
borrowed items in good condition.  Don't forget the library and
other public services when you need to borrow.  Do you have items
you're willing to lend?

     SHARE.  Sharing items with family and friends can save
money.  Neighbors can sometimes share the price of something like
a bushel of apples.  Share ideas, recipes and skills with others.
Sharing usually means that everyone benefits as a result of
getting together on an idea or a project.

     FIND IT FREE.  Free goods and services can really help to
stretch your money.  Tax dollars buy things for the community
that everyone can use.  Parks, playgrounds, community health
services and libraries are among the services available to you
without charge.  Use the free things available to you.

     TRADE.  If you have things in your home that you no longer
need or want, you may be able to trade them to others who can use
them.  What could you trade with a neighbor or friend for
something they have that you may need or want?

     RENT OR HIRE.  When you need something for a short time, it
may be cheaper to rent it.  What kinds of things can you rent?
Count coin-operated laundries, cars, tools and special occasion
clothing.  Sometimes we can rent things when the cost of buying
them is too high for our budget.

     FIND THE BEST BUY.  Finding the best buy may take time and
energy.  The best buy for you is the item that will serve your
needs best at the lowest possible price.  Finding the best buy
may mean looking in several places:  catalogues, newspapers,
calling or going to two or three different stores.  Sometimes
secondhand stores offer the best buy.  If you know exactly what
you need or want, you'll find it easier to get the best buy.

     SUBSTITUTE.  When you go to buy something, ask yourself if
another item at a lower price will do the job just as well.  Many
products have excellent substitutes, and sometimes the substitute
is better than the original.

     MAKE IT.  Sometimes you can save money by making an item.
The materials should cost less than the finished product.  Be
sure to check prices before you supply your know-how, labor and
time to make something.  Sometimes it's cheaper to buy an item
than it is to pay for supplies to make it.

     USE COUPONS OR REFUNDS.  Use cents-off coupons from stores
and manufacturers to stretch dollars.  Save labels and product
packagings and send them in for cash refunds.  Coupons and refund
offers are found in magazines, newspapers and often come in your
mail.

     USE WISELY.  Find ways to make your belongings last longer
or keep from spoiling before you use them up.  Treat the things
you buy as you treat your money!

     CARE FOR.  Almost every product you buy needs some kind of
care.  Read labels and instruction books that come with items you
buy.  Learn to clean and care for the things you own.
-End-
-Title-
Door-to-Door Sales
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Door-to-Door Sales

     Door-to-door sales, or direct selling, is the nation's
oldest method of selling.  To be sure you are buying reputable
products from reliable salespeople, ask some questions before you
buy.  If you don't get satisfactory answers, don't buy.

     When someone rings your doorbell, he or she should tell you
what they have come to discuss.  They should give their name, the
company's name, and the product or service offered.  You should
ask for identification so you can be sure the person is who he
says he is.

     When a product is shown, be sure you understand what it will
do, what it won't do, how it works, how to get repairs and where
to get repairs.  Ask questions.  That's the best way to make a
smart buy.  Check on the guarantee or warranty.  Find out how
long it lasts, what it covers, and what the company's written
policy is on refunds or exchanges.

     Be sure you know how to reach the salesperson and company
after the sale.  Get the name, address and telephone number of
the person or company.  You may need more information later.  Be
sure the sales contract is clear and complete.  By law, a
contract must specify the terms of the sale.  Don't sign a
contract with blank spaces.  Be sure each line is filled in or
marked out before you sign.

     Be sure the finance charge is disclosed fully in an annual
percentage rate term.  Look for incidental charges such as
insurance.  They should be stated as part of the total finance
charge.  Are they stated clearly?  Do you want to pay for them?
You are not required to buy credit life insurance.  Ask for and
keep a copy of any contract you sign.  If, after the salesperson
leaves, you decide to cancel the contract, by law you have three
business days in which to cancel any purchase of more than $25
made in your home.

     The salesperson must tell you about this right to cancel.
Ask about it and find out who to contact if you wish to cancel.
Some companies may offer a longer period for cancellation.  Ask
about the company's policy.

     If you aren't satisfied with the product, call the
salesperson.  If he or she cannot resolve the problem, contact
the company directly.  Make any cancellations in writing.

     If you are still not satisfied, you may want to contact a
local consumer agency such as the Better Business Bureau or the
Governor's Office of Consumer Protection.

     Shopping for products in the convenience of your home can be
satisfying, but you must be careful to ask the right questions
and make the right decisions.

-End-
-Title-
Enjoying Your Income
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Enjoying Your Income

     Money is important to all of us.  The less money you have,
the more important money may seen.  But, how you manage the money
you have is even more important.  Because living costs are rising
every year and incomes don't always keep up, you may need to
adjust your spending if you are to maintain a satisfactory
lifestyle and enjoy your income.  Planning your spending gives
you a chance to make some choices.

     Because spending is a family matter, all members of the
family need to be involved in planning how to spend family
dollars.  Young people learn about money management when they are
involved in making family decisions about money.

     Having a plan for spending your money gives you more
control.  You can plan ahead and spend without feeling guilty.
By making and following a spending plan, you are in control and
should have money from payday to payday.  To plan your spending,
estimate the amount of money your family has coming in during a
certain time -- a week, every two weeks, monthly or yearly.  Look
at this take-home pay as the true amount you have to spend.  Your
income will include salaries, interest, social security payments,
retirement checks or dividends.  If wages are seasonal, figure an
average of the usual amounts earned in a week or month.

     Next, you need to know exactly what and how your family is
spending.  You need a total of each big item so you can see where
you are putting your money.  You may need to look carefully at
your shopping habits.  With living costs rising, it is more
necessary than ever before to get the most from each dollar you
spend.

     To see if you're really getting satisfaction from your
spending, ask yourself this question, "If I had extra money each
month, what would I want to buy?"  A new plan for spending may
help you get the things you really want or need.  Each family
member probably wants at least part of any extra money, but the
family as a whole should decide on how to spend extra money.
-End-
-Title-
Family Records--What to Keep and For How Long
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
          Family Records--What to Keep and For How Long

     You need family records for several reasons:  to prove you
own property, as proof for income and estate taxes, for family
finance, and for measuring your family's financial progress.

     Records cost time and money when you get them, and even more
when you lose or misplace them.

     Every family has three kinds of records:  personal records,
financial records and property records.  Some should be kept
permanently.  Others may be kept for shorter periods.

     Records you should keep permanently are personal records
that pertain to adoption or divorce, education, employment,
military service, health and medical care, marriage, birth or
death, funeral or burial, and citizenship.  Keep your social
security number and an up-to-date copy of your will, too.

     Keep insurance records only as long as the policies are in
effect.

     Financial records you should keep permanently are:  receipts
of valuable purchases, important contracts and contents of your
safe deposit box.  Those to keep only as long as you need them
are:  credit card numbers, installment agreements, bank records,
and investment, budget and expenditure records.

     The Internal Revenue Service says you should keep records at
least four years for income tax purposes.  Some financial
advisors recommend keeping tax records for ten years.

     Property records you should keep permanently are:  deeds,
improvement records for real property, purchase receipts for
personal property, and an up-to-date inventory of personal and
household goods.

     As long as you own property, keep such things as titles,
receipts and guarantees for durable goods like automobiles and
equipment.  Keep sales records and guarantees for non-durable
goods like clothing and household items until you are certain the
items are okay.

     Remember - family records are important.  Store them in a
safe, convenient place where you can use them.
-End-
-Title-
Family Records--Storage
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                     Family Records--Storage

     You can save time and money by organizing and storing
personal and family papers in a safe place where you can get to
them quickly and easily.

     First, get all papers together and sort them according to
how often you will need them.  How often the paper will be used
and its value will help you decide the best place to store it.
You'll need three areas of storage:  some form of fireproof and
theftproof storage, home storage and items you should carry with
you.

     Fireproof and theftproof storage means a home safe or safe
deposit box.  Here you'll store papers that are hard or expensive
to replace.  These include adoption papers, auto title and bill
of sale, citizenship papers, debt or credit papers (especially
those pertaining to your home), death certificates, divorce
papers, income tax returns and receipts, inventory of important
family papers, inventory of personal and household goods,
investment certificates and government bonds, important cancelled
checks and payment receipts, and important contracts.  Other
items stored here will be marriage and birth certificates,
patents and copyrights, record of insurance policies, property
records including deeds, bills of sale, military service records
(including discharge and veteran claim number), social security
numbers and a copy of wills.

     For home storage, use a home business center, desk, file
cabinet, drawer, box or other safe and convenient place for
papers that are used often.

     These might include appliance records (including guarantees
and instructions), auto records, cancelled checks and bank
statements, care instructions for clothing and household
furnishings, education records, employment records, family health
records, financial account records (for farm and business),
instructions about funeral or burial plot, insurance policies,
inventory of household goods, list of credit card numbers and
lenders, and personal and family debt records.

     Items you should carry with you in your wallet or purse are
your auto insurance card, blood type record, card stating person
to be notified in case of an emergency, cards indicating
allergies to medicine or any special health problems, driver's
license, health and accident insurance cards, identification card
and organization membership cards.

     When your papers are sorted, store them in their proper
places.  Be sure to make a list of your papers and where they are
stored.
-End-
-Title-
Health Insurance--Buying
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                    Health Insurance--Buying

     Health insurance lets you budget in advance for unexpected
illnesses and the high costs of medical care.  Every member of a
family should be covered by medical insurance.

     If your employer offers a group medical insurance policy for
you and your family, sign up for this benefit.  It's a good buy
whether the employer pays all premium costs or if you must pay
part of them.  Group policies are usually the least expensive in
costs per person.

     If your employer doesn't provide health insurance, try to
join a group that does.  Cooperatives, trade unions and other
private organizations may have policies available.  If you leave
a job for any reason, arrange with your past employer to maintain
your coverage.  You will have to pay the group rate premium.

     It's hard to anticipate your needs for medical care, so buy
the broadest policy you can afford.  Be sure you're covered for
accidents and illnesses, also outpatient and hospital care.
Other desirable benefits for some individuals include
prescription drugs, diagnostic tests, dental care, private duty
nursing and skilled nursing home care.

     Choose a policy that pays on the basis of services
performed, or a stated percentage of the costs rather than a
specified amount for different services, or a flat amount per
day.  Although a specified amount for a particular procedure may
seem adequate when the policy starts, costs could have increased
greatly by the time you need it.

     Compare the costs of several policies offering the same
coverage.  Rates are not the same.  Look for the "loss ratio" of
a company before you buy.  This indicates how much in claims
policy holders have received from premiums they paid in.

     Read policies carefully for waiting periods, pre-existing
conditions and other exclusions.  Avoid restrictive policies.  Be
sure you understand all terms used.  Ask the insurance
representative to explain terms in simple language.  Make sure
you understand the terms for renewal and the conditions for
changing premium rates.

     Choose a policy from a company that is financially sound.
Best's Insurance Reports, available at most public libraries, can
give you this information.  Be careful about buying health
insurance from mail order insurance companies.

     Review your insurance coverage periodically to make sure it
still meets your needs.
-End-
-Title-
Homeowners Insurance:  How Much do You Need?
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
          Homeowners Insurance:  How Much do You Need?

     Statistics show that about 70 percent of the population
carries enough homeowners insurance, and about 30 percent of the
population carries too little.  Market values of houses have
increased dramatically in recent years, as have the costs of
construction.  If you don't have enough homeowners insurance you
may not be able to replace your home if it's destroyed by fire.

     There are four basic types of homeowners insurance:  HO1,
HO2, HO3 and HO4.  The HO1 is a stripped-down policy covering
fire, lightning, windstorms, hail, explosion, rot, civil
commotion, aircraft-vehicle theft, breakage of glass or safety
glazing materials, smoke, vandalism and malicious mischief.  As
you move up to HO2, you get coverage from falling objects, such
as a tree falling on your house.  HO3 adds such things as the
weight of ice, snow or sleet on your roof, as well as the
collapse of a building.  HO3 also covers frozen pipes that burst
and cause water damage.  If you have HO4, all perils coverage, it
covers everything except moving land and water, war, nuclear
hazards and the like.  If you are in an area which is subject to
high water, you should buy a special flood insurance policy from
the federal government.

     An all perils, or all risk, coverage usually costs about 40
percent more than the stripped down contract, but it does give
far greater protection.  These policies also offer protection if
something of yours is stolen while you are traveling.  Under most
homeowners policies, college students away from home and their
belongings are protected.

     Some policies let you cover the replacement cost of the
building and its contents.  Under terms of the replacement
policy, if you insure for value, the home or its contents will be
replaced as close to the original as possible.  Replacement
insurance costs only a little more a year.

     For full coverage of partial damage, you must insure for at
least 80 percent of the value of the house.  You won't receive
dollar for dollar coverage for even a partial loss unless you are
insured for at least 80 percent of the value.  Many people think
that if they buy $50,000 worth of insurance and have a $25,000
loss on a $75,000 house that they will receive the full $25,000.
This isn't true.  You have about 75 percent covered, and you will
get only 75 percent of the damage minus a certain amount for
depreciation of contents.

     Replacement cost coverage on the house alone doesn't cover
replacement cost for the contents.  You can buy replacement cost
insurance for the contents under a separate policy.  Under
standard policies, the replacement of an article is based on its
useful life.  This means that after a few years, the replacement
value may be zero.  Most contents insurance is equal to 40
percent to 50 percent of the building's insurance value.  So, if
you have $l00,000 worth of insurance on your home, you have about
$50,000 worth of coverage on its contents.

     Because extremely valuable items may not be covered up to
the full amount of their value in a standard policy, you may need
to add a separate silver and jewelry floater.

     Liability is another consideration.  Most standard contracts
offer $25,000 liability.  In today's economy, that isn't much.
It's generally recommended that at least $100,000 worth of
liability be carried.  There's a small extra charge.  And, for
just a little bit more, you can get $300,000.

     Renters and condominium policies are available, too.
Renters insurance covers only the contents, not the building.
Condominium owners insurance covers everything inside the four
walls of the apartment.  The structure itself is usually covered
under a master insurance contract bought by the condominium
association.

     Evaluate your homeowners insurance every three years and, if
possible, add an inflation endorsement rider to your standard
policy.  This way, the cost of homeownership is added to your
policy each year when the premium is due, and you can be sure
you'll have enough coverage if your home is damaged and must be
replaced.
-End-
-Title-
How to Buy Appliances
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      How to Buy Appliances

     Many brands and kinds of major and small appliances are on
the market today.  Before you make a purchase, ask yourself if
you really need the appliance.  Some are bought because of the
novelty they provide as much as for the functions they perform.
Sometimes a new appliance doesn't really save time or energy
because the setting up and cleaning up take so much time.

     Some features on appliances save time and energy, and some
add convenience but use more energy.  Sometimes extra features
are used seldom once the novelty wears off, so you might not want
to pay extra for these features.  Often the basic appliance unit
is the same for several brands, but the price increases as the
number of added features increases.  This is especially true on
major appliances.  If you want to save money, don't buy more
features than you really need.

     Before you buy, consider where the appliance will be stored
and where it will be used.  Sometimes storage creates a problem
that outweighs benefits.  Be sure the place where you'll use it
is wired adequately and that there's an outlet available.  Don't
plan to use extension cords unless it's absolutely necessary
because they reduce efficiency and may be dangerous.

     Once you've decided you really need the appliance and that
you have room for it, another important decision is cost.  Be
sure to consider the original price tag plus any installation
costs as well as operating and maintenance costs.  High operating
costs may make energy-efficient models worth the initial higher
price.  For example, some new models of refrigerators and
freezers are 50 percent more energy efficient than models 10
years old.  Check the yellow and black Energy Guide Levels on
most major appliances for energy information.

     If you plan to spread out payments, check the cost of
credit.  If you can anticipate buying an appliance, try to save a
little each month so you can pay cash and avoid the cost of
installment buying.  You may even get a lower price if you pay
cash.  Anticipating your purchase will also give you time to get
the information you need to buy wisely.  If you know you'll be
buying a major appliance, start reading advertisements, consumer
magazines and buying guides available at your local library.  Ask
friends and relatives about the models they have and which
features they use or don't use.

     For large appliances, in particular, service may be
important.  If you are gone during the day, you'll need a
reliable service person who makes calls after hours or on
weekends.

     Some appliances have a warranty or guarantee, but the terms
vary.  Be sure to take time to read the written guarantee and
don't just take the word of the salesman.  When you buy, fill out
and keep warranty cards.  Look for safety symbols and seals of
approval.  The UL (Underwriters Laboratory) is probably the best
known safety symbol.  Another symbol, a blue star emblem, may be
found on gas appliances.  It means that the design and
construction meet safety and performance standards of the
American Gas Association.

     Some magazines and other groups have seals of approval, too,
but they vary in their worth to the consumer.  Don't assume that
a seal assures quality.  For the most part, appliances on the
market do what they are designed to do.  Your choice of brand and
price will depend on personal preference and individual need
rather than actual differences in function and quality.
-End-
-Title-
Ordering Merchandise by Mail
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Ordering Merchandise by Mail

     Most reputable mail order firms are eager to give you good
service because they appreciate your business and want you to
order from them again.  But, aside from their willingness to
satisfy, mail order firms who use the U. S. Postal Service are
regulated by the U. S. Postal Code.  One of the regulations under
which mail order houses operate is the so-called 30-day rule.

     Here's how the 30-day rule affects you.  If the seller knows
he can't fill an order within 30 days, he must say so in his
advertisements.  If he's unable to fill the order within 30 days,
he must notify you of your right to a refund.

     If you want a refund, you must notify the seller.  But, if
the seller notifies you that he can't fill the order within 30
days and you don't respond, he then has 60 days to fill the
order.  If 60 days pass and the seller still hasn't filled the
order, he must give you the choice of getting a full refund or
waiting longer.

     If you don't respond when you're given this choice, the
seller is required to refund your money.  You can give the seller
any number of 30-day extensions, but once the third extension is
granted, you may ask for a refund at any time.

     This rule doesn't apply to services like mail order photo
finishing, magazine subscriptions, plants, seeds, orders mailed
"Collect on Delivery," and credit orders where the buyer's
account isn't charged before shipment.

     If you have trouble with a mail order firm, try to work out
the problem with the firm.  If you fail to work it out to your
satisfaction, notify the U. S. Postal Service.  The Federal Trade
Commission can help you if it is an item sold across state lines.


-End-
-Title-
Planned Spending Buys More
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                   Planned Spending Buys More

     Planned spending helps you get more for your money.  Since
most of us have more needs than we have money, a spending plan
can help us see each purchase in relation to all the other ways
we could spend our money now and in the future.  Planned spending
can help you take advantage of sales, and it can help reduce
credit and installment costs.

     Planned spending means figuring out where you stand right
now.  First, make a list of your income, including your paycheck,
social security or pension.  Now look at your spendable income
after taxes, your take-home pay.  This is the part you can spend
or save.

     Next, list your fixed expenses:  mortgage, insurance,
installment payments, income taxes, property taxes and any other
expenses that are due once a month or once a year.  Add these up
and divide the total of your fixed expenses by the number of
paychecks you receive.  Then you'll know how much to set aside
each pay period.

     For example, if you get money each month, divide the total
by 12.  If you are paid weekly, divide by 52.  This is the amount
you'll have to set aside each pay period to meet your fixed
expenses.  Subtract this amount from the amount of money you have
coming in.  The money left is the money you can make decisions
about.  It is the money you have to spend over the pay period on
food, transportation, utilities and other flexible expenses.  Try
to divide the money among the items you generally spend money on.
Try to plan so these expenses don't take everything that's left.

      Set aside a few dollars each pay period for things you'd
like to have.  List the things you want now and those you want in
the future.  Find out how much each will cost and think about how
you will save.  Include all family members in the discussion.

     You and your family probably have some ideas about what you
want now and in the future.  You may want clothes, a piece of
furniture or a television set in the near future.  Long-range
goals may include education for the children, a home or a family
trip.  It helps if you write your goals on paper.  List first
those things you want most.  Decide how many of the items you
want enough to set aside an amount each month in order to get
them.  Add what these items cost and again divide the total by
the number of paychecks you receive.  The answer is the amount
you'll need to set aside each month.  Subtract this from your
paycheck also.  Make sure the amount adds up to no more than you
have left to spend.  This is your financial plan.

     There isn't an ideal way to plan spending for everyone.
Each person or family is unique, with different income, needs and
goals.  Also, spending plans must be flexible enough to adjust to
changes which may occur in your life and in the economy.  But
having a plan helps you to ask before you spend, "Is this the
best use of my money?"
-End-
-Title-
Safe Debt Load
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Safe Debt Load

     Your debt load is the amount of your take-home pay that goes
to pay off creditors each month after you pay your rent or
mortgage payment.  Ten percent of your take-home pay is
considered a comfortable debt load.  Fifteen percent is thought
to be manageable, but anything approaching 20 percent is a sign
you're getting deep in debt.

     Another rule of thumb for deciding if you're overextended is
to figure your income and, excepting rent or mortgage, determine
if you can pay off your other borrowing comfortably in one year.
If so, you are probably carrying a safe debt load.

     It's easy to know if your debt load is too heavy.  Here are
some signs you should look for.  You find it harder each month to
make ends meet.  Another sign is that you rely on overtime pay or
moonlighting to pay your bills.  Another sign of too much credit
is when you pay only the minimum on your charge accounts and
sometimes juggle payments, stalling one creditor to pay another.
One other sign is when you struggle to save even small amounts
and don't have enough money saved to get you through emergencies
such as a cut in pay or repairs on appliances or cars.

     Credit can be a real asset or a detriment.  How you use
credit determines which it will be.  The following credit
guidelines can help you manage your money.

     Always decide how you will pay for an item before you buy
it.  Don't use credit if it means you will still be paying for
the item long after it is used up or gone.  Remember:  credit
costs money.  Ask yourself if you would buy the item if you had
to pay cash for it instead of putting it on credit.

     Always use comparison shopping and get the best buy for your
money.  Don't be a soft touch for sales people.  Credit is easily
available, and businesses urge people to use credit because
people who use credit may spend more.

     Buy only if you have a real need for the item.  Try to use
credit only for items that will increase in value after you pay
for them.  Credit always costs more than paying cash, even in
stores that offer no-interest accounts, because prices may be
slightly higher.  Credit is more expensive now than it used to
be, so shop carefully and use credit only when necessary.

     Even if you're getting along fine now, don't take on
additional debts without calculating your ability to repay them.
If your mortgage or rent payment takes more than 25 percent of
your pay, a debt load of 20 percent is probably too much.
-End-
-Title-
Shopping for Credit
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                       Shopping for Credit

     When you shop for credit, look for the least expensive plan
you can get.  Select one you can pay off in a reasonable length
of time without straining the family budget too much.

     To compare costs for credit, first look at the A-P-R.  This
is the annual percentage rate or the cost, in dollars, of $100 if
you borrow it for one year.  Federal law requires that all credit
contracts include the term "Annual Percentage Rate" in large
print.  This number, a percentage, must be filled in on the
contract before you sign it.  The term A-P-R must be used in any
public advertising of credit terms.  It can be as low as 12 or 14
percent of what you borrow or as high as 36 percent or more.

     Another term required by law to be in large print on
installment loan contracts is the "Total Finance Charge."  This
is the total amount, in dollars, you can expect to pay over the
length of the credit contract.  It might include the cost of
checking your credit record and credit insurance.

     Know what other items you are expected to pay for besides
the amount borrowed and the interest.  Credit life insurance is
not required by law.

     Because the amount of interest you pay for a loan depends on
the length of time you use that credit, you'll save money by
paying off the loan as soon as you can.  Look for a plan that
lets you pay off the loan as soon as you can, but doesn't
penalize you for paying off early.

     When you set up an installment plan, be realistic about the
amount you can pay each period.  Don't make payments so large
that you create financial pressure on the family budget.

     If you use a credit card, the annual percentage rate will be
applied to your monthly balance for purchases and cash borrowed
with the card.

     Interest will be less if the monthly interest rate is
charged on the balance after current payments are deducted.  Some
creditors charge interest on your balance before current payments
are made, and others charge on the average daily balance owed.
If your plan charges on the average daily balance, you will pay
less interest if you make payments as soon as you can and keep
the daily balance as low as possible.
-End-
-Title-
Teaching Children to Use Money
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                 Teaching Children to Use Money

     Today everyone spends more money to live and families depend
on money more than ever before.  Because family finances are
becoming more and more complicated, even young children should
learn something about money management.

     Regardless of your child's age, you are the primary teacher
about money matters.  Your attitude will influence the attitudes
of your children.  Whatever significance money has to you as a
parent, whether it's anxiety or pleasure, your children will pick
up on it.  Conveying healthy attitudes about money requires an
example of using money without heavy emotional attachments.
Unfortunately, money is used in families as a symbol of love,
power or approval.

     Teaching money management to children can be fun. The
experience can benefit the relationship between parent and child,
too.  If you gear your money management lessons to the child's
needs, interests, abilities and level of understanding, you'll be
successful in teaching money concepts.  Children can learn new
concepts about money and spending if they're taught by the use of
examples, reintroduced on different occasions and in different
situations, and if they're allowed to practice the concepts.

     Here are some of the most important basic concepts of money
and its use:

     We must learn to spend before we can learn to save.  Let
your child pay for items in the store.

     Savings is just deferred spending.  We usually save for a
specific purpose or item.  Let your child learn to save for
something he or she really wants, something that doesn't require
too long a savings time.

     Money resources are nearly always limited.  Teach your child
how to choose with his/her limited funds from among all the many
things he or she wants.

     Most family economists and child development experts believe
that allowances geared to the age and needs of a child can help
him or her learn to make decisions and how to manage money at an
early age.  The allowance should cover fixed expenses such as
school lunches and varible expenses such as toys or extra food
items.


-End-
-Title-
Women and Credit
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                        Women and Credit

     Almost every American has at least one credit card.  Women
can now get credit in their own names simply by deciding on a
purchase and asking for credit.

     The law says that creditors may not discriminate against
anyone because of sex or marital status.  This means that you
can't be denied a loan because you are a woman, single or
married.

     One helpful step in establishing credit is to open a savings
or checking account in your own name.  This won't give you
credit, but creditors often check accounts to see if you have
money and know how to manage it.

     Since passage of the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, a woman
who qualifies for credit now has the legal right to put the
account in her name.  Married women may use their maiden names if
they wish.  All new credit accounts used jointly by husbands and
wives must be filed by creditors and credit bureaus in the names
of both spouses.

     A married woman with her own income may want to apply for
separate accounts for which she alone will be responsible.  This
will show creditors that she has been granted credit only on her
own record of income and prompt payments.

     Even if you are married, you need to make sure that your
local credit bureau has credit history information in a separate
file under your name.  If you move, you may want to open an
individual account based only on your credit history.

     When using credit, resist the temptation to overbuy.  Don't
get in debt beyond your ability to repay.  Remember how much
money you have and how much credit you can afford.  Use your
credit wisely.

     Pay your credit accounts when they are due, if at all
possible.  This builds your credit reputation.  If unexpected
expenses or illness delays your payment, contact the creditor
promptly and discuss the situation.  In most cases, he will
extend payment dates or adjust monthly installments to help you.
-End-
-Title-
Supermarket Scanners
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                      Supermarket Scanners

     Another marvel of computer technology has found its way into
our lives through supermarkets.  It's the Universal Product Code
(or UPC) scanning system, and it's designed to make shopping
quicker, easier and more pleasant.

     Since the scanning system was introduced in 1974, it has
grown rapidly and is now in use in about one-fourth of the
supermarkets.  The UPC consists of an in-store computer linked to
a laser scanner and an electronic cash register.

     The key to scanning is the universal products code (UPC),
which is a bar code found on most items -- in fact, everything
from magazines to food.  The code on each item is passed over a
glass-covered slot in the checkout counter where a laser scanner
reads the code and transmits the information to an in-store
computer.  The price previously entered into the computer for
that item then flashes on the visual display unit of the cash
register and is, at the same time, printed on the receipt tape.

     The first five numbers of the code designate the
manufacturer, and the next five numbers tell what the specific
product is.  The retailer  may also make UPC labels for products
not coded by the manufacturer.  You benefit from the scanners
because you get speedier checkouts and more detailed receipts
which state not only the price of each item bought but also the
brand name and size.  You can use these receipts to make long-
term or short-term price comparisons.

     The receipts also enable you to compare prices at different
stores and prices of different sizes and brands.  This is
important, because about one-fourth of the money spent at grocery
stores is spent on items that aren't even food.  These scanner
receipts can help you see exactly how much you spend on
unnecessary items as well as what you spend on products for
household operation.

     Receipts can also help you determine if a balanced diet is
being purchased for your family.  You can compare the information
on your tape with U. S. Department of Agriculture food plans and
food expenditure calculations for families similar in size and
age to yours.

     These scanners also lessen the likelihood of human error and
may result in lower prices when retailers pass cost savings on to
consumers.  The retailer benefits by increased labor
productivity, reduced labor costs, more accurate inventory
control, better tracking of customer and product flow, and fewer
cashier errors.

     More and more supermarkets will add scanners, so it's
important that you to learn to use the information you receive on
the tapes from these scanners.
-End-
-Title-
Controlling Your Finances While Unemployed
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
           Controlling Your Finances While Unemployed

     Losing a job is frightening, but you can still control your
financial affairs if you plan carefully and use money-stretching
tips while you're looking for a job.

     The first crisis of unemployment is a financial one.  There
will still be bills to pay.  Find out immediately about any
benefits you may be eligible for, such as state unemployment or
food stamps.  If you're not able to pay your bills, tell your
creditors about your situation.  Most are willing to extend
payments or help you work out a schedule to pay your debts.
Honesty is the best policy.

     If you feel overwhelmed by your financial situation, talk to
your banker or go to a nonprofit credit counseling agency for
help.  It's often harder to cope with the stress of being
unemployed than it is to make ends meet, especially if yours is a
two-income household.  If you're out of work for a long time, you
may have feelings of self-doubt to deal with.

     Talk to your family about your financial situation and
involve them in decisions about spending.  One of the most
difficult things about being unemployed is realizing that you may
have to lower your standard of living.  Don't pretend that
nothing has happened.

     See how much your family owes by adding what you own and
subtracting what you owe.  This is your net worth.  You may have
assets that can be converted to cash.  To balance your income and
outgo, you need to know how much money you have coming in and how
it is spent.  Use your check stubs and receipts to estimate what
you spend on flexible expenses.  Evaluate these expenditures and
make any necessary changes.

     Anticipate upcoming big bills such as insurance payments and
plan ways to pay for them.  Be sure your family is covered by
adequate life and health insurance while you aren't working.
Check with your past employer about continuing your health
insurance.  In most cases, you have the right to continue your
coverage for up to 18 months if you agree to pay the group rate
premium.

     Use your savings or emergency funds sparingly.  Try not to
borrow money while you're unemployed.  It always costs money to
borrow.  Let your financial institution advise you about
withdrawing any large sums from savings or about taking out a
loan.  They may be able to help you save money or keep you from
losing all the interest from your savings.
-End-
-Title-
Flood Insurance
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Flood Insurance

     If you're a homeowner in an area that is subject to
flooding, you may need flood insurance.  Many homeowners discover
too late that ordinary homeowners insurance does not cover damage
from rising waters.

     Water damage from flooding, rising surface waters, waves,
sewers or drains, and from water seeping from below ground are
specifically excluded from homeowner policy coverage.

     To cover rising water damage, properties must be covered by
a special federal flood insurance program policy.  You can get
this type of coverage through any property and casualty agent or
broker licensed to do business.  Homeowners in many communities
are eligible to purchase flood insurance.  Your local agent can
tell you if your community is participating in this flood
program.

     To determine your individual need for flood insurance,
contact your building permit officer who will be able to tell you
if your property lies in a flood prone area.  If you don't know
the name of your building permit officer,  the mayor or local
police jury can help you find it.

     If you're in a flood prone area, you should seriously
consider purchasing flood insurance.  Insurance rates are based
on the likelihood of your property being affected by flooding.
The insurance covers both the property and its contents up to the
limits of the policy that is purchased.

     Also, if you're considering the purchase of any property, be
sure to investigate the flood proneness of the area where the
property is located.
-End-
-Title-
Conserving Water In The Home
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                  Conserving Water In The Home

     Conserving water in your home is easy.  Simply check for
leaks, install water-saving devices and develop some water
management habits.

     You may not realize it, but leakage accounts for about five
to ten percent of all residential water consumption, and is
caused mainly by worn-out faucet washers and faulty toilet tank
valves.

     A steady drip of a leaking faucet can waste as much as 20
gallons per day.  A more serious type of leak can occur in toilet
tanks, wasting as much as 200 gallons of water a day.  Since the
leaking water runs from the tank into the bowl, you can't see it
or hear it.  You can check for a toilet leak by removing the tank
cover and placing a few drops of food coloring in the tank,
preferably when the toilet will be unused for several hours.  If
the food coloring seeps into the bowl, your toilet has a leak.

     Correcting these leaks is an easy and inexpensive way to
reduce water consumption.

     The next step you can take is to buy water-saving devices,
which are usually inexpensive and easy to install.

     Almost half of the water used in your home is used for waste
disposal through the toilet.  Devices are available to reduce the
amount of water used to flush the toilet.

     You can buy toilet tank volume reducers, improved float
assemblies that allow water level adjustments and signal you when
there is a leak, or dual flush mechanisms which allow you to
select a small or large flush.

     These water-saving devices do not work equally well in all
types of toilets.  Some are more effective than others.  Do not
use a device that requires you to flush twice.  It could actually
increase your water consumption.

     You may have heard that placing bricks in your toilet tank
will reduce the amount of water in the tank.  However, bricks are
not recommended because they can deteriorate in the water and
bricks can break parts of the toilet if you drop them.

     An alternative to bricks is plastic bottles.  You can put
one or more clean plastic one-quart bottles filled with water and
a small stone or sand in your tank.  By using bottles, you can
avoid bending the float arm down which lowers the water level.
Lowering the water level reduces the force of the flush,
resulting in unsatisfactory cleansing of the bowl.

     If you're installing a new toilet, buy one that uses less
water than the five to seven gallons a conventional toilet uses.

     You can buy an aerator to reduce the flow of water through
your faucet. A thermostat mixing valve or a shutoff valve near
the shower head allows you to turn off the water while lathering
without disturbing the temperature adjustment of the shower
controls.

     With a shower head flow restriction or controller, you can
reduce by half the amount of water used per minute.  A
restriction reduces the flow of water by creating smaller
openings in the shower head.  Constant rate devices maintain a
steady flow rate regardless of changes in the water pressure.

     Water can also be conserved by using dishwashers only when
they're full and by buying clothes washers with variable water
level settings.

     By changing a few habits, you can conserve even more.  For
example, turn off the water while you're brushing your teeth or
shaving, take a shower instead of a bath, and water your lawn
early in the morning.
-End-
-Title-
Water Filters
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                          Water Filters

     Americans are becoming increasingly concerned with the
quality of water.  Many people have turned to activated-carbon
water filters and purifiers to upgrade drinking water, rather
than buying bottled water.

     Activated-carbon filters can effectively remove many
objectionable tastes and odors.  They can also help clear
sediments from tap water and remove organic chemicals such as
pesticides and chloroform, a common contaminant which is a
suspected carcinogen.

     The under-sink filters are the larger and generally more
effective, yet more expensive type.  They do a good job of
removing chlorine, a major source of bad taste in water.

     The units which use granular carbon, as opposed to powder-
in-pad, do a better job of permanently removing chloroform.  The
powdered carbon types have been known to re-deposit previously
absorbed chloroform back into the water after a certain point of
use.

     Units with hard plastic sides force water to travel the
length of the filter, insuring longer contact with the filter.
The longer the contact with the filter, the more effective the
filtration.

     Some units also slow down the water flow rate to improve
filtration and extend the life of the filter cartridge.  These
come with a separate faucet and tubing to connect to your cold
water supply line.

     Faucet or sink-mounted filters are generally smaller, easier
to install, and cheaper than the under-sink variety.  But they
generally have a lower useful flow rate than most of the under-
sink units and their filter lifetime is shorter.

     You can use pour-through portable filters when you're
traveling, as long as the water you start with is suitable for
drinking.  Both the electric models and those which work like a
drip coffee maker can be as effective as faucet mounted filters.

     If you're only concerned with suspended sediment in your
water, you need a fiber filter, rather than a carbon filter
which clogs quickly.

     Most manufacturers of home-use filters claim only that their
products improve the taste and odor of water.  A few claim their
products will remove toxic chemicals.  But one thing a water
filter will not remove is bacteria.  That's a job for a water
purifier.  In fact, there is some concern that wet carbon in
filters can make a good breeding ground for bacteria,
particularly when the filter is not used for a while and after it
has treated a large quantity of water.

     In addition, activated carbon filters won't remedy hard
water -- water-softening devices are needed for this.  The
filters will remove rust particles, but they have little effect
on dissolved metals and hydrogen sulfide.  They won't remove
chloride, fluoride or nitrate either.  For these, a reverse
osmosis unit or ion exchange device is needed.

     Whatever choice you make, how you use and maintain your
filter is essential to its good performance and safety.

     You should flush out the filter before the first use of the
day.  Open the faucet wide and let the water run at least 30
seconds for an under-sink model and at least 10 seconds for a
sink-mounted filter.  When you install a new cartridge, flush for
several minutes to remove fine carbon particles.

     You should change filters regularly.  A heavily used filter
is more likely to contain high bacterial levels and to discharge
organic chemicals previously trapped.  An exhausted filter is
useless.

     Don't filter hot water.  A filter on the faucet that passes
hot water will not remove contaminants very well and hot water
may liberate chemicals previously trapped.

     Use the slowest flow rate you can tolerate.  The longer the
water is in contact with the filter, the more impurities the
carbon can attract and the cleaner the water will be.

     After you install a new cartridge, remember to circle the
date on your calendar so you will know when to replace it.
-End-
-Title-
Water Hardness
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
                         Water Hardness

     Hardness in water could be a problem for your laundry.  The
hardness minerals interfere with the cleaning action of soaps and
detergents.  It's harder to achieve good laundry results with
water that contains the calcium or magnesium ions that contribute
to water hardness.  Soils on fabrics can also add to the hardness
of your wash water.

     If you have problems with water hardness when washing, add
more detergent.  Some of the detergent will be used to tie up the
hardness ions that soften the water before the remaining
detergent can do the cleaning.

     When non-phosphate detergents containing carbonate builders
tie up the hardness ions, a white precipitate (calcium and
magnesium carbonate) forms and may give clothes white streaks.
It may also build up in the washer.

     If you use soap in hard water, soap curd may form, leaving
streaks and deposits or grease balls on your clothes.  You can
remove soap curd by soaking fabrics in a solution of warm water
and a packaged non-precipitating water softener or conditioner.
Just follow the package directions for proper usage.

     Synthetic detergents generally work best when laundering in
hard water.  Hard water can also be softened mechanically, after
which good results can be achieved with most laundry products.
-End-
-Title-
Water Softeners
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                         Water Softeners

     You can soften water in your home automatically with cation
exchange, mechanical water softeners, or with packaged water
softeners.

     If you use the cation exchange softener, the water is soft
when it comes from the tap -- no measuring of a packaged softener
is required -- and both the wash and rinse water are soft.  In
addition, the alkalinity of the water is not increased as it
would be with a packaged softener.  Water that has been softened
by the cation exchange still contains dissolved minerals, but
there is no calcium or magnesium present.

     Mechanical water softeners require an initial investment and
small operating cost.  In many areas it is possible to rent
equipment for a small monthly charge, thus avoiding the initial
investment.  Long-term savings, resulting from reduced use of
cleaning supplies and from longer life of fabrics and water-using
equipment, may offset the cost of buying or renting water
softening equipment.

     Cation exchange water softeners must be regenerated
periodically to provide a continuous supply of soft water.  This
may be done manually or with partially automatic or fully
automatic equipment.  The fully automatic regeneration requires
no attention from the owner -- other than keeping the storage
tank which is exchanged periodically by the supplier.

     If you're going to use a packaged water softener, you can
choose from two types -- precipitating and non-precipitating.
The precipitating softeners remove hardness by forming a
precipitate, an undissolved solid.  They are cheap, but not very
effective.  Water softened with precipitation softeners is
alkaline and cloudy.  The precipitate becomes trapped in laundry
items, making them harsh and stiff.

     Non-precipitating packaged softeners control hardness by
forming a stable soluble compound.  Most softeners of this type
can re-dissolve soap curd and grease balls that have previously
formed.

     In order to use packaged softeners effectively, the hardness
and quantity of water used should be known so that the proper
amount of softener can be measured and added to the water.  You
should follow the package directions to find out the quantity.

     Since packaged softeners can not soften water before it
comes from the tap, the softener must be added each time water is
used.  For example, it should be added to both the wash cycle and
rinse cycle when washing clothes.
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-Title-
Laundry - Saving Energy
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Virginia, Va
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Southern, S
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                     Laundry - Saving Energy

     A good way to conserve energy when using an automatic washer
is to select a cold water rinse.  Rinsing in cold water is
adequate for all types of wash cycles.

     When you're laundering washable woolens and lightly soiled
items, select a cold water wash.  Since cold water does not clean
clothes as well as hot or warm water, it may be necessary to
pretreat stained or soiled areas of your clothes when using cold
water.

     Besides washing in cold water, there are other steps you can
follow to help conserve energy.

     Adjust the water level to the size of your wash load, but do
not overload the washer in an effort to save water.  Clothes will
look better if you use a lower water level for a small load of
garments, similar in color and fabric type.  Don't mix clothes of
different colors to make a full load.  If you mix colors, the
dyes may transfer from one color to the other.

     Save energy by keeping the lint filter clean on the dryer.
A dirty lint filter will prevent airflow and slow the drying
process.

     Do not overload or underload your dryer.  An average size
load of like weight items dries most efficiently.  Also, avoid
over drying clothes.  This wastes energy and may cause items to
shrink and wrinkle.

     When clothes are dry, remove them as soon as possible.  If
they rest in the dryer after the tumbling stops they will become
wrinkled.  On a clear day, dry clothes outside and let nature
help you save energy.

     When buying new laundry equipment, look for energy-efficient
models.
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-Title-
What is 4-H
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Virginia, Va
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Southern, S
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                           What is 4-H

     Four-H is a national organization for youth with groups in
most counties and cities.  For a long time, 4-H appealed mostly
to young people in rural areas who worked on farm-related
projects.

     But, over the years, 4-H has changed.  More projects have
been added to include such subjects as photography, dog care, pet
care, bicycling, public speaking, automotive, and many others.
So, no matter where you live, you're likely to find something of
interest in 4-H.

     Four-H is open to anyone between the ages of 9 and 19 and
there are a number of ways you can join--school clubs, community
clubs, special interest groups, school enrichment groups, project
clubs, or you can even be a member at large.

     As a 4-H member, you learn to keep written records and make
presentations on your projects.  You also have the opportunity to
compete in contests on the local, state, and national levels.
Perhaps best of all, you meet people who have interests similar
to yours.

     Four-H is sponsored by the Cooperative Extension Service.
To learn more about 4-H, contact the local office of the
Cooperative Extension Service.  The number is generally found in
the county or city government listings in your area.
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-Title-
Virginia Extension Homemakers Council
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Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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              Virginia Extension Homemakers Council

     If you're interested in learning and sharing new ideas and
information that will not only improve the quality of your life,
but that of your family and community as well, you should
consider becoming a member of the Virginia Extension Homemakers
Council (VEHC).

     The VEHC is a statewide voluntary, non-profit adult
education organization of 10,000 members.  Its purpose is to help
individuals cope with problems in an ever changing society.
Members serve as volunteers, extending information through
educational programs to others.  Programs are based on needs.
Statewide, the organization is emphasizing programs on needs
related to health, food, and nutrition; resource management;
family community leadership; and, citizenship.  However, the
flexibility also exists for local needs to be identified and
programs planned to address them with the assistance of an
Extension home economist.

     The benefits of being an Extension Homemaker are two-fold.
First of all, you gain knowledge and skills that can be applied
in your own life and, secondly, you become a part of a
coordinated volunteer effort that extends the knowledge and
skills to others.

     While the membership in the VEHC is predominantly women,
membership is open to everyone, regardless of race, color,
religion, sex, age, national origin, handicap, or political
affiliation.

     How much does it cost?  Very little.  The major cost to you
will be the time and energy devoted to learning and extending the
educational information.  Dues, which are minimal, help to
support local, area, regional, state, and national efforts.

     To learn more about the Virginia Extension Homemakers
Council, contact the local office of the Virginia Cooperative
Extension Service.  The number is generally found in the county
or city government listings in your area.

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-Title-
Reclaiming Old Shrubs and Small Trees
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Virginia, Va
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Southern, S
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              Reclaiming Old Shrubs and Small Trees

     That overgrown shrub that dominates your landscape or blocks
your view can be turned into a useful and attractive small tree.
Often, old, lack-luster shrubs can be reclaimed by selective
pruning.  Such plants include ligustrum, camellias, sasanquas,
Burford hollies, pittosporums, photinias and Japanese yew.

     To create this transformation, you need only a small pruning
saw, loppers, a pair of hand shears and a bit of patience and
skill.

     First, determine whether the plant is worthy of such
treatment...that is...be sure you like it where it is.  A large
shrub near a patio would be more useful as a small shade tree,
for instance.  A big shrub may be completely shading an important
part of your house...but with wise pruning you can turn it into a
much looser, more open form that you can see through.

     After you've decided that the plant is worth keeping and
after you've decided it's in the right place, it's time to go to
work on it.

     First, remove all the dead wood and the small, non-essential
branches from the center of the plant.  Gradually reduce the
center until it's acceptable.  In many cases this will mean
cutting out several large trunks.  Never shear the plant across
the top...always remove branches and trunks from within the plant
so that you open it up without destroying the natural form of the
plant.

     It may be a good idea to make a few cuts, then step back and
look at the results.  It may even be necessary to do the pruning
over several days so you'll have time to evaluate your work.
Paint all the cuts that are more than one and a half inches with
a tree surgery material.

     After the plant has been reclaimed to your satisfaction,
then study the plant bed it's in to determine whether you need a
ground cover or other plantings.
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
RESEARCH ABSTRACTS - APRIL 1988                                                 
                                                                                
The following research abstracts were prepared by Ellen M. Silva,               
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension                        
Specialist.  They are to assist agents in keeping up to date on                 
recent research in consumer horticulture.  Copies of the original               
articles including lists of varieties and scientific names of                   
plants used in the studies are available from the Consumer                      
Horticulture office.  Send requests on computer to PDRELF.                      
                                                                                
Effects of Turfgrass on the Establishment                                       
     of Woody Plants                           120 lines                        
Effects of Sludge, Bed, and Genotype on                                         
     Carrot and Cucumber Flavor                 59 lines                        
Performance of Four Tomato Cultivars                                            
     Intercropped with Snap Beans               67 lines                        
Effect of Irrigation Level on Yield of Pinto                                    
     Dry Beans and Tenderness after Cooking     66 lines                        
Evaluation of Row Covers for Enhancing Yield                                    
     and Controlling Insects on Summer Squash   33 lines                        
*************************                                                       
                                                                                
EFFECTS OF TURFGRASS ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF WOODY PLANTS                       
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Most research on competition between woody plants and grasses has               
concentrated on the effects of native prairie grasses on trees                  
and shrubs and the effects of cover crops in orchards.  Little                  
work has been done on the possible competition between turf-                    
grasses and woody ornamentals.  Many gardeners allow turf to grow               
around their specimen plants, sometimes applying additional                     
fertilizer or water to the ornamentals in hopes of making up for                
any competition from the turf.  Information on the benefits or                  
drawbacks of these practices may help the homeowner grow better                 
plants.                                                                         
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Turfgrass grown around dogwood or forsythia inhibits the growth                 
of these plants.                                                                
                                                                                
Supplementary top dressings of fertilizer over turf does not                    
improve the growth of dogwood or forsythia grown in competition                 
with turfgrass.                                                                 
                                                                                
Subsurface fertilizing can improve the growth of dogwood or                     
forsythia grown in competition with turfgrass, but does not                     
completely overcome the negative effects of competition.                        
                                                                                
Competition for moisture does not appear to be a factor in the                  
inhibition of dogwood or forsythia growth by turfgrass.                         
                                                                                
The suppression of woody plant growth by turfgrasses may involve                
chemical inhibition as well as direct competition for nitrogen.                 
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Dogwood and forsythia plants were grown under the following                     
conditions: turf-free; turf-free for 0.7 sq. m. around plant;                   
turf-free for 0.3 sq. m. around plant; surrounded by turf cut at                
1.6 inches; turf cut at 4 inches; turf plus surface fertilizer;                 
turf plus surface fertilizer and surface irrigation; turf plus                  
subsurface fertilizer; and turf plus subsurface fertilizer and                  
subsurface irrigation.  Subsurface fertilizer alone was provided                
by controlled release fertilizer packets placed in the planting                 
hole and subsurface fertilizer plus subsurface irrigation were                  
combined in a root zone injection of water soluble fertilizer.                  
The plants were evaluated for growth, visual appearance, and                    
nitrogen uptake at the end of each of two growing seasons.                      
                                                                                
Trunk growth of dogwood was significantly greater in the 0.7                    
sq.m. turf-free spaces and the turf-free plots than in other                    
treatments for both years.  In the second year of the study,                    
there also was a significant increase in trunk diameter for the                 
plot with turf plus subsurface irrigation and fertilizing.                      
Dogwood terminal internode growth was limited and variable the                  
first year.  The second year, all of the turf-free treatments and               
the subsurface fertilizer treatment showed significantly longer                 
internode growth than the turf plot.  The subsurface irrigation                 
plus subsurface fertilizer treatment did not show a similar                     
effect.  This may be explained by the lower amounts of fertilizer               
applied the first year of the study for this treatment as                       
compared to the subsurface fertilizer alone treatment.  Previous                
studies indicate that top growth may be dependent on the condi-                 
tions of the previous year.  The low amount of fertilizer                       
received by the subsurface fertilizer plus subsurface irrigation                
treatment may have been insufficient to increase the top growth                 
significantly during the following year.                                        
                                                                                
The growth response of forsythia to the various treatments was                  
variable during the first season.  During the second season,                    
forsythia in turf-free plots showed significantly more growth.                  
Both treatments which included subsurface fertilization signi-                  
ficantly increased the number of new shoots over the check (turf)               
treatment.  The dry weight of shoots grown in the turf-free                     
treatment was significantly greater than for any other treatment,               
and was nine times that of the plants grown with full turf cover.               
Subsurface irrigation and fertilization resulted in significantly               
greater growth than the remaining treatments.                                   
                                                                                
Soil moisture was monitored throughout the study and was found to               
be generally lower for turf covered plots.  However, moisture                   
level for surface irrigated plots was similar to moisture level                 
in the turf-free plots, and yet there were growth differences in                
these plots; therefore, competition for moisture is probably not                
a direct cause of the reduced growth seen in this study.                        
                                                                                
Analysis for leaf nitrogen showed that competition for nitrogen                 
did occur.  Percent N in dogwood and forsythia leaves grown in                  
turf-free plots was significantly higher than that in leaves of                 
plants in check plots.  Subsurface fertilizer and irrigation                    
increased leaf N over that of other treatments in both years, and               
subsurface fertilizer increased it the first year of the study.                 
Surface treatments showed no effect on leaf N.                                  
                                                                                
A bioassay was conducted on greenhouse-grown forsythia to                       
investigate the possible release of phytotoxins from turfgrass.                 
Rooted cuttings of forsythia were watered four times per week                   
with leachate from pots of Kentucky bluegrass, red fescue, and                  
perennial ryegrass.  Fifteen weeks after planting, the forsythia                
roots and tops were harvested separately and measured for growth.               
                                                                                
Forsythia cuttings receiving leachates from turfgrass showed                    
significantly less top growth than those receiving tap water.                   
Root growth was also affected by leachates from ryegrass and                    
fescue, but not from bluegrass.  Other than receiving leachates                 
or tap water, the plants received identical amounts of water and                
nutrients, indicating that inhibitors were present in the                       
leachates.                                                                      
                                                                                
This study shows that turfgrass reduces the growth of dogwood and               
forsythia.  This is probably the result of competition for N and                
the production of phytotoxins by the turfgrass.  Subsurface                     
fertilization may help compensate for the effects of N competi-                 
tion, but  removal of the turfgrass is necessary to eliminate the               
phytotoxins.                                                                    
                                                                                
Reference: Fales, S.L. and R.C. Wakefield. 1981. Effects of                     
Turfgrass on the Establishment of Woody Plants. Agronomy Journal                
73:605-610.                                                                     
****************                                                                
                                                                                
EFFECTS OF SLUDGE, BED, AND GENOTYPE ON CARROT AND CUCUMBER                     
FLAVOR                                                                          
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Home gardeners and commercial vegetable growers have been                       
increasing their use of sludge and sludge composts for fertiliz-                
ing soil.  Several studies have investigated the resulting entry                
of heavy metals into the food chain, but very few have studied                  
the effects of the sludges on food quality, particularly taste.                 
Many people grow their own vegetables because they think the                    
taste of home-grown exceeds that of purchased produce.  This                    
study attempts to determine the effects of municipal and indus-                 
trial sludge and altering bed height on the flavor of carrots and               
cucumbers.  Such information may assist the gardener in deter-                  
mining how appropriate the use of sewage sludge may be in the                   
home garden.                                                                    
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Cucumber and carrot flavor is influenced by cultural method and                 
type of soil amendment.  For the varieties used in this study,                  
the effect is not large enough to affect overall preference.  It                
is likely that the home gardener need not be concerned about the                
effect of sewage sludge used as a soil amendment on the flavor of               
carrots or cucumbers.                                                           
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Three varieties of carrot and one of cucumber were grown in soil                
which was amended with municipal sludge, industrial sludge, or in               
soil which was unamended.  These treatments were repeated for                   
three bed types, one of which was ground level and two which were               
variations on raised beds.  After harvest the vegetables were                   
sampled by trained taste panelists who rated the carrots for                    
harshness, sweetness, metallic flavor, and overall preference and               
the cucumbers for bitterness, metallic flavor, and overall                      
preference.                                                                     
                                                                                
Small but significant differences were found in the harshness of                
carrots grown with various soil amendments.  Those grown in                     
industrial sludge amended soil were more harsh than those grown                 
in soil with no amendments or in municipal sludge amended soil.                 
Carrots grown in ground level beds were found to be slightly                    
sweeter than those grown in raised beds.  Neither of these                      
differences was great enough to affect overall preference for the               
various treatments.                                                             
                                                                                
Cucumbers grown in level beds were significantly less bitter than               
those grown in raised beds.  This difference was not great enough               
to affect the panelists' overall preference for fruit grown in                  
any particular bed type.  There was no significant difference in                
taste or preference for cucumbers grown in soil with the various                
treatments.                                                                     
                                                                                
Reference: Harrison, Helen C., Jack E. Staub, and Philipp W.                    
Simon. 1985. The Effects of Sludge, Bed, and Genotype on Carrot                 
and Cucumber Flavor. HortScience 20(2):209-211.                                 
***********                                                                     
                                                                                
PERFORMANCE OF FOUR TOMATO CULTIVARS INTERCROPPED WITH SNAP BEANS               
                                                                                
Intercropping is the planting of two types of vegetables in the                 
same space so that one vegetable occupies an area which the other               
vegetable would not fill, as when lettuce is planted between rows               
of corn, with the object of increasing the total productivity of                
that unit of land.  Research has shown that when tomatoes were                  
intercropped with cabbage, corn, cucumbers, or okra, overall                    
production was greater than for monocropping the same area of                   
land, but tomato yield was reduced.  This study investigates the                
effects of intercropping various tomato varieties with a short                  
season crop, snap beans.  Gardeners with limited garden space may               
be able to use such information in planning their gardens.                      
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Snap bean yield per foot of row was not reduced by intercropping                
the beans with tomatoes.                                                        
                                                                                
Tomatoes intercropped with snap beans had a significantly lower                 
yield (average 32% decline) than monocropped tomatoes grown under               
otherwise identical conditions.                                                 
                                                                                
Total production for land used was greater for intercropping than               
for monocropping.  For the gardener with limited space who                      
desires both snap beans and tomatoes, less land will be used if                 
the two vegetables are intercropped.  If the gardener is                        
satisfied with the reduction in tomato yield, a crop of snap                    
beans can be raised in what would otherwise be nonproductive land               
at the base of the tomato plants.                                               
                                                                                
Note to agents from consumer horticulture office:  Tomato yield                 
might be improved when intercropping tomatoes and snap beans by                 
1) allowing tomatoes to become established before planting the                  
beans, 2) staking the tomatoes, and 3) employing some form of                   
frost protection to extend the season as long as possible.  None                
of these practices were used in the experiment described.                       
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Five varieties of tomatoes and one variety of snap beans were                   
grown as monocrops and as bean-tomato intercrops.  The different                
varieties of tomato were separated into individual treatments.                  
Tomato rows were placed two feet apart whether the plants were                  
grown monocrop or intercrop.  Tomato transplants and bean seeds                 
were planted on the same day.  The plots were fertilized and                    
weeded during field preparation and during the growing season.                  
Tomatoes were harvested throughout the season.  Snap beans were                 
harvested for a two week period and the plants were then broken                 
off at soil level and left as a mulch in the plots.                             
                                                                                
Snap bean yield per foot of row was unaffected by intercropping                 
with tomatoes.  Note that in a monocropping system, beans would                 
be grown in the tomato row, so yield per area of the entire plot                
for snap beans intercropped with tomatoes was in effect half that               
for monocropping snap beans.                                                    
                                                                                
Tomato yield per foot of row was significantly decreased for                    
tomatoes intercropped with snap beans as compared to monocropped                
tomatoes.  The average decrease over the five varieties was 32%.                
Since yield was not decreased by more than 50%, intercropping                   
results in higher total yields for land area used.                              
                                                                                
Reference: Teasdale, John R. and Kenneth L. Deahl. 1987. Perfor-                
mance of Four Tomato Cultivars Intercropped with Snap Beans.                    
HortScience 22(4):668-669.                                                      
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
EFFECT OF IRRIGATION LEVEL ON YIELD OF PINTO DRY BEANS AND                      
TENDERNESS AFTER COOKING                                                        
                                                                                
Garden experts frequently exhort gardeners through books,                       
magazines, and newspapers to maintain optimal moisture conditions               
to assure a high yield and high quality crop.  Some crops, such                 
as radishes and celery, require plenty of moisture throughout the               
season to produce palatable vegetables.  However, gardeners do                  
not have infinite time or resources to water their gardens. If                  
some crops produce reasonable yields of vegetables having good                  
eating quality  without irrigation, the grower could choose to                  
spend time watering other crops that are more drought sensitive.                
                                                                                
Previous studies have shown that dry beans generally produce                    
larger yields when irrigated.  However, the author knows of no                  
studies of the cooked quality of the beans in relation to                       
irrigation.  This study evaluates the cooked quality of pinto                   
beans grown under various irrigation regimens.   Such information               
may assist the home grower in making decisions about the need to                
water pinto beans.                                                              
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Yield of dry beans increased linearly as amount of water applied                
increased, up to the point where water applied was equal to                     
maximum water lost through evapotranspiration.                                  
                                                                                
Irrigation rates did not affect tenderness or quality of cooked                 
beans.                                                                          
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Pinto beans were grown in fertilized soil using irrigation                      
treatments of 0, 33, 67, 100, and 133 per cent of potential                     
evapotranspiration.  The potential evapotranspiration (ET) is the               
amount of water which may be released from the plant into the                   
atmosphere from the leaf surfaces.  This amount was estimated                   
before irrigation, which occurred on Monday, Wednesday, and                     
Friday throughout the growing season.  Drip irrigation with                     
emitters placed 18 inches apart were used to apply the water.  At               
maturity, plants were harvested and yield was measured.  Tender-                
ness of cooked beans was evaluated in a shear press which                       
measured the force required to crush the beans.                                 
                                                                                
Yield increased as irrigation increased, until the amount of                    
water exceeded the potential ET.  During a dry year, irrigation                 
with 33% of the potential ET resulted in a yield of 840 kg/ha;                  
the dryland yield was 220 kg/ha.  During a year with a greater                  
amount of rainfall, irrigation with 33% of the potential ET                     
resulted in a yield of 1770 kg/ha and a dryland yield of 1000                   
kg/ha.  Watering at 33% ET equalled about one half inch of water                
applied per week during the dry year and less than one quarter of               
an inch of water applied per week during the wetter year.                       
                                                                                
Shear values for cooked beans grown in the various treatments                   
were low enough to indicate acceptable cooked quality.  There was               
no significant difference between treatments for these values.                  
                                                                                
Results of this study indicate that during drought conditions                   
yield of dry beans may be lower than desired, but the quality of                
the beans produced will not be affected.  A small amount of water               
applied regularly throughout the season will increase the yield                 
dramatically, an especially important point for small scale                     
gardeners who have devoted a portion of their limited gardening                 
space to dry bean production.                                                   
*********************                                                           
                                                                                
MEETING ABSTRACTS                                                               
                                                                                
45th Annual Meeting of the ASHS Southern Region                                 
                                                                                
Evaluation of Row Covers for Enhancing Yield and Controlling                    
Insects on Summer Squash                                                        
Bonnie Bushnell, Brent Loy, and Otho Wells, Department of Plant                 
Science, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824.                         
                                                                                
Two cultivars of summer squash, "Smoothie" and "Classic" in 1983,               
and "Smoothie" and "Ambassador" in 1984, were used to compare the               
effectiveness of row covers for increasing early and total yields               
and for insect control.  In 1983 the treatments were 1) black                   
plastic mulch, 2) mulch and nonwoven polyester (Reemay) row                     
cover, and 3) mulch and slitted plastic row cover.  In 1984 the                 
treatments were 1) bare soil, 2) black plastic mulch, 3) mulch                  
and nonwoven polyester row cover, 4) mulch and nonwoven                         
polypropylene row cover, and 5) mulch and slitted plastic row                   
cover.  In 1983 the populations of aphids and striped cucumber                  
beetles were low, and in 1984 aphids were not prevalent until row               
cover removal at the end of June.  All row cover materials were                 
effective in excluding aphids and cucumber beetles from the                     
covered plants.  Polyester and slitted row covers increased                     
early, but not total yields of "Smoothie" in 1983.  In 1984 only                
"Smoothie" summer squash showed significant treatment effects;                  
plants on black plastic mulch had higher early yields than those                
on bare soil and both early and total yields were increased by                  
row cover treatments as compared to bare soil or black plastic                  
mulch treatments.                                                               
                                                                                
Comment from Consumer Horticulture Office:  It appears that the                 
value of using row covers is influenced by crop, variety, and                   
weather conditions at the time of use.                                          
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
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Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
April 1988 Notes                                                                
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Don't throw out the little gladiolus cormels you dug out with                 
the larger corms last fall. Plant them this spring in the garden                
in a row like peas. Allow the foliage to grow throughout the                    
summer and lift them for winter storage this fall.  They will                   
reach blooming size in two years.                                               
                                                                                
* Plant dahlia tubers as soon as danger of frost has passed.                    
Position flower supports at the time of planting to avoid                       
injuring tubers with blind insertion of stakes later.                           
                                                                                
* To ensure the dahlia tubers you intend to plant have survived                 
bring them into a warm, lit spot to sprout.  For early flowers,                 
start them growing in pots.                                                     
                                                                                
* Consider planting flowers which can be dried for winter                       
arrangements.  Strawflower, statice, Chinese lantern, celosia,                  
and globe amaranth are some of the best choices for successful                  
drying.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Do not restrict yourself to buying bedding plants in bloom.                   
Petunias that bloom in the pack are often rootbound or overgrown,               
and after planting may actually have future bloom delayed.                      
Plants without blossoms will grow better and bloom sooner than                  
those that have outgrown their pots.                                            
                                                                                
* To extend the blooming period of gladiolus, plant early, middle               
and late-season selections each week until the middle of June.                  
Choose a sunny location and plant the corms 4-6" deep and 6-8"                  
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
* While commonly grown as a house plant, strawberry begonia                     
(Saxifraga stolonifera) can also be grown as a ground cover for                 
light shade. It is cold hardy to -10 degrees F.                                 
                                                                                
* Scatter annual poppy seeds in flower borders. The fine seeds                  
need no covering. The plants grow rapidly and provide colorful                  
flowers in early summer.                                                        
                                                                                
* Plant nasturtiums for a colorful show in a sunny location with                
poor soil.  They require warm soil to sprout and will start                     
blooming in about 50 days.  Too much water and fertilizer                       
produces lots of leaves and few flowers.                                        
                                                                                
* Three levels of flowers add vertical dimension to patio                       
planters.  By grouping three flower heights (trailing, low                      
edging, and tall background) into one container, the maximum                    
number of plants can be combined without crowding.  For example,                
use trailing blue lobelias or ivy-leaved geraniums near the edge                
to form a cascade.  Petunias or dusty miller can fill in the                    
second story.  In the background use plants such as large-type                  
geraniums or `Purple Ruffles' basil that will grow to 2 feet or                 
more by the end of the summer and add height without heaviness.                 
                                                                                
* Dig up and divide large chrysanthemums when they show signs of                
life.  Discard woody portions and replant divisions 12-15" apart.               
                                                                                
* Plant clematis in locations which receive at least 6 hours of                 
sunshine a day.  Use organic mulch or ground cover to shade roots               
and keep them cool.  Plant in rich, well-drained loam.                          
                                                                                
* The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station reports that                  
larger plants with more flowers can be grown in a soil mix                      
consisting of one part sphagnum moss, one part peat moss, two                   
parts perlite, and two parts compost than can be grown in four                  
other commonly used mixes.  Sphagnum moss is reported to increase               
aeration and water-holding capacity and to suppress soil-borne                  
diseases.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Many popular perennials can be divided now, including phlox,                  
fall asters, shasta daisies, baby's breath and liriope.  Set up a               
plant exchange with friends and neighbors to share excess plants.               
                                                                                
* Planted now, Sedum spectabile and Hosta tardiflora or H.                      
plantaginea will brighten your flowerbed in the fall with                       
flowers. Aster novae-angliae, which is a blue aster, or the red                 
chrysanthemum cultivar `Minn Ruby' are also late-blooming.                      
                                                                                
* If iris leaves appear thin and limp, check for borers. These                  
grub-like insects can ruin an entire planting if not detected and               
eradicated early.                                                               
                                                                                
* Fill the bare spots in the flower bed with moss roses                         
(Portulaca) and fertilize regularly to encourage blooms into the                
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Blue amaryllis (Hippeastrum procerum) presents a rewarding                    
challenge to patient gardeners. Seeds are available from selected               
mail order seed companies and bloom in about 5 years.                           
                                                                                
* For hot weather color, select from the following: Gloriosa                    
daisy, Madagascar periwinkle, ornamental peppers, Mexican zinnia,               
Amaranthus `Joseph's Coat'.  Plant after all danger of frost is                 
past and enjoy the color from summer through fall.                              
                                                                                
* April is a good time to clean up plants and flower beds. Remove               
dead leaves and twigs and prune dead limbs.                                     
                                                                                
* Make a plot layout of your flower borders.  This is an easily                 
neglected chore, but doing it will provide you with valuable                    
information.  With an accurate plot plan, you will know where to                
locate the spring flowering bulbs you plant next fall.  Plans                   
will also simplify spring and summer gardening as you will be                   
able to correctly identify the plants in border and plan loca-                  
tions for annuals to provide uninterrupted bloom after bulbs and                
early flowering perennials have faded.                                          
                                                                                
* Crowding inhibits daffodil blooming.  Mark crowded clumps so                  
they will be easy to locate for digging and separation in July.                 
                                                                                
* Cut faded flower stalks to the ground on daffodils, hyacinths,                
and other spring flowering bulbs.  DO NOT cut the foliage until                 
it dies naturally.  The leaves are necessary to produce strong                  
bulbs capable of reflowering.                                                   
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Pinch back new pyracantha growth now to promote compact growth                
without sacrificing the crop of berries.                                        
                                                                                
* Shrubs such as andromeda, azalea, blueberry, camellia, mountain               
laurel, and rhododendron grow best on acid soils with a pH of                   
about 5.0.  At a higher pH value these shrubs may become yellow                 
and make poor growth.                                                           
                                                                                
* Prune roses to buds which point outward.  This directs new                    
growth away from the center of the plant and encourages good air                
and sunlight penetration.  Dark-colored canes indicate dead wood.               
Cut back to an inch below these darkened areas.  If no live buds                
are left, remove the entire cane or branch.                                     
                                                                                
* Prune spring blooming shrubs such as forsythia, weigelia, and                 
early spirea after they have completed flowering.                               
                                                                                
* If dogwood leaves have been small, sparse, and pale, fertilize                
with a lawn or garden fertilizer.  Apply the fertilizer one month               
before the average date of the last frost in spring.  Use one                   
half to one cup  of 10-10-10 formula fertilizer.  Broadcast the                 
fertilizer  under the canopy of the tree which is where the                     
greatest concentration of feeder roots grow, and water it in.                   
This will aid bud formation which takes place during the summer.                
                                                                                
* Once new growth begins on trees and shrubs, cut back winter                   
killed twigs to green wood.                                                     
                                                                                
* Aphids on your roses will cause deformed, inferior flowers. If                
you notice aphids, control them with insecticidal soaps or                      
contact your extension agent for an approved insecticide.                       
                                                                                
* Tree seedlings can get off to a strong start in quart or                      
half-gallon milk cartons.  Remove carton tops and bottoms and                   
stand them on a frame covered with 1/4" mesh hardware.  Fill them               
with a mixture of equal parts of peat moss, perlite and                         
vermiculite.  As the tap root grows through the mesh, it is air                 
pruned, forcing the development of fibrous side roots.                          
                                                                                
* Repair damaged tree leaders by training a young and flexible                  
lateral or side branch to become a strong terminal shoot.  Select               
a branch near the top of the tree and gently flex it to an                      
upright position.  Tie it in place, using a stake as a splint, if               
necessary.  Remove the ties when the branch has adjusted to the                 
change and will stay upright on its own.                                        
                                                                                
* Do not fertilize azaleas and camellias until they have finished               
blooming.  They should also be pruned, if necessary, after                      
blooming.                                                                       
                                                                                
* The best time to plant shrubs and trees is on a calm, cloudy                  
day, when excessive water losses from sun and wind exposure will                
not add to transplant shock.                                                    
                                                                                
* When pruning forsythia do not shear it as you would a hedge. It               
is better to thin out the old branches as close to the ground as                
possible. This should be done immediately after blooming.  If it                
has gotten too large, reduce its size by heading back branches                  
individually.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Before planting bare-root shrubs and trees, soak the roots in                 
water for at least one hour, but no more than 24.                               
                                                                                
* If wisteria does not bloom, it needs careful pruning to correct               
the condition. Prune long, straggling canes and all dead wood.                  
Root pruning sometimes helps, too.                                              
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* A well-designed berm or man-made hill can be a landscape asset.               
Even a low berm adds considerable interest on a flat property.  A               
berm can provide screening for privacy, deflect and absorb noise,               
or redirect wind or water flow where necessary.  It can also                    
improve microclimates for plants, its south side staying warmer                 
than the north side.                                                            
                                                                                
* A tall evergreen hedge north of your home can cut heating bills               
by 34% in windswept regions or by 10% in sheltered areas. If your               
house is exposed to winter winds, consider establishing an                      
evergreen planting for a windbreak this spring.                                 
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
(Lawn notes are reviewed by Jack Hall, Extension Agronomist)                    
                                                                                
* Estimate grass seed needs at one and a half to two and a half                 
lbs. of bluegrass seed or four to six lbs. tall fescue per 1000                 
square feet.  Remove debris, level, and firm soil before seeding.               
Cover seed by raking the area lightly.                                          
                                                                                
* Do not mow the lawn until it has grown at least 2 inches. The                 
roots are being renewed in the spring and grass needs vigorous                  
initial top growth.                                                             
                                                                                
* Plant grass seed to fill in bare spots in the lawn.  Loosen the               
soil to a depth of four to six inches with a spade or rake.  Sow                
a high quality seed, spreading it liberally, and work it in                     
lightly.  Use a high phosphorous fertilizer formulated to                       
encourage root development in new lawn areas.  Gently water the                 
newly seeded area.  Keep it moist, but not flooded.  Use a mulch                
to retain moisture.                                                             
                                                                                
* Check with your local extension agent for herbicide                           
recommendations to control grassy, annual weeds in established                  
lawns.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Lawn grasses do best if mowed at the following heights:                       
   Kentucky Bluegrass     1 1/2 to 2 1/2"                                       
   Tall Fescue            1 1/2 to 3"                                           
   Creeping Red Fescue        2 to 3"                                           
   Perennial Ryegrass     1 1/2 to 2 1/2"                                       
   Bermudagrass             1/2 to 1"                                           
   Zoysia Grass             3/4 to 1"                                           
                                                                                
* Once the snow melts and the lawn surface is dry, lawns that                   
have suffered from freeze-thaw damage will benefit from being                   
rolled.  Depressed areas may be filled with topsoil.  Fill in                   
sparser areas by sowing new seed.                                               
                                                                                
* The lawn mower blade should be kept sharp so it will cut the                  
grass instead of tearing it.  If you sharpen the blade at home,                 
be sure to balance it, too.  Place the center hole of the blade                 
on a screwdriver handle held upright in the vise.  Check to see                 
if it balances.  If not, sharpen the heavier side until the blade               
balances on the handle.                                                         
                                                                                
* Remove sticks, rocks, and other debris from the lawn to prevent               
damaging your lawnmower or injuring yourself when mowing.  Check                
your lawnmower and other lawn-care equipment in preparation for                 
the coming season.                                                              
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Wild greens are usually best in early spring when their flavor                
is mild.  Common weeds that are edible include pigweed, mustard,                
purslane, lambs quarter, and dandelion greens.  Harvesting these                
plants from your garden plot will provide double benefits.                      
                                                                                
* Swiss chard, a soft textured, mild-flavored green, provides a                 
constant harvest from spring until fall.  It does not bolt and go               
to seed in hot weather like spinach or lettuce.  Swiss chard,                   
especially the red cultivars, is also suitable for flower                       
arrangements.                                                                   
                                                                                
* The date of the last killing frost in your area can be used to                
calculate the approximate earliest and latest planting dates for                
spring crops.  VCES publication #426-331, Vegetable Planting                    
Guide and Recommended Planting Dates, can be used to determine                  
planting dates and the average length of harvest for each crop.                 
Harvest dates are particularly important if you also plan on                    
having a fall garden.                                                           
                                                                                
* In the Piedmont and Mountain regions, this is the time to set                 
out cool-weather vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts,                 
cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, and onions.  When the danger of                  
frost has passed, transplant tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant.                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Allow about twice the germination time listed on the seed                     
packet when weather is wet or cold.  If there is no sign of                     
growth after this time, dig around a little to check for sprouted               
seeds.  If you find no signs of life, the seed has probably                     
rotted and you will need to replant.                                            
                                                                                
* When planning the vegetable garden, consider that leafy                       
vegetables need at least 6 hours of sunlight in order to develop                
properly.  Vegetables such as tomatoes, squash, eggplant, and                   
peppers need 10 hours of full sun.                                              
                                                                                
* Due to a thin seed coat and high sugar content, super sweet                   
corn varieties are especially sensitive to cold soil conditions.                
Early plantings, when soil temperatures are below 65 degrees F.,                
will not come up as consistently as regular sweet corn.  They are               
also susceptible to corn root maggots and may require preplant                  
soil insecticide treatment.                                                     
                                                                                
* For easy watering of tomatoes and other large vegetables, plant               
a gallon can with holes punched in the bottom near the plants.                  
Watering through the can puts moisture near the roots where it's                
needed and insures adequate irrigation without surface runoff.                  
                                                                                
* If you are interested in exchanging seeds and cuttings of                     
uncommon crops, contact an organization involved in preserving                  
the variety and quality of our food crops.  The Seed Savers                     
Exchange (Kent Whealy, 203 Rural Ave., Decorah, IA 52101), which                
organizes exchanges of vegetable seed, also maintains an heirloom               
seed bank, and a growers network to multiply special collections                
of vegetables.  The North American Fruit Explorers (Jill Vorbeck,               
Rt. 1, Box 94, Chapin, IL 62628) has scion exchange and fruit                   
testing programs.                                                               
                                                                                
* Black plastic pots absorb more heat from the sun than white                   
plastic or clay pots, resulting in quick growth for heat-loving                 
crops.  On sunny days, black plastic pots can be nine degrees                   
warmer than other pots.                                                         
                                                                                
* Plant a bush type winter squash like `Table Ace' or `Gold                     
Nugget' if your garden is too small for the long vine varieties.                
                                                                                
* Asparagus grows best in sandy loam soil.  Set plants 18 inches                
apart in rows four to five feet apart, or in wide beds of three                 
rows with plants 18 inches apart in all directions.  Place plants               
in the bottom of 12 inch deep planting holes or trenches and                    
cover the crowns with two to three inches of well firmed soil.                  
As the plants grow, continue to pull soil over the crowns (about                
two inches every two weeks) until the trench is filled.                         
                                                                                
* Home made trellises can save space when used with vining                      
vegetables.  An A-frame cucumber trellis consists of two matched                
ladder-like structures hinged together at the top; stagger the                  
two sections to allow nesting when stored.                                      
                                                                                
Fruits                                                                          
                                                                                
* If fruit trees lack pollinators nearby, cut bouquets of                       
blossoms from good pollinators and place them in pails under                    
blossoming trees.  Make plans to plant cross-pollinating varie-                 
ties in the fall.                                                               
                                                                                
* Thin young fruit of apples, pears, and peaches to insure large,               
healthy fruit.  Thin within 25 days of the peak bloom, leaving 4                
to 6 inches between fruit.                                                      
                                                                                
* In shaping young fruit trees, round hardwood toothpicks are                   
useful for the early and important job of limb spreading. Simply                
insert a toothpick between the trunk and branch to force the                    
latter to grow outward at about a 60 degree angle rather than                   
upright.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Plant strawberries now if you haven't already.  Place straw                   
around established plants as a mulch after weeding and ferti-                   
lizing the bed.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Grape vines with excessive vegetative growth generally produce                
low quality fruit.  In early spring, remove the canes with the                  
fewest buds to allow light, moisture, and air circulation within                
the plant which will improve fruit quality and quantity.                        
                                                                                
* Improve the fruiting of blueberries by removing unproductive                  
wood that is diseased, dead, and broken.  Also remove old stems                 
(five to six years old) that have begun to lose their vigor.                    
Select six to eight of the most vigorous, upright-growing stems                 
for fruiting wood and remove all others.                                        
                                                                                
* Raspberry canes can be pruned and thinned now.  Removal of                    
excessive canes at ground level will improve air circulation and                
light penetration, encouraging heavy fruiting.  Cut off all dead                
cane tips.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Interior latex paint may be used on the trunks of newly planted               
trees to prevent sunburn.  This material is easy to apply and                   
will gradually weather away, allowing the bark to become                        
resistant to sun exposure gradually.                                            
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Don't give African violets too much room.  They bloom better in               
small pots.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Easter lilies, popular gift plants, need bright, indirect                     
light.  Keep the soil moist.  They can be planted in a sunny spot               
in the garden after danger of frost is over, where they will                    
bloom next year.                                                                
                                                                                
* Don't be too anxious to move your house plants outdoors.  Even                
a slight chill can knock the leaves off tender plants.                          
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Agronomists at Virginia Tech have experimented with portable                  
metronomes to time their paces during the spinner-spreading of                  
seed, fertilizer, or granulated pesticide.  They've found that                  
metronome timing helps significantly in maintaining accurate                    
walking speed while spreading the materials.  How about walking                 
to the beat of music played by a portable tape player to even out               
applications in the home garden?                                                
                                                                                
* Measure rainfall with a rain gauge posted near the garden so                  
you can tell when to water.  You can buy one or make one by                     
marking off the interior of a can in inches and sinking it part                 
way into the ground.  The garden needs about one inch of rain per               
week from April to September.                                                   
                                                                                
* Moles are tunnelling insect eaters particularly attracted to                  
grubs.  When bulbs are missing, or shrubs have root damage, voles               
or field mice are the likely culprits.  These rodents often use                 
mole tunnels as their runs.                                                     
                                                                                
* Delay organic mulching to allow soil to warm deeply, but do                   
mulch before weeds become established.                                          
                                                                                
* Reputable nurseries sell bedding plants that are already                      
hardened off.  Woody and yellow plants are overhardened and will                
be slow to resume growth.                                                       
                                                                                
* Harden transplants of flowers and vegetables by decreasing                    
water, fertilizer, and growing temperatures.  Transplant on a                   
cloudy day, in late afternoon or in early evening to reduce                     
transplant shock.  Water with a half-strength fertilizer                        
solution.  Protect the plants from wind and sun for a few days                  
after transplanting by propping a piece of newspaper or cardboard               
to the south side of the plant.  Water the plants once or twice                 
during the next week.                                                           
                                                                                
* Over or under fertilization can weaken or kill plants.                        
Nitrogen deficiency is characterized by stunted, yellowing leaves               
near the bottom of the plant and slow, stunted growth.  Over                    
application of nitrogen may cause leaf tip burn or all vegetative               
growth (no flowers or fruit).                                                   
                                                                                
* Have you taken soil tests of your gardens, lawn, orchard, and                 
berry patch in the past year?   Don't guess about fertilization.                
Soil analysis will help you base fertilizer and lime applications               
on the present condition of the soil and the nutrients needed by                
your plants.  Fall is the best time to test garden soil so                      
corrections in fertility and acidity can be made before spring                  
planting, but testing now is better than not testing at all.                    
Contact your local extension agent for instructions for sampling                
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Some people report luck with beer as a pesticide for slugs.                   
Place it in small containers sunk in the ground until the soil is               
even with the rim.  Use cheap beer; slugs aren't connoisseurs and               
will happily drink themselves to death on whatever the grocery                  
has on sale.                                                                    
                                                                                
* When transplanting seedlings in peat pots to your garden, be                  
careful not to allow the rim of the peat pot to protrude above                  
the soil level.  If the rim is above the soil level, it will act                
as a wick and draw moisture away from the transplant.  To prevent               
this from happening, break away the rim of the pot before                       
planting and make sure the pot is completely covered with soil.                 
                                                                                
* Control insect pests before they become unmanageable. Young                   
insects are more easily killed by pesticides than mature insects,               
so spray or dust while they are small.                                          
                                                                                
* Put a martin house in the garden to attract these insect-eating               
friends.                                                                        
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* Many herbs are excellent for both casual gardens or formal                    
plantings.  These herbs do well in sandy soil and are partial to                
full sun locations: creeping thyme, sage, santolina, and garlic.                
                                                                                
* For a handsome addition to your herb collection, try lovage                   
(Levisticum officinale), a hardy perennial with a distinctive                   
celery flavor.  Leaves can be used sparingly in soups and salads,               
stems can be blanched or eaten raw, and seeds can be added to                   
candies, bread, and cakes.                                                      
                                                                                
* Start herb seeds indoors in moist planting medium.  Place in                  
bright, indirect light and move to a sunny window when germina-                 
tion begins.  When the seedlings are 2-3" tall, transplant into                 
peat pots for the garden or into clay pots for use on your                      
terrace or balcony.  Some herbs easily grown from seed include                  
chives, sage, sweet marjoram, basil, summer savory, dill, and                   
parsley.                                                                        
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
April 1988 Press Releases                                                       
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Extension                
Technician working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Consumer            
Horticulture, using material provided by Don Davis, City of Lynchburg           
Extension Agent, and Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The                
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent use in           
preparing radio and newspaper features and other educational programs.          
                                                                                
Spruce Mites                                               54 lines             
Flowering Dogwood                                          87 lines             
Catching Some Rays - Season Extenders                      85 lines             
Azaleas and/or Rhododendrons                               88 lines             
Selecting Professional Lawn Services                       69 lines             
Jack-in-the-Pulpit                                         59 lines             
*****************************                                                   
                                                                                
Note to Agents:                                                                 
                                                                                
We know that many of you use the HORT information to assist you in the          
preparation of your own educational efforts.  This work is supported            
by subscriptions to The Virgina Gardener newsletter.  Please encourage          
new subscribers so that we can continue to help you do your job.  The           
following is a press release suitable for print or broadcast media.             
                                                                                
****************************************************************                
                                                                                
The Virginia Gardener newsletter can help gardeners searching for the           
latest in gardening information.  Written by Virginia Cooperative               
Extension Specialists and Agents throughout the state, The Virginia             
Gardener contains articles of seasonal interest that apply to                   
gardeners from the mountains to the seashore.  Topics covered include           
new plant varieties, the latest tips and techniques for successful              
gardening, methods to control garden pests, and reviews of recent               
horticultural research.   Book reviews keep gardeners up to date on             
the latest horticultural publications, and monthly notes help keep              
gardeners caught up with gardening chores.                                      
                                                                                
Subscribers to The Virginia Gardener have the opportunity to                    
participate in seed trials throughout the year.  Past varieties                 
evaluated by subscribers include `County Fair 83' cucumber and `Early           
Prolific' straightneck squash.  Gardeners will find it rewarding to             
assist in the evaluation of new varieties, and lots of fun to receive           
trial seed.                                                                     
                                                                                
To subscribe to The Virginia Gardener for 12 monthly issues, send a             
$5.00 check, payable to Treasure, VA Tech, to The Virginia Gardener,            
Dept. APR, Va. Tech Extension Distribution Center, 112 Landsdowne St.,          
Blacksburg, VA  24060.                                                          
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
Spruce Mite                                                                     
                                                                                
Spruce mites are one of the most serious pests of conifers.  These              
pests, like other spider mites, damage plants by sucking sap from leaf          
cells, causing a stippling or fine flecking on the upper surface of             
the leaves.  Host plants for spruce mites include hemlock, arborvitae,          
spruce, fir, juniper, and pine.  During a severe infestation, foliage           
will become pale; arborvitae turns brown, spruce grayish, juniper               
yellow, and hemlock nearly white.                                               
                                                                                
Spruce mites are not insects.  They are closely related to spiders,             
daddy longlegs, and ticks.  Unlike insects which have six legs and              
three body parts, spider mites have eight legs and a one piece body.            
They also lack wings, antennae, and compound eyes.  Individual spruce           
mites are almost microscopic, yet when they occur in large numbers,             
they can cause serious damage.  Young plants may die during the first           
season of attack, while older trees may progressively weaken and die            
from the bottom up over a period of years.                                      
                                                                                
Spruce mites overwinter as eggs at the base of needles and hatch in             
April or May.  They complete a generation every four to five weeks,             
and so the population can build to damaging levels quickly.  Feeding            
and reproduction occurs most rapidly in cool weather.                           
                                                                                
Symptoms of spruce mite infestation include the fading color of the             
foliage mentioned earlier, falling needles, and fine webbing on the             
foliage.  To determine that the damage is caused by spruce mites, hold          
a white paper below an affected branch and strike the branch sharply,           
knocking some of the mites to the paper where they will crawl about.            
Though only about the size of a pepper grain, the green, red, yellow,           
or black mites will be easy to see as they move against the white               
background.                                                                     
                                                                                
Spraying affected plants with a strong jet of water is frequently               
recommended as a mite control measure.  However, entomologists at               
Virginia Tech feel that water sprays afford insufficient control,               
though the addition of insecticidal soaps to the water may increase             
the effectiveness of this treatment.  Most insecticides are not                 
effective on mites and some, especially carbaryl (Sevin), result in             
increased mite damage by killing beneficial insects that are their              
natural enemies.  Check with your local extension agent for current             
chemical control recommendations.  Remember, mites are not insects, so          
a general purpose insecticide probably will not be effective.  Use              
miticides rather than insecticides to control spider mites.                     
                                                                                
(Reviewed by Eric Day, Insect ID Lab)                                           
                                                                                
Note to agents:  Refer to June 1987 press releases for additional               
information on spider mites.                                                    
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
Flowering Dogwood                                                               
                                                                                
Flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, is attractive throughout the year.           
Spring brings a showy display of white or pink flowers, followed by             
attractive, coarsely textured  summer foliage.  Colorful fall foliage,          
ranging from red through scarlet and purple, is accompanied by                  
brilliant red fruit which is relished by birds.  During winter, the             
horizontal branching habit accented by large flower buds is an                  
interesting landscape feature.                                                  
                                                                                
The true flowers of flowering dogwood are greenish yellow and                   
unobtrusive.  The show is provided by four large bracts which surround          
the flowers.  While the wild, white flowering dogwood is best known,            
named cultivars vary in color from white to deep pink.  Bloom occurs            
in April or May, depending on variety, and will last 10 to 14 days              
during favorable weather.                                                       
                                                                                
With a mature height rarely exceeding 30 feet, flowering dogwood is             
well suited for use as a shade or specimen tree on a small lot or near          
a patio.  Flowering dogwood thrives in light shade, so it is ideal for          
use in a shady shrub border or naturalized on a wooded lot.  This               
small tree casts light shade and does not have a highly competitive             
root system, which makes it possible to grow a wide variety of plants           
underneath the canopy, such as azaleas and rhododendrons which require          
similar culture.                                                                
                                                                                
Dogwoods are difficult to transplant.  Early spring, before flowering,          
is the best time to move flowering dogwood from the wild or to plant            
purchased trees.  Freshly dug, balled and burlapped plants are much             
easier to transplant successfully than bare root plants.  Container             
grown plants also transplant well.                                              
                                                                                
Obtain a plant grown in a hardiness zone equal to or colder than the            
one in which it will be planted, as trees grown from warmer climate             
stock sometimes fail to have adequate bud hardiness for spring bloom.           
Plant the tree in acid (pH 6.0 to 7.0), well drained soil with a high           
organic content, and mulch the surface to maintain soil moisture.               
While dogwoods prefer light shade, full sun is acceptable if the soil           
is kept moist throughout the summer.  Growth will be slow while the             
tree recovers from transplanting.  The only pruning that is necessary           
is removal of dead, diseased, or injured wood.                                  
                                                                                
Dogwood borers, the worst pest of flowering dogwood, can enter a trunk          
through wounds and may girdle and eventually kill the tree as they              
feed below the bark.  Prevent infestation by wrapping the trunks of             
young trees with burlap or tree wrap paper.  A layer of mulch around            
the trees will reduce chances of nicking them with the lawn mower,              
leaving wounds which allow borer entry.                                         
                                                                                
Several diseases can affect flowering dogwood.  Stem cankers appear as          
sunken or swollen areas in the bark and can kill affected branches.             
Cut out and dispose of infected branches, disinfecting the pruners              
between cuts.  Spot  anthracnose is a fungal disease which can ruin             
flowering for the season if a period of wet weather occurs just as the          
bracts are unfolding.  The cup-like buds catch the rain, providing an           
ideal environment for the fungus.  It can cause spotting on the leaves          
as well as the bracts.  If this has been a problem in past years,               
contact your county extension agent for fungicide recommendations.              
Apply the fungicide as the buds open, again when the bracts fall, and           
once again four weeks later when the new flower buds have formed.               
                                                                                
There are many named varieties of flowering dogwood available,                  
including the following:                                                        
                                                                                
Cornus florida rubra `Cherokee Chief' - well known variety with deep            
pink bracts which hold their color well.                                        
                                                                                
Cornus florida `Cloud Nine' - precocious white flowering variety noted          
for blooming as early as age one year.                                          
                                                                                
Cornus florida `Cherokee Princess' - white flowering variety with               
large bracts and vigorous growth.                                               
                                                                                
Cornus florida `Plena' - white flowering variety with semi-double               
bracts.                                                                         
                                                                                
Cornus florida `Welchii' - sparse blooming variety grown for its                
variegated green, white, and pink summer foliage.                               
                                                                                
Cornus florida `Sunset' - first red blooming variegated dogwood;                
summer foliage is green and yellow.                                             
                                                                                
(Reviewed by Joe Eakes, Instructor, Horticulture, and Mary Ann Hansen,          
Plant Clinic Diagnostician)                                                     
**********************                                                          
                                                                                
Catching Some Rays - Cloches, Row Covers, and Other Season Extenders            
                                                                                
Virginia gardeners have a reasonably long gardening season of 160 to            
180 days between frosts; at least it beats the 100 day season of                
northern Maine.  Still, any gardener worthy of the name is always               
looking for a way to hasten that first bite of green or to postpone             
the final day of harvest.  Such things do exist, and they can not only          
accelerate and extend the harvest, they can actually improve harvest            
yields and quality.  Cloches, row covers, cold frames, plastic                  
tunnels, sun pods (not to be confused with pea pods) and variations of          
these are all in the gardener's bag of tricks for season extending.             
                                                                                
Cold frames and cloches have a long and honored place in gardening              
tradition.  Cold frames are bottomless boxes, usually made of wood and          
often insulated in some manner, which have glazing of some sort which           
admits sunlight (traditionally, a discarded but unbroken storm window)          
for a top.  They are used as a halfway house for seedlings, allowing            
them to harden up to outside conditions after a cozy indoor beginning           
without having to face the extremes of the open garden.  They can also          
be used to produce crops in either early spring or late fall, and even          
on into winter.  Lettuce, radishes, small cabbage varieties, or other           
cool weather crops will thrive well into winter in the cool but                 
protected environment of the cold frame.  A steep top angle will allow          
the greatest amount of light and heat into the frame during the winter          
when the sun is low in the sky.   Continue to monitor the temperature           
of the frame when using it for winter crop production as you would in           
the spring or a sunny day might result in prematurely cooked                    
vegetables.                                                                     
                                                                                
The original cloche was a glass bell jar popular in the market gardens          
of Paris.  Today's cloche may be anything from a waxed paper tent to a          
bottomless plastic milk jug, but they all help protect young plants             
from early frosts and drying winds.  Some of the latest designs                 
include solar collectors such as water filled tubes to provide                  
additional frost protection.  The idea has been expanded into tunnels           
of solid and slitted plastic or fiberglass which cover entire rows.             
These can be augmented with the use of black plastic mulch which will           
aid in raising soil temperatures and keep weeds from being a problem.           
If using this system to start a summer crop ahead of schedule, it will          
be necessary to remove the cover as temperatures rise.  Cover the               
black plastic with an organic mulch as summer progresses so roots do            
not overheat.  Crops such as lettuce and turnips brought to harvest             
under the tunnel in the spring should yield abundantly and will not             
suffer many of the insect problems of open field raised plants.  For            
example, the fly that lays the root maggot egg simply can't get to the          
plants to do its dirty work.                                                    
                                                                                
The sun pod is a variation of the cold frame.  Passive solar                    
collectors such as barrels painted black and filled with water store            
heat during the day and release it at night to provide a greater                
degree of frost protection than does a standard cold frame.  The solar          
collectors reduce the utilizable space of the frame, but may make               
growing some vegetables throughout the winter a possibility.  When              
used in the spring, such a set up can give warm weather crops such as           
tomatoes and melons a head start of several weeks.                              
                                                                                
Floating row covers are the latest season extending tools of the                
trade.  Several brands of lightweight spunbonded fabrics are available          
to drape over rows and even over entire gardens.  As the plants grow            
they lift the fabric.  While they give some frost protection (about             
four degrees), they are most valuable for letting plants get the most           
out of the early spring sun by providing protection from drying winds           
and by boosting daytime temperatures under the cover.  These fabrics            
provide excellent protection from flying insect pests; imagine a                
wormless broccoli harvest without applying a drop of pesticide.                 
Harvests of warm weather vegetables should be earlier when plants are           
started under a row cover.  Remember to remove the cover to allow               
insect pollination as necessary.  At the end of the season, the row             
covers make convenient blankets to toss over plants when frost is               
predicted.                                                                      
                                                                                
There are many variations of these devices available for purchase or            
for the making.  The novice gardener may want to experiment with a few          
simple cloches or a row cover in order to lengthen the gardening                
season by a few weeks at each end.  In the warmer parts of Virginia,            
the experienced gardener may be able to use a solar pod or insulated            
cold frame to extend the Virginia gardening season to 365 days a year.          
******************                                                              
                                                                                
Azaleas and/or Rhododendrons                                                    
                                                                                
What is the difference between an azalea and a rhododendron?  An                
azalea has five stamens while a rhododendron has ten.  This isn't               
enough of a difference to keep azaleas out of the genus Rhododendron,           
so scientifically speaking, an azalea is a rhododendron.  The common            
usage of the two terms is convenient, though, when considering their            
use in the landscape.                                                           
                                                                                
Azaleas may be deciduous or evergreen and rhododendrons are all                 
evergreen.  Rhododendrons are larger than azaleas, with some exceeding          
20 feet tall at maturity, while azaleas generally range from one and a          
half to eight feet tall.  Along with their smaller stature, azaleas             
also tend to have smaller foliage and flowers than rhododendrons.               
They both require the same conditions and cultural treatment for                
proper growth.                                                                  
                                                                                
Even without their flowers, azaleas and rhododendrons would have a              
place in the landscape.  Their bold, dark green foliage provides an             
interesting texture in summer shrub borders and they perform admirably          
in foundation plantings when given the proper conditions.                       
Rhododendrons may be used as screens and hedges.  Dwarf prostrate               
azaleas provide an unusual and effective ground cover for shady areas.          
 With the two groups varying in size from one and a half to twenty              
feet, it should be possible to select just the size wanted for a                
particular application.                                                         
                                                                                
Choose a new plant when it is in bloom in order to get the exact color          
desired.  Pinks, purples, reds, whites, salmons, and oranges are                
available, and while you may find a vibrant purple that looks stunning          
in the nursery, consider how it will look in its planting site.  If             
the background is a material of conflicting color, white might be a             
better choice.  Blooming season may be anytime from early April                 
through the end of June.  Keep in mind that a plant raised in a warmer          
climate than Virginia's may be in bloom in the nursery earlier than it          
will be the following year in your garden.                                      
                                                                                
Besides looking at the flowers, take a close look at the branches and           
leaves of any plant you are considering.  Leaves should be dark green           
and healthy looking.  Do not purchase plants with dead stems, fungal            
spots on the leaves, or wilting.  Watch for scale insects, mites, and           
mealybugs.  It is easier to avoid these problems at this point than to          
attempt to eradicate them once they are established in your yard.               
                                                                                
These plants require moist, well drained, acid soil and grow best in            
light shade.  Northern and eastern exposures provide protection from            
the hot summer sun which is a bane to azaleas and rhododendrons.  Soil          
pH should be close to 5.5.  If a soil test shows that the pH is too             
high, use sulfur, aluminum sulfate, or iron sulfate before planting to          
adjust it.  Test the soil annually so that additional acidifiers can            
be added as needed.                                                             
                                                                                
Work a large amount of composted organic matter into the planting               
site.  If the soil does not drain well (water poured into a shallow             
hole does not drain away within an hour), plant the shrubs in raised            
beds as neither azaleas nor rhododendrons will tolerate waterlogged             
roots.  Mulch the soil with an organic mulch to protect shallow feeder          
roots from heat or cultivation damage.  Water during dry spells and             
before the ground freezes in the winter.                                        
                                                                                
Fertilize azaleas and rhododendrons annually with a preparation for             
acid-loving plants.  Wait until blooms have faded to apply fertilizer           
or vegetative growth may be promoted to such an extent that the                 
flowers are hidden.  Follow the directions on the package.  Organic             
gardeners can use cottonseed meal at the rate of two and a half pounds          
per hundred square feet.  Sprinkle it over the mulch and water it in            
well.  New flower buds are set in late summer, so prune after blooming          
to remove dead branches and faded blooms without removing next year's           
flowers.  Removal of old blooms prevents seed production and helps              
assure plentiful flowering the following spring.                                
                                                                                
Insects don't cause trouble as often as do incorrect cultural                   
practices.  Rhododendrons are not commonly beset by harmful insects.            
The most common azalea pest is azalea lacebug, a small insect that              
sucks sap from the foliage leaving it bleached and silvery looking.             
Careful inspection of the undersides of the leaves will reveal the              
tiny adults and nymphs.  Plants are more susceptible to lacebug                 
infestation when grown in full sun. Several insecticides are available          
to control azalea lacebug; contact your county extension agent for              
specific recommendations.  Follow all label directions carefully.               
                                                                                
(Reviewed by Joe Eakes, Instructor, Horticulture)                               
********************                                                            
                                                                                
Selecting Professional Lawn Services                                            
                                                                                
When money is no object, time sometimes is, and a professional lawn             
service will take care of many of the time consuming chores of                  
landscape maintenance.  With professional help taking care of                   
fertilizing and weeding the lawn, protecting it from insect damage,             
and sometimes even mowing the grass, home gardeners are free to turn            
their attention to other tasks that are more interesting to them.               
Hiring a professional is no reason to neglect learning about lawn               
care, though, for without some knowledge about lawns it will be                 
difficult to select a company that can provide you with good, safe              
service.                                                                        
                                                                                
Your first decision when selecting a lawn care company is whether you           
want lawn care or lawn maintenance.  For general maintenance such as            
mowing and trimming, a neighborhood teenager may be the cheapest                
solution, and with a little initial supervision will probably do the            
job as well as you would yourself.  For fertilizer and pesticide                
application, it pays to hire trained professionals who know when and            
how to apply these chemicals in a manner safe to you, your neighbors,           
your plants, and the environment.                                               
                                                                                
There are national and local lawn care services; the size of the                
company is not important, but the training, reliability, and                    
experience is.  When choosing a service ask for references and then             
review them.  Check with the Better Business Bureau to see if there             
are any outstanding consumer complaints against any companies with              
whom you are considering doing business.                                        
                                                                                
When you are satisfied that the company you are considering is                  
reputable, have the representative come to your house to thoroughly             
discuss the services you require, the services the company can                  
provide, and the prices involved.  Walk together around your yard,              
noting any special problem areas and discussing                                 
how the company can treat them.  Find out what the basic care package           
includes and the cost of additional services.  Check into the                   
fertilizer and pesticide schedule, and find out what chemicals are              
applied.  The representative should be knowledgeable and answer your            
questions in a straightforward, concerned manner.                               
                                                                                
Make sure that the company follows good lawn care procedures.                   
Virginia Tech turf specialists recommend fertilizing bluegrass and              
fescue lawns in the fall; check to see that your lawn care company is           
up to date on this.  Discuss timing of weed control.  They should               
apply preemergent crabgrass control before the dogwoods are in full             
bloom and broadleaf weed control when those weeds are actively                  
growing.  The representative and the workers who perform the lawn care          
should show a healthy respect for and knowledge of the chemicals used.          
Proper application is necessary for proper results and for the safety           
of surrounding plants, neighboring property, and the environment.               
                                                                                
One national lawn service company is addressing homeowner concerns              
over excessive use of pesticides and pesticide drift with alternative           
lawn care programs.  They offer a fertilizer only option, a limited             
pesticide option which involves spraying pesticides only when a                 
problem is evident, and a dry option which uses granular fertilizers            
and pesticides which will minimize drift onto neighboring property.             
Find out if you can obtain similar options from the company you                 
select.  Lawn care services use low pressure sprayers which reduce the          
likelihood of drift, but extra care is never wrong when dealing with            
pesticides.  And, of course, there is no need to apply pesticide to a           
nonexistent problem.                                                            
                                                                                
(Reviewed by Jack Hall, Extension Agronomist)                                   
**************************                                                      
                                                                                
Jack-in-the-Pulpit                                                              
                                                                                
Jack-in-the-Pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) is one of the easiest                  
wildflowers learned by novice hikers.  It is easily recognized because          
of the unusual shape of the flower, a yellow green spadix or flower             
spike (Jack) enclosed in a green hood, or spathe, (the pulpit) which            
has attractive purple stripes running along it.  The flower appears in          
May or June.                                                                    
                                                                                
Though Jack-in-the-Pulpit is a native Virginia plant, the large,                
compound leaves add a touch of the exotic to shady borders.  After the          
flower fades the leaves continue to grow, approaching 12 to 24 inches           
in height.  A bright, red berry cluster ripens in the fall, providing           
a spark of color for the autumn garden.                                         
                                                                                
This hardy perennial prefers moist, acid (pH 5 - 6.5) soil rich in              
organic matter, and requires a partially shady location.  Mulch the             
bed with an organic mulch to conserve water.  When conditions are               
suitable, it will return every spring and may spread rapidly.                   
                                                                                
Jack-in-the-Pulpit is best propagated from seed collected in the fall           
and planted at once in moist, humus-rich soil, either in the permanent          
growing location or in a shaded nursery bed.  For indoor growing,               
stratify the seeds in moist media at less than 40 degrees F. for six            
to twelve weeks.  Germination can take from one to six months, but is           
usually successful.  The plants should reach blooming size by the               
second spring after planting.                                                   
                                                                                
Plants may also be purchased from a nursery or collected from the               
wild.  Collect plants from private land with the permission of the              
owner.  Transplant young plants as soon as they appear in the spring,           
or mark the spot the plants are growing and return in the fall when             
the foliage dies back to dig them then.  When moving growing plants,            
try to remove the entire root system and as much of the surrounding             
soil as possible, and replant the plant as soon as possible.  In the            
fall, the one to two inch corms are simpler to move; plant them                 
approximately three times their depth.  Wear gloves when handling               
corms or plants as some people develop a skin rash after touching the           
plants.  Though Jack-in-the-Pulpit is not endangered, do not remove             
all of the plants from a given colony.  One or two plants will give             
you a start without ravaging the forest.                                        
                                                                                
Jack-in-the-Pulpit plants have the unusual habit of changing sex as             
they grow.  Their sex is related to the size of the plant the previous          
year - small plants have no flower, medium have male flowers, large             
have female flowers, and a few plants will have both sexes of flowers.          
To encourage the production of female flowers and the resulting                 
colorful fruit, keep the soil moist throughout the summer and top               
dress the soil with compost to assure adequate fertility.                       
                                                                                
American Indians boiled and ate the starchy corms of Jack-in-the-               
Pulpit.  Some people may find this romantic, but it is not recom-               
mended, as calcium oxalate found in all parts of the plant cause it to          
be poisonous when raw.  Besides, it is much more interesting in the             
garden than on a dinner plate.                                                  
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
April 1988 Question Box                                                         
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Horticulture                      
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension                        
Specialist Consumer Horticulture, using material provided by John               
Arbogast, Roanoke City Extension Agent, along with contributions                
and review by members of the Departments of Horticulture,                       
Agronomy, Entomology, and Plant Pathology, Physiology, and Weed                 
Science.  The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been developed                 
for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features.                        
                                                                                
Male Asparagus Varieties                             22 lines                   
Proper Planting of Tree Peonies                      18 lines                   
Anthracnose on Burning Bushes                        46 lines                   
Treating Mildew on Roses                             27 lines                   
Copious Sap Flow from Pruned Dogwoods                23 lines                   
Winter Injury on Privet                              13 lines                   
Weeds in Ivy                                         18 lines                   
Winter Damage (sun and wind burn) on English Ivy     15 lines                   
Growing Cabbage for Winter Storage                   29 lines                   
Decline of Woody Ornamentals Caused by Plastic Mulch 21 lines                   
Splitting Sweet Cherries                             10 lines                   
Mimosa Webworm                                       20 lines                   
Winter Damage on Spreading Juniper                   15 lines                   
Use of Salt to Weed Asparagus                        13 lines                   
Winter Damage to Rhododendron Buds                   14 lines                   
Treated Wood for the Home Garden                     18 lines                   
*************************                                                       
                                                                                
I have recently heard about some new all-male asparagus varieties               
that are supposed to outproduce other varieties.  Please tell me                
more about them.                                                                
                                                                                
Two recent introductions, `Greenwich' and `Jersey Giant', are                   
all-male varieties that appear on the list of Vegetable Varieties               
Recommended for Virginia, Extension Publication 426-480.  They                  
are both F1 hybrids which are produced by crossing a vigorous                   
female plant with a supermale pollen source.  The supermale                     
pollen produces all male offspring.                                             
                                                                                
These varieties are superior for several reasons.  They exhibit                 
hybrid vigor; `Jersey Giant' and `Greenwich' are highly resistant               
to rust disease and tolerant of fusarium root and crown rot.                    
They are both heavy yielders of stalks with greater diameter than               
female plants.                                                                  
                                                                                
Having all male plants in an asparagus bed carries several other                
advantages.  Male plants generally have higher yields than female               
plants because none of their energy is diverted to producing                    
seed.  With no seed produced in the bed, volunteer seedlings,                   
which usually are of lower quality than the parent plant and                    
compete for moisture and nutrients, are eliminated.                             
                                                                                
These varieties should be available this spring from various                    
retail and mail order nurseries.  One source for `Jersey Giant'                 
is Nourse Farms, R.F.D. Box 485, South Deerfield, MA 01373.                     
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
I planted a tree peony last year and the ten inch stem had a                    
sharp bend in it that I thought would correct itself.  It didn't                
and later broke off at the ground.  This spring four shoots came                
up. Should I cut three of them off, leaving one, or leave all and               
forget the tree effect, letting the plant revert to being a bush?               
                                                                                
Unlike herbaceous peonies which must be planted with the crown                  
between one and two inches below the soil surface, tree peonies                 
should be planted quite deeply.  They are propagated by grafting                
a scion of the desired variety onto herbaceous peony rootstock.                 
The sharp bend you observed on the stem of your plant was                       
probably the graft union, and should have been planted about four               
inches below the soil line to allow the scion to send out its own               
roots.  Since the stem broke off at that point, the new shoots                  
are undoubtedly from the rootstock, not the desired variety.  You               
can let them grow and see if you like the resulting peony, but it               
will not be a tree peony.                                                       
*********************                                                           
                                                                                
I planted burning bushes (Euonymus alata `Compacta') 2 years ago                
in a location that receives sun for about half the day.  The                    
plants grew well the first year and until midsummer of last year                
when individual leaves became yellow and spotted and dropped                    
off; by early September the bushes were bare.  It was a rather                  
damp period when the problem first appeared and I suspected a                   
fungus infection since I could find no insects.  Please give your               
diagnosis and suggestions for prevention/cure.                                  
                                                                                
Leaf spotting and drop are symptomatic  of many conditions such                 
as fungal disease, environmental stress, or insect infestation.                 
Take a sample of leaves and stems showing fresh symptoms to a                   
garden center or your county cooperative extension service for an               
accurate diagnosis.                                                             
                                                                                
Anthracnose scab is one possible cause of your problem.  It                     
causes brown lesions (spots) on the leaves and may be more                      
prevalent in warm, wet periods.  Treat for scab by removing                     
diseased leaves as they fall.  When irrigation is necessary,                    
water the plants at their base so that the foliage is not wetted.               
A foliar fungicide labelled for control of anthracnose scab on                  
euonymus can be applied when warm, wet conditions favor scab                    
development.  Consult your county extension agent for specific                  
recommendations, and follow label directions carefully.  Avoid                  
unnecessary or ineffective spraying by getting a positive                       
identification of your problem before using any chemical control.               
(Reviewed by Robert Lambe, Extension Plant Pathologist)                         
**********************                                                          
                                                                                
I have used phaltan fungicide to treat mildew on roses for some                 
time, but it hasn't worked for me.  What do you suggest?                        
                                                                                
According to the "1986-87 Pest Management Guide for Home                        
Ornamental Plants" from Virginia Tech and Virginia State                        
Universities, the recommended fungicides for powdery mildew on                  
roses include Benlate (also known as benomyl), Milban, Zyban, and               
Triforine (also known as funginex).                                             
                                                                                
Start applications in the spring as leaves expand.  For best                    
control, repeat the treatment at the label recommended interval                 
throughout the season.  If infection has already occurred,                      
control will be difficult; if you routinely have a mildew                       
problem, start spraying before you notice mildew and continue the               
spray program until the first frost.                                            
                                                                                
Fungus infections thrive in areas where air circulates poorly, so               
give roses plenty of room.  Plant bushes several feet from                      
buildings or walls and prune to remove excessive growth.  Remove                
fallen leaves and dispose of them to prevent spread of disease.                 
                                                                                
If you find that powdery mildew and other rose diseases are                     
taking a great deal of time for control, consider the many                      
disease resistant varieties when selecting new roses for your                   
landscape.                                                                      
(Reviewed by Robert Lambe, Extension Plant Pathologist)                         
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
We pruned some limbs and parts of branches from an old dogwood                  
tree recently and since then a liquid has been running from some                
of the cuts.  Did we do something that has damaged the dogwood?                 
We tried to stop the flow by applying pruning paint, but it                     
didn't stick well, and the liquid continued to run out.  What                   
should we do?                                                                   
                                                                                
The liquid running from the cut areas on your dogwood is tree                   
sap.  This flow results when the tree is pruned after mild                      
weather in mid to late winter.  The loss of sap is a natural                    
occurrence and should not weaken the tree.                                      
                                                                                
When pruning is needed, prevent sap flow by pruning after                       
flowering, when the tree is in full leaf.  Another advantage of                 
postponing pruning is that the floral display for the year is not               
reduced.                                                                        
                                                                                
Do not apply pruning paint to the cuts.  Research has shown that                
applying pruning paint over a properly made, smooth cut is mainly               
cosmetic in value, and may actually harm the plant by trapping                  
moisture and creating an ideal environment for fungal disease.                  
As you discovered, pruning paint will not stop the flow of sap.                 
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
We recently moved into a new home that has a planting of privet                 
bushes.  The bushes are about six feet tall, but most of each                   
bush is dead.  There is some live growth at the bases of the                    
plants.  What caused this?  Will the bushes recover?                            
                                                                                
It sounds like your privet suffered severe winter damage in the                 
last few years.  The new growth may be weak but with a little                   
care, it should live.  Remove all dead wood and fertilize the                   
plants in the spring using a general purpose garden fertilizer                  
according to package directions.  Water the plants throughout the               
year when drought conditions exist.  Privet is a fast grower, and               
with this extra care will quickly regain its former size.                       
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
How can I control weeds in my ivy bed?                                          
                                                                                
The first step in controlling weeds in ivy is to identify the                   
weeds.  If grasses are causing the trouble, there are herbicides                
that can be applied to the entire bed without damaging the ivy.                 
Products labelled for use as a grass killer around ornamental                   
plants should do the job.  Consult your county extension agent                  
for specific recommendations, and, as always, follow the label                  
directions carefully.                                                           
                                                                                
Chemical weed control is not possible when ivy is infested with                 
broadleaf weeds because the herbicide would kill the ivy as well.               
Remove these weeds by hand.  This is also an alternative to                     
consider when dealing with grassy weeds.  It may take more time                 
and effort than chemical controls, but it will be safer.  Apply                 
three to four inches of an organic mulch to prevent regrowth of                 
weeds until the ivy spreads enough to crowd out competitors.                    
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
I have English ivy covering a large bank.  Every winter the                     
leaves turn brown and do not green up again until late spring.                  
This did not happen to the English ivy I had in Cleveland, Ohio.                
Is there something I can do to prevent this from happening here?                
                                                                                
English ivy can develop winter burn when exposed to full sun and                
drying winds in the winter.  Though the growing site may be shady               
in the summer, the fall of deciduous leaves may leave the ivy                   
fully exposed to winter sun.  Your Cleveland ivy may have been                  
shaded throughout the year, or the heavier Cleveland snow cover                 
may have provided protection from the sun and wind.   Provide                   
shade and wind protection with a light mulch such as branches                   
from discarded Christmas trees or a covering of spunbonded garden               
fabric.                                                                         
********************                                                            
                                                                                
How should I go about growing cabbage for winter use?  I have                   
successfully grown it for fresh use but am uncertain how to raise               
storage cabbage.                                                                
                                                                                
As with most vegetables, the less time cabbage spends in storage,               
the better the quality, so don't rush seedlings intended for                    
winter use into the ground in early spring.  Wait until July to                 
plant so that harvest comes in the fall.  Seedlings may not be                  
available at garden centers in midsummer so include cabbage seeds               
in your early spring seed orders and grow your own.                             
                                                                                
Start the seed in mid-June in a short nursery row in the garden,                
covering it with vermiculite, compost, or a similar material to                 
ensure good germination.   If the space is available, you can sow               
the seed directly in the final growing location.  Grow as for                   
early cabbage, with an extra eye on water needs as summer                       
progresses.  Take extra care to prevent insect infestation as                   
insects will continue to do damage after cabbage is put into                    
storage.                                                                        
                                                                                
Harvest storage cabbage when heads are crisp and solid, slightly                
before full maturity.  Do not store heads that are loosely                      
formed, bruised or damaged, or that show any signs of disease.                  
Pull the plants up by the roots, trim off loose outer leaves, and               
store them on shelves or hang them by their roots in a cool,                    
humid place (32 to 40 degrees F, 90% humidity).  Beware that the                
cabbage smell is strong in storage; you may want to keep them in                
a cool garage rather than the house.                                            
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
We have plastic covered by wood bark as a mulch around some                     
Japanese hollies and azaleas.  Last summer two of the plants died               
and the others don't look good.  Should we remove the mulch and                 
the plastic?                                                                    
                                                                                
Remove the plastic and use only the organic mulch.  Plastic does                
a good job controlling weeds, but as it blocks weed growth it                   
also blocks air and moisture movement critical to the health of                 
the plants.  Root rot and death can occur in soil that is poorly                
aerated and either too wet or too dry.                                          
                                                                                
An organic mulch such as pine bark allows moisture and air to                   
reach the soil and has the side benefit of releasing nutrients as               
it decays.  Apply it three or four inches deep to control weeds.                
                                                                                
Landscape fabric and porous plastic are recently developed                      
alternatives to traditional plastic mulch.  Both are porous and                 
allow air and water to penetrate to the soil, yet they block the                
growth of weeds.  A thin layer (one inch) of organic mulch can be               
applied on top of these materials to improve appearance.                        
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
I have a large cherry tree in my yard that usually bears loads of               
sweet cherries.  Unfortunately, the birds eat them before we get                
a chance to pick them.  How can we solve this problem?                          
                                                                                
Bird netting is the best bird control method for homeowners.  It                
is available at garden centers and in garden catalogs.  Covering                
a large tree is difficult.  The netting must be wrapped                         
completely around the branches as birds will find their way                     
through any opening.  Dwarf and semi-dwarf trees are easier to                  
protect than standard trees.  Consider selecting one of these                   
dwarf types for this reason if you expand your cherry orchard.                  
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
I have a Sunburst locust tree in my lawn.  Each year the tree is                
beautiful as the new leaves appear in the spring, but around                    
mid-summer something weaves the leaves together and they turn                   
brown.  Eventually, the whole tree is affected.  What can I do to               
prevent this?                                                                   
                                                                                
This sounds like the typical damage of the caterpillar of the                   
mimosa webworm.  This pest frequently feeds on and damages mimosa               
trees.  Honey locusts are also favorite feeding sites.                          
                                                                                
Prevent severe mimosa webworm damage on your Sunburst honey                     
locust tree this summer by spraying the foliage of the tree with                
diazinon or another insecticide labelled for control of webworms                
on locusts.  Start treatments as soon as you notice any damage,                 
usually in late June or early July.  Repeat the spraying in two                 
weeks if more damage is evident.  Consult your county extension                 
agent for specific pesticide recommendations, and follow label                  
directions carefully.                                                           
(Reviewed by John Weidhaas, Extension Entomologist)                             
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
What was once a healthy planting of spreading juniper now has a                 
number of brown tips and branches this spring.  What caused this?               
How can I cure it?                                                              
                                                                                
The injury was probably caused by either winter desiccation                     
(drying) or ice damage.  Drying winds can burn tips of branches,                
and the accumulation of ice and heavy snow on branches can break                
twigs.  Damage that occurred early in winter may not be obvious                 
until mild weather arrives.  To correct the condition, simply                   
prune out the damaged tips with hand pruners.  Fertilize the                    
shrubs this spring with a general garden fertilizer for                         
ornamental plants.  Keep the plants well watered during summer                  
dry spells, and water them deeply before the soil freezes in late               
autumn.                                                                         
******************                                                              
                                                                                
My neighbor told me I can prevent weeds in my asparagus bed by                  
sprinkling salt on it.  Is this true?                                           
                                                                                
Salting an asparagus bed is an old practice that is no longer                   
recommended.  Salt kills by drawing moisture out of plant roots                 
and other plant tissues it contacts.  Asparagus happens to be                   
quite a bit more tolerant of salt than other plants, so the weeds               
usually die before the asparagus is harmed.  Over the years,                    
however, salt levels in the soil can build up to a point where                  
the asparagus is also harmed.  Furthermore, salty soil may make                 
it difficult to use the land for other crops should a change be                 
desired.                                                                        
********************                                                            
                                                                                
What will prevent the buds on a rhododendron from turning brown                 
before blooming?  Mine has been healthy and beautiful until last                
spring when the buds all turned brown.  I do not think it was                   
winter damage as they remained green until it was time for bloom.               
                                                                                
If the leaves and stems beneath the buds remained healthy, it is                
likely that the problem is indeed winter damage.  Winter injury                 
can result in inner browning of the bud which then gradually                    
spreads until the entire bud is brown.  Protect your shrub this                 
coming winter with a burlap wind screen, and continue to water as               
needed whenever the soil is not frozen.  Consider planting a                    
hardier evergreen to the windward side of the rhododendron to                   
afford it some attractive protection from the wind.                             
********************                                                            
                                                                                
What type of treated wood can I use in the garden without causing               
damage to my plants or myself?                                                  
                                                                                
According to Virginia Tech Forestry Products specialists, the                   
best wood for garden construction is wood pressure treated with                 
chromated copper arsenate (CCA).  It will not damage plants and                 
will last many years in the garden.  When using it for garden                   
seating, such as in picnic tables, check the surface for CCA salt               
residues, which will look like a dusting of white crystals.  If                 
they are present, wash the wood off before using it.                            
                                                                                
If you want to use wood on a short term basis, perhaps for a year               
or so in a flower box, plain untreated pine is the most                         
inexpensive wood to use.  Structures lined with plastic and                     
having proper drainage holes will last somewhat longer than                     
unprotected pine, but not as long as pressure treated wood.                     
(Information provided by Fred Lamb, Extension Specialist, Wood                  
Products)                                                                       
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
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Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Research Abstracts - March 1988                                                 
                                                                                
The following research abstracts were prepared by Ellen M. Silva,               
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension                        
Specialist.  They are to assist agents in keeping up to date on                 
recent research in consumer horticulture.  Copies of the original               
articles including lists of varieties and scientific names of                   
plants used in the studies are available from the Consumer                      
Horticulture office.  Send requests on computer to PDRELF.                      
                                                                                
Establishment Rates for Different Bareroot                                      
     Grades of Trees                            86 lines                        
Bolting Differences Among Nine Leaf                                             
     Lettuce Cultivars                          71 lines                        
`Greenwich', a Male Asparagus Hybrid            42 lines                        
Effect of Runner Removal on Strawberry                                          
     Fruiting Response                          75 lines                        
Excerpts From Published Abstracts -             56 lines                        
     Comparison of a Commercial Fertilizer                                      
          with Several Fish Waste Products                                      
          Applied to Field-grown Vegetables                                     
     Fertilizer Placement Effects on Growth                                     
          Responses and Nutrient Uptake of                                      
          Several Vegetable Crops                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
ESTABLISHMENT RATES FOR DIFFERENT BAREROOT GRADES OF TREES                      
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Larger grades of shade trees cost more and are more difficult to                
plant but offer more immediate landscape effects than do smaller                
grades.  This is important to  homeowners who wish to beautify                  
their homes without exceeding their budgets.  Information on how                
quickly smaller grades can catch up with larger grades can help                 
these homeowners decide what size tree to plant.  Differences in                
rates of survival of different grade trees will also be relevant                
to this decision, as will conditions where the trees are to be                  
planted.  Various species will differ in their ability to recover               
from transplanting at different sizes, further influencing a                    
homeowner's decision.                                                           
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
The five smallest grades of green ash showed the greatest                       
percentage increase in trunk diameter at the end of three years,                
but none of the smaller grades had completely caught up with the                
larger grades.                                                                  
                                                                                
100% of the green ash trees planted in a clean cultivated ground                
survived, while smaller grades showed lower survival when planted               
in high grass and mulched with wood chips.                                      
                                                                                
All grades of Norway maple showed 100% survival under clean                     
cultivation.  None of the grades showed much increase in growth                 
the first year while the smaller grades showed a much greater                   
increase than the larger grades during the second year.                         
                                                                                
Linden trees showed poor transplant survival and growth rates for               
both years under clean cultivation.  Smaller grades showed better               
survival than larger grades.                                                    
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Five trees of each of eleven grades of green ash, from 3' whips                 
to 2" bareroot and 2" B&B were planted at each of two locations.                
One group was planted in clean cultivated soil, while one was                   
planted in high grass and mulched with wood chips to cover a 4'                 
to 6' diameter around the trunk.  No supplemental watering or                   
fertilizing was done in either location.                                        
                                                                                
Three grades (6' and 7' branched and 1 1/2" diam.) of linden and                
four grades (4' and 6' whips and 1" and 1 1/4" diameter) of                     
Norway maple were grown under clean cultivation for two years.                  
                                                                                
The five smallest grades of green ash showed the greatest                       
percentage increase in growth at both locations.  Despite the                   
higher growth rates, none of the smaller grades had caught up                   
with the larger grades in size at the end of the third season.                  
Survival was unaffected by grade at the clean cultivated site,                  
with all grades showing 100% survival.  Smaller grades showed                   
much lower survival at the grassy site.  The authors note that                  
the smaller grades were more susceptible to damage by maintenance               
equipment and stress from grass competition.                                    
                                                                                
All grades showed greater growth under clean cultivation, and                   
some of the small grades under clean cultivation surpassed some                 
of the larger grades planted in grass.  For example, the average                
end size for 3' whips planted under clean cultivation was a 1.6"                
trunk diameter while the average for 8' branched trees a 1.4"                   
trunk diameter.                                                                 
                                                                                
100% of all grades of Norway maples survived two growing seasons,               
and the two whip grades showed the greatest percentage trunk                    
diameter increase.  The lindens had poor transplant survival and                
growth rates for all grades, with a higher survival and growth                  
rates for the whip grades.                                                      
                                                                                
The authors commented that though the study was limited in scope,               
it does point out several factors to be considered in choosing                  
tree grades for various landscape situations.  They point out                   
that while larger grades may offer instant landscape effects,                   
smaller grades may catch up soon enough to satisfy the gardener.                
Survival rates of different grades within a species or cultivar                 
must also be considered, balancing the generally quicker trans-                 
plant recovery of smaller grades with their greater chances of                  
damage from maintenance equipment and vandals.                                  
                                                                                
Reference: Litzow, Margaret and Harold Pellett. Establishment                   
Rates for Different Bareroot Grades of Trees. 1982. Journal of                  
Arboriculture 8(10): 264-266.                                                   
********************                                                            
                                                                                
BOLTING DIFFERENCES AMONG NINE LEAF LETTUCE CULTIVARS                           
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Bolting spells the end of the harvest season for lettuce in the                 
home garden.  The leaves become bitter in taste and the seed-                   
stalks elongate.  Seed companies often refer to differences in                  
bolting habits of various cultivars in their advertisements, but                
scientific studies of these claims are not readily available.                   
Information on resistance to bolting of various cultivars would                 
be valuable to the gardener desiring the longest possible lettuce               
harvest.                                                                        
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
There are significant differences in the tendency to bolt among                 
various leaf lettuce cultivars.  Of the nine cultivars tested,                  
`Black Seeded Simpson' and `Ruby' bolted earliest.                              
                                                                                
Bolting is dependent upon environmental factors as well as                      
genetic factors.                                                                
                                                                                
Bolting appears to occur at a later age for fall planted lettuce                
than for spring planted lettuce.                                                
                                                                                
Comparisons of varieties grown one season to different varieties                
grown another season are not valid.                                             
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Five red-leaf cultivars (Deep Red, Prizehead, Redhead, Red Salad                
Bowl, and Ruby) and four green-leaf cultivars (Grand Rapids TBR,                
Salad Bowl, Black Seeded Simpson, and Waldmann's Green) of leaf                 
lettuce were grown in Spring 1984, Fall 1984, and Spring 1985.                  
Plots were established with 3 to 4 week old greenhouse grown                    
transplants and were treated with pronamide for weed control and                
with malathion and a Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner product for                
insect control.  Plots were fertilized and sprinkler irrigated as               
necessary.                                                                      
                                                                                
The plots were checked periodically for bolted plants which were                
marked but not removed so as not to disturb the spacing in the                  
beds.  Dates on which bolting was observed and the number of                    
bolted plants in each plot were recorded.  Bolting was indicated                
by stem elongation and appearance of the floral apex.                           
                                                                                
In Spring 1984 `Black Seeded Simpson' and `Ruby' bolted signifi-                
cantly earlier than the other cultivars.  All nine cultivars had                
bolted by 53 days after transplanting.                                          
                                                                                
`Black Seeded Simpson' and `Ruby' also bolted significantly                     
earlier in Fall 1984.  100% and 81% respectively of these plants                
had bolted before any cultivar besides `Waldmann's Green' (of                   
which 9.4% of the plants had bolted) showed any signs of bolting.               
All of the plants showed some bolting (from 5.8% to 100%) by 61                 
days after planting.                                                            
                                                                                
Spring 1985 brought unusually high field temperatures for several               
days, which may explain the much earlier signs of bolting in all                
of the cultivars.  By 37 days after planting, bolting was evident               
in 6 of the 9 cultivars.  Again, `Black Seeded Simpson' and                     
`Ruby' were among the first to bolt, although they were not                     
signficantly different from several other cultivars.  `Deep Red',               
Salad Bowl' and `Prizehead' were the only cultivars that did not                
exhibit bolting at 37 days after transplanting, though they had                 
also started to bolt by 42 days after transplanting.                            
                                                                                
Reference:  Kahn, Brian A. and Dennis F. Magnello. 1986. Bolting                
Differences Among Nine Leaf Lettuce Cultivars. HortScience                      
21(5):1231-1232.                                                                
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
VARIETY INTRODUCTION - `GREENWICH', A MALE ASPARAGUS HYBRID                     
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Seed production in asparagus has little value to the home                       
gardener.  Any seeds resulting from random pollination are likely               
to produce plants with lower rust resistance and yield, even when               
selected from vigorous females.  Furthermore, volunteer seedlings               
behave as weeds in the cutting bed.  Another problem attendant to               
seed production in asparagus is the diversion of photosynthate to               
the seed instead of to the root, thus reducing the vigor and                    
spear yield of the female plants.                                               
                                                                                
The objective of the researchers introducing this variety was to                
develop an all-male asparagus hybrid.  In addition to avoiding                  
the above problems, male plants produce more spear yield and                    
outlive females.  Though males generally have smaller spears than               
female plants of the same cultivar, the researchers selected a                  
male hybrid, `Greenwich', which produces a much larger yield of                 
jumbo spears than `Mary Washington' or `Rutgers Beacon'.                        
                                                                                
Description                                                                     
                                                                                
`Greenwich' resulted from a cross of a vigorous and dark green                  
plant in a 35-year-old commercial field of `Mary Washington' and                
a supermale plant homogametic for the male gene.  `Greenwich' is                
a male asparagus hybrid with better resistance to rust and better               
tolerance to root rot and stem and crown rot than `Mary Washing-                
ton'.  Yield of marketable spears greatly exceeded that of `Mary                
Washington' or `Mary Washington' selections at 7 out of 8 widely                
separated experimental sites.  At the remaining site, yield was                 
essentially equal.  Jumbo spear yield was compared at 3 sites and               
was 2 to 4 times higher for `Greenwich' than for `Mary                          
Washington'.                                                                    
                                                                                
Note:  `Greenwich' is accompanied by another hybrid asparagus,                  
`Jersey Giant', on the Vegetables Recommended for Virginia list,                
Extension Publication 426-480.                                                  
                                                                                
Reference: Ellison, J.H. and J.J. Kinelski.  1986. `Greenwich', a               
Male Asparagus Hybrid. HortScience 21(5):1249.                                  
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
EFFECT OF RUNNER REMOVAL ON STRAWBERRY FRUITING RESPONSE                        
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Several cultural systems are recommended for commercial as well                 
as home production of strawberries.  While this study was geared                
toward the commercial use of the annual hill cultural system, its               
results are relevant to the home gardener who is using the same                 
system.  Runner removal, a labor intensive practice, is recom-                  
mended for the production of large berries when using the annual                
hill system.   The home gardener may be willing to sacrifice                    
large berries for small ones that require less work, or may want                
to choose a variety whose berry size will not be affected by                    
removing or leaving runners.                                                    
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Removal of runners every two weeks from a variety known to be a                 
prolific runner producer (vigorous runnering) resulted in larger                
marketable yields of berries in both seasons of the study.                      
Removal of runners once a month does not improve yields in this                 
variety.                                                                        
                                                                                
Yields of a low producer of runners (shy runnering) were unaf-                  
fected by removal of runners.                                                   
                                                                                
Marketable yields ,when lower, were reduced because of a higher                 
percentage production of fruit which were not of market size.                   
Home growers may find the smaller fruit acceptable.                             
                                                                                
Note:  This research was performed in Florida, where the culture                
of strawberries is markedly different from Virginia practices.                  
While it indicates that a variety that is a vigorous runnering                  
variety benefited from runner removal and that a shy runnering                  
variety was not affected by runner removal, those results may                   
differ under Virginia conditions.  Virginia Tech recommends the                 
everbearing cultivars for use in the hill system in Virginia,                   
rather than Junebearing types as were used in this study.  When                 
growing Junebearers in Virginia, removal of flower blossoms for                 
the first year is recommended to encourage vegetative growth.                   
This is drastically different from the Florida practice of                      
harvesting the first year.  For those interested in exploring                   
various pruning methods within the constraints of Virginia's                    
climate, some recommended varieties include `Tribute' and                       
`Tristar' (everbearers), `Scott' and `Redchief' (vigorous                       
runnering Junebearers), and `Darrow' and `Jerseybelle' (shy                     
runnering Junebearers).                                                         
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Strawberries were grown for 2 seasons in Florida winter fruiting                
trials using the annual hill cultural sustem.  `Tufts', a                       
prolific producer of runners, and `Dover', a moderate to low                    
producer of runners, were evaluated using five treatments.                      
Runners were removed twice monthly, monthly, not at all, or used                
as resets in the first or second seasons.  The fields were                      
fumigated before planting, and fertilized before the application                
of black polyethylene mulch.  Fruit were harvested, graded,                     
counted, weighed, and evaluated for defects twice a week through-               
out the harvest season.  Fruit weighing less than 10 grams or 2/5               
of an ounce were considered culls and discarded.                                
                                                                                
The removal of runners twice monthly increased early marketable                 
fruit yields for `Tufts' each season and increased total yield                  
for `Tufts' the second season.  Yields for Dover were not                       
affected by runner removal.  The authors believe that the                       
retention of runners for greater than two weeks coupled with the                
energy drain of greater runner production resulted in the                       
decreased yields for `Tufts' when runners were not removed twice                
monthly.                                                                        
                                                                                
Reference: Albregts, E.E. and C. M. Howard. 1986. Effect of                     
Runner Removal on Strawberry Fruiting Response. HortScience                     
21(1):97-98.                                                                    
***************                                                                 
                                                                                
EXCERPTS FROM PUBLISHED ABSTRACTS                                               
                                                                                
 --Excerpts from published abstracts from the 84th ASHS Annual                  
Meeting and 34th ISTH Annual Congress held 6-12 November 1987 in                
Orlando, Florida.  Write directly to the authors for additional                 
information.                                                                    
                                                                                
COMPARISON OF A COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER WITH SEVERAL FISH WASTE                   
PRODUCTS APPLIED TO FIELD-GROWN VEGETABLES                                      
                                                                                
Roger Blatt, Agricultural Centre, Kentville, Nova Scotia, Canada,               
B4N 1J5                                                                         
                                                                                
Results from four growing seasons over two different soil types                 
have indicated that marketable yields from transplanted broccoli,               
cauliflower, cabbage and lettuce receiving a pelletted fish                     
silage can be equal to yields from plants receiving a commercial                
fertilizer, provided that each material is applied at a similar                 
rate of nitrogen before planting.  Experiments have dealt with                  
the best form of fish silage (powder, pellet, liquid) to apply,                 
method of application and nitrogen rate.  Generally, the pelleted               
form of the dry fish silage offered the greatest accuracy of                    
application; however, the liquid form was more cost competitive                 
when compared with 17-17-17.  A single preplant application                     
supplying all the required nitrogen was more effective and                      
practical when compared with a split application.  In one season                
broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower plants                      
receiving a preplant application of 100 kg N/ha as liquid fish                  
silage produced marketable yields equal to plants receiving fish                
bone meal applied as a split treatment of 100 kg N/ha preplant                  
plus 50 kg N/ha as a sidedress.                                                 
                                                                                
FERTILIZER PLACEMENT EFFECTS ON GROWTH RESPONSES AND NUTRIENT                   
UPTAKE OF SEVERAL VEGETABLE CROPS                                               
C.B. Smith, K. T. Demchak, and P.A. Ferretti, Department of                     
Horticulture, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,               
PA  16802                                                                       
                                                                                
Fertilizer placement was studied in an extensive series of                      
experiments with 4 crops, each at 4-9 production sites in                       
Pennsylvania during 1981-3.  Treatments were 1,2, or 4 increments               
of fertilizer broadcast, banded, broadcast/banded, or banded/-                  
sidedressed and a check.  Fertilizer applied was NP, each at 28                 
kg/ha (sweet corn and snapbeans or NPK, each at 56 kg/ha (tomato                
and cabbage) as urea, triple superphosphate and muriate of                      
potash.  A single band 2" to the side of seed and 2" deep (sweet                
corn and snapbeans) or double bands 4" to each side of plants and               
4" deep (tomatoes and cabbage) were applied.  Growth responses                  
were similar when single increments were broadcast or banded.                   
With double increments, banding or combinations including banding               
yielded higher than double and at least equal to quadruple                      
increments broadcast.  Leaf N and K were variable with banding                  
and broadcasting.  Leaf P was enhanced by banding double                        
increments except with sweet corn.  Leaf Ca and Mg were increased               
by banding with sweet corn and snapbeans.  Banding resulted in                  
consistently higher leaf Mn with all crops.                                     
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
March 1988  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                  
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Horticulture Extension            
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Consumer              
Horticulture, using material provided by John Arbogast, Roanoke City            
Extension Agent.  The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                   
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features.              
                                                                                
Peachtree Borer                                          48 lines               
Running or Ground Cedar                                  12 lines               
Pruning Rose Bushes                                      23 lines               
Adverse Effects of Growing Strawberries in Asparagus     18 lines               
Gumpo Azaleas and Other Spring-flowering Shrubs for Sun  17 lines               
Squirrel Deterrents                                      30 lines               
Earthworms                                               22 lines               
Leaf Tip-burn in Pothos House Plants                     39 lines               
Combining Volck Oil with Lime-Sulfur                     17 lines               
Root-feeding vs. Surface Feeding                         11 lines               
Acid Rain on the Lawn                                    22 lines               
Paving High Traffic Lawn Areas                           14 lines               
Pachysandra                                              23 lines               
                                                                                
******************                                                              
                                                                                
What causes a jelly-like substance to gather around the base of my              
peach and plum trees?                                                           
                                                                                
The gummy, jelly-like mass you find on the trunk of a peach or plum             
tree near the soil line might be caused by a worm-like insect that is           
the larval stage of the either the peachtree borer or the lesser                
peachtree borer.  The peachtree borer attacks the trunk of the tree             
and the lesser peachtree borer feeds in the scaffolding branches.  It           
is also possible that the deposits oozed out naturally from bark                
cracking or mechanical injury locations.  When gummy sap is mixed with          
sawdust-like particles it is evidence of borer infestation. If the              
gummy material is clear, without any signs of sawdust in it, the bark           
may have cracked for some unrelated reason.                                     
                                                                                
Small mechanical injuries require no treatment.  However, if the                
injury is recent you may want to spray the wound with a fungicide such          
as captan, which will prevent fungal infection while the tree heals.            
Take precautions to avoid further mechanical injury.  If you have been          
nicking the tree with the lawn mower, remove the turf from around the           
trunk and apply a mulch to prevent regrowth.                                    
                                                                                
The insecticide endosulfan, sold as Thiodan or Thiogard, is                     
recommended for peachtree borer sprays.  The treatments must be timed           
properly for adequate control.  The lesser peachtree borer produces             
two generations of offspring in Virginia.  Spray for the first in late          
May, covering the scaffolding branches thoroughly.  When applying               
pesticides follow the label carefully.  Immediately after harvest               
apply the insecticide to the trunks and large limbs to control the              
second generation of lesser peachtree borer and the single generation           
of peachtree borer.  CAUTION: Do not spray any fruit itself with this           
chemical.  Also, do not apply within 21 days of harvest.                        
                                                                                
An alternative control for the peachtree borer is the use of PDB                
(paradichlorobenzene) moth crystal.  This procedure will not control            
the lesser peachtree borer.  In late summer or the fall, remove grass           
and weeds from the base of the tree for a distance of 1 foot.  Scatter          
PDB crystals in a band 1 to 2 inches wide, at least 2 inches from the           
tree trunk.  Use  1/2 ounce for trees under 3 years, 3/4 oz. for trees          
3 to 6 years, and 1 and 1/2 oz. for trees over 6 years old. Cover the           
tree base and crystals  with 4 to 6 shovelfuls of soil packed down              
with the shovel. Crystals placed against the tree may cause injury.             
Remove the crystals and the mound of soil from around the trunk after           
about 2 weeks, to avoid injury to the tree.                                     
                                                                                
Borers feed throughout the winter and spring, so if you think your              
trees are currently infested, you can try to kill individual borers by          
inserting a flexible wire into their holes.                                     
**************                                                                  
                                                                                
What is the botanical name for what I have always known as running              
cedar?  How is it propagated?                                                   
                                                                                
The botanical name of the plant you're asking about is Lycopodium               
complanatum. It is also known as ground cedar and is one of the club            
mosses.  This plant is propagated by cuttings, as it produces spores            
rather than seeds.                                                              
                                                                                
If you would like to grow it, you may collect plants from the wild as           
it is not an endangered species, though you will need the permission            
of the landowner.  It requires a moist, shady location with acid soil.          
****************                                                                
                                                                                
Are rose bushes supposed to be cut back?  How new plants started?               
                                                                                
Bush type roses should be pruned annually in the late winter or early           
spring just as the buds are swelling.  There are several important              
jobs in pruning a bush type rose.                                               
   *  Remove dead, diseased, or damaged cane parts.                             
   *  Cut out thin or weak growth made during the preceding                     
summer, especially the growth directed toward the center of the bush.           
   *  Thin out any stronger side branches remaining to give room  for           
vigorous new growth this coming summer.                                         
   *  Cut back the remaining strong canes to a height of 30-36 inches           
for a standard bush type rose.                                                  
                                                                                
Roses can be started from cuttings taken during midsummer from young            
flowering shoots.  Take six inch cuttings from flower shoots just as            
the flowers are fading.  Cut off the remainder of the dying flower and          
all but two sets of leaves before sticking the cutting in loose flower          
bed soil in a shaded area.  Water the cuttings well.  To hasten                 
rooting, a large glass jar can be inverted over the cuttings to form a          
mini-green house.  Be sure the sun does not hit the jar or the                  
interior may overheat.  Even though the inverted jar holds humidity             
around each cutting, it is important to check the need for water.               
******************                                                              
                                                                                
Is it all right to let strawberries grow into a bed of asparagus or             
should I pull out the plants?                                                   
                                                                                
It would not be a good idea to let strawberries grow into a bed of              
asparagus.  The plants would compete for moisture and nutrients from            
the same area, even though the asparagus roots should be much deeper            
than those of the strawberry plants.  Each plant would be a weed to             
the other.                                                                      
                                                                                
Under such competition, there would be a general weakening in the               
plants. The effects of summer stress could be severe if both plants             
share the same ground.  Both of these perennial plants need to have             
strong summer growth in order to provide good spring production.                
                                                                                
Pull dormant strawberry plants from the asparagus bed now, before the           
asparagus shoots appear. During the growing season, direct young                
strawberry runners from neighboring beds away from the asparagus.               
***************                                                                 
                                                                                
I would like to plant azaleas on the south side of our house.  What             
type do you suggest?                                                            
                                                                                
In general, azaleas are hard to establish in a location that receives           
hot afternoon sun.  Most azalea varieties prefer a partly shady                 
location,  though they can tolerate morning sun.                                
There is one azalea, the Gumpo type, that is well known for its                 
tolerance of full sun.  The Gumpos come in various colors and are               
generally  low growing.                                                         
                                                                                
You may want to talk to various nurserymen and garden center personnel          
to get suggestions on other shrubbery that will give you the color you          
want and yet thrive in the hot afternoon sun.  Some evergreen                   
possibilities are cotoneasters and various barberries.  Deciduous               
possibilities for a similar sized shrub with spring bloom include               
black chokecherry, dwarf flowering almond, or pearlbush.                        
**************                                                                  
                                                                                
I want to know what I can do to keep squirrels from digging the roots           
of my azaleas and rhododendrons and killing them.  Is there some                
method that will work or chemical I can use to repel them?                      
                                                                                
There are several methods that you can try to keep the squirrels from           
digging around your shrubs and doing damage.  However, keep in mind             
that these little animals are pretty smart and may still find a way to          
get to their favorite spots, especially if they have previously buried          
nuts or other food items there.                                                 
                                                                                
One squirrel deterrent that also keeps other animals from digging in            
the ground is pieces of small-meshed chicken wire fit over the ground           
around the shrubs.  The chicken wire can be held down with sticks or            
stones or pieces of wire bent into a "U" shape and then pushed into             
the soil.  A very light sprinkling of mulch, not over 1/2 inch, can be          
spread over the chicken wire to camouflage it.                                  
                                                                                
Squirrel repellent is available from some garden or farm centers or             
hardware stores.  Be sure to read the directions carefully and proceed          
cautiously.  Choose products designed to be applied to the soil,                
rather than those which are applied to the plant to deter eating.  The          
repellant may have to be re-applied fairly often.                               
                                                                                
Dried blood or blood meal can be spread over the soil around the                
shrubs to serve as a deterrent to squirrels.  This material is sold as          
an organic fertilizer and should be available in small packages.  This          
method operates on the smell principle; squirrels don't like the smell          
of this stuff.  Unfortunately, most people don't like the smell                 
either.                                                                         
***************                                                                 
                                                                                
I've been told that earthworms are doing damage to my lawn.  I have             
noticed a few areas where there are small piles of soil.   Should I             
worry about these?                                                              
                                                                                
Do not worry about earthworms in your yard.  Rather, you should worry           
if earthworms are not in your yard.  They are generally found in                
healthy soil with a fairly high organic matter content, exactly what a          
gardener wants.  If the small piles of soil, or castings, bother you,           
simply rake them away when you notice them.                                     
Earthworms feed only on dead plant matter, and as they do, they                 
play a vital role in the return of the nutrients contained in the dead          
plants to the soil.  They bring soil from deep in the ground to the             
surface where it is deposited as nutrient rich casts.  Their burrowing          
activity improves soil aeration and drainage.  Research has shown that          
their casts contain substances that actually promote plant growth.              
                                                                                
Try to attract earthworms in your gardening practices.  Avoid using             
pesticides which are toxic to earthworms, such as malathion, benomyl,           
and carbaryl.  Add organic matter to the soil to improve the soil               
texture and provide food for the earthworms.  Organic mulches will              
conserve soil moisture, which also benefits earthworms.                         
******************                                                              
                                                                                
I bought a pothos plant two months ago and am now having a problem              
with the tips of the leaves turning black.  Please let me know how I            
can stop this.                                                                  
                                                                                
Pothos are sturdy indoor plants for areas of moderate to low light,             
rarely suffering from insect or disease problems.  Therefore, the tips          
of the leaves turning black is probably due to watering or                      
fertilization problems.  Let's look at the possibilities.                       
                                                                                
Pothos need to be grown in a well drained soil mix that is                      
allowed to dry to the touch before watering.  Blackening of the leaf            
margins or tips is a very common response to over watering.  Determine          
the frequency of watering by the feel of the soil rather than the day           
of the week.                                                                    
                                                                                
Leaf tip or margin discoloration also occurs if a pothos is grown               
under severe stress of very dry soil with inadequate watering.  In              
either case, the discoloration may be accompanied by leaves becoming            
yellow.                                                                         
                                                                                
If the leaf color is good, except for the blackening of the tips, over          
fertilization may be the cause.  As with other foliage plants grown in          
containers, pothos can benefit from the application of a liquid                 
fertilizer mixed and applied according to package directions during             
periods of new growth.  Do not fertilize during the winter when the             
pothos is not actively growing.  Excess fertilizer  could cause leaf            
tip discoloration due to the buildup of salts, which are fertilizer             
residues, in the soil.                                                          
                                                                                
If you have fertilized more often than necessary, the first thing to            
do, of course, is to cut back on the frequency or the amount of                 
fertilization.  Leach the excess fertilizer out of the soil so that no          
further damage will be done.  To do this, place the plant in the sink           
or tub and water it until water flows copiously through the holes in            
the bottom of the pot.  Repeat this watering five or six times over             
the next few hours.  This heavy watering should not cause overwatering          
problems since the soil is then allowed to dry to the touch before the          
next regular watering.                                                          
********************                                                            
                                                                                
I have read conflicting advice about the use of Volck oil in                    
combination with lime-sulfur for dormant spraying.  Some authorities            
warn against mixing them, but one major manufacturer prints a formula           
for mixing them on the labels of both products.  What is your                   
recommendation?                                                                 
                                                                                
Virginia Tech fruit tree experts recommend that wettable sulfur not be          
used with oil spray, except during the dormant season.  They also               
caution against the use of any other pesticide in combination with oil          
sprays.  If you will read the label carefully, you will probably find           
that the combination was recommended for winter or dormant use.  This           
emphasizes the importance of carefully reading and explicitly                   
following manufacturer's directions and precautions.  Extension                 
agents, chemical salespersons, and users should not recommend or use            
any chemical product in any manner other than that stated on the                
label.                                                                          
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
Is root-feeding fruit trees preferred over scattering fertilizer on             
the surface of the ground?                                                      
                                                                                
Fertilizer scattered evenly over the surface of the ground above the            
root system is just as effective for plant maintenance as is root               
feeding the soil surrounding the plant is cleared of vegetation.                
Scatter the fertilizer starting about six inches away from the base of          
shrubs or about 1 foot from the trunk of a tree and extending to a              
short distance beyond the ends of the branches.  The fertilizer can be          
lightly raked or scratched into the mulch or soil and then watered in.          
If turf is growing around the plant, root feeding is preferred so that          
nitrogen has a chance to reach the plant roots.                                 
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
What does acid rain do to my lawn?                                              
                                                                                
Pollutants in the atmosphere, whether in precipitation or as gases, do          
damage to growing plants.  Emissions from industry, power plants,               
motor vehicles, and homes burning fossil fuels consist of three main            
pollutants - nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons.  These           
pollutants combine with moisture in the atmosphere to produce acid              
rain.  Although lawn grass leaves are more resistant to pollution               
injury than those of many foliage plants, the acid rain may increase            
soil acidity.  This depends on the buffering capacity of the soil,              
which in turn depends on the mineral and organic matter content.                
Most lawn grasses grow best when the soil acidity is not below 5.8 on           
the pH scale.  If routine soil tests show that your soil is                     
approaching this acidity, apply ground limestone at the rates                   
recommended in the soil test results.  Aim to keep the pH of your lawn          
between 6.0 and 7.0.                                                            
                                                                                
Your lawn may actually receive a small benefit from acid rain.  The             
sulfur and nitrogen in the pollutants provide a small amount of                 
fertilizer for the grass.  This is little comfort, but at least it's            
something.                                                                      
**************                                                                  
                                                                                
We have an area around our picnic table which gets a lot of hard use,           
especially from my husband who uses the table to do frequent                    
woodworking projects which generate sawdust.  The grass is not                  
tolerating this abuse very well.  What can we do to improve the                 
situation?                                                                      
                                                                                
There are limits to the amount of traffic and use lawn grasses can              
tolerate.  It may well be that you have exceeded these limits in your           
picnic table area.  Why not design an area for the table and other              
heavy use outdoor activities using a non-living, wear-resistant                 
surface such as flagstones, brick, or decking?  That would look better          
than grass that is struggling to survive, and would eliminate some              
tricky mowing at the same time.                                                 
******************                                                              
                                                                                
I would like some information on the ground cover pachysandra.  I am            
considering planting some along my front walk this spring.                      
                                                                                
Pachysandra is one of the best ground covers for shady areas.                   
However, the 2 to 4 inch long evergreen leaves will turn yellow if              
they are growing in full sun.  Also, locations that receive a lot of            
wind, especially in the winter, are not suited to this ground cover.            
Where the conditions are right, the plant forms a solid, leafy,                 
evergreen mat 6 to 12 inches high, making it ideal where there is only          
room for a very low plant.                                                      
                                                                                
Pachysandra is easily transplanted and early spring is an excellent             
time of year for planting.  This ground cover likes a moist, well-              
drained soil that is well supplied with organic matter.  Pachysandra            
can do well under the branches of shallow rooted trees.                         
                                                                                
If the area you have in mind is suitable for pachysandra, work several          
inches of organic matter, such as compost or peat moss, into the soil           
and then plant the pachysandra plants about 10 to 12 inches apart.              
Water well initially and then as needed during the growing season, but          
do not keep the soil constantly soggy.  Use an organic mulch to                 
control weeds until the plants are growing thickly enough to crowd out          
competitors.                                                                    
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases March 1988                                                       
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Extension                
Technician working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Consumer            
Horticulture, using material provided by Don Davis, City of Lynchburg           
Extension Agent, Deborah C. Smith, Prince William Extension Agent, and          
Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The Virginia Gardener Press             
Releases have been developed for agent use in preparing radio and               
newspaper features and other educational programs.                              
                                                                                
Primroses                                       46 lines                        
San Jose Scale                                  40 lines                        
Pruning Deciduous Shrubs                        71 lines                        
Prevention of Fruiting in Ornamentals           51 lines                        
Spring Lawn Care                                85 lines                        
Handling of Bare Root Perennials                59 lines                        
                                                                                
PRIMROSES                                                                       
                                                                                
Primroses are likeable plants with prolific and early blooms.  The              
plants form basal rosettes of crinkly, deeply-veined, dark green                
leaves from which vertical stalks of bright and fragrant flowers                
arise.  Primroses are hardy to Zone 5 and  bloom for longer than                
four weeks in damp, cool weather, conditions in which they will                 
thrive.                                                                         
                                                                                
Successful culture of primroses requires a cool, partly shady spot              
away from tree roots as primroses may not successfully compete with             
them for moisture.  If primroses become too dry in the summer they              
will either lose their leaves and go dormant, or develop a woody                
rootstock resulting in diminished strength and hardiness.  Primroses            
thrive in the light shade of small ornamental trees where they add a            
colorful touch to the spring display.                                           
                                                                                
To start a primrose patch, either purchase seedlings from a nursery             
or sow seeds in a nursery bed or their final location.  Starting                
primroses from seed is inexpensive but challenging.  Fresh seeds                
sown in fall are likely to germinate well and the resulting plants              
will flower the following spring. Germination is slow and sporadic              
and the seed bed must be kept moist.  When planting seed saved over             
the winter, try breaking the seed dormancy by freezing and thawing              
the seed several times.                                                         
                                                                                
Once the primrose patch is established it must be maintained                    
yearly.  Divide the plants when their leaves begin to overlap                   
neighboring plants. Divisions are simple and should be done                     
immediately after the blooming period, but never during a dry                   
spell.  Replace the central crown in its original position and plant            
the new divisions in a similar location. If only half of the patch              
is disturbed each year the patch will never miss a blooming period.             
                                                                                
                                                                                
Occasionally slugs and spider mites will cause foliage damage, but              
rarely is either a serious problem.  Both can usually be controlled             
without the use of chemicals.  Handpick the slugs from the plants at            
dusk.  Spray the plants with cold water to reduce spider mite                   
populations.                                                                    
                                                                                
Of the various species available, Primula x polyantha is one of the             
most popular.  It is available in a wide range of colors and each               
flower has a large yellow central eye.  Unlike some of the other                
primrose species, it does not demand perfect primrose conditions,               
and therefore is a good choice for the beginning primrose gardener.             
***************                                                                 
                                                                                
San Jose Scale                                                                  
                                                                                
San Jose scale is perhaps the most widely distributed and most                  
destructive scale insect pest in the United States.  Scale insects              
are a peculiar group which look quite different from the typical                
insects we encounter day to day.  Small, immobile, and with no                  
visible legs or antennae, they resemble individual fish scales                  
pressed tightly against the plant on which they are feeding.  Mature            
San Jose scales are circular, slightly convex, and smoky black.                 
They are about one sixteenth of an inch across.  Under a magnifying             
glass conspicuous dark gray concentric rings are visible.                       
                                                                                
Like all scale insects, San Jose scales feed on plant sap.  They                
have long, thread-like mouthparts (stylets) which they use to feed              
on plant sap while under the protection of their waxy, scale-like               
coverings.  Over sixty plants, including apple, pear, peach, cherry,            
ash, poplar, lilac, elm, willow, pyracantha, and cotoneaster, are               
known hosts for the San Jose scale.  Feeding by the insects slowly              
reduces plant vigor.  Heavily infested plants grow poorly and may               
suffer dieback of twigs and branches.  Occasionally, an infested                
host will be so weakened that it dies.                                          
                                                                                
Control of scales must be carefully planned to coincide with                    
vulnerable stages of the scale life cycle.  San Jose scale is an                
armored scale; that is it secretes a protective cover over its body.            
It overwinters as eggs beneath the female cover.  At this stage,                
dormant oil is an effective control.  Apply it in late spring before            
leaves appear.                                                                  
                                                                                
The other vulnerable stage in a scale insect's life is the crawler              
stage, when newly hatched scales are migrating to new feeding sites.            
After a few days the crawlers settle, insert their mouthparts, and              
begin feeding.  Soon they secrete their protective cover and lose               
their legs.  Several insecticides are labelled to control scale                 
crawlers, but timing is important as the crawler stage is short.  In            
Virginia, there are at least three generations of San Jose Scale a              
year, with the crawlers appearing roughly from June 10-15, July 10-             
15, and September 10-15.  Consult your local Extension agent for                
current insecticide recommendations.                                            
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
PRUNING DECIDUOUS SHRUBS                                                        
                                                                                
Deciduous shrubs are woody plants that drop their leaves in autumn.             
Examples of deciduous shrubs are lilac, forsythia, snowball                     
viburnum, and cranberry cotoneaster.  They are valued in the                    
landscape for either their foliage, branching characteristics, fall             
leaf color, flowers, or colored twigs in winter. Some have colorful             
fruits that attract birds.                                                      
                                                                                
Select deciduous shrubs based on their function in the landscape.               
Shrubs have different habits of growth, from fast to slow with                  
various shapes such as upright, wide-spreading, arching or horizont-            
al branching. Selection of the right plant for height and spread at             
maturity can reduce the need for pruning.                                       
                                                                                
Before starting to prune, know what you wish to accomplish. Pruning             
is one of the most essential but least understood garden maintenance            
practices. Good pruning is the selective removal of branches without            
changing the plant's natural appearance or habit of growth. Shrubs              
trimmed to an artificial size or shape require more pruning than                
shrubs pruned to keep their natural shape. Prune to improve the                 
health of the shrub by cutting out dead, diseased, broken, and                  
overgrown branches that interfere with new growth. Pruning can also             
control the size and shape of shrubbery.                                        
                                                                                
There are two basic pruning cuts, thinning out and heading back.                
When thinning out, a branch or twig is cut off at its point of                  
origin from the parent stem, at a lateral side branch, at a "Y" of a            
branch junction, or at the ground level.  This method of pruning is             
best done with hand pruners, not hedge shears. Thinning out results             
in a more open plant and does not stimulate excessive new growth.               
Considerable growth can be cut off without changing the plant's                 
natural appearance or habit of growth. Plants can be maintained at a            
given height and spread for years by thinning out. Thinning allows              
room for growth of side branches.                                               
                                                                                
A specific application of the thinning cut is renewal pruning, in               
which the oldest branches are gradually removed from an overgrown               
shrub at the ground level. It is best to do this over a three year              
or longer period, leaving the younger more vigorous branches for                
replacements.  New shoots that develop can be cut back to various               
lengths by the thinning method to develop the desired shape.                    
                                                                                
Heading back refers to cutting back a branch anywhere along the                 
length of a stem.  The cut may be above a bud or below a bud, and it            
may even leave a stub. Shearing is a form of heading back in which              
the entire surface of the plant is cut back to a uniform surface.               
The effect of heading back is to stimulate vigorous new growth below            
the cut. This method of pruning is frequently done with hedge shears            
without regard for the natural form of branching of the plants. If              
every branch or twig is headed back, more growth develops than was              
removed by the pruning. The natural form of the plant is altered by             
the extra growth.  This is desirable when growing formal hedges, but            
can ultimately result in interior leaves dropping from the plant                
because the dense shell of foliage formed at the surface of the                 
plant shades them out.                                                          
                                                                                
Avoid leaving stubs when pruning even a small shoot or twig. Short              
stubs will not heal properly and will eventually provide a source of            
entry for insects and diseases. Cuts too far above a bud may destroy            
the bud by decay or die-back. Cuts too close to the bud may dry out             
the bud, especially in winter. The proper pruning cuts should be 1/8            
to 3/8 of an inch above the bud slightly slanted away from the bud.             
                                                                                
The ideal time to prune most plants is during the dormant season                
prior to the start of new growth. Flowering shrubs are an exception             
to this rule.  Shrubs that bloom in spring may be pruned immediately            
after flowering, as winter pruning would remove the flower buds and,            
thus, the spring show.  Late flowering shrubs that bloom on wood                
produced the same year can be pruned before growth starts in the                
spring.                                                                         
*************                                                                   
                                                                                
Prevention of Fruiting in Ornamentals                                           
                                                                                
Many ornamental plants grown by homeowners for their profusion of               
flowers in the spring or other landscape features have the drawback             
of producing a large amount of fruit that by late summer can be                 
malodorous and/or messy when dropping on lawns, sidewalks and cars.             
There are ways to enjoy these plants  and avoid the fruity mess.                
                                                                                
When attempting to inhibit fruit formation, first recall what causes            
fruiting.  Female flower parts must be pollinated by male flower                
parts - whether both parts are within the same flower (a perfect                
flower), in separate flowers on the same plant (monoecious species),            
or on separate plants (dioecious species).  For example, apples,                
buckeyes, and Nandina have perfect flowers while firs, alders and               
birches are monoecious, and holly, juniper, yew, willow, sumac,                 
poplar, ash, ginkgo, Osage orange, fringe tree, bittersweet,  and               
tree of heaven are dioecious.                                                   
                                                                                
When choosing a plant, avoid fruit problems by asking for a male                
plant if the plant is dioecious.  If you are buying a ginkgo at a               
nursery you are almost assured of getting a male because the odor of            
the female's fruit is so undesirable that females are rarely sold.              
                                                                                
Some species may be available as guaranteed seedless or fruitless               
cultivars or varieties.  For example, several ash and honeylocust               
varieties are seedless.  The following are some fruitless/seedless              
cultivars now available.                                                        
                                                                                
Acer rubrum `Columnare', predominantly male - Columnar Red Maple                
Acer saccharinum `Silver Queen', seedless - Silver Maple                        
Aesculus Hippocastanum `Baumannii', seedless - White   Horsechestnut            
Fraxinus americana `Autumn Purple', male, `Autumn Applause',   male,            
and `Rosehill', male - White Ash                                                
Fraxinus pennsylvanica `Marshall's Seedless' - Green Ash                        
Ginkgo biloba `Autumn Gold', male - Ginkgo                                      
Gleditsia triacanthos `Moraine', fruitless, and `Shademaster',                  
essentially fruitless - Thornless Honey Locust                                  
Hibiscus syriacus `Diana', sets very little fruit, and `Helene',                
sets very little fruit - Althea                                                 
Malus `Spring Snow', fruitless - Crabapple (scab susceptible)                   
Malus `Prince Georges' , fruitless - Crabapple (scab resistant)                 
Morus alba `Chapparal', fruitless, and `Urbana', fruitless -                    
Mulberry, male                                                                  
                                                                                
If you already have a woody ornamental in your yard whose fruit is              
causing problems, and you don't wish to remove it, remove the                   
flowers as the begin to fade, either by handpicking or with pruning             
shears.  This is practical if you have a very small planting.  Avoid            
indiscriminate chopping with hedge shears which can destroy the                 
natural beauty of the plant.                                                    
***************                                                                 
                                                                                
Spring Lawn Care                                                                
                                                                                
As the grass greens up, many homeowners are anxious to get out and              
start working on their lawns.  A little patience and care at this               
point will reward the gardener with a fine lawn later.                          
                                                                                
For instance, the sight of new grass growing often inspires the                 
homeowner to run out and spread fertilizer to help the young blades             
along.  This is actually the opposite of recommended practices for              
fescue and bluegrass lawns.  The proper time to feed grass is in the            
fall, when the roots that will sustain the plants through the                   
following summer are actively growing.  Even if the fall feeding was            
missed, any spring feeding should be limited to a light feeding (1/2            
pound of actual nitrogen, i.e., 5 pounds of 10-10-10, per 1000 sq.              
ft.) after the initial flush of growth has subsided, probably                   
sometime in May or early June.                                                  
                                                                                
Lime, on the other hand, should be applied in early spring, if soil             
tests show that it is necessary.  Most lawn grasses grow best at                
soil pH's of 6.0 to 7.0, so have your soil's pH analyzed every two              
to three years to be sure you are staying in that range.  The soil              
test results will include recommendations on how much lime to apply.            
                                                                                
The best time to establish a new lawn from seed is in the fall, but             
many homeowners will need to reseed patches of lawn that have been              
damaged during the winter.  Seed sown during March and early April              
will have a chance to grow successfully if it is well watered and               
cared for, from seeding on through the heat of summer.  It is a good            
idea to fertilize newly seeded grass using a high phosphorous                   
fertilizer (for example, 25 pounds of 5-10-5 per 1000 square feet               
when patch seeding) which will foster root growth.  The grass will              
be stronger and healthier if you can water daily until the plants               
are established.  If you absolutely can't water, mulch with straw to            
the depth of one to two inches and hope for rain.  Water                        
approximately once a week throughout the summer, for the tops of the            
grass may look great, but the roots are not as long and dense as                
those of the grass in an established lawn.                                      
                                                                                
There are many varieties and types of grass seed from which to                  
choose.  Your county cooperative extension agent can supply you with            
a publication which discusses selection of turfgrasses in Virginia              
(Extension Publication 430-008).                                                
                                                                                
When your lawn requires its first cutting, be sure not to cut too               
short.  Mow to about two inches during the spring, then raise the               
cutting height another half inch when summer arrives.  Mow                      
frequently so that no more than one third of the grass blade is                 
removed at one time.                                                            
                                                                                
Along with the grass, several undesirables are probably growing in              
your lawn.  The best prevention for a weedy lawn is to provide such             
great growing conditions that the turf crowds out the weeds.  If the            
weeds are sparse, use that early spring energy to hand pull some of             
those perennial weeds.  There are chemicals that can be used if you             
have more weeds than energy.  If you choose to use herbicides, be               
sure to apply them when they will have maximum impact on the weed               
population.  Follow label directions closely for information on time            
of application and safety precautions.                                          
                                                                                
Apply preemergent herbicides between the middle of March and the                
middle of April to control crabgrass.  Crabgrass generally emerges              
about the time of dogwood bloom, and the preemergent herbicides used            
to control it will not affect crabgrass that is already up and                  
growing.  The only preemergent herbicide that will not interfere                
with the germination of desirable grass seeds in newly seeded areas             
is Siduron.  An alternative to preemergence control of crabgrass is             
postemergence control with MSMA or DSMA.  (??)  These chemicals                 
require two to three treatments and will leave yellow patches of                
dead crabgrass in the lawn.                                                     
                                                                                
Spraying for dandelions is most effective in fall, but spring                   
spraying of a broadleaf weed killer will control many of them.  Be              
sure to spray when the weeds are actively growing rather than during            
drought conditions.  When spraying any herbicide, use a different               
sprayer from the one which you use to apply insecticides or                     
fungicides.  Mark it "HERBICIDE" so it will not inadvertently be                
used for other purposes, which may result in herbicide residues                 
damaging valuable plants.                                                       
                                                                                
March is still a little early for dethatching and insect control, so            
after taking care of the few necessary lawn chores for early spring,            
you can relax and save your energy for summer mowing.                           
************                                                                    
                                                                                
Handling of Bare root Perennials                                                
                                                                                
Many perennials ordered from nurseries are bare root plants.  These             
plants are subject to the stresses of being dug from the field, held            
in cold storage, shipped long distances under varying conditions,               
and are frequently held in temporary storage before being planted at            
their final destination.  There are several things that home                    
gardeners can do to ensure the survival and growth of the plants                
that they order.                                                                
                                                                                
Determine a shipment's quality upon arrival.  If the crowns and                 
roots are covered with molds, are rotted, or are very dry, it is                
unlikely that the plant will grow well.  Give it a try if you'd                 
like, but be prepared for disappointment.  Notify the nursery of                
your receipt of poor quality plants.  This will simplify a later                
request for a refund or replacement, if necessary.  If the roots are            
turgid and light in color, little or no mold is present, and the                
crowns and roots are in good physical condition, odds are good that             
the plant will do well if properly planted.  If the plant appears               
somewhere between these two conditions, the subsequent regrowth of              
the plant becomes more of a judgement call.  A partial covering of              
surface mold may be unsightly, but the plant may be healthy enough              
to make satisfactory growth.  Research has shown that when surface              
molds cover 50 percent of the plant or less, the potential for                  
regrowth is not affected.  Regrowth quality does decrease as surface            
molds increase, and when soft rotting molds or bacterial infections             
are present, regrowth is unlikely.                                              
                                                                                
Plant perennials as soon as possible after delivery.  If you cannot             
plant immediately, store them properly until you can plant.                     
Moisture loss is the greatest threat to the survival of bare root               
plants.  Exposure to room temperature and humidity will cause bare              
root plants to lose as much as two to three percent of their fresh              
weight in moisture every hour.  Such an exposure for even overnight             
can easily result in the plant's death.  Preventing desiccation                 
should be your highest priority in handling bare root perennials.               
If you must wait to plant, keep them in the poly bags in which they             
were shipped.  These bags allow adequate exchange of oxygen and                 
carbon dioxide when the plants are kept at cool temperatures, so                
don't open the bags so the plants can "breathe."  Don't give them a             
drink, either, as free water in the bags will promote the growth of             
molds and bacteria.                                                             
                                                                                
High temperatures can also lower plant regrowth quality.  Store the             
plants in your refrigerator, as close to but not below 32 deg. F as             
you can, until you are ready to plant them.  If the plants have been            
allowed to warm significantly above storage temperatures,                       
condensation in the bags upon recooling may be a problem.  Leave the            
bags open as they cool to the storage temperature, then close them              
again.  Some moisture loss will occur, but the amount of mold                   
promoting condensate on the inside of the bags will be reduced.                 
                                                                                
Continue to protect the regrowth quality of bare root plants even               
while planting them.  Keep them in their shipping bags until                    
planting time.  Shade the bags so the roots will not heat up.  Don't            
leave an unprotected plant lying on the ground while preparing the              
planting hole.  Dessication can occur rapidly on a sunny and breezy             
spring day.  Water the plant thoroughly to settle it into the soil              
and get it off to a good start.                                                 
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
March 1988 Monthly Notes                                                        
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* If weeds occur in bulb beds do not remove them by cultivation,                
but pull them by hand so that the bulbs and roots will not be                   
disturbed.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Some annuals such as verbenas, snapdragons and petunias take 70               
to 90 days to bloom from seed, and should be started indoors in                 
early spring or purchased as greenhouse-grown transplants.                      
                                                                                
* Rejuvenate liriope by using a lawn mower to cut back the old                  
foliage to a height of 2 to 3 inches. Avoid mowing too closely                  
and thereby damaging the crown of the plant, as that is where the               
new growth emerges.                                                             
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant summer and fall blooming perennials                     
(astilbe, aster, bleeding heart, coral bells, daylilies, phlox,                 
shasta daisies).  Rework beds before planting, adding organic                   
matter and fertilizer.  Perennials perform best in well-drained                 
soil with plenty of humus. Astilbe, hosta, and bleeding heart                   
will bloom in the shade.                                                        
                                                                                
* Buy some new perennials for the flower border. Spring is a good               
time to renew and add variety to your landscape. Visit a local                  
garden center or secure catalogs from your favorite nursery.                    
                                                                                
* Many annual flowers are frost hardy when plants are small                     
including alyssum, California poppy, candytuft,larkspur, pansy &                
viola, phlox, pinks, Shirley poppy, snapdragon, stock, and sweet                
pea. Seeds can be sown as soon as the soil is warm and dry enough               
to work.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Cannas for early flowering may be started in boxes or large                   
pots in a cool cellar or enclosed porch. Cut the rhizomes into                  
pieces of convenient size and plant in a soil mixture containing                
adequate sand for good drainage. The developing plants are tender               
to cold and may be set in the garden about a week after the                     
average date of the last frost in your area.                                    
                                                                                
* Don't forget to give naturalized bulbs fertilizer in the                      
spring. Bone meal is a good organic fertilizer.  Broadcast it at                
a rate of 5 lbs. per 100 square feet. Do not mow the area until                 
the bulb foliage begins to die back.                                            
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Prune evergreen shrubs before growth starts.                                  
                                                                                
* Boxwood should be pruned by thinning out the outer foliage of                 
the plant and cutting back the branches to retain desired height.               
                                                                                
* Trees and shrubs which are making weak growth should be                       
fertilized to stimulate more attractive development. About a                    
month before your area's average last frost apply approximately 1               
cup of 5-10-5 to shrubs 4-8 feet tall. Use half as much on                      
smaller shrubs, and twice as much on larger specimens.  On trees,               
apply 2 lbs. of 5-10-5 for each inch diameter measured at 3 feet                
above the ground. Apply uniformly over root zone and water in                   
thoroughly.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Use flexible ties to support newly transplanted trees between                 
rigid stakes. Research has shown that young trees allowed to move               
with the wind develop greater trunk strength than trees rigidly                 
staked.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Plant roses and bare-root shrubs while they are still dormant,                
about 4 weeks before the average date of the last frost.                        
                                                                                
* Hedges can receive their first pruning this month. As you                     
prune, be sure to leave the base of the plant wider than the top.               
This allows sunlight to get to the bottom of the plant, creating                
a full, dense hedge.                                                            
                                                                                
* Crabapples, valued for their beautiful spring blossoms and                    
attractive fruit, are members of the rose family. Along with many               
of their relatives, many crabapples are susceptible to diseases                 
such as scab, cedar-apple rust, powdery mildew, and fire blight.                
All of these diseases shorten the life span of the trees and                    
diminish their ornamental qualities. Plant disease-resistant                    
cultivars of crabapple such as `Strawberry Parfait', `Radiant',                 
`Hopa', `Snowdrift', and `Callaway'.                                            
                                                                                
* Dogwoods and magnolias should only be moved in early spring.                  
Magnolias have a fleshy root system with minimal lateral roots                  
and root hairs; dig them so that a ball of soil as large as you                 
can manage remains around the roots to protect them.  When                      
transplanting either species, it is best that the trees be small                
(2-3 ft.), and dormant.  These become established more quickly                  
than larger ones. The larger the tree, the greater the risk of                  
death due to transplant shock since more roots are removed during               
digging.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Propagate deciduous shrubs such as forsythia and winter jasmine               
by ground layering now.  Select a long and pliable branch.  Cut a               
notch in the branch and hold it open with a small sliver of wood.               
Bend the branch so that the notch touches the ground, and then                  
mound soil over the notched section, leaving the tip of the                     
branch protruding from the ground.  If necessary, use a rock or                 
forked branch to hold the notched section of branch in the                      
ground.  Roots will form at this point, and the new plant can be                
transplanted the following spring.                                              
                                                                                
* Start resurrecting the lily pool. Drain and clean the pool                    
before growth begins.                                                           
                                                                                
* Don't leave stubs when pruning; stubs usually die and are entry               
points for decay fungus. Pruning should never be done in damp or                
wet weather when the fungal spores and bacteria that infect                     
plants through fresh cuts spread easily.                                        
                                                                                
* Trees which bleed such as birch and maple should not be pruned                
until after their leaves are fully developed.                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
* When spring-flowering bulbs complete their flowering cycle,                   
fertilize with a little super phosphate or bonemeal to ensure                   
quality blooms next year. Remove the bulb foliage only after it                 
dies naturally.                                                                 
                                                                                
* After pussywillow catkins have passed their prime, prune the                  
plants drastically to encourage long branches and large catkins                 
for next year.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Plant new rose bushes in properly dug beds. Fertilize estab-                  
lished roses after pruning.  Have the soil tested about every two               
years. If black spot or powdery mildew have been a problem, start               
applications of a recommended fungicide. Contact your local agent               
for current recommendations. When pruning or cutting roses, cut                 
all flower stems 1/4 inch above a complete (5 leaflet) leaf                     
leaving at least two complete leaves on the branch below the cut                
bud. Always cut on a slant.                                                     
                                                                                
* Boxwood may be moved now; do not plant them deeper than they                  
were previously planted. Trim and fertilize established boxwood                 
before new growth starts, but do not cultivate under boxwood                    
since their roots are shallow and easily damaged.                               
                                                                                
* Complete the pruning of shrubs and ornamental trees before                    
growth starts, except for spring flowering shrubs. Prune those                  
which bloom in spring as soon as they finish flowering.                         
                                                                                
* Variegated plants can help add the illusion of light to a dark                
area. Shade-loving groundcovers such as variegated liriope,                     
ivies, euonymus, and hosta can be very effective for this.                      
                                                                                
* When planting trees in clay soil, improve drainage by placing                 
the root ball in a shallow hole and building up a mound of soil                 
around it, or by laying drain tile from the bottom of the hole to               
a ditch or to a special drainage area. Provide a drainage area by               
digging another hole lower than the planting hole and filling it                
with gravel. Use pipe or tile to carry excess water to this hole                
from the tree roots. Another solution is to play it safe and                    
select a tree that withstands wet feet.                                         
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* Get your landscape design or redesign on paper. It's easier to                
erase it from a plan than to move it with a shovel.                             
                                                                                
* Shrubs and trees in the home landscape break up sound waves and               
reduce the nerve-shattering noise of modern society. Plant some                 
new shrubs and trees this spring to improve the beauty and                      
ambience of your home.                                                          
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Take care to keep off soft and soggy lawns. Lime spreaders,                   
wheelbarrows and other equipment will leave compaction marks.                   
Seed new lawns and do repairs after the land has drained.                       
                                                                                
* When a blanket of snow insulates the lawn, temperatures at                    
ground level may rise above freezing. Snow mold fungi which                     
appears as a white cottony growth on grass blades thrives at                    
temperatures between 32 and 65 F. To reduce possible snow mold                  
damage, remove heavy snow accumulations in shady areas. If you                  
cannot physically remove the snow, spread ashes or dry peat moss                
on the snow. The dark colored material will absorb solar radia-                 
tion and speed the melting of snow.                                             
                                                                                
* Apply a pre-emergence herbicide before lawn weeds get started.                
These types of chemicals work by preventing the seed from                       
germinating. Therefore, it is important that the herbicides be                  
applied in early spring, before growth of the weed seedlings.                   
Check with your local extension agent for specific recommen-                    
dations.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Use crabgrass killer before forsythia blooms fade.                            
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* When buying transplants, choose those plants with a compact,                  
bushy form and bright green leaves. Young, healthy plants with no               
flowers or flower buds will adapt more easily and overcome the                  
shock of transplanting much faster.                                             
                                                                                
* Remember, hardy vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli, lettuce                 
and Brussels sprouts can be transplanted two weeks prior to the                 
average date of the last frost and warm season crops such as                    
tomatoes, eggplant, pepper, muskmelon and watermelon should not                 
be planted until all danger of frost is past.                                   
                                                                                
* Start transplants of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants indoors.                
                                                                                
* If your outdoor space is limited, consider gardening without a                
garden. Tomatoes, peppers, lettuce and many other vegetables do                 
well when grown in containers. Barrels, window boxes, cut off                   
milk jugs, almost anything providing good drainage will do as                   
long as it is deep enough to support the plant. Minimum depths                  
for some container-grown vegetables:                                            
 4"-lettuce, radishes, beets, low growing herbs                                 
 6"-chard, turnips, short-rooted carrots                                        
 8"-eggplant, peppers, bush cucumbers                                           
10"-cauliflower, broccoli                                                       
12"-tomatoes, long-rooted carrots                                               
                                                                                
* Seed root crops such as carrots, beets, radish and parsnips                   
directly into your garden.                                                      
                                                                                
* The flavor and quality of the white and yellow varieties of                   
beets are similar to the traditional red cultivars.                             
                                                                                
 * When sowing seeds for transplants, leave about 1/8" of space                 
between seeds to allow them to grow adequately and to discourage                
damping-off fungus.                                                             
                                                                                
 * To extend the asparagus harvest, remove the mulch from only                  
half the bed.  The exposed soil will rise in temperature,                       
encouraging these plants to sprout quickly. In 2 or 3 weeks when                
shoots appear in the mulched half, carefully remove the remaining               
mulch.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Don't plow your garden when the soil is wet.  Clods will form                 
which are difficult to break up and interfere with cultivation                  
during the summer.                                                              
                                                                                
* Do not add lime to the garden area reserved for potatoes.  Low                
pH helps control scab.                                                          
                                                                                
* Unsterilized soil may contain organisms that cause damping off,               
a disease that can make young seedlings wither and die suddenly.                
Use a sterilized potting mix in clean pots or flats.                            
                                                                                
* Towards the end of the month, plant onion sets, potatoes, peas,               
radishes, asparagus, carrots, turnips, leaf lettuce and other                   
cold-hardy vegetables.                                                          
                                                                                
* You may wish to try some new, unusual vegetables in your garden               
this year. A few that can grow successfully in Virginia are bok                 
choy, Jerusalem artichoke, kohlrabi, leeks, and horseradish. For                
planting and harvesting tips, call your extension agent. Do be                  
warned, though, Jerusalem artichokes and horseradish are very                   
persistent perennials and may become weeds in your garden.                      
                                                                                
* Greenhouse-grown plants, even hardy kinds, should be acclimati-               
zed or hardened off before transplanting to the garden in the                   
early spring to minimize the chance of frost injury.  Gradually                 
reduce water and temperature to allow the plant tissues to                      
toughen up so that they will tolerate the less hospitable garden                
environment.                                                                    
                                                                                
* If you need small cabbage heads (up to 8 ounces for small                     
meals), pinch out the center leaves on some of your plants when                 
the seedlings are set out.  Three or four small heads will be                   
produced on each plant by midsummer.  Small heads may also be                   
produced if the plants are closely spaced (about 4-6 inches                     
apart).                                                                         
                                                                                
* Apply a liberal side dressing of 5-10-5 fertilizer on the                     
asparagus bed and around the rhubarb plants. Use about 4 lbs. per               
100 sq. ft. and scratch it into the top 2 inches of soil. Renew                 
the organic mulch to a depth of about 1 inch to help conserve                   
soil moisture during the summer.                                                
                                                                                
* A plentiful supply of tomatoes can be obtained from 2-3 plants                
per family member.  Grow additional plants if you plan to can or                
make juice.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plan your vegetable garden on a sheet of paper to utilize the                 
space most efficiently. Remember to rotate the vegetables in the                
garden to reduce insect and disease problems.                                   
                                                                                
* Buy a notebook and use it to keep all your gardening informa-                 
tion. List what you plant in the garden. Include the names of                   
seed companies, plant names, varieties, planting dates, and                     
harvest dates. During the growing season keep notes on how well                 
the plants do.  If the variety is susceptible to disease, record                
what was used to treat any problems. All this information will be               
helpful in planning future gardens.                                             
                                                                                
* Parsley is rich in vitamins A and C. Start some seeds indoors                 
now for later transplanting to a sunny corner of the vegetable                  
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Cloches for tall individual vegetables can be easily improvised               
by wrapping plastic around tomato cages and securing with tape.                 
Leave tops open during the day for ventilation and closed at                    
night by laying a board over the top.  Or, place 3 or 4 stakes                  
around each plant to form a frame and drop a large plastic bag                  
over them.                                                                      
                                                                                
* One way to avoid the danger of unusually cold nights is to set                
water-filled plastic jugs around each seedling. Warmed by the                   
sun, the water will radiate heat all night, preventing cold                     
damage.                                                                         
                                                                                
Fruit                                                                           
                                                                                
* Don't rush to remove mulch from strawberries. Leave it over the               
plants to protect them from late cold spells. When plants start                 
to grow, the mulch must be removed to allow leaves to develop in                
the light. If leaves develop under the mulch, they will become                  
etiolated and yellow from lack of chlorophyll, and may burn and                 
die when exposed to the sun.                                                    
                                                                                
* Spring applications of pesticides should be made on peaches,                  
apples, and pears. Correct timing for spraying depends on the                   
stage of development of flowers. Request a spray schedule from                  
your local agent.                                                               
                                                                                
* For strawberry production throughout the growing season, the                  
Earlidawn, Surecrop, and Marlate varieties are good planting                    
selections. Since the strawberry is probably the most regionally                
adapted crop gardeners grow, you would be well advised to plant                 
one of the cultivars known to grow and produce well in your area.               
For more information, contact your local extension agent.                       
                                                                                
* Weed control is one of the most time-consuming, yet most                      
important, practices in any fruit planting. Young strawberries,                 
raspberries, blueberries, grapes, and tree fruits all suffer if                 
weed growth is uncontrolled. Peach trees, of all the fruit trees,               
suffer the most from weed competition. Mulching helps control                   
weeds.                                                                          
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Topiary is the art of clipping and trimming plants into unusual               
designs. Forms for indoor topiary can be purchased or shaped by                 
hand from galvanized wire. One media mix for topiary forms is 1                 
part peatmoss to 1 part potting soil surrounded by sheet moss.                  
Plants such as English ivy and creeping thyme work well for this                
use.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Wait until the weather warms to put houseplants outside.  Even                
50 deg F weather can damage plants and cause leaves to fall.                    
                                                                                
* Repot houseplants that have grown too large for their                         
containers or that have become rootbound.  Cut back leggy plants                
to encourage compact growth. Root the cuttings in moist media to                
increase your supply of plants.                                                 
                                                                                
* Houseplants can be watered and fed more frequently with the                   
onset of spring and new growth.                                                 
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
* If you haven't done it already, check stored tools and outdoor                
furniture for signs of rust. Remove any surface rust with steel                 
wool and paint with rust-inhibitive paint.                                      
                                                                                
* If the old tiller turns over sluggishly in spring, move it to a               
sunny location and cover it with a black plastic garbage bag for                
a half hour before trying to start it.  The solar heating will                  
warm up the fluids and make starting easier.                                    
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Check the average date of the last frost in your area before                  
beginning spring gardening chores. Your county extension agent                  
can give you this information.                                                  
                                                                                
* A child's first garden should include sunflowers from seeds.                  
The large seeds sprout quickly and dependably and the strong                    
seedlings can push their way through crusted soil. If you are                   
shooting for record sunflowers, your plants will need to top 20                 
feet in height with seed head diameters of 2 feet to be in the                  
running.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Mulches can change soil temperature. Black plastic warms the                  
soil and should be applied before planting. Organic materials                   
delay the sun's penetration thereby keeping the soil cooler. Ap-                
ply organic mulches after plants are 3-4 inches tall and soil is                
warm.                                                                           
                                                                                
* The Virginia Gardener Newsletter is a convenient source of new                
information. The cost is low, the information up-to-date, and                   
it's delivered to your door.                                                    
                                                                                
* Cover old stumps with soil to hasten decay.                                   
                                                                                
* Turn the compost pile and add manure.                                         
                                                                                
* Install new birdhouses early this month and clean out old ones                
in preparation for the migrating birds which will be looking for                
nesting sites soon.  If you have experienced problems with                      
predators such as snakes invading the nests, try mounting the                   
houses on a smooth metal pole which will be more difficult for                  
marauders to climb.                                                             
                                                                                
*If the spring season is typically cold and wet, or if the garden               
is too muddy to enter following a rain, consider building raised                
beds. They work especially well as a replacement for traditional                
gardens if the soil is poor, rocky, or compacted.                               
                                                                                
* Don't overexert those under worked winter muscles as you begin                
spring gardening. Bend at the knees and lift with your legs, not                
your back.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Choose a permanent spot for herbs in the garden. Many of them                 
will come up year after year.                                                   
                                                                                
* A good salt substitute for anyone who wants to restrict sodium                
intake is a blending of equal parts of dried basil, dill, lemon                 
balm, marjoram, mint, parsley, rosemary, and thyme, with a few                  
dashes of Hungarian paprika.  The mixture will keep indefinitely                
in a dark glass or ceramic container.                                           
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Research Abstracts - February 1988                                              
                                                                                
The following research abstracts were prepared by Ellen M. Silva,               
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension                        
Specialist.  They are to assist agents in keeping up to date on                 
recent research in consumer horticulture.  Copies of the original               
articles including lists of varieties and scientific names of                   
plants used in the studies are available from the Consumer                      
Horticulture office.  Send requests on computer to PDRELF.                      
                                                                                
Container Size Influences Broccoli and Cauliflower                              
	Transplant Growth but not Yield				72 lines                                    
Thatch Accumulation in Tall Fescue Turfs			45 lines                             
Parsley Emergence and Seedling Growth from Raw, 	                               
	Osmoconditioned, and Pregerminated Seeds		86 lines                             
Effect of Stage of Development on Postharvest                                   
	Behavior of Cucumber Fruit					55 lines                                        
Variety Introduction - Crape-myrtle `Acoma', `Hopi',                            
	`Pecos', and `Zuni', Lagerstroemia indica L. x                                 
	L.fauriei Koehne.							73 lines                                               
**********************                                                          
                                                                                
CONTAINER SIZE INFLUENCES BROCCOLI AND CAULIFLOWER TRANSPLANT                   
GROWTH BUT NOT YIELD                                                            
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Broccoli and cauliflower are frequently grown from transplants                  
both in commercial fields and in the home garden.  Transplanting                
allows an earlier yield, which demands a higher market price for                
the commercial grower and produces one of the earlier crops of                  
the season in a home garden.  Transplanting is also a more                      
efficient use of seed, avoids thinning in the field, and allows                 
optimal plant spacing.                                                          
                                                                                
Little is known about the effect of container size on the                       
earliness and yield of these crops.  Larger transplants generally               
cost more, but are they worth more?  Information in this area is                
valuable to both the home grower who may have limited transplant                
growing space and the commercial grower who will pay less for                   
transplants in smaller containers.                                              
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Four-week-old transplant size generally increased with increasing               
container size for both broccoli and cauliflower.                               
                                                                                
Earliness, length of harvest season, and yield were unaffected by               
container size when planting out 5- and 6- week-old transplants.                
                                                                                
Small containers (2.0 cm wide, and 3.2 to 4.5 cm deep) are                      
economical and appropriate for growing broccoli and cauliflower                 
transplants.                                                                    
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Four-week-old transplants growing in six different container                    
sizes (from 3.8 to 30.5 cubic cm volume) were purchased from a                  
commercial transplant grower and randomly sampled for measurement               
of height, leaf dry weight, leaf area, and leaf number.  The                    
remaining samples were hardened off and planted at 5 weeks of age               
and 6 weeks of age in two separate locations.  The plots were                   
fertilized and watered as needed.  Broccoli plants were harvested               
as the heads reached 15 cm in diameter and the side shoots were                 
harvested three times as they reached 5 cm in diameter.                         
Cauliflower heads were also harvested as they reached 15 cm in                  
diameter.  Marketable quality was determined subjectively at                    
harvest.                                                                        
                                                                                
Growth of both types of transplants was similar so the data on                  
transplant growth was pooled.  The number of leaves/plant, leaf                 
dry weight/plant, leaf area/plant, and plant height generally                   
increased with increasing container volume and width and                        
decreasing plant density.  Increasing container depth did not                   
affect these variables except for plant height, which increased                 
linearly with increasing depth of container.  Though the                        
transplants were the same age, the transplants growing in larger                
containers were larger.                                                         
                                                                                
Central head yield of broccoli showed no relationship to                        
container size and therefore, transplant size.  Cull and side                   
shoot yields were also unaffected by container size.  The only                  
difference found was that plants at one of the planting locations               
matured one week later when the transplants were grown in the                   
smallest size container (2.0 cm by 2.0 cm by 3.2 cm).                           
                                                                                
Container size did not affect marketable yield, cull yields,                    
earliness, and length of harvest season for cauliflower.                        
                                                                                
Reference: Dufault, Robert J. and Luther Waters, Jr.  1985.                     
Container Size Influences Broccoli and Cauliflower Transplant                   
Growth but not Yield.  HortScience 20(4):682-684.                               
*********************                                                           
                                                                                
THATCH ACCUMULATION IN TALL FESCUE TURFS                                        
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Differences in species, cultivars, and cultural practices all                   
influence thatch accumulation.  Forage type fescues such as                     
`Kentucky 31' have been frequently used in lawn seed mixtures and               
have typically not been troubled by thatch build up.  Recently,                 
turf-type tall fescues have been increasing in popularity for                   
home lawn use.  However, no literature exists regarding thatch                  
accumulation in turf-type tall fescue lawns.  Homeowners                        
switching from a forage-type tall fescue lawn to a turf-type tall               
fescue lawn will need to be aware of any differences in thatch                  
accumulation so that they can plan their lawn care accordingly.                 
Increased thatch accumulation in the fine-bladed tall fescues may               
necessitate periodic core aerification to reinoculate the thatch                
with soil and microbes and increase thatch decomposition.                       
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Tall fescue cultivars differ in their rates of thatch                           
accumulation.                                                                   
                                                                                
Turf-types tall fescues accumulate thatch in greater amounts than               
forage type fescues.                                                            
                                                                                
Thatch accumulation was positively correlated to verdure and                    
total cell wall content per square meter of the cultivars.                      
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Five turf-type tall fescue cultivars and 3 forage-type tall                     
fescue cultivars were grown for three years then sampled to                     
determine thatch accumulation.  The plots were fertilized and                   
irrigated as needed during the test.   Turfs were mowed weekly                  
and the clippings were returned to the plots.  Verdure (g/sq m)                 
and total cell wall content (TCW) per square meter were measured                
as well.  The five turf-type cultivars exhibited the greatest                   
verdure, TCW, and thatch accumulation.  `Adventure', which had                  
the highest values for all of the measurements taken had almost                 
twice the thatch accumulation of `Kentucky 31', which had some of               
the lowest values for verdure and TCW.                                          
                                                                                
Reference:  Shearman, R.C., B.E. Anderson, D.M. Kopec, and T.P.                 
Riordan, 1986.  Thatch Accumulation in Tall Fescue Turfs,                       
HortScience 21(5):1164.                                                         
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
PARSLEY EMERGENCE AND SEEDLING GROWTH FROM RAW, OSMOCONDITIONED,                
AND PREGERMINATED SEEDS                                                         
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
The slow germination of several Umbelliferae species such as                    
parsley, carrots, and parsnips is frustrating to the home                       
gardener.  It can be difficult to maintain good germination                     
conditions for the length of time that it can take for these                    
seeds to germinate, and the erratic and lengthy time required                   
frequently allows weeds to out-compete the resulting seedlings.                 
Osmoconditioning (soaking the seeds in either inorganic salt                    
solutions or polyethylene glycol) permits hydration but prevents                
visible germination and has been found to reduce time required                  
for germination and seedling emergence.  Pregermination followed                
by fluid-drilling (the extrusion of the seeds in a hydrophilic                  
gel into the seed bed) has also improved germination time.  When                
this technique is combined with the elimination of non-                         
germinated seeds from the seed/gel mixture, uniformity of                       
emergence is improved.                                                          
                                                                                
All of these techniques suggest ways in which an adventurous                    
gardener can improve their germination time and seedling stands                 
for these difficult crops.  Possibly of greater application to                  
the typical hobbyist is the potential for an osmoconditioning                   
pre-treatment of the seed by the seed company before it is sold                 
to the gardener.                                                                
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Osmoconditioned parsley seeds emerged earlier and gave higher                   
shoot fresh weights 24 days after planting than raw seeds.                      
                                                                                
Fluid-drilling of nongerminated osmoconditioned seeds further                   
improved germination performance.                                               
                                                                                
Fastest germination was obtained from osmoconditioned seeds which               
were pregerminated and fluid-drilled.                                           
                                                                                
As emergence rate increased, shoot fresh weight increased and                   
uniformity of emergence decreased.                                              
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Nontreated `Forest Green' parsley seeds were divided into the                   
following treatment groups:  raw (untreated), osmoconditioned                   
then air-dried seeds, osmoconditioned then fluid-drilled seeds,                 
and osmoconditioned then germinated then fluid-drilled seeds.                   
Osmoconditioning consisted of submersing the seeds in an aerated                
polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution for 3 weeks.  Seeds were                     
germinated in 15 deg F aerated water.  Fluid-drilling was done                  
using Natrosol gel at 5 deg. F.  The seeds were sown in moist                   
peat-lite on the same day.  Emergence counts were made daily.                   
Total percentage of emergence, time from 10% to 90% emergence,                  
and time to 50% emergence were calculated.  Twenty-four days                    
after sowing the shoots were removed at the surface of the peat-                
lite to determine the fresh weight per shoot.                                   
                                                                                
Percentage of emergence was not affected by treatment, but the                  
time to 50% emergence was longest for raw seeds, followed by                    
osmoconditioned seeds (OCS), osmoconditioned then fluid-drilled                 
seeds (OCF), and osmoconditioned, germinated, then fluid-drilled                
seeds (OCGF), in that order.  Uniformity of emergence decreased                 
as rate of germination increased.  The authors suggest that                     
separation of germinated from nongerminated seed before fluid-                  
drilling could greatly increase germination synchrony.  Shoot                   
fresh weight was greatly increased by the seed treatments.  OCGF,               
OCF, and OCD yielded 192%, 100%, and 52% greater growth than raw                
seeds.  Other studies have shown that these initial advances in                 
seedling growth are maintained well into the life of the plant.                 
                                                                                
Reference:  Pill, Wallace G. 1986.  Parsley Emergence and                       
Seedling Growth from Raw, Osmoconditioned, and Pregerminated                    
Seeds, HortScience 21:(5):1134-1136.                                            
*********************                                                           
                                                                                
EFFECT OF STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT ON POSTHARVEST BEHAVIOR OF                       
CUCUMBER FRUIT                                                                  
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Gardeners are frequently admonished to keep their cucumbers well-               
picked to keep the plant productive, but advice on when to pick                 
the fruit for best shelf-life and reasonable size attainment is                 
not frequently found.  While the purpose of this study was to                   
investigate postharvest respiration of the cucumber fruit, the                  
findings on how well cucumbers harvested at various ages keep and               
the growth pattern of the fruits will be useful for the home                    
grower.                                                                         
                                                                                
Conclusions                                                                     
                                                                                
Commercial maturity was attained at 10 to 11 days following                     
anthesis (flowering), at which time weight was approximately 50%                
of final weight.                                                                
                                                                                
Length increased rapidly until about 12 days, at which time it                  
continued to increase, but at a much slower rate.                               
                                                                                
Diameter did not increase much after 12 days.                                   
                                                                                
Longest shelf-life (stored at 20 deg C, 68 deg F) was attained                  
for fruit picked between 6 and 9 days after flowering.                          
                                                                                
Abstract                                                                        
                                                                                
Parthenocarpic cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L. cv. `Deliva') were                 
harvested at 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 20, 25, and 30 days after                         
flowering.  The fruit was measured then stored at 20 deg. C,                    
under a flow of humidified air.  Visual quality and color changes               
were observed every three days.                                                 
                                                                                
Growth was found to follow a single sigmoid curve, with an almost               
linear gain in weight from 3 to 20 days, followed by slower                     
weight increases to the end of the sampling period.  Length and                 
diameter increased steadily until about 12 days at which time                   
they continued to increase but again at lower rates.                            
                                                                                
Loss of green color and firmness were important symptoms of                     
deterioration, as was pathological deterioration.  Fruit                        
harvested 6 and 9 days after anthesis had the longest shelf life,               
31 days.  Fruit picked 12 days after anthesis had a shelf life of               
22 days.  Hence, fruit picked at a typical harvest age (11 days                 
after flowering) has a relatively long shelf life, though the                   
maximum shelf life is attained with younger fruit.                              
                                                                                
Reference:  Kanellis, Angelos K., L.L. Morris, and M.E. Saltveit,               
Jr.  1986.  Effect of Stage of Development on Postharvest                       
Behavior of Cucumber Fruit, HortScience 21(5):1165-1167.                        
******************                                                              
                                                                                
VARIETY INTRODUCTION - CRAPE-MYRTLE `ACOMA', `HOPI', `PECOS', AND               
`ZUNI', Lagerstroemia indica L. x L. fauriei Koehne                             
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture                                              
                                                                                
Crape-myrtle is the most widely cultivated summer-flowering large               
shrub or small tree in the southern United States.  `Acoma',                    
`Hopi', `Pecos', and `Zuni' are the first semi-dwarf cultivars of               
this species that combine mildew resistance and a range of flower               
colors.  Their reduced growth habits allow them to be used in                   
small-scale gardens.  They are readily maintained as smaller                    
plants than their potential size by annual heavy dormant pruning.               
These varieties are well suited for use as patio container                      
plants, foundation or specimen border plants, and as hedges.                    
                                                                                
Descriptions                                                                    
                                                                                
All of the varieties are deciduous, semi-dwarf, multi-stemmed                   
mildew resistant shrubs with recurrent bloom throughout the                     
summer.  They maintain a compact growth habit, remaining below 2                
m (6 ft 8 in) for 8-10 years, and below 3 m (10 ft) at maturity.                
Pruning readily restricts plant size.  All of the varieties are                 
very winter hardy, withstanding temperatures as low as -23 deg C                
when grown in the ground.  The tops may winter kill but the roots               
will produce abundant shoots to flower the following summer.                    
                                                                                
`Acoma' has reached a size of 3 m (10 ft) high by 3.4 m (10 ft 10               
in) wide after 15 years of growth.  The low-spreading shrub has                 
light red-purple shoots which become gray with age and                          
exfoliation of the bark.  The oval, pointed leaves are tinted                   
dark bronze when young, maturing to a deep green and turning a                  
dull red to purple red in autumn.  The pendulous, long-tapered                  
blooms appear from late June to September and consist of 90-150                 
pure white florets with pronounced golden anthers and are 15-19                 
cm (6 - 8 in) long and 9-13 (3.8 - 5 in) cm wide.                               
                                                                                
`Hopi' has grown 2.3 m (7 ft 8 in) high and 3 m (10 ft) wide in                 
12 years.  Young shoots are dark red-purple and become light grey               
brown with age.  The oval, pointed leaves have a pink overcast                  
when young, mature to dark green, and turn bright orange red or                 
dark red in autumn.  Flower panicles are elongated, 10-14 cm (4-6               
in) wide and 7-18 cm (2.8-7.2 in) long and appear from late June                
through late September.  The panicles are composed of 25-90                     
clear, medium pink florets.                                                     
                                                                                
`Pecos' has attained a size of 2.4 m (8 ft)  high and 1.8 m (6                  
ft) wide in 12 years.  The globose shrub has red purple shoots                  
that become dark brown with the exfoliation of the bark.  The                   
oval, pointed leaves are heavily tinged bronze when young, mature               
to dark green, and turn maroon to dark purple red in autumn.  The               
globose panicles, 15-20 (6-8 in) cm long and 13-19 cm (5.2-7.6                  
in) wide, appear between early July and September and are                       
composed of 140-350 clear, medium pink florets.                                 
                                                                                
`Zuni' has grown 2.7 m (9 ft) high and 2.4 m (8 ft) wide in 12                  
years.  The globose shrub has young branches heavily tinted with                
red which become light brown grey with age.  The glossy, leathery               
leaves are oval and pointed.  When young the leaves are red-                    
tinged with more color on leaf margins, maturing to dark green,                 
and turning orange red to dark red in autumn.  The ovate                        
panicles, 8-14 cm (3.2-5.6 in) long and 8-13 cm (3.2-5.2 in)                    
wide, are composed of 50-75 medium lavender florets and appear                  
from mid-July through late September.                                           
                                                                                
Sources:  Plants will become available from various wholesale                   
nurseries as their numbers are increased.  Consumers who are                    
interested in these varieties should check with their local                     
retail nurseries.                                                               
                                                                                
Reference: Egolf, Donald R. 1986.  `Acoma', `Hopi', `Pecos', and                
`Zuni' Lagerstroemia, HortScience 21(5):1250-1252.                              
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes - February 1988                                                   
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Design a flower bed for a shady area. Plan to try impatiens,                  
foxgloves, begonias,and browallia.                                              
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of growth in early spring bulbs.  When foliage                
is 1" high, gradually start removing mulch.  Cloudy days are best               
for the initial exposure of the leaves to strong sunlight which                 
can burn tender foliage.                                                        
                                                                                
* Pinch off early buds from developing pansies to encourage                     
plants to branch and form more buds.                                            
                                                                                
* Order perennial plants and bulbs now for cut flowers this                     
summer. Particularly good choices are phlox, daisies, dahlias,                  
cosmos, asters, gladiolus, and lilies.                                          
                                                                                
* Ageratum, begonia, marigold, and petunia seed can be started                  
indoors now. Sprinkle the small seeds sparingly onto moist soil                 
and gently press them in.                                                       
                                                                                
* Check stored bulbs, tubers, and corms. Discard any that are                   
soft or diseased.                                                               
                                                                                
* Don't remove mulch from perennials too early. A warm day may                  
make you think spring is almost here but there may be more cold                 
weather yet to come.                                                            
                                                                                
* Order gladiolus corms now for planting later in the spring                    
after all danger of frost has passed. Locate in full sun in                     
well-drained soil.                                                              
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Broadleaved evergreens can be pruned before new growth begins                 
this spring. This will enable new growth to cover the cut                       
surfaces and exposed inner branches.                                            
                                                                                
* Shrubs for spring planting should be ordered now. Bare root,                  
deciduous types should be planted while still dormant, about 1                  
month before the average date of last frost in your area. Hardy                 
container-grown and balled and burlapped shrubs may be planted                  
anytime except during severe cold weather.                                      
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of "heaving" among your small shrubs. The                     
freezing and thawing of the ground can force shallowrooted plants               
out of the soil. Replant any that have been "heaved" and mulch                  
with 2 inches of organic material to reduce soil temperature                    
fluctuation.                                                                    
                                                                                
* It is time to transplant deciduous native plants if the ground                
is not too wet or too frozen.                                                   
                                                                                
* Branches of forsythia, pussy willow, quince, spirea, and                      
dogwood can be forced for indoor bloom. Make long, slanted cuts                 
when collecting the branches and place the stems in a vase of                   
water. Change the water every four days.  They should bloom in                  
about 3 weeks.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Proper rose pruning is the key to successful summer blooms.                   
Prune roses back 25% if you want many medium-sized blooms. Prune                
back 50% if you want fewer, larger flowers. Modern roses should                 
be pruned just before the buds break dormancy after the last                    
frosts.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Pussy willows that have been forced can be halted at any stage                
of their development simply by removing them from water. They                   
will keep perfectly for years.                                                  
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* Many maples such as striped bark maple and paperbark maple have               
beautiful and unusual bark.  Another fine but little-known maple                
with very attractive bark is the Manchurian snakebark maple. Its                
bark is a rich green to green-purple with numerous vertical white               
stripes, eye-catching in all seasons.  Plan to use these to liven               
up the winter landscape for next year.                                          
                                                                                
* Check valuable trees and shrubs for tent caterpillar egg masses               
and bag worms.  Remove them to reduce the number of destructive                 
pests this spring.  Tent caterpillar egg masses are gray and                    
varnished looking and form a collar around twigs, while bagworms                
look somewhat like a pine cone hanging at the end of branches.                  
                                                                                
* To plant bare-rooted trees and shrubs, prune off dead or                      
damaged roots and plant in a hole large enough to accommodate the               
roots when spread in a natural shape.  Contrary to earlier                      
recommendations, it is no longer suggested that you prune the top               
to compensate for the loss of roots caused by transplanting.                    
Research has found no evidence that this helps the plant, and                   
there is a possibility that pruning removes carbohydrate reserves               
that the plant could use to grow new roots.                                     
                                                                                
* Prune most shrubs and trees on warm days this month after the                 
coldest weather is past in your area. In the cooler mountain                    
areas of Virginia wait until late February. Wait until after                    
bloom to prune your spring flowering shrubs in order to get                     
maximum blossoms.                                                               
                                                                                
* Remove honeysuckle and other weedy vines from deciduous plants                
while the plants are still leafless. It's easier then to                        
distinguish between the weeds and desired plants.                               
                                                                                
* Root pruning will enhance success of transplanting trees and                  
shrubs, if you can wait until next year to move them.  This                     
spring use a sharp spade to cut a circle 8 inches deep around the               
plant. (Distance from the trunk will depend on plant size; a                    
small shrub may only require a circle of 1 foot in diameter while               
a larger plant will require a larger circle.)  Many new fibrous                 
roots will grow from the cut ends of the old roots.  This will                  
make transplanting to the new location next spring much easier on               
the plant, because a much greater percentage of its roots will                  
move with it.  Dig the root ball so that it is several inches                   
wider in diameter than the root pruning circle.                                 
                                                                                
* Water shrubs in your landscape throughout the winter if the                   
soil is dry. Evergreen plants transpire water from their leaves                 
whenever the air temperature is above 40 degrees F.                             
                                                                                
* Cold winds this month should remind you to order evergreen                    
windbreaks. Some suggestions: American arborvitae, Austrian pine,               
Canadian hemlock, white spruce.                                                 
                                                                                
* Plan to attend garden and landscape meetings and clinics which                
are arranged by the extension agents in your county or city. The                
latest and best in gardening information will be presented. Call                
your local office to find out what is offered in your area.                     
                                                                                
* Late winter is the time to prune many deciduous trees.  Look                  
over your plants now and remove dead, dying, or unsightly parts                 
of the tree, sprouts growing at or near the base of the tree                    
trunk, crossed branches, and V-crotches.                                        
                                                                                
* If bird feeding has been a favorite activity this winter, order               
trees and shrubs which provide cover and small fruits for your                  
feathered friends. Consider species such as crabapple, hawthorn,                
holly, dogwood, and pyracantha which can help lure hungry birds                 
from cultivated fruits, if planted on the opposite side of the                  
yard.                                                                           
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* "Chitting" is the green-sprouting of seed potatoes for quicker                
rooting and up to 3 weeks earlier maturity.  Chitting is acheived               
by placing seed potatoes either in full sunlight or under                       
florescent lights 3 weeks prior to planting.                                    
                                                                                
* Before working an area in the garden for early spring planting,               
check the soil.  It should be dry enough to crumble in your hand                
before you work it.                                                             
                                                                                
* Check any vegetables you have in storage. Use or dispose of any               
that show signs of shriveling or rotting.                                       
                                                                                
* If you have a sandy soil which dries out extra fast in the                    
summer, you may want to experiment with gardening in a                          
depression. Prepare the soil in a hole or trough several inches                 
below the surface of the paths to reduce evaporation and make                   
watering easier.                                                                
                                                                                
* Plan on hanging a few vegetables on your porch or deck for a                  
convenient harvest.  Bush cucumbers, small tomato varieties, and                
even lettuce and spinach can be grown in hanging baskets. Many                  
herbs including chives, parsley, and thyme are also well-suited                 
to baskets.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Gardening in a raised bed improves drainage and gives an                      
earlier start in areas with cold, wet soil.                                     
                                                                                
* Work the area for early spring garden crops as soon as pos-                   
sible. Apply lime if your soil tests indicate a need. Peas,                     
onions, and Irish potatoes can be planted before March 1 in                     
eastern Virginia.                                                               
                                                                                
* Onion seeds for transplants can be sown indoors early this                    
month.                                                                          
                                                                                
* This year plan to grow at least one new vegetable that you've                 
never grown before; it may be better than what you are already                  
growing. The new dwarf varieties on the market which use less                   
space while producing more food per square foot may be just what                
you're looking for.                                                             
                                                                                
* Send off seed orders early this month to take advantage of                    
seasonal discounts. Some companies offer bonus seeds of new                     
varieties to early buyers.                                                      
                                                                                
* Planning pays off in the intensively cultivated vegetable                     
garden. If you are a novice vegetable gardener, request Publicat-               
ion 426-836, "Guide to the Beginning Gardener" from your local                  
extension agent. If you are more experienced but have specific                  
questions, there are over 30 fact sheets available to assist you.               
                                                                                
* In most of Virginia it's too early to start all but your                      
slowest growing vegetable (such as onions), but it's not too                    
early to start getting ready. Gather and wash seeding flats.                    
Treat with a 1:10 bleach solution to kill micro-organisms.                      
Collect pots for transplanting seedings such as styrofoam cups,                 
3-inch deep bands cut from quart milk jugs, etc.                                
                                                                                
* If your asparagus bed's pH is too low, you can apply lime or                  
wood ashes. To find out how much, test your soil through the                    
extension service. The ideal pH for aspargus is 6.0 to 6.8.                     
                                                                                
* For an early crop, sow spinach seed in well-drained soil which                
was turned over in autumn. Cover lightly with straw.                            
                                                                                
* Don't start your vegetable plants indoors too early. Six weeks                
ahead of the expected planting date is early enough for the                     
fast-growth species. Eight weeks allows enough time for the                     
slower-growing types.                                                           
                                                                                
Fruits and Nuts                                                                 
                                                                                
* If you want to raise fruit in your garden, try grapes,                        
raspberries, or strawberries. It is much less difficult to                      
succeed with them than with tree fruits, and you'll get much                    
faster results.                                                                 
                                                                                
* To produce insect and disease free fruit trees require a                      
thorough spray program, proper pruning, and good care. Give                     
thought to this before planting a backyard orchard.                             
                                                                                
* Ever wonder why apricots don't set much fruit in Virginia? It                 
is because of the warm days in February or March that encourage                 
the apricot to break dormancy and bloom - only to be followed by                
more freezing weather that kills the developing fruit.                          
                                                                                
* Native chestnuts cannot be grown because of their susceptibil-                
ity to blight. If you would like to have chestnuts, plant the                   
grafted Chinese varieties such as Crane, Nanking, or Orrin. These               
are fine trees for the landscape and will produce nuts within a                 
3-4 years after they are planted.                                               
                                                                                
* Peaches grow best when maintained with an open center (no                     
central leader). Keep three or four strong scaffold branches                    
evenly distributed around the trunk. Limbs which branch out at a                
60 degree angle are preferred, but spreaders can be used to widen               
narrow crotch angles.                                                           
                                                                                
* Grape vine prunings can be made into attractive wreaths.                      
Decorate them with hearts or birds' nests or shape them into a                  
heart over a wire frame for use as Valentine gifts.                             
                                                                                
* Blueberries are somewhat self-sterile. Be sure to plan for more               
than one variety to enhance pollination necessary for fruit. High               
bush blueberries make attractive ornamental hedges with bright                  
red fall color.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and grapes in late February or early March                  
after the worst of the winter cold is passed but before spring                  
growth begins.  For disease and insect control, cut out dead wood               
and dispose of the prunings.                                                    
                                                                                
* Fertilize fruit trees as soon as possible after the ground                    
thaws but before blossom time.                                                  
                                                                                
* Nut and fruit trees should be planted 3-4 weeks before your                   
last killing frost in the spring.                                               
                                                                                
* Fruit trees such as peaches, pears, apples and plums can be                   
sprayed now with dormant oils to reduce insect problems.                        
                                                                                
* Apple and pear trees are best trained with a modified central                 
leader. Prune to maintain a pyramidal shape--wide at the bottom,                
gradually tapering toward the top. Contact your extension agent                 
for more complete instructions.                                                 
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* As a mid-winter project grow plants from fruit seeds. Oranges,                
grapefruits, lemons, tangerines, and pomegranates may have viable               
seed.  Try germinating them in a light potting soil mixture                     
containing half peat moss.  Keep seeds well watered and in a warm               
location.  If seedlings fail to appear in six weeks, try again.                 
Citrus plants grown from seeds generally will not produce flowers               
or fruit, but they will have attractive shiny-leaved foliage.                   
                                                                                
* Tired of your Christmas poinsettia?  Don't feel guilty if you                 
toss it out.  It, like the Christmas tree, has its seasonal                     
symbolism that many of us prefer to keep intact.                                
                                                                                
* Good air circulation is absolutely necessary for cacti and                    
succulents.  Avoid placing them in hot, stuffy areas.  Be sure                  
the indoor garden is well ventilated, yet not drafty.                           
                                                                                
* Research has shown that some leaf shine products for household                
plants can reduce the amount of light reaching the interior of                  
the leaves, where food is manufactured photosynthetically.  Using               
weeping figs as subjects, it was shown that surfaces of leaves                  
treated with leaf shine products reflect significant amounts of                 
light instead of absorbing it.  Low-light conditions plus use of                
leaf shine compounds could add up to unhealthy plants!                          
                                                                                
* Never fertilize a plant in dry soil.  The fertilizer could burn               
roots in need of water.  It's better to water plants a couple of                
hours before fertilizing.                                                       
                                                                                
* On mild, sunny days be sure to ventilate cold frames and green-               
houses to avoid excessive heat.                                                 
                                                                                
* The fumes produced by kerosene heaters in a small home                        
greenhouse may damage plants.                                                   
                                                                                
* Avoid overcrowding in the greenhouse and hotbed. Crowding can                 
lead to trouble in the middle of winter when the ventilators are                
rarely opened. Still, damp air encourages fungus diseases, and                  
the soft new growth made by the plants invites aphid infestation-               
 -particularly when crowding occurs.                                            
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
* Repair and paint window boxes, lawn furniture, tools and other                
items in preparation for outdoor gardening and recreational use.                
                                                                                
* Make labels for this spring's garden.  Plastic milk jugs or                   
bleach bottles cut in strips 1 inch by 6 or 7 work well. Use                    
permanent ink markers to write on them.                                         
                                                                                
*The common, inexpensive, alcohol thermometer often varies more                 
than three degrees from the true temperature, which can result in               
wasted fuel or improper plant growth in greenhouses. To check                   
thermometer's accuracy, immerse it in a container of crushed ice                
and water for 3 to 4 minutes. Any deviation from 32 degrees can                 
then be marked on the scale, or the tube may be moved up or down                
to match the 32 degrees reading.                                                
                                                                                
* Start building up your supply of gardening aids such as plastic               
milk jugs for hot caps and orange juice cans to make guards to                  
stop cut worms.                                                                 
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Pressed flowers collected last summer or pictures from your old               
garden catalogs can be used to add a romantic floral touch to an                
old-fashioned valentine.                                                        
                                                                                
* Use some of the coldest days of February to sit by a fire and                 
read a good gardening book. It will give you ideas and inspira-                 
tion for the spring.                                                            
                                                                                
* To make old hay and manure weed-free, spread them on the soil                 
in late winter, water well, and cover with black plastic. Weed                  
seeds will sprout in a few days of warm weather, then will be                   
killed by frost and lack of light.                                              
                                                                                
* Surprise a friend or relative with a subscription to The                      
Virginia Gardener for Valentine's Day.  Send a $5.00 check,                     
payable to Treas., Va. Tech, to The Virginia Gardener, Va. Tech                 
Extension Distribution Center, 112 Landsdowne St., Blacksburg,                  
VA, 24060, along with the name and address of the person you'd                  
like to please.  They will receive 12 issues of timely, accurate                
gardening information tailored to Virginia gardens.                             
                                                                                
* If you seek unusual glass vases for cut flowers, try test tubes               
and beakers, available from hospital supply stores and catalogs.                
They come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Offering a full view                
of stems, they add a new dimension to flower arranging.                         
                                                                                
* For those who enjoy growing annual herbs but are frustrated by                
the number of extra seed in each packet, make a thoughtful gift                 
for friends or co-workers. On a card draw a design for a small                  
herb garden, then divide the seed from the packet into small                    
envelopes such as a stamp collectors use. Tape the seed to the                  
garden plan and offer a few cultural hints.                                     
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases - February 1988                                                  
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Extension                
Technician working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Consumer            
Horticulture, using material provided by Don Davis, City of Lynchburg           
Extension Agent, and Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The                
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent use in           
preparing radio and newspaper features and other educational programs.          
                                                                                
Preparing a Garden Plan				74 lines                                             
Pruning Evergreen Shrubs			    108 lines	                                       
Ornamental Onion					37 lines                                                   
Pales Weevil						48 lines                                                      
1988 All America Selections			65 lines                                          
Sexes in Ornamental Plants			47 lines                                           
*********************                                                           
                                                                                
Preparing a Garden Plan                                                         
                                                                                
A little time spent planning your vegetable garden will help things             
run smoothly from planting day through harvest.  If you are starting            
a new garden, locate it in a spot with good soil and at least eight             
hours of uninterrupted sunshine during the summer.  Choose a site               
where water is readily available, for vegetables need abundant                  
moisture.	Plant away from your house to prevent vegetables from                 
picking up soil toxins that may be present as the result of                     
chemicals applied around the foundation for termite control.  In                
older homes, paint that has fallen from the walls to the ground may             
carry lead, another health hazard.                                              
                                                                                
Scan the nearby vegetation before you dig a garden plot.  Large                 
black walnut and butternut trees growing by the garden spell                    
trouble, due to the juglone exuded from their roots.  Tomatoes and              
related crops wither away when grown near these trees.  Any nearby              
trees will compete with the garden for water, nutrients, and light.             
                                                                                
You might consider switching from a conventional garden laid out in             
rows to raised beds which will avoid much work and back strain.                 
Beds three or four feet wide allow you to work the soil and care for            
plants without ever standing on it.  They can be any length,                    
depending on the area available, but a cross path every 20 feet or              
so will prevent the need to walk a great distance to get to the                 
other side of the bed.  Adding compost, manure, and topsoil to the              
bed raises its level, and many beds are framed with well aged                   
railroad ties or landscape timbers.                                             
                                                                                
The deep, rich soil in raised beds permits intensive planting.                  
Arrange your crops in blocks instead of rows and use an equidistant             
spacing pattern to create a nearly solid leaf canopy or "living                 
mulch".  Less room is wasted on walkways in raised bed gardens.                 
                                                                                
Save space with the use of fences or trellises for cucumbers,                   
tomatoes, and pole beans.  Interplant slow and fast growers in the              
same row to save space (i.e. radishes with carrots, lettuce with                
tomatoes).                                                                      
                                                                                
Planning a garden requires more than figuring out where you are                 
going to plant something; you also need to figure out when you will             
plant it.  Take advantage of all of the time available to you for               
gardening.  Plant cool season crops such as spinach, lettuce, and               
cole crops both spring and fall.  Plan to precede a warm weather                
crop such as tomatoes with a quick growing cool season crop such as             
lettuce.  Cool season crops such as peas can be followed by quick               
growing warm season crops like bush beans.  Sometimes careful                   
planning can get 3 crops out of one plot of ground in a single                  
growing season.                                                                 
                                                                                
In order to take advantage of your careful planning, be sure to have            
all of your supplies on hand.  Order seeds early, and have                      
transplants started early enough to be ready when you need them in              
the garden.                                                                     
                                                                                
In considering what to plant, choose vegetables that you and your               
family truly enjoy; why waste your time and effort on growing things            
that won't be eaten?  Also, look for vegetables that will give the              
best return on your time and land investment.  Some top performers              
in this area are tomatoes, cucumbers, carrots, and summer squash.               
                                                                                
It's fun to try something new each year.  Plant sweet onions, or the            
latest rage in gourmet restaurants, miniature vegetables.  How about            
the red and the green chicory varieties called raddichio, currently             
stylish in salads from Paris to New York.                                       
                                                                                
There are numerous varieties of each crop to consider.  Choose                  
varieties resistant to disease, pests and drought whenever possible.            
Some of the better performers under local conditions are listed on              
extension's publication 426-480 -  Vegetable Varieties for Virginia.            
Other extension publications you may find useful in planning your               
garden include 426-313 - Soil Preparation, 426-331 - Vegetable                  
Planting Guide, and 426-836 - Guide for Beginning Gardeners.                    
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
Pruning Evergreen Shrubs                                                        
                                                                                
Most evergreen shrubs are better off pruned in early spring just                
before new growth begins.  When pruned toward the end of dormancy,              
evergreens will sprout growth to hide pruning scars and new shoots              
will harden off by fall.                                                        
                                                                                
Two basic pruning cuts are useful in pruning evergreens - heading               
and thinning.  Heading refers to shortening a branch by cutting it              
back to just above a bud or smaller branch.  Thinning involves                  
removing a branch at its point of origin, which could be a trunk or             
the ground.  Heading causes a proliferation of new shoots below each            
cut, and gives plants a stiff, formal appearance in the long run.               
Thinning creates gaps for light to penetrate thick foliage, and it              
results in a more open, informal effect that reflects an evergreen's            
natural growth habit.  Use both techniques to control plant size and            
maintain attractive features.                                                   
                                                                                
Broadleaf and needleleaf evergreens differ in their response to                 
pruning.  Broadleafs generally respond well to pruning, while                   
needleleaf evergreens are less tolerant of pruning.                             
                                                                                
The various species of shrubs also vary in their responses to                   
pruning.  The small round leaves of Japanese holly, a shrub commonly            
planted around homes,  tolerate shearing (an extreme form of                    
heading), though this practice produces a plant more at home in a               
formal boxwood garden than a suburban yard.  A better way to prune              
Japanese holly is using hand pruners to snip individual branches                
back to a reasonable length.  Head back each branch by six to 12                
inches and then thin out crowded stems.  Vary the amount cut with               
each stroke to avoid an unnaturally flat outer surface.                         
                                                                                
Helleri and dwarf Chinese holly grow in dense mounds that remain                
short and rarely require heading.  Occasional thinning eases crowded            
branches and encourages leaf growth on inner stems.                             
                                                                                
Burford holly can tolerate light or severe pruning.  Prune it as you            
would Japanese holly, cutting one branch at a time with hand                    
pruners.  Hedge clippers take less time and effort, but they lead to            
a thick layer of leaves around the outside and bare stems on the                
inside.  They also spoil a holly's natural form and branching habit.            
The resultant cut leaf edges are brown and unattractive as well.                
                                                                                
Boxwoods have finer stems than hollies.  Prune them by simply                   
snapping out 6-8 inch long twigs by hand over the canopy of the                 
plant to increase light penetration.  Thinning, good for all                    
evergreens, is essential for English boxwood.  These shrubs grow a              
canopy of leaves so dense that damp, dark conditions develop                    
inside.  Since fungus diseases thrive in such places, an annual                 
thinning operation will help keep English boxwood healthy.                      
                                                                                
Any holly or boxwood too large for its location may be pruned until             
nothing but bare branches remains.  New leaf buds, though hard to               
see, are numerous enough to give abundant fresh growth in summer.               
It will take several years for either of these plants to fully                  
regain their beauty, but such heavy pruning is possible, if                     
necessary.  Another alternative for oversized Burford holly and                 
boxwood is to prune them into a tree shape by removing their lower              
branches.  The bare trunks often have interesting shapes and are                
much less bulky than the bush form.                                             
                                                                                
Greater care needs to be taken with needleleaf evergreens.  Tall                
growing junipers withstand moderately heavy pruning if done just                
before growth starts.  Use hand pruners to head back branches grown             
too long, and thin out crowded stems.  Ground cover junipers only               
require heading of new growth at the tips and thinning the oldest               
runners.                                                                        
                                                                                
Never shear junipers with hedge clippers.  This practice removes                
their characteristic pointed twigs, resulting in highly unnatural               
shapes.  Once you shear too much, cutting back to leafless wood or              
dead zone, the juniper will stay brown and leafless.  Always allow              
some tufts of foliage to remain below each cut.                                 
                                                                                
Arborvitae also contain a dead zone where heavy shade causes inner              
needles to wither away.  As with juniper, all cutting should be                 
above this zone.  Neglected plants are difficult or impossible to               
bring down to size without pruning into the dead  zone, and they are            
best replaced.  A light yearly pruning starting when the plant is               
small will help keep its size within bounds, though a better                    
solution is to choose a variety whose mature size is correct for its            
location.                                                                       
                                                                                
There is more margin for error with yews.  These shade-loving                   
needleleaf evergreens will sprout fresh growth when pruned as much              
as 50 percent.  Hemlocks are also very tolerant of pruning and are              
one of the few needleleaf evergreens recommended for use in sheared             
hedges.  However, do not prune into the dead zone of a hemlock or               
the plant will die.                                                             
                                                                                
Pruning of evergreen hedges involves a few special features.  While             
most evergreens should be pruned in very early spring, hedges should            
be pruned after most of the new growth has been made.  This allows              
shaping of the new growth.  Whether shearing the plants into a                  
formal hedge or heading back and thinning individual branches to                
maintain an informal hedge, be certain that the base of the hedge is            
wider than the top.  This allows sunlight to reach all parts of the             
plant, preventing a top-heavy hedge whose lower foliage has died                
away for lack of light.                                                         
                                                                                
You should also delay pruning flowering evergreens until later in               
the spring, after they have bloomed.  Earlier pruning removes the               
flower buds and eliminates the floral display for the year.  When               
pruning rhododendrons, be aware that a branch pruned back below all             
buds, either dormant or growing, will die back to the trunk.  Either            
remove the entire branch or leave a few leaves and buds at the tip              
of the branch.                                                                  
*******************                                                             
                                                                                
Ornamental Onion                                                                
                                                                                
Allium giganteum, commonly known as the ornamental onion or giant               
onion, is a great eye catching plant. For approximately three weeks             
in June, it displays large, deep lilac flower balls about 4-5 inches            
in diameter on graceful, leafless stalks rising from the midst of               
the foliage. Its bluish-green foliage is hollow and straplike,                  
growing about a foot and a half long with each leaf approximately               
two inches wide. This member of the amaryllis family can reach a                
height of three and a half feet, making it ideal for background                 
plantings in a bed or border.                                                   
                                                                                
The bulb of the ornamental onion should be planted in fall                      
(September to October) six inches deep in well-drained areas which              
receives full sun. Each should be placed 12-18 inches apart, or 10              
bulbs per square yard, to insure sufficient room for growth. The                
plants should be lightly fertilized when the leaves first emerge.               
Following package instructions, spread a complete fertilizer on the             
soil or mulch.  Spring rains will wash it down to the roots.  Keep              
the soil moist throughout the growing season. In the winter the                 
bulbs require cold nights with soil temperatures below 45 degrees F.            
                                                                                
                                                                                
The ornamental onion is usually propagated from a bulblet, a little             
bulb that grows at the base of the original bulb.  The bulblets may             
be separated from the mother bulb in early fall. It is also                     
reproduced by seed.  The seedlings may require three years before               
flowering whereas the bulblet usually takes only one. Unlike several            
other Alliums, A. giganteum will not become invasive.                           
                                                                                
The ornamental onion grows well throughout Virginia without any                 
special growth requirements. Although it is a tall plant, staking               
need not be considered except in especially windy areas. Pest                   
problems are practically nonexistent. For these reasons, Allium                 
giganteum is an especially interesting plant to include in an                   
outdoor garden. Its ornamental value can extend indoors as a                    
long-lasting fresh cut or dried flower.                                         
***********                                                                     
                                                                                
Pales Weevil                                                                    
                                                                                
The pales weevil is a reddish-brown to black, 1/3 inch long, robust             
weevil that frequently causes problems in Christmas tree                        
plantations.  Stumps left from the previous year's harvest provide              
ideal breeding sites for the weevil.  Females that have overwintered            
in the ground litter are attracted to the odor of fresh pine resin              
in the spring.  They lay eggs in the inner bark of new stumps.  The             
white, C-shaped, 1/2 inch long larvae tunnel from a few inches to               
several feet into the roots of the dead stumps during the summer.               
Adults emerge in late summer to early fall and spend their days in              
the litter around the trees and move onto the trees to feed at                  
night.  Later in the fall, they move to the litter to overwinter.               
                                                                                
The pales weevil adults cause the damage to the trees.  They feed on            
the stem bark of seedlings and on the shoot and branch bark of older            
pines and other conifers.  Seedlings are easily killed by this                  
feeding and shoot tips die when heavy feeding causes girdling of the            
branch.  This thins the Christmas tree and lowers its value.                    
                                                                                
Signs of pales weevil infestation are yellow and brown shoot tips               
and small, irregular patches of exposed wood on seedling stems or at            
the bases of flagged shoots on large trees.  Pitch may ooze from the            
wounds or the scars may be partially calloused.  The larvae can be              
detected by removing root bark from dead stumps to reveal the                   
insects in the galleries that run along the grain of the wood.  The             
adults may be located on warm nights between April and September by             
spreading a white sheet under a tree at night and shaking the tree.             
The weevils will fall onto the sheet.  They may also be attracted               
with baits of freshly cut pine branches.                                        
                                                                                
Pales weevil can be controlled in a current crop by removing new                
stumps in early spring to eliminate the weevils' breeding sites.  If            
stump removal is impractical, drenches of registered insecticides               
may be applied to stumps and surrounding soil to kill egg-laying                
adults in April through mid-May, or in August to kill emerging                  
adults.  Alternatively, a registered insecticide may be applied to              
live trees between mid-August and mid-September to kill feeding                 
adults.  Another control possibility is to leave one whorl of live,             
pest-free branches on the stump to keep it alive and unattractive to            
the weevils.  Destroy these stumps within 3 years.                              
                                                                                
To control the weevil in future crops, delay replanting a cutover               
area for 2 years unless all stumps are removed or treated to resist             
weevil attack.  To obtain additional control, dip seedlings in a                
registered, residual insecticide before planting to prevent weevil              
feeding.                                                                        
************************                                                        
                                                                                
1988 All America Selections                                                     
                                                                                
The 1988 All America Selections have been announced.  Every gardener            
will probably want to try at least one of these exciting new                    
introductions.                                                                  
                                                                                
Shasta Daisy F1 `Snow Lady' is a very early (20 - 30 days earlier               
than most) Shasta daisy with a dwarf growth habit.  The plant will              
bloom all summer and can be used in borders or for short stemmed cut            
flowers.                                                                        
                                                                                
Celosia `New Look' is the first dwarf celosia with bronze foliage.              
Its low maintenance needs and scarlet plumes held well above the                
foliage make it highly recommended for landscape as well as cut                 
flower use.                                                                     
                                                                                
Petunia F1 `Ultra Crimson Star' is a large flowered petunia with                
crimson flowers marked with a white star.  The stars are very                   
uniform and the plants bloom earlier than other varieties.  `Ultra              
Crimson Star' also shows excellent recovery from bad weather.                   
                                                                                
Pepper F1 `Super Chili' is the first hybrid chili pepper.  It has               
improved yield and the very hot (hotter than Jalapeno) peppers are              
borne upright on the stems so the plant is highly attractive in the             
garden.  The 2 1/2 peppers ripen from green to orange, then to a                
mature red.  They can be used fresh or dried.                                   
                                                                                
Okra `Burgundy' is ornamental as well as productive.  The unique                
burgundy color of the pods does not interfere with their use in any             
okra recipe; they taste the same as green pods.  The pods retain                
good eating quality to the large size of eight inches.                          
                                                                                
Sweet Corn F1 `Honey 'n Pearl' was found to be outstanding in table             
quality of the early and attractive ears.  A shrunken gene type                 
extrasweet corn, `Honey 'n Pearl' can be stored several days in the             
refrigerator without losing its exceptionally sweet flavor.                     
                                                                                
Cucumber F1 `Salad Bush' produces uniformly dark green slicing                  
cucumbers of superior quality on a bush sized plant.  The plant                 
requires only two square feet for growth and is suited to intensive             
vegetable culture, low trellising, and container gardening.  The                
vines have improved powdery and downy mildew resistance which should            
lead to increased yields.                                                       
                                                                                
Pepper F1 `Mexi Bell' is the first pepper that combines a three to              
four lobed blocky bell shape with a pungent flavor similar to the               
very hot Anaheim pepper.  The plant is productive, early to mature,             
tolerant to Tobacco Mosaic Virus, and the foliage provides an                   
excellent canopy over the peppers.                                              
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
Sexes in Ornamental Plants                                                      
                                                                                
Many ornamental plants are chosen for use because of their colorful             
fruits.  Red holly berries, orange pyracantha berries, and white                
snowberries are just of few examples of the color that ornamental               
fruits bring to the garden.  These plants are also attractive to                
birds.  Unless the sex characteristics of the plant are known,                  
however, the homeowner may be disappointed because there may be no              
fruit crop even though bloom occurs.                                            
                                                                                
Many plants have perfect flowers.  Roses and viburnums are examples             
of perfect flowered plants.  This means that each individual flower             
has both male and female parts; stamens, which produce pollen, and a            
pistil, which contains the ovary(ies) which will produce the seed               
and hence the fruit.  This makes self-fertilization possible.                   
                                                                                
Monoecious plants are also capable of self-fertilization.  Unlike               
perfect flowered plants, monoecious plants have two types of flowers            
  male (staminate) and female (pistillate).  Both flower types occur            
on the same plant.  Birches and pines are examples of monoecious                
plants.  In either perfect flowered plants or monoecious plants,                
pollen is easily carried to the stigma of the same flower or of the             
female flower of the same plant by insects, birds, or wind.                     
                                                                                
In dioecious plants, pollination is not so easy.  Each plant has                
only male or only female flowers, so if a particular plant is the               
only one of its species in an area, pollination is impossible and no            
fruit will result.  Hollies and yews are examples of dioecious                  
plants.  In order to ensure a good fruit set on these plants, male              
and female trees must be grown within a reasonable distance of each             
other.  Although they need not be grown side by side, the closer the            
male and female plants stand, the better the fruiting which may be              
expected.  One male plant can serve as a pollinator for several                 
female plants.  It is also possible in some cases to graft a male               
branch onto a female plant to enable pollination to occur.                      
                                                                                
Identification of sexes in dioecious plants is not difficult, though            
sometimes it may require more than the naked eye to see the tiny                
flower parts involved.  Male flowers lack stigmas or have                       
undeveloped stigmas, and will have stamens.  Female flowers have                
stigmas but not developed stamens.  Obviously, a plant with fruit               
will be a female, but a fruitless plant is not necessarily a male.              
The plant may be fruitless due to lack of pollen or because                     
environmental conditions were not suitable for pollination.  Check              
the flower structure to be sure of the sex.                                     
                                                                                
Occasionally the sex of dioecious plants is important because a lack            
of fruit is desired.  Ripe ginkgo fruits have an objectionable odor             
and mulberry fruits can litter the ground.  In such cases it may be             
very useful to plant only male trees, as a female tree could receive            
pollen from neighboring sources resulting in the undesirable fruit.             
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
February 1988  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                               
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Horticulture Extension            
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Consumer              
Horticulture, using material provided by John Arbogast, Roanoke City            
Extension Agent.  The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                   
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features.              
                                                                                
Hemlock Woolly Adelyid				26 lines                                              
Transplanting Clematis				18 lines                                              
Mealy-bugs on African Violets			39 lines                                        
Moldy Core of Apples				41 lines                                                
Bird-of-Paradise					29 lines                                                   
Encouraging Growth of Fruit Trees		53 lines                                     
Cutting Back Junipers				16 lines                                               
Wide Row Gardening					28 lines                                                 
Potatoes in a Barrel				44 lines                                                
******************                                                              
                                                                                
I have some nice hemlocks at the back of my lot that are fairly old,            
but they are kept trimmed every year and are really nice.  Last summer          
some of them got a grayish white covering on the limbs and trunk and            
they lost a lot of their needles.  I had them sprayed twice during the          
summer and I sprayed them myself in the early fall with Diazinon.               
When should I start spraying them this spring and how often after the           
first should I spray again?                                                     
                                                                                
It sounds like your hemlocks have had the insect pest called "hemlock           
woolly adelyid".  The most visible evidence of this sucking insect              
pest is the mass of small puffs of wax that are found on the branches           
of the hemlock at the bases of needles and on branches.  Since hemlock          
woolly adelyids suck juices from the tree, they do cause needles to be          
lost.                                                                           
                                                                                
Diazinon is the only insecticide registered for control of hemlock              
woolly adelyid.  Follow the label directions.  It is critical to spray          
affected hemlocks thoroughly with a forceful spray at a time of year            
when the hemlock woolly adelyids are susceptible to control.  These             
two times are mid to late June and late September to early October.             
                                                                                
Thus, spring spraying is not going to be of value for this problem.             
Wait until mid June to spray and then repeat in 7 to 10 days to                 
control the early generation of the pest.  Similarly, two sprays can            
be made in the late September to early October period.                          
***************                                                                 
                                                                                
When can clematis be transplanted?  Do you trim them back before doing          
this?                                                                           
                                                                                
Clematis can be transplanted in the fall, late winter, or very early            
spring before growth starts.  Pruning them back before moving will not          
necessarily be required.  If your clematis is the kind that normally            
blooms during the summer months, you can prune them back before moving          
since new growth will produce the summer blooms.  However, if your              
clematis blooms in the spring, do not prune it now, since this could            
remove the branches that will produce the blooms this spring.                   
                                                                                
Move the plant with as large a root ball as practical.  The more of             
the plant's roots that are preserved, the less the transplanting                
process will set back the plants growth.  Plant in full sun to partial          
shade, and mulch the newly transplanted vine to keep its roots cool             
and moist.                                                                      
*****************                                                               
                                                                                
Please tell me what disease looks like small bits of cotton on my               
African Violets and what to do for it.                                          
                                                                                
The appearance of what looks like small bits of cotton on African               
violets is mealy-bugs, a sucking insect pest, not a disease.                    
Mealy-bugs are soft insects that have whitish, cottony or mealy                 
substance around them.  They often leave bits of this material on               
plant or leaf stems when they move around.                                      
                                                                                
Mealy-bugs on an African violet can be controlled fairly easily by one          
of three methods:                                                               
                                                                                
   *  Use one of the ready made houseplant insect controls that                 
mentions mealy-bug control for African violets.  Use the spray, which           
may be aerosol or finger pump, as recommended.  Read all label                  
directions and precautions.  Repeat applications are usually                    
suggested.                                                                      
   *  Use a cotton tipped swab dipped in rubbing alcohol to gently dab          
away the pests.  This may be tedious, but it is effective.  Repeat              
treatments like this are usually necessary since this method may not            
eliminate all of the mealy-bugs.                                                
   *  Use a mixture of one cup rubbing alcohol, 1/2 teaspoon Volck              
oil, and one quart of water in a plant mister to gently mist the                
African violet portions where the mealy-bugs are present.  The alcohol          
will dry out the bugs.  This should be done when the violets are not            
in bright light.  Alcohol mistings may have to be repeated every 7 to           
10 days for complete control.  Do not use straight alcohol as that may          
result in damage to the plant.                                                  
                                                                                
Actually, a combination of the second and third methods should work             
well together to eliminate the mealy-bug infestation on an African              
violet.                                                                         
                                                                                
Mealy-bugs are one of the insect pests on indoor plants that may                
reappear in several weeks after an infestation has been eliminated.             
Thus, it will be important to watch the affected plants carefully in            
the coming weeks for future problems.                                           
***********************                                                         
                                                                                
I have an apple orchard of mixed varieties and ages.  My young trees            
are not yet bearing, but my old trees (about 25 years old) do bear              
well.  Unfortunately, the fruit is spoiled by a dark moldy slate                
color around the seeds and seed pockets.  What is causing this                  
condition?                                                                      
                                                                                
It sounds like the problem you have had in your apples is what is               
called "moldy core of apple."  There is not a lot of precise                    
information known about this disorder, so a solution may not be easy            
to achieve.  Stress on the trees during the growth and developmental            
period of the apples may play a role in the spread of the affected              
zone within the fruit.  The Delicious variety of apples seems to be             
the one that is most affected by moldy core.                                    
                                                                                
The disease is caused by fungi growing over the seed and walls of the           
cavity within the apple that encloses the seed.  The fungi that cause           
moldy core normally enter the seed cavity area during bloom or through          
the calyx tube (tube of the flower that carries the pollen to the               
stigma) which does not close during some years on Delicious.  About             
thirty different fungi have been isolated by plant pathologists from            
the cavity area, but Alternaria has been the predominant fungus                 
associated with moldy core.  Thus, you may read or hear about the               
disease being called "Alternaria core rot."                                     
                                                                                
As you have found with your apple trees, there is no visible external           
symptom of "moldy core."  When the fruit is cut open, however, a dark           
fungus growth is found growing over the seed and seed cavity walls.             
Under normal environmental conditions, the fungus or fungi (plural)             
are contained within the seed cavity walls.  If the fruit is placed             
under stress as a result of a drought, the fungus may break out of the          
cavity enclosure and produce a dry cork rot just outside of the seed            
cavity.  As a rule, the infected area is small.                                 
                                                                                
The fungus may also cause premature fruit drop or the rapid break down          
of the apples after they are removed from storage.                              
                                                                                
The bottom line is that little information is available on the control          
of moldy core.  With luck, your new trees of different varieties will           
be less susceptible to this problem.                                            
**********************                                                          
                                                                                
My "Bird-of-Paradise" finally bloomed and it was beautiful!  During             
the blooming process I cut each bloom (bird) as they wilted.  Once it           
stops putting out birds should the flowering stem be cut or only the            
pod?                                                                            
                                                                                
After a "Bird-of-Paradise" bloom fades, it is a good idea to cut the            
bloom stalk at the base to keep the plant looking tidy.  It does not            
hurt to remove the fading bloom at the top of the bloom stalk and then          
remove the stalk later when it fades.  Whether you follow this                  
procedure or remove the entire stalk once the bloom fades does not              
influence the continued growth or next year's bloom potential of the            
Bird-of-Paradise plant.  It is more important to grow the plant in a            
suitable size, large container.  Good growing conditions will                   
encourage the numerous healthy leaves necessary for good bloom.                 
                                                                                
Bird-of-paradise plants require bright light with at least 4 hours a            
day of direct sunlight to produce blooms.  Normal room temperatures             
will suffice during active growth periods, but they need a long, cool           
rest at around 55 deg F day and night during the fall and winter.               
During active growth water the plant thoroughly, but allow the top              
inch of soil to dry out between watering.  During the resting period,           
water just enough to keep the soil from drying out entirely.  Feed              
with a liquid fertilizer every two weeks during active growth only.             
Repot young plants to larger pots as needed each spring, but once a             
plant begins flowering refrain from repotting it as this may keep it            
from flowering for a year or two.  Instead, topdress the plant with             
fresh potting mixture each spring.                                              
**********************                                                          
                                                                                
I have set out a large number of fruit trees and they don't seem to be          
growing.  Some of the trees have been out 2 years and some of them              
have been out 1 1/2 years.  Most of them are apple but I also have              
pear, peach and cherry trees.  I have never tried to grow fruit trees           
before and really don't know how to care for them.  How can I                   
encourage them to grow?                                                         
                                                                                
The reason your young fruit trees have not grown may be poor soil               
conditions such as heavy clay, rocky soil, low levels of organic                
matter, etc., but adequate moisture is also critical for good fruit             
tree growth.  Fertilizer is not always the key.                                 
                                                                                
To get your fruit trees to grow, I would suggest the following:                 
	* Be sure that the trees receive adequate moisture during 	the                 
growing season.                                                                 
                                                                                
	* Apply a 3-inch thick layer of organic mulch like straw or                    
coarse sawdust around each tree to cover the soil over the 	root                
system but do not mulch up against the trunk.                                   
                                                                                
* Take samples from the soil around your trees to your Extension                
Office and fertilize according to the resulting recommendations.  Lime          
may be needed, too. Some soils for fruit trees need only nitrogen               
but other soils need a complete fertilizer, including P and K for good          
fruit tree growth.  Avoid growing grass around the tree for several             
years until it is well established.  If you are growing grass around            
the tree, increase the amount of nitrogen that is recommended.                  
                                                                                
In addition to following these recommendations, be aware that                   
different varieties of apples vary in their growth rates.  Spur-type            
apples are notorious slow growers for the first year or so.  Miniature          
trees, or genetic dwarfs, are also slow growers.                                
                                                                                
Proper pruning and training is important to shape the growing trees.            
Pruning at planting encourages the vigorous growth of numerous                  
scaffold branches.  This will allow greater shaping flexibility as the          
trees grow.  Apples should be headed back to 30 inches and peaches to           
24 - 30 inches at planting if scaffold branches are not already                 
present.  This causes the side branches to form low on the tree,                
enabling easy care and harvest.                                                 
                                                                                
The best fruiting will result from branches growing at about 60                 
degrees from horizontal.  Young branches may be encouraged to grow at           
this angle by using spreaders to hold them out from the tree.  Soft,            
young growth can be spread by wedging clothespins between the trunk             
and the branch, pushing the branch out to the desired angle.  Not only          
will this branch produce more fruiting spurs, the resulting wide                
crotch will be stronger than a narrow one.                                      
                                                                                
Prune the trees to maintain proper shape as they grow.  Contact your            
extension agent for more detailed pruning information.                          
**************************                                                      
                                                                                
When is the best time to cut back junipers? I have one that is much             
too big for its location.                                                       
                                                                                
Junipers, as well as other non-flowering evergreens, can be trimmed or          
shaped any time from late winter through the spring. Evergreens that            
are grown as hedges may receive two annual trimmings- once in early             
spring and then again in late spring or early summer after the new              
growth has come out.                                                            
                                                                                
You will not be able to cut junipers way back.  Do not cut back to              
bare branches.  New growth will occur only on branches that retain              
some foliage.  The only solution to your problem may be to remove the           
juniper entirely and replace it with a different variety that will not          
grow as large.                                                                  
***************************                                                     
                                                                                
What is wide row garden planting?                                               
                                                                                
Wide row gardening is a way to increase garden productivity by                  
reducing the number of pathways between rows.  Instead of alternating           
paths with single file rows of vegetables, crops are grown in beds up           
to 36" wide with narrow paths between them.                                     
                                                                                
In wide row gardening, each vegetable plant is about the same distance          
from those nearest to it. Plants are spaced so that when plants                 
mature, their leaves will just barely touch adjacent plant's leaves.            
This shades the soil below the plants, resulting in lower water needs           
and fewer weeds germinating.                                                    
                                                                                
Initially, the wide row bands are staked out with string, and seeds             
are thinly broadcast over the area. Seeds can then be firmed into the           
soil with the back of a hoe or a board.                                         
                                                                                
The wide row gardening method works best with crops that prefer close           
spacing such as radishes, carrots, beets, leaf lettuce, peas, and bush          
beans. Even though these crops prefer close spacings, the scattering            
of seeds in the row can result in crowded conditions in some cases.             
Thus, after the seeds germinate in the wide row, the plants may be              
thinned by hand or by using a metal rake, carefully raking out in two           
different directions so that the seedlings remain at recommended                
spacings.  Later thinnings of crops such as lettuce, carrots, and               
beets can be eaten as an early harvest.                                         
******************************                                                  
                                                                                
How does a gardener go about growing potatoes in a bottomless barrel,           
garbage can or a series of old tires atop each other?  I vaguely                
remember reading years ago that you can grow a bushel or so of                  
potatoes in a bottomless can, but I cannot remember the method used. I          
need this information since I am cramped for garden space.                      
                                                                                
To grow Irish potatoes in a bottomless barrel. garbage can or stack of          
old tires, a well drained, sunny location must be selected. The potato          
seed piece preparation and the planting date (very early spring) are            
the same as the traditional planting method.  Use disease free,                 
certified seed pieces just as you would in planting potatoes in the             
traditional garden method.                                                      
                                                                                
For each stack or bottomless barrel location, place two potato seed             
pieces four or five inches apart on a bare ground that has been                 
prepared with two tablespoons of 10-10-10 garden fertilizer lightly             
dug into the soil. Then, place one tire or a fairly short bottomless            
barrel or garbage can over the seed pieces to make a circle with                
potatoes in the middle. Cover the seed pieces with approximately 3              
inches of good garden soil placed inside the tire or bottomless                 
barrel.                                                                         
                                                                                
As soon as the potato sprouts appear above this soil, add several               
inches of mulching material such as leaves or straw.  It is important           
to mulch immediately after the sprouts poke their tips through the              
surface.  If the sprout is allowed to leaf out before it is covered             
with another layer of mulch it will not produce potatoes along that or          
any higher segments of stem, reducing the yield significantly.  Leaves          
or straw are added to the above ground potato container as the sprouts          
grow, until the container is full.  Add additional tires to the stack           
as needed.                                                                      
                                                                                
Care of the potato barrel is fairly simple. In addition to regular              
watering if the weather is dry, water the barrel or stack with a                
water soluble vegetable garden fertilizer according to the                      
manufacture's directions about 4 weeks after the growth begins and              
again after about a month.  After the potato blooms have died, you can          
start grubbing potatoes for use.                                                
                                                                                
During the warm part of the growing season, potatoes not needed for             
use should be left alone in the leaves or straw, where they will stay           
cool under the protective cover. Of course, as with traditional potato          
planting, the potatoes should be harvested before frost in the fall.            
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Research Abstract - January 1988                                                
                                                                                
The following research abstracts were prepared by Ellen M. Silva,               
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension                        
Specialist.  They are to assist agents in keeping up to date on                 
recent research in consumer horticulture.  Copies of the original               
articles including lists of varieties and scientific names of                   
plants used in the studies are available from the Consumer                      
Horticulture office.  Send requests on computer to PDRELF.                      
                                                                                
Self and Cross Compatibility in Tetraploid                                      
	Blackberry Cultivars					55 lines                                              
Earthworm Casting in Plant Propagation			70 lines                               
Growth and Fruiting Response of Young Apple                                     
	and Tart Cherry Trees to Weed Control		80 lines                                
Land, Labor, and Production Efficiency of 		                                    
	Vegetables in Variable-Sized Garden Areas	93 lines                             
Response of Potted Plants and Vegetable                                         
	Seedlings to Chlorinated Water			72 lines                                      
                                                                                
*************                                                                   
Self and Cross Compatibility in Tetraploid Blackberry Cultivars                 
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture:                                             
                                                                                
Wild blackberries in the Eastern U.S. are nearly or completely                  
self-sterile, though selections from these have been productive                 
when grown alone.  Furthermore, compatibility studies have shown                
that wild red raspberries are largely self-incompatible, but that               
nearly all British and many U.S. red raspberry cultivars are                    
self-compatible.  Very little information has been reported on                  
the self-compatibility in the cultivated blackberry.  Many home                 
gardeners that cultivate blackberries grow only one variety, so                 
information on the self-compatibility of various cultivars would                
be very relevant.  The research reported here addresses this                    
dearth of information.                                                          
                                                                                
Conclusions:                                                                    
                                                                                
Of the varieties studied, blackberry cultivars of purely                        
tetraploid ancestry are self-fertile, while those of diploid                    
ancestry were self-incompatible.                                                
                                                                                
Insects do not play a part in blackberry pollination.                           
                                                                                
Abstract:                                                                       
                                                                                
Experiments with 10 cultivars of erect blackberry (Rubus subgenus               
Eubatus) grown in the eastern United States showed that no                      
difference in fruit set resulted from self versus cross-                        
pollination for 8 tetraploid cultivars while 2 cultivars of                     
diploid ancestry showed reduced fruit set when self-pollinated.                 
Eight cultivars and two advanced selections were evaluated by                   
emasculating flowers and applying pollen either from the same                   
variety or from a donor variety.  No significant difference in                  
percentage fruit set between self and cross-pollination was found               
in the eight named cultivars which were all tetraploids, though                 
some showed reduced fruit size or seed number when self-                        
pollinated.  The two advanced selections, both of diploid                       
ancestry, showed decreased fruit set when self-pollinated.                      
                                                                                
Fruit size and seed number resulting from open pollination was                  
evaluated in greenhouse, open field, and insect-excluded field                  
conditions.  Greenhouse plants were grown in the absence of wind                
and insects, open field grown plants were exposed to both, and                  
insect-excluded  field grown plants were grown in a mesh cage and               
sprayed with insecticide to eliminate the possibility of insect                 
pollination.  Caged plants produced larger fruits with more seeds               
than uncaged field plants, possibly due to the light shade                      
provided by the mesh which may have eased unseasonably high                     
temperatures during the trial.  Greenhouse plants produced small                
fruits with few seeds.  The researchers interpret these results                 
to indicate that blackberry flowers are not dependent on insects                
for pollination.                                                                
                                                                                
Reference:  Perry, Julia L., and J. N. Moore. 1985. Self and                    
Cross Compatibility in Tetraploid Blackberry Cultivars. Hort                    
Science 20(4):738-739.                                                          
                                                                                
***********                                                                     
Earthworm Casting in Plant Propagation                                          
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture:                                             
                                                                                
Earthworm castings are becoming available to the home gardener                  
and would be simple to use in the home situation.  Castings are                 
easy to produce economically via the biodegradation by earthworms               
of various organic wastes such as sewage sludge and household and               
agricultural wastes.  Growth improvement for certain plants grown               
in castings has been reported.  These improvements are related to               
soil improvement, increased availability of mineral nutrients,                  
and the presence of various biological factors such as                          
gibberellins, cytokinins, and auxins, present in castings.  The                 
presence of these phytohormones suggests the use of castings in                 
plant propagation.                                                              
                                                                                
Conclusions:                                                                    
                                                                                
The use of castings alone in the preparation of layers initiated                
rooting faster than the use of sphagnum moss or a                               
sphagnum/castings mixture.                                                      
                                                                                
A higher proportion of stem cuttings rooted in a                                
castings/peat/sand mixture than in castings alone or in a                       
peat/sand mixture alone.                                                        
                                                                                
Abstract:                                                                       
                                                                                
Research in Italy has shown a positive effect from the use of                   
earthworm castings in the rooting of layers and stem cuttings.                  
Analysis of the castings found various microflora and their                     
metabolites, some of which are phytohormones.                                   
                                                                                
Layering experiments were performed on rubber plants, Ti plants,                
dumb cane, and striped dracaena.  Layers were prepared using:                   
a)sphagnum moss, b) castings mixed with sphagnum 1:1 (v/v), and                 
c) castings alone.  Layers prepared from castings alone initiated               
roots sooner and showed greater root elongation than either of                  
the other treatments.  The extent of the positive effect varied                 
by species.  It was most noticeable on rubber and striped                       
draecaena plants whereas less effect was noted on dumb cane and                 
Ti plants.                                                                      
                                                                                
Rooting experiments on stem cuttings were performed on Iron Cross               
begonia, rubber plant, spotted evergreen, and African violet.                   
Shoots of each species were planted in a) a control medium of                   
peat and sand mixed 1:1 (v/v), b) the control medium but shoots                 
were treated with auxins (0.5% IAA), c) castings mixed with the                 
control medium in a 1:3 ratio (v/v), d) castings mixed with the                 
control medium in a 1:1 ratio (v/v), and e) castings alone.                     
Shoots were harvested at 2 and 3 weeks to determine the effects                 
of castings on rooting initiation.  Compared to the control                     
medium, the casting mixtures promoted higher rooting percentages,               
similar to the auxin treated shoots.  Ficus and Begonia shoots                  
had the highest rooting percentages i a 1:3 castings/control                    
mixture while Aglaonema and Saintpaulia performed better at the                 
higher castings concentrations.                                                 
                                                                                
The authors note that the effects of castings were different on                 
different plants and when using different rooting techniques in                 
the same plant.  They theorize that the differences could depend                
on the physiology of the different plants and the kind of tissue                
from which rooting must be stimulated.  The authors partially                   
attribute the increases in rooting rate, rooting percentages, and               
root development to growth regulators present in the castings.                  
                                                                                
Reference: Grappelli, A., U. Tomotati, and E. Galli. 1985.                      
Earthworm Casting in Plant Propagation. HortScience 20(5):874-                  
876.                                                                            
                                                                                
**********                                                                      
Growth and Fruiting Responses of Young Apple and Tart Cherry                    
Trees to Weed Control                                                           
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture:                                             
                                                                                
Young fruit trees competing with weeds for water and nutrients                  
may have growth of the main scaffold branches reduced.  Such                    
trees may initiate flowering and fruit production at too early of               
an age, resulting in stunting and reduction of future yields.                   
Phytotoxicity and delayed fruit maturity can result from                        
application of preemergent herbicides.  Foliar herbicides with                  
little or no residual soil activity avoid this problem and are                  
frequently used in commercial orchards.  In the home orchard,                   
mechanical weed control methods are recommended.  This research                 
compares the effects of these various methods on tree growth and                
fruit production in orchards already receiving between-row, but                 
not between-tree, weed control by cultivation.                                  
                                                                                
Conclusions:                                                                    
                                                                                
Shoot growth and trunk circumference was significantly greater in               
plots receiving additional weed control between trees.  Hand-                   
weeding avoided any phytotoxicity problems and enhanced growth as               
well or better than chemical weed control.                                      
                                                                                
Trees receiving additional weed control, whether mechanical or                  
chemical, outyielded trees in unweeded plots and came into                      
production a year earlier.                                                      
                                                                                
Handweeding performed as well or better than chemical weed                      
control.  (Note to Agents:  This is important to the home                       
gardener as Virginia Tech Extension fruit tree specialists                      
recommend that home orchard growers do not use herbicides.   None               
of the herbicides used in this research are recommended for home                
use in Virginia.)                                                               
                                                                                
Abstract:                                                                       
                                                                                
Growth and production of tart cherry trees and apple trees was                  
found to be greater in plots receiving chemical or mechanical                   
weed control within the tree row than in plots receiving between-               
row cultivation only.  The study, performed at Utah State                       
University, compared shoot elongation and trunk circumference                   
increase as well as yields in `Montmorency' tart cherry trees and               
`Double Red Delicious' and `Golden Delicious' apple trees under                 
various methods of weed control.                                                
                                                                                
Weed control treatments included a hand-weeded control plot, an                 
unweeded control plot, and 6 herbicide treated plots, including                 
dinoseb (6.7 and 10 kg/ha), glyphosate (0.56 and 0.85 kg/ha) and                
paraquat (0.37 and 0.56 kg/ha).  The higher rates were those                    
recommended by the manufacturers of the herbicides while the                    
lower rates were included to determine if reductions in labelled                
rates were justified.                                                           
                                                                                
Overall weed control was greatest with the high rates of dinoseb                
and glyphosate.  Paraquat was less effective than the other                     
herbicides but reduced weeds significantly as compared to the                   
untreated controls.  All of the treatments resulted in greater                  
trunk circumference increase than the untreated controls.  Hand                 
weeding resulted in the greatest increase in trunk circumference                
growth for both apple trees and cherry trees, while the various                 
herbicide treatments produced varying results for apple and                     
cherry tree growth.  No signs of phytotoxicity were noted except                
for isolated instances where lower leaves were sprayed                          
accidentally.  The difference in trunk growth between treatments                
dissipated as the trees matured, probably due to a reduction in                 
the significance of weed competition as the trees increase in                   
size and the pruning techniques practiced in the orchard which                  
sacrifice tree growth to production.                                            
                                                                                
Yields from both apple and cherry trees in hand-weeded and                      
herbicide treated plots were greater than for the unweeded plots.               
The greatest cherry yields were from hand weeded plots and                      
dinoseb (10.0 kg/ha) treated plots.  The yield data from the                    
apple plots varied enough that it was difficult to specify a                    
single treatment that gave the best yield, though all weed                      
control treatments gave significantly higher yields than the                    
unweeded controls.  Not only did the treated plots produce higher               
yields for both cherries and apples, the treated plots came into                
production one year earlier than the untreated plots.                           
                                                                                
Reference: Rupp L. A., and J.L. Anderson. 1985. Growth and                      
Fruiting Responses of Young Apple and Tart Cherry Trees to Weed                 
Control. HortScience 20(4):727-729.                                             
                                                                                
************                                                                    
Land, Labor, and Production Efficiency of Vegetables in Variable-               
sized Garden Areas                                                              
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture:                                             
                                                                                
A great deal of research has been done on land and labor                        
efficiency in the production of vegetable crops.  Most of this                  
work has been done using large-scale monocultural operation                     
practices.  Little work has been done on small-scale                            
multicultural vegetable production, such as is done in the                      
typical home garden.  For the hobby gardener, small scale gardens               
reduce weeding time, increase yield per area, and decrease the                  
possibility of discouragement and quitting.  Selection of                       
efficient crops is essential to enable the gardener to receive                  
the greatest benefits for land and time used.  The research                     
reported here employed typical hand garden tools and techniques                 
in growing vegetables frequently found in home gardens, allowing                
application of labor and land efficiency results to the home                    
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
Conclusions:                                                                    
                                                                                
Crops with the highest ranking in this study for productivity per               
amount of land used were: carrots, summer squash, onions,                       
tomatoes, cucumbers, and beets.                                                 
                                                                                
Crops with the highest ranking in this study for productivity per               
amount of time used were: cucumbers, summer squash, cabbage,                    
carrots, potatoes, and tomatoes.                                                
                                                                                
(Note to Agents: Because of differing soil and weather conditions               
in Utah where this research was done, some variation may be                     
expected in the rankings of the various vegetables.)                            
                                                                                
Abstract:                                                                       
                                                                                
Researchers at Brigham Young University have investigated the                   
effect of garden size and choice of crop on productivity and                    
labor and found that total productivity increased as garden size                
increased, but yield per unit area decreased.  An analysis of                   
labor requirements and yield for various home garden crops                      
revealed that harvesting requires more time than any other garden               
chore.  Vegetables with the highest yield for amount of land used               
were carrots, summer squash, onions, and tomatoes.  Vegetables                  
with the highest return for time invested were cucumbers, summer                
squash, cabbage, and carrots.  Unlike many studies on vegetable                 
crops, all of the work in the garden used typical hand tools                    
available to the average home gardener and followed typical home                
gardening practices.                                                            
                                                                                
Gardens varying in size from 1.5 m X 1.5 m to 15.2 m X 15.2 m                   
were planted with beets, bush beans, cabbage, carrots, sweet                    
corn, cucumber, lettuce, onions, peas, peppers, pole beans,                     
potatoes, radishes, tomatoes, and summer squash.  The smaller                   
gardens contained only onions, carrots, beets, radishes, lettuce,               
and tomatoes.  As the gardens increased in size, crops were added               
until the full complement was in use for the largest garden.                    
                                                                                
The gardens were fertilized with dairy cattle manure and ammonium               
nitrate.  Irrigation water, insecticides and fungicides were used               
as needed.  No herbicides were used.  Every activity in the                     
gardens was timed and recorded.  Crops were picked as close to                  
prime quality as possible and were graded so that no poor quality               
produce was included in the yield data.  The trials ran over a                  
two year period of time.                                                        
                                                                                
The researchers found that while total production increased as                  
garden size increased, production per unit of land decreased.                   
This result is partly a result of the different types of                        
vegetables grown in the different sized gardens.                                
                                                                                
Harvesting was the largest single time consumer, averaging 38% of               
the total gardening time.  Planting required 23% and weeding                    
required 17% of the total, while miscellaneous jobs such as                     
watering and pest control required 22% of the time.                             
                                                                                
The various crops were ranked according to productivity per land                
used and per time required.  The ranking for productivity per                   
land used (kg/square meter) was, in descending order, carrots,                  
summer squash, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, beets, lettuce,                     
cabbage, pole beans, peppers, potatoes, bush beans, radishes,                   
sweet corn, and peas.  The authors note that inclement weather                  
dramatically reduced the tomato crop in one of the years of the                 
study, so that under normal growing conditions tomatoes might                   
rank higher.  Ranking for time required (kg/hr), also in                        
descending order, was cucumbers, summer squash, cabbage, carrots,               
potatoes, tomatoes, beets, onions, sweetcorn, peppers, lettuce,                 
bush beans, pole beans, peas, and radishes.                                     
                                                                                
Reference: Stevens, Mikel R., C. Frank Williams, Ronald H.                      
Walser, Tim D. Davis, Bon D. Jolley, and Sheldon D. Nelson. 1984.               
Land, Labor, and Production Efficiency of Vegetables in Variable-               
sized Garden Areas. HortScience 19(5): 665-666.                                 
                                                                                
************                                                                    
Response of Potted Plants and Vegetable Seedlings to Chlorinated                
Water                                                                           
                                                                                
Relevance to Consumer Horticulture:                                             
                                                                                
One frequently sees recommendations to age water before using it                
on container plants to avoid chlorine toxicity.  However, the                   
research available on this subject is scanty and sometimes                      
contradictory.  The research reported here investigates the                     
effects of chlorine on a wide variety of common houseplants and                 
vegetable seedlings grown in soilless media.                                    
                                                                                
Conclusions:                                                                    
                                                                                
Current water chlorination practices should not adversely affect                
most potted plants and vegetable seedlings.  There are a few                    
plants, notably begonia and geranium, that do show some ill                     
effects at low chlorine concentrations.  The home gardener should               
take special care with such sensitive plants.                                   
                                                                                
Abstract:                                                                       
                                                                                
Investigation of the effects of chlorinated water on 11 species                 
of foliage plants, 8 species of flowering plants, and 4 species                 
of vegetable seedlings determined that most potted plants and                   
vegetable seedlings should not be adversely affected by typical                 
household tap water.  The research, performed at the Connecticut                
Agricultural Experiment Station, also found that germination of                 
vegetable seeds was not affected by any of the chlorine                         
concentrations investigated.                                                    
                                                                                
Plants used in this study were asparagus fern, begonia, Boston                  
fern, broccoli, English ivy, fuchsia, geranium, grape ivy,                      
impatiens, jade plant, kalanchoe, lettuce, Madagascar palm,                     
marigold, peperomia, pepper, petunia, spathiphyllum, spider                     
plant, streptocarpus, Swedish ivy, tomato, and tradescantia.  The               
plants were evaluated for their response to irrigation water                    
having residual chlorine concentrations of 0, 2, 8, 18, 37, and                 
77 mg/liter.  The 0 mg/liter concentration was considered a                     
control and was obtained by aging tap water in sunlight for at                  
least 48 hours.  The 2 mg/liter water was obtained directly from                
the tap.  The other concentrations were prepared with tap water                 
and sodium hypochlorite solution, with hydrochloric acid added to               
lower the pH as necessary.  Plants were evaluated visually for                  
growth and appearance and the dry weight of aerial plant parts                  
was determined for an objective measure of growth.                              
                                                                                
Only geranium and begonia declined in growth and appearance at 2                
mg/liter residual chlorine.  Pepper and tomato seedlings declined               
in growth at 8 mg/liter, kalanchoe, lettuce and trandescantia at                
18 mg/liter, broccoli, marigold, and petunia at 37 mg/liter, and                
Swedish ivy, impatiens, Madagascar palm, and English ivy at 77                  
mg/liter.  The remaining species showed no significant decreases                
in growth when compared to the controls.  There was no noticeable               
effect on vegetable seed germination at any of the concentrations               
used.                                                                           
                                                                                
Declines in appearance varied somewhat from declines in growth,                 
though generally followed the same pattern.  The appearance of                  
marigold, petunia, Swedish ivy, impatiens, Madagascar palm,                     
fuchsia, and streptocarpus declined at the next lower chlorine                  
concentration to that which caused a growth decline.                            
                                                                                
Chlorination of drinking water generally results in chlorine                    
concentrations less than or equal to 1 mg/liter.  This leads the                
authors to conclude that current water chlorination practices                   
should not adversely affect either the growth or appearance of                  
most potted plants and vegetable seedlings.                                     
                                                                                
Reference: Frink, C. R., and G. J. Bugbee. 1985. Response of                    
Potted Plants and Vegetable Seedlings to Chlorinated Water.                     
HortScience  22(4):581-583.                                                     
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
JANUARY NOTES 1988                                                              
                                                                                
From the Virginia Gardener Newsletter Monthly Notes, January 1983-1987          
                                                                                
Herbaceous Perennials                                                           
                                                                                
* If you want lily bulbs free from disease, raise them from seed.               
Start seed in flats of vermiculite in a greenhouse this month. Crows            
hybrids, 'Henryi', Preston hybrids and 'Princepts Creelman' seeds will          
germinate within three to six weeks. When seedlings are large enough            
to handle, transplant them into a good conventional potting soil. The           
second spring plants may be moved outside to flower beds which should           
be dug two to three feet deep as lilies require good drainage. They             
will start to bloom that summer. Be careful not to overfeed lilies.             
                                                                                
* A pot of Hens and Chicks (Sempervivum sp.) can liven up winter                
patios. These hardy succulents can remain outdoors year round and are           
especially prolific when placed in clay strawberry pots. Winter color           
can range from green to a pink or purple cast.                                  
                                                                                
* On warm days, check to see if any perennials have been heaved by              
freezing and thawing of soil. Firmly press down any which have lifted           
and cover with at least 2" of organic mulch.                                    
                                                                                
* Plan herbaceous flower beds now changes can be made early in the              
spring. Many perennials will need to be divided.  Arrange to trade              
with friends and neighbors. Designate locations in the bed for summer           
flowering annuals to supply color between spring perennials and fall            
chrysanthemums.                                                                 
                                                                                
* In warmer parts of the state, tuberous begonias and caladiums can be          
started indoors now. In mountain areas, start next month. Set root              
starts in pots or shallow boxes of rich soil (1/3 sand, 1/3 peat, 1/3           
loam). Cover with one inch of the mixture. Keep the pots moist, not             
wet, and in good light at 65 degrees F. Transplant to larger pots in 6          
weeks and set outside in the ground after all danger of frost.                  
                                                                                
* If a few consecutive warm days have caused your bulbs to nose out             
from under protective mulch, plan to thicken the mulch layer as soon            
as cold weather returns to prevent freezing by exposure.                        
                                                                                
* Start ageratum, baby's breath, begonia, statice, pansy, sweet pea             
and snapdragon seed indoors this month or next. Provide plenty of               
light.                                                                          
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Winter is the time to apply miscible oil sprays to kill                       
over-wintering mites, aphids, and scale. Use the oil on deciduous               
plants and hardy evergreens but not on needleleaf species.   Spray              
miscible oils when temperatures are above 40 degrees F but not within           
24 hours of a freeze. Because the oil kills insects by suffocation,             
avoid spraying on windy days to ensure that all surfaces of the plant           
are covered.                                                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
* When choosing a location for new shrubs and trees, remember that              
spots that are sunny in the garden now may be shady in the spring or            
summer. Ornamentals such as azaleas, camellias, dogwood, sourwood,              
cape jasmine, spirea, mahonia, and leucothoe prefer shade.                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
* When using salt to melt ice on walks and drives, spread it carefully          
to avoid damage to nearby shrubs. Damage to needle-type evergreens              
will be evident next spring by copper and yellow tones. Damaged                 
deciduous plants will have bronze or reddish leaves.  Consider using            
sand or sawdust instead.                                                        
                                                                                
* Stamp down snow near young trees to discourage mice from nesting              
under the snow around them.                                                     
                                                                                
* Remember, trees and shrubs have an economic value. If killed or               
damaged by ice or accident, they may be covered by homeowner's                  
insurance.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Tree branches that cast excess shade over herbaceous flower beds              
should be removed in winter when they will not damage the bed as they           
fall.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Prop up ice covered branches and let the ice melt rather than try to          
remove ice from brittle branches.                                               
                                                                                
* Brush snow from evergreens as soon as possible after a storm. Use a           
broom in an upward, sweeping motion. Serious damage may be caused by            
heavy snow or ice accumulating on the branches.                                 
                                                                                
* In the colder parts of the state, construct wind breaks around                
plants predisposed to winter damage such as broad leaved evergreens.            
Drive four wood stakes around the plant, wrap with burlap, and staple           
at each corner. Consider moving these plants to a more protected site           
in the coming months.                                                           
                                                                                
* Don't delay planting a live Christmas tree especially if it has               
already been in the house three days or more.                                   
                                                                                
* Borderline hardy plants such as aucuba, camellia, and gardenia can            
be protected by a mound of soil or compost placed over the crown after          
the ground surface freezes. These may also require windbreaks or                
screens.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
* For added security around the home, plant thorny shrubs on property           
lines and under windows. Some very thorny ones to consider include              
pyracantha, tri-foliate orange, Rosa rugosa, and thorny elaeagnus.              
Order plants now for late winter planting.                                      
                                                                                
* Do-it-yourself landscaping projects are very popular these                    
days and provide savings in more ways than most people realize.  They           
enhance property value and can reduce the cost of heating and cooling           
bills. Doing-it-yourself saves the actual out-of-                               
pocket expense of contracting and provides indirect savings on taxes            
(for example, someone in the 30% tax bracket would have to earn $430            
to have enough after-tax cash to pay $300 for a job done around the             
home). Finally, home landscaping is great preventative therapy and              
improves one's mental health.                                                   
                                                                                
* Look at your landscape. Do you need evergreens to protect your                
privacy, reduce street noise, block the glare of street lights? Order           
plants now and in February for March planning.                                  
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* For easier lawn maintenance, eliminate the hard to mow spaces. Put            
the bird bath in a flower bed or surround it with ground cover. Elimi-          
nate acute angles. Combine single trees or shrubs into a large                  
planting connected with ground cover.                                           
                                                                                
* Avoid heavy traffic on the dormant lawn. Dry grass is easily broken           
and the crown of the plant may be severely damaged or killed.                   
                                                                                
* Be sure charcoal chunks are removed from wood ashes before they are           
applied to lawns.                                                               
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Check stored fruits and vegetables such as potatoes and apples for            
bad spots which may lead to decay. Discard those which show signs of            
spoiling.  Separate others into slotted trays or bins to increase air           
circulation and reduce decay possibilities.                                     
                                                                                
* Review your vegetable garden plans. Perhaps a smaller garden with             
fewer weeds and insects will give you more produce.                             
                                                                                
* Sow seeds of cool season vegetables now for transplanting in the              
garden in March and April. Use individual peat pots, or simply cover            
the floor of the cold frame with a rich soil mix and sow seeds                  
directly into it. Start broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage,                    
cauliflower, collards, lettuce, and spinach in the warmer parts of the          
state.                                                                          
                                                                                
* When reviewing your garden catalogs for new vegetable   varieties to          
try, an important consideration is improved insect and/or disease               
resistance over older plants. Watch also for drought-tolerant plants.           
                                                                                
* Continue harvesting the carrots, parsnips, turnips, and horseradish           
left in the garden in the fall.                                                 
                                                                                
* Don't wait until late in the winter to order seed. Many varieties             
sell out early.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Analyze last year's planting, fertilizing, and spraying records.              
Make notations to reorder successful varieties as well as those you             
wish to try again.                                                              
                                                                                
* Before ordering your spring seed, do a "rag doll" germination test            
on those seeds left over from last year's order. Roll 10 or 20 seeds            
in a damp paper towel.  Keep them moist and in a warm location.  For            
most crops, germination of viable seed will occur within a week. If             
half the seeds germinate and you have enough left to plant twice as             
many as you usually do, you should get an adequate stand. Otherwise,            
order more seed. It's a small investment to insure success.                     
                                                                                
* To insure fruit set for tomatoes, peppers and eggplants in home               
greenhouses, take a cotton swab or a fine paintbrush and transfer the           
pollen from one flower to another.  Swirl the swab or brush lightly             
inside each flower, one after the other. Repeat this process the next           
day.  Don't wait too long after the blossoms appear to pollinate them.          
 For most plants, the most successful pollinating can be done the day           
after blossoms open. If successful, you will be able to see tiny                
fruits as the flowers wilt.                                                     
                                                                                
* To insure next year's flowers on amaryllis, keep the plant growing            
strongly until mid-July before allowing it to go dormant.                       
                                                                                
* To prolong bloom, protect poinsettias from drafts and keep them               
moderately moist.                                                               
                                                                                
* Turn and prune house plants regularly to keep them shapely. Pinch             
back the stems of house plants to promote bushy growth.                         
                                                                                
* Check all house plants closely for insect infestations.  Quarantine           
gift plants until you determine that they aren't harboring any pests.           
                                                                                
* Overwatering indoor plants encourages root rot.  Water when the soil          
is dry to the touch.                                                            
                                                                                
* Keep winter fertilization of most houseplants to a minimum as plant           
growth is now at its slowest.                                                   
                                                                                
* House plants and holiday gift plants should not be placed on top of           
the television. This location is too warm and in most homes too far             
from windows to provide adequate light.                                         
                                                                                
* Thin leaved plants are very sensitive to transplant shock. If a               
plant wilts after repotting, encase the entire plant in a plastic bag.          
Twist the bag shut and punch two or three holes in it. Allow the plant          
to recuperate in this protected environment for two or three days.              
Resist the urge to water a wilted plant if the soil is moist.                   
                                                                                
* The low light levels of winter call for some adjustments in the               
placement of houseplants.  Bring house plants which normally thrive on          
the north side of the house to east windows, while allowing the plants          
from the east more sun on the south. Also, give the plants that                 
usually are set on the tables away from direct light a short midwinter          
visit to one of the less exposed windowsills.                                   
                                                                                
* When extremely cold nights prevail, draw the window shades or slip            
lengths of protective cardboard between plants and the glass. Move the          
most tender plants away from the window panes on the coldest nights.            
                                                                                
* If you potted bulbs of daffodils, crocus, tulips, or hyacinths in             
the fall, bring them indoors now to force them into bloom. Place pots           
in a cool window that receives direct sunlight for at least a few               
hours each day. Allow soil to dry partially between each watering.              
                                                                                
* For an interesting ornamental plant and a culinary addition, buy a            
plump unshriveled ginger root at the grocery store and plant it in a            
light sandy soil just under the surface in a 6" to 8" pot. Place it in          
a warm sunny window and keep damp until shoots appear. Water more               
frequently and fertilize monthly with high phosphorus fertilizer.               
Harvest your crop in about 8 months, saving a piece to replant.                 
                                                                                
* Fluorescent tubes lose intensity with age. If your are using quite a          
few fluorescent lamps, change a few tubes at a time to avoid plant              
damage by the sudden increase in light intensity.                               
                                                                                
* Mealy bugs on your house plants can be killed by touching them with           
a cotton swab dipped in alcohol.                                                
                                                                                
* If you are considering installing supplemental lighting for your              
indoor plants, the 48 inch, 40 watt fixture with two fluorescent tubes          
is the industry standard. Spare parts are readily available and high            
production volume assures lower costs for 48 inch than for other size           
tubes. Use one cool white and one warm white tube to obtain a light             
mix most beneficial to plants.                                                  
                                                                                
* When dusting the furniture also consider dusting the plants. Wipe             
dust from broad leaf plants at regular intervals using a cloth                  
dampened with clear water.  With the short days of winter, light                
reduction must remain at a minimum.                                             
                                                                                
* Give your holiday gift plants the best care so they can retain their          
original, attractive appearance. Keep them cool with a temperature of           
70 degrees F. during the day and 60 degrees at night. Set the pots on           
a tray of moistened gravel to maintain higher humidity.                         
                                                                                
* During the winter most houses are too dry for house plants. Humidity          
may be increased by placing plants on trays lined with pebbles and              
filled with water to within one half inch of the base of the pot. If            
you heat with wood, keep a pot of water on the stove. The added                 
moisture will be healthier for you as well as your plants.                      
                                                                                
* Force pips of lily-of-the-valley into flower; approximately three             
weeks at 60 to 70 degrees F are required.                                       
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
* Do some reading on trickle irrigation this winter.  Installing a              
trickle system will save you time and water and increase your garden            
yield.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Overhaul your garden sprayer.  Inspect leather washers and the                
plunger and replace any worn parts after thoroughly oiling new                  
leather. It may be difficult to locate exact parts for your sprayer             
model.  By starting now, you'll have them by gardening season.                  
                                                                                
* Now is a good time to take advantage of off season specials on                
garden tillers or attachments.                                                  
                                                                                
* To clean crusty clay pots, add one cup each of white vinegar and              
household bleach to a gallon of warm water and soak the pots. For               
heavily crusted pots, scrub with a steel wool pad after soaking for 12          
hours.                                                                          
                                                                                
* If you have some time this winter, paint the handles of garden tools          
red. This will preserve the wood and make the tools easier to locate            
next summer when you lay them down in the garden or on the lawn.                
                                                                                
* Protect liquid insecticides from cold weather to preserve their               
effectiveness. If any product is stored below the manufacturer's                
suggested minimum storage temperature, it lose its effectiveness.  The          
most important factor in determining if the product is usable is the            
complete absence of crystals. If crystals remain after  the product             
returns to room temperature, do not use the product.                            
                                                                                
* Keep all outdoor containers turned upside down during the winter so           
water will not collect in them and freeze causing breakage.  Move               
garden ornaments such as urns or jars into the garage or basement to            
prevent damage during the cold winter season.  If containers are too            
large to move, cover them  to prevent water collecting in them.                 
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Wood ashes will raise soil pH. Use them only if the pH is under 7.0           
based on a soil test. The safe rate of wood ash application to lawn or          
gardens is 15-20 lbs. per 1000 square feet per year (approximately a 5          
gal. pail). Remember, a little wood ash is beneficial, but a lot is             
not.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Feed the birds regularly and see that they have water. Birds like             
suet, fruit, nuts, and bread crumbs as well as bird seed. They won't            
even complain if the food is stale.                                             
                                                                                
* One solution to the deer problem found effective in Louisiana is              
rotten eggs. A mixture of 12-18 eggs in 5 gallons of water sprayed              
over an acre emits enough odor to repel deer but not offend the                 
gardener.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Spend a cozy evening in front of the fire going through seed                  
catalogs to decide what you are going to plant in this year's garden.           
                                                                                
* A fun indoor project is building bird boxes for the upcoming nesting          
season. These can be elaborate or simple; consult your local Extension          
office for easy do-it-yourself plans.                                           
                                                                                
* There are many prescriptions to keep deer from nibbling ornamentals:          
fencing, plastic netting, repellants, sprays, hot pepper sauce, egg             
whites, human hair, lion or tiger manure, and even rock music. Try a            
few to find out what works for your uninvited pruners.                          
                                                                                
* Save plastic mesh bags in which oranges usually come; they make               
ideal storage sacks for air drying gourds, bulbs, and herbs.                    
                                                                                
* Take down all those Christmas greens before they lose the freshness           
that made them so attractive during the holidays.                               
                                                                                
* Start planning now for next year's holiday gifts and decora-                  
tions. Record those items you wished you had this year (dried flowers,          
herbs, pickles and preserves) and make sure you plant appropriate               
plants for next year's harvest.                                                 
                                                                                
* Recycle your holiday decorations. Greenery used in ornaments can be           
used again in the garden. Wreaths and branches stripped from Christmas          
trees make excellent mulch for protecting newly planted                         
ornamentals. Remove the material in the spring and compost it.                  
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases January 1988                                                     
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Extension                
Technician working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Consumer            
Horticulture, using material provided by Don Davis, City of Lynchburg           
Extension Agent, and Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The                
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent use in           
preparing radio and newspaper features and other educational programs.          
                                                                                
Plant Growth Under Artificial Light		62 lines                                   
Snow in the Garden						81 lines                                                
Flowering Gift Plants					83 lines                                              
Garden Myths							70 lines                                                     
Landscaping the Front Yard				67 lines                                          
Longheaded Beetles and Roundheaded Borers		31 lines                             
                                                                                
*****************                                                               
Plant Growth Under Artificial Light                                             
                                                                                
The driving force in plant growth is light.  Although  sunlight                 
usually gives the best results, you can substitute electric lamps               
with much success.  Plants will grow properly as long as you control            
light intensity, color, and timing.                                             
                                                                                
The light levels provided by electric lamps are lower than direct               
sunshine, but many plants can adapt.  Intensity drops by the inch               
the further the lamps are away from plants.  Adding more lights and             
moving them closer to plants increases light intensity. If faced                
with marginal light intensity, houseplant needs can sometimes be met            
by leaving the lamps turned on longer.                                          
                                                                                
When light strikes a prism, its component colors - red, orange,                 
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet- become visible.  Each plays            
a part in plant growth, but blue light is most important to                     
photosynthesis, followed next in importance by red light.  Plants               
stay short, stocky, and leafy when they receive plenty of blue.                 
They stretch, flower, and fruit early under red light. Ordinary cool            
white fluorescent tubes are a good source of blue light, and make an            
acceptable sole source of light for foliage plants. Common warm                 
white tubes and incandescent bulbs provide the red end of the                   
spectrum.                                                                       
                                                                                
Special plant lights casting a purple glow became popular several               
years ago.  Their popularity stems from a red-blue mix of color                 
suitable for most plants and from the healthy lustre of illuminated             
foliage.  These fluorescents go by names such as Plant-Gro,                     
Plant-Light and Gro-Lux and cost much more than ordinary fluorescent            
bulbs.  They are nice to have, but not essential.  A cool white and             
a warm white combined do about the same for plant growth.                       
                                                                                
Incandescent bulbs release too much heat to be a valuable sole                  
source of light.  Their light comes from the red-orange end of the              
spectrum, causing leggy growth and rapid maturity.                              
                                                                                
The days can be long in an indoor light garden.  Plants grown for               
flowering indoors under electric lights have high energy needs and              
grow well with 14 to 16 hour days.  Flower and vegetable seedlings              
destined for an outdoor garden also require 14 to 16 hour days.  The            
lower energy demands of foliage houseplants can be met with 12 to 14            
hours of light.                                                                 
                                                                                
The distance that you place lamps from your plants varies with the              
types of plants you are growing.  Some suggested distances from                 
foliage to bulb using 48-inch fixtures holding two 40-watt                      
fluorescent tubes are 3" to 6" for garden transplants, 4" to 6" for             
flowering houseplants, 3" to 6" for cacti, and 4" to 10" for foliage            
houseplants.                                                                    
                                                                                
If plants fail to flower, stretch too much, or show pale color, they            
probably need more light.  Leaves appear bleached when receiving                
more light than they can handle, but this is rare when using                    
fluorescent lights.                                                             
                                                                                
Finally, keep lighting equipment clean and in good shape.  A layer              
of dust can cut light intensity dramatically.  New fluorescent lamps            
have the brightest light.  The lifespan of 40-watt tubes is 9,000               
hours, a little over one year of constant use or nearly two years at            
the normal day lengths.  Dark bands at the ends of a tube warn that             
it is time for replacement.  Even though the bulb still lights up,              
don't keep using it.  If you do, you'll deprive your plants of the              
full amount of light they need to flourish.                                     
 ----------------------                                                         
Snow in the Garden                                                              
                                                                                
Snow is a mixed blessing in the garden.  Fluffy and light, freshly              
fallen snow is an excellent insulator.  Its millions of tiny air                
pockets hold warmth in the soil around snow covered plants.  When               
frigid weather comes after a heavy snowfall, the snow cover may save            
many plants of borderline hardiness.  A thick covering of snow can              
protect plants from drying wind.  In your vegetable garden, snow                
protects overwintering spinach plants while keeping the soil from               
freezing too hard for digging the last of your parsnips.  Deep snows            
also replenish the subsoil moisture reserves, provided it melts slowly          
enough to seep in rather than run off.                                          
                                                                                
On the aesthetic side, snow creates an attractive scene when it                 
accumulates on and around evergreens.  Nandina, holly and other                 
fruiting plants are especially colorful against a white background.             
                                                                                
Snow can also cause its share of problems for the gardener.  Rodents            
feeding beneath the snow can girdle fruits and other woody plants by            
chewing off their bark at ground level.  Moles will continue burrowing          
in search of insects, as voles dine on your tulip bulbs, strawberry             
plants, apple trees, and azaleas.                                               
                                                                                
Branches bend and may break under a deep snow.  Shrubs with flexible            
stems usually spring back into their proper shape as the weeks pass,            
while the brittle shrubs do not.  Expect more lasting injury in the             
upright stems of tall, narrow junipers, yews, and arborvitaes.  Their           
vertical symmetry may be lost when erect branches become permanently            
bent.  Such damage is corrected by pruning or tying the disfigured              
branches in place.                                                              
                                                                                
When a branch breaks, cut it back to a vigorous bud or twig.                    
Extensive damage may require removing the whole branch.                         
                                                                                
Trees may drop branches, leaving a jagged stub that is best removed at          
the trunk.  Torn bark is often found where branches succumb to the              
weight of wet snow, and trimming it away aids the healing process.              
Injuries may be painted with a tree wound dressing, but this practice           
is cosmetic, not therapeutic, and research indicates it can be                  
detrimental.                                                                    
                                                                                
Shrubs along walks and drives take a beating from loads of snow and             
ice shoveled on top.  This could break Japanese hollies, boxwoods, and          
azaleas, though the ground cover junipers and liriopes tolerate such            
abuse.                                                                          
                                                                                
Shrubs, particularly boxwoods, growing under the eaves are at risk              
when show slides off the roof.  This is why some gardeners with years           
of growth invested in English boxwood place protective lath structures          
around their shrubs every winter.                                               
                                                                                
Another preventive approach, suitable for large American or tree                
boxwood as well as upright yews, junipers, and arborvitaes, is tying            
the plant.  Secure a stout cord on a lower branch and wrap it in an             
upward spiral while pressing the boughs upward and inward.  Simply tie          
them each fall and untie them each spring to avoid snow damage.                 
                                                                                
Knocking off snow as it accumulates helps avoid breakage, but this              
works best if done several times during the blizzard instead of once            
after the snow stops falling.  Using a broom, sweep your plants with            
gentle upward motion before the snow turns to ice.                              
                                                                                
As spring draws closer, yellow and brown leaves will appear on                  
evergreen branches broken by snow.  Prune now if the damage is                  
obvious, otherwise wait until spring.                                           
                                                                                
When snow covers grass for long periods, snow mold disease can be a             
problem.  The fungus usually attacks leaves only, but it can kill the           
whole turfgrass plant.  Irregularly circular patches of grass                   
typically look off-color when the snow melts, then turn whitish or              
pinkish.  Intensively cultivated turfs, such as golf greens, are                
sprayed to prevent snow mold, but home lawns require no chemical                
treatment.  You can minimize the disease by controlling thatch and              
avoiding excessive nitrogen in late fall.  Don't skip the last mowing           
of the year; a well-groomed lawn is much less vulnerable to snow mold           
than an overgrown lawn that will mat down under the snow.  Snow mold            
is common in shady lawns with poor drainage.                                    
                                                                                
Go easy on the deicing salt as you cope with winter.  Plant roots may           
be injured by an overdose of sodium and chloride.  If the ice lingers,          
consider spreading sand, sawdust, or cinders instead of salt.                   
 ---------------------------                                                    
Flowering Gift Plants                                                           
                                                                                
Like no other gift, flowering plants mark festive occasions, convey             
best wishes, and brighten the first weeks of winter.  Some can become           
permanent members of your plant collection, flowering every year and            
giving long-term enjoyment.  Others are more difficult to renew and,            
like a cut Christmas tree, are best discarded after the holidays.               
                                                                                
Caring for gift plants is somewhat different than growing ordinary              
houseplants.  Blooms require extra energy for growth and sustenance,            
and most gift plants will benefit from strong natural light.                    
                                                                                
Under warm, sunny conditions the plants will use more water than when           
kept in cool offices and stores illuminated by artificial light.                
Adjust your watering schedule to match the plants' needs, as watering           
too often will lead to fatal root rot.  Check plants daily by probing           
their soil with your finger, and water only when the surface feels dry          
to the touch.  When you do water, water thoroughly.  Water seeping              
through the pot's drainage holes is proof that the entire root ball is          
wet.  Do not let the pot stand in the water that drains out.  Foil              
wrappings and plastic-lined baskets are popular pot covers, but                 
allowing water to collect in them keeps soil saturated and causes root          
rot.  Water your plants with tepid or room-temperature water to avoid           
shocking roots.                                                                 
                                                                                
Blooms stay fresh and colorful longest if plants are kept in cool               
locations.  They wither or drop when exposed to cold drafts and the             
extremes of heat common near fireplaces and radiators.  Dry air can             
reduce bloom time, too.  Increase humidity by grouping plants on a              
tray of moist pebbles.                                                          
                                                                                
Christmas cactus is a long-lived plant that can bloom heavily each              
year if given the proper treatment.  Keep its soil moist from now               
through next September, then let it go quite dry.  Cacti grown dry and          
cool in fall will set buds in time for the holidays.  However, flower           
buds may drop if Christmas cactus goes too dry or if humidity is too            
low.                                                                            
                                                                                
Huge trumpet-shaped Amaryllis flowers perch atop a massive stalk.  As           
flowers fade, remove them but leave the stalk to wither on its own.             
Then grow your amaryllis as any other sun-loving houseplant,                    
fertilizing regularly from spring until late summer.                            
                                                                                
Provide amaryllis with a two month rest in late autumn.  Quit watering          
and allow the foliage to yellow and dry up, then trim it away and put           
the dormant plant in a cool, dark place until November.  At that time,          
you can start to force new growth by giving it sun and water.                   
                                                                                
Gardeners seeking maximum bulb growth often plant amaryllis directly            
in a sunny garden outdoors, after the threat of frost in spring.                
Otherwise, leave your plants in potbound condition, repotting only              
every two or three years.  Both amaryllis and Christmas cactus are              
among the most reliable indoor bloomers.                                        
                                                                                
Cyclamen is an attractive flowering foliage plant that comes from the           
store with mature blossoms as well as buds in all stages of                     
development.  Give it a cool location and all the sun possible.                 
Making it bloom again next fall is a challenge best reserved for                
experienced gardeners.  Most plant hobbyists choose to discard the              
plant after the blooming period is over.                                        
                                                                                
Christmas peppers are pungent-fruited ornamentals that remain colorful          
for weeks if given strong light and cool temperatures.  Raised from             
seed, peppers are inexpensive and easy to discard once they lose their          
red fruit.                                                                      
                                                                                
A pepper relative, Jerusalem cherry, is covered with round red fruit,           
poisonous if eaten.  Care for it as you would Christmas pepper,                 
discarding the plant after fruit drops.  Keep its soil moist.                   
                                                                                
If your poinsettia still looks good after the holidays, place it near           
a sunny window and keep the soil watered.  New shoots will appear as            
the weather warms.  Cut back the stems after bracts fade or drop off.           
If your poinsettia has gone downhill, prune it back to about four               
inches, set it near a sunny window and water often enough to keep it            
moist.  It should sprout new stems when spring comes.                           
                                                                                
Bringing poinsettias back into bloom next year is possible if you               
water and fertilize through spring and summer, pinching new growth to           
encourage good form.  Around October first, give your poinsettia total          
darkness from 5 p.m. to 8 a.m. every day.  Anything less than                   
complete, absolute darkness during these hours will interfere with              
blooming.  Continue fertilizing and watering, and your plant will show          
color by December.  When bracts start turning red, you can stop the             
dark treatment.                                                                 
 -----------------------------                                                  
Garden Myths                                                                    
                                                                                
Myths abound in the lore of gardening, clouding issues and veiling the          
truth.  The following are some common gardening myths.                          
                                                                                
***MYTH*** Botanical insecticides are natural products toxic to pests           
but harmless to other living things.                                            
                                                                                
Nothing could be further from the truth.  Plant-derived poisons are             
only sometimes less toxic to man than synthetic agrichemicals.                  
                                                                                
Rotenone, from the roots of derris plants, is toxic if swallowed or             
inhaled.  Both pyrethrum and rotenone are low in toxicity to mammals            
yet highly toxic to fish.  The yardstick for comparing acute,                   
short-term toxicity is the LD50 or lethal dosage needed to kill fifty           
percent of a group of test animals (rats, rabbits, etc.).  When you             
compare LD50 figures, the chemical insecticides malathion and sevin             
rank safer than nicotine sulfate, a botanical poison derived from               
tobacco.                                                                        
                                                                                
No matter whether the chemical comes from a laboratory or a plant, it           
pays to be careful.                                                             
                                                                                
***MYTH*** Fall is the best season for pruning.                                 
                                                                                
This is false for several reasons.  Shrubs and trees store                      
carbohydrates (food materials) in their branches and leaves, so fall            
pruning can reduce their cold hardiness.                                        
                                                                                
Azaleas and other spring-flowering plants would bloom poorly if pruned          
in fall, as next year's flower buds are present at that time.  Such             
plants are best pruned in spring right after petals fall.                       
                                                                                
***MYTH*** The soil under oaks and pines is acidic.                             
                                                                                
This is sometimes true, sometimes false.  The acidity of soil depends           
not only on the nature of vegetation growing on it, but also on the             
type of rock below.  Some soils under oaks and pines are neutral or             
alkaline, needing no lime.                                                      
                                                                                
***MYTH*** Mushrooms and toadstools sprouting in your lawn means that           
the soil is deficient.                                                          
                                                                                
In actuality, these plants are merely the above-ground growth of                
fungus organisms living in soil.  Some fungi live on buried lumber,             
dead roots, or fine particles of organic matter.  Others live in                
harmony with tree roots, assisting in the uptake of water and                   
nutrients.  A few cause plant disease.  The sudden appearance of                
mushrooms does not mean the lawn needs lime, fertilizer of anything             
else. If you object to their sprouting in lawns or gardens, use a rake          
to dispose of them.  There is no chemical control for mushrooms.                
                                                                                
***MYTH*** Moss growth in lawns shows a need for lime.                          
                                                                                
This is not necessarily true.  Acidic conditions could be responsible           
for moss crowding out your grass, but so could excessive shade, poor            
drainage, low fertility, and a host of other causes.  When conditions           
do not favor healthy turf, moss can take over.                                  
                                                                                
***MYTH*** When it comes to garden chemicals, if a little bit is good,          
a lot is better.                                                                
                                                                                
This myth is not only false but dangerous.  Doubling or tripling the            
dose of any garden input can have disastrous results.  Weed killers             
used in this manner can injure plants you never intended to harm, not           
to mention leaving long-lived residues in soil.  Over-use of                    
insecticides may kill beneficial bugs, harm plants, and render                  
vegetables unfit for consumption.  Doubling the recommended rate of             
any pesticide increases the chances of poisoning people by inhalation,          
absorption through the skin, and by other routes.                               
                                                                                
Fertilizers used too heavily will burn plants, prevent seed                     
germination, and contaminate water resources.  Even organic                     
fertilizers such as manure can cause harm if you use too much.                  
 ----------------------------                                                   
Landscaping the Front Yard                                                      
                                                                                
Winter brings a slower pace to gardening and gives the gardener time            
to think about past and future successes.  Now is a good time to think          
about the home landscape and how it can be improved.  An attractive             
front yard can enhance the appearance of your house and neighborhood.           
The expanse of lawn and surrounding plants creates the most pleasing            
picture if designed or planned rather than allowed to take shape on             
its own.                                                                        
                                                                                
How you plant the front yard depends mainly on your house.  On most             
homesites the house is the prominent feature.  All plants, driveways,           
fences, and other items are meant to complement it.  Shrubs and trees           
unite the house with its surroundings by softening vertical lines and           
making the building seem a natural part of the terrain.                         
                                                                                
The two major landscape design areas around your house are at the               
corners and doorway, as both have harsh vertical lines.  Your front             
door, a beacon to visitors, is the house's focal point and short                
plantings on either side of it are appropriate.  Taller plants are              
suitable for corners, where they will funnel the viewer's eye toward            
your doorway plants and front door.  Houses that are too tall appear            
shorter if the corner plantings extend like wings on each side, with            
the tallest plants at or near the corners.                                      
                                                                                
Trees frame the house, focusing interest on it as the main feature of           
your property.  Plant trees whose mature size is in scale with the              
house, or low houses will look dwarfed and tall houses will appear              
even taller than they actually are.                                             
                                                                                
Select trees to match the house design.  Steeply angled roof lines and          
dormer windows call for pyramidal trees such as spruce, birch, and              
sweetgum.  Trees with rounded or horizontal form, maples, dogwoods,             
and Bradford pear, are better companions for the low lines of a ranch           
type dwelling.                                                                  
                                                                                
Low shrubs and ground covers along house walls provide a smooth                 
transition from building to lawn.  Shrubs along the front wall reduces          
the apparent height of a tall building.  Having open spaces with                
natural mulches and ground covers in the planting can make low-built            
houses appear more massive.                                                     
                                                                                
The simpler a planting near the house, the better.  Use only a few              
kinds of shrubs, but plan for some variety in size, form, and                   
texture.  Consider adding areas for flowers or ornamental grasses, but          
keep these at a minimum height.  Select shrubs whose natural height             
and growth pattern fit the desired space to reduce pruning labor.               
Avoid pruning shrubs into unnatural shapes as they are difficult to             
maintain and don't always enhance the landscape.                                
                                                                                
An open lawn area can provide an impressive setting for a house.  A             
front lawn uncluttered by specimen shrubs, flower beds, and garden              
ornaments can make your property seem spacious.  Shrubs will appear             
lost and floating unless planted in groups or cultivated beds.                  
                                                                                
Flowers are most appreciated where you spend time relaxing outdoors,            
usually the backyard for modern homes, the front yard for older                 
homes.  Lay out beds with a combination of straight lines and bold,             
sweeping curves.  Numerous small, wiggly curves have low visual                 
impact.                                                                         
                                                                                
Make a big splash with flowers using large masses of single                     
colors.  Plant a group of 50 `Red Emperor' tulips next to a bed of 50           
white `Mount Hood' daffodils, rather than a checkerboard mixture of             
various colors.                                                                 
                                                                                
Home landscapes, like clothing, go in and out of style.  After years            
of growth, many yards are ready for landscape renewal and                       
improvement.  Analyze yours and proceed with a plan.                            
*******************                                                             
Longheaded Beetles and Roundheaded Borers                                       
                                                                                
Roundheaded borers are the larval stage of longhorned beetles.  They            
are secondary infestors of weakened, dying and dead trees, stumps, and          
cut firewood.  Adults often emerge from firewood that is brought into           
the house and may cause concern.  They will not infest structural wood          
and are thus a nuisance only.                                                   
                                                                                
Adult longhorned beetles are medium to large beetles, usually brown,            
reddish brown, or black in color.  They are sometimes mottled or                
banded with white or gray.  The name longhorned beetle refers to the            
very long and distinctive antenna.  The antenna is often longer than            
the body.  The thorax and wing covers often bear small stout spines.            
Adult beetles usually emerge in the spring from the host trees.  Some           
species do not feed as adults but others may spend some time feeding            
at flowers.  A few species commonly referred to as twig pruners will            
kill small branches and twigs.  Adults lay their eggs on weakened and           
damaged trees.  The larvae are elongate, cylindrical, and have large            
gnawing mandibles.  The name roundheaded borer refers to their                  
enlarged thorax directly behind the head.  They bore into the tree              
feeding under the bark at first and later boring into the heartwood.            
As they feed, they bore long holes which weaken and destroy the wood.           
Infested trees are often rendered unusable for commercial purposes.             
They may take one to several years to mature before they pupate inside          
the tree just under the bark.                                                   
                                                                                
Sanitation and prompt action are the best control against these                 
borers.  Felled timber should be removed from the woods as soon as              
possible.  The bark should be removed from the logs to prevent                  
infestation.  Wounded, damaged or otherwise weakened areas of the tree          
are susceptible to borer attack and should be pruned to prevent borer           
infestation.  Trees watered, fertilized, and maintained in vigorous             
conditon suffer few borer attacks.                                              
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
April Notes                                                                     
                                                                                
* Remove sticks, rocks and other debris from your lawn to prevent               
damaging your lawnmower or injuring yourself when mowing. Check                 
your lawnmower and other lawn-care equipment in preparation                     
for the coming season.                                                          
                                                                                
* Start herb seeds indoors in moist medium. Place in bright,                    
indirect light and move to a sunny window when germination                      
begins. When the seedlings are 2-3" tall, transplant into peat                  
pots for the garden or into clay pots for use on your terrace                   
or balcony. Some herbs early grown from seed include chives,                    
sage, sweet marjoram, basil, summery savory, dill and parsley.                  
                                                                                
* To extend the blooming period of gladiolus, plant early, middle               
and late-season selections each week until the middle of June.                  
Choose a sunny location and plant the corms 4-6" deep and 6-8"                  
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Put a birdhouse in the garden to attract insect-eating friends.               
                                                                                
* Measure the rainfall with a rain gauge posted near the garden                 
so you can tell when to water. You can buy one or make one by                   
sinking a can partway into the ground and marking off its                       
interior in inches. The garden needs about one inch of rain per                 
week from April to September.                                                   
                                                                                
* Scatter annual poppy seeds in flower borders. The fine seeds                  
need no covering. The plants grow rapidly and provide colorful                  
flowers in early summer.                                                        
                                                                                
* Make a plot layout of your flower borders. This is a very                     
essential but easily neglected chore. With an accurate plot                     
plan, you will know where to locate the spring flowering bulbs                  
you plant next fall. Also, it will make your spring and summer                  
gardening easier. You will be able to correctly identify the                    
plants in your border and plan for continuous blooming by setting               
young annuals between bulbs and early flowering perennials after                
their blooms have faded.                                                        
                                                                                
* Before planting bare-root shrubs and trees, soak the roots in                 
water overnight.                                                                
                                                                                
* Interior latex type paint may be used on the trunks of newly                  
planted trees to prevent sunburn. This material is easy to apply                
and will gradually weather away and allow the bark to become                    
resistant to exposure to the sun.                                               
                                                                                
* If you are interested in exchanging seeds and cuttings of                     
less available crops, you may wish to contact one of those organ-               
izations interested in preserving the variety and quality of                    
our food crops. The Seed Savers Exchange (Kent Whealy, R.R. 2,                  
Princeton, MO 64673) which provides for exchange of vegetable                   
seed also maintains an Heirloom Seed Bank, and a Growers Network                
to multiply special collections of vegetables. The North American               
Fruit Explorers (Ray Walker, Box 711, St. Louis, MO 63188)                      
has a scion exchange and fruit testing programs.                                
                                                                                
* Aphids on your roses will cause deformed, inferior flowers. If                
aphids are noticed, contact your extension agent for an approved                
insecticide that you can spray.                                                 
                                                                                
* In the Piedmont and Mountain regions, this is the time to set                 
out cool-weather vegetables such as broccoli, brussel sprouts,                  
cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, and onions. When the danger of                   
frost has passed, transplant tomatoes, peppers and eggplant.                    
                                                                                
* Some shrubs grow best on acid soils with a pH of about 5.0.                   
These include andromeda, azalea, blueberry, camellia, mountain                  
laurel, and rhododendron. At a higher pH value these shrubs may                 
become yellow and make very poor growth.                                        
                                                                                
* Many herbs are excellent for natural appearing rock gardens                   
or formal plantings with brick pathways. These herbs do well                    
in sandy soil and are partial to full sun locations: creeping                   
thyme, sage, santolina and garlic.                                              
                                                                                
* Blue amaryllis (Hippeastrum procerum) and green amaryllis                     
(H. calyptrata) present a rewarding challenge to patient gar-                   
deners. Seeds are available from selected mail order seed                       
companies and bloom in about 5 years.                                           
                                                                                
* For a handsome addition to your herb collection, try lovage                   
(Levisticum officinale) a hardy perennial with a sharp but sweet                
celery flavor. Leaves can be used sparingly in soups and salads;                
stems can be blanched or eaten raw; and seeds can be added to                   
candies, bread, and cakes.                                                      
                                                                                
* Tree seedlings can have a strong start in quart or half-gallon                
milk cartons. Remove top and bottom and stand on a frame covered                
with 1/4" mesh hardware. Fill with a mixture of peat moss,                      
perlite and vermiculite. As the tap root grows through the bottom               
of the milk carton tube and mesh, it is "air pruned" forcing the                
development of fibrous side roots.                                              
                                                                                
* The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station reports that                  
larger plants with more flowers can be grown in a soil mix                      
consisting of 1 part sphagnum moss, 1 part peat moss, 2 parts                   
perlite, and 2 parts compost than with 4 other commonly used                    
mixes. Sphagnum moss is reported to increase aeration and                       
water-holding capacity and to suppress soil-borne diseases.                     
                                                                                
* For faster growth of vegetables in containers, use black                      
plastic pots to warm the soil---81 degrees on sunny days compared               
to 72 degrees for the same mixes in clay or white plastic pots.                 
                                                                                
* In a sunny location with poor soil, plant nasturtiums for                     
a colorful show. They require warm soil to sprout and start                     
blooming in about 50 days. Too much water and fertilizer produces               
excess leaves and few flowers.                                                  
                                                                                
* For easier watering of tomatoes and other large vegetables,                   
plant a gallon can with holes punched in the bottom nearby.                     
Watering through the can keeps water off the top of the ground                  
and puts it near the roots where it's needed.                                   
                                                                                
* Plant clematis in locations which receive at least 6 hours                    
of sunshine a day. Use organic mulch or ground cover to shade                   
roots and keep them cool. Plant in rich, well-drained loam.                     
                                                                                
* Plant dahlia tubers as soon as danger of frost is passed. Stake               
at the time of planting to avoid injury to tubers.                              
                                                                                
* Many popular perennials can be divided now including: phlox,                  
fall asters, shasta daisies, baby's breath and liriope. Set                     
up a plant exchange with friends and neighbors to share the                     
excess.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Prune spring blooming shrubs such as forsythia, weigelia and                  
early spirea after they have completed flowering.                               
                                                                                
* Thin young fruits of apples, pears, and peaches to insure                     
larger, healthier fruit. Thin within 25 days of the peak bloom,                 
leaving 4 to 6 inches between fruit.                                            
                                                                                
* Cut flower stalks back to the ground on daffodils, hyacinths,                 
and other spring flowering bulbs as the flowers fade. DO NOT                    
cut the foliage until it dies naturally.                                        
                                                                                
* Don't be too anxious to move your houseplants outdoors. Even                  
a good chill can knock the leaves off of tender plants.                         
                                                                                
* For hot weather color, select one of the following: Gloriosa                  
Daisy, Madagascar Periwinkle, Ornamental Peppers, Mexican Zinnia,               
Amaranthus `Joseph's Coat'. Plant after all danger of frost                     
is past and plan for color until winter arrives.                                
                                                                                
* A popular gift plant at Easter, the Easter lily needs bright,                 
indirect light. Avoid direct sunlight. Keep the soil moist. It                  
can be planted in a sunny spot in the garden after danger of                    
frost is over, where it will bloom next year.                                   
                                                                                
* Do not cut the leaves of spring flowering bulbs, but let them                 
brown naturally, then cut off. The leaves are necessary to                      
produce strong bulbs capable of reflowering.                                    
                                                                                
* Don't overpot African violets. They bloom better in small pots.               
                                                                                
* If wisteria does not bloom, it needs careful pruning to correct               
the condition. Prune long, straggling canes and all dead wood.                  
Root pruning sometimes helps, too.                                              
                                                                                
* Did you know that you can get a free soil test?  Mailing                      
cartons and instructions are available at your extension office.                
                                                                                
* Control insect pests before they become unmanageable. Spray or                
dust tent caterpillars while they are still small.                              
                                                                                
* The lawn mower blade should always be sharp so as not to tear                 
the grass. If you sharpen the blade at home, be sure to balance                 
it too. Place the center hole of the blade on a screwdriver                     
handle held upright in the vise. Check to see if it balances. If                
not, sharpen the heavier side some more until the blade balances                
on the handle.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Once the snow melts and the surface is dry, established                       
but uneven lawns will benefit from being rolled. Depressed areas                
may be filled with sifted topsoil. Fill in the sparser areas by                 
sowing new seed.                                                                
                                                                                
* Raspberry canes can be pruned and thinned now. Removal of                     
excessive canes at ground level will improve air circulation and                
light penetration for heavier fruiting. All dead tips of the                    
canes should be cut off.                                                        
                                                                                
* Do not fertilize azaleas and camellias until they have finished               
blooming. They should be pruned, if necessary, after blooming                   
also.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Plant cold frame plants outdoors now.                                         
                                                                                
* April is a good time to clean up plants and flower beds. Pick                 
out dead leaves and twigs and prune dead limbs.                                 
                                                                                
* Grape vines with excessive vegetative growth generally have                   
less high quality fruit. In early spring, prune out the canes                   
with the fewest buds to allow light, moisture and air circulation               
within the plant to improve the quality and quantity of the                     
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Plant strawberries if you haven't already. Place straw around                 
established plants as a mulch, after weeding and fertilizing the                
bed.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Do not mow the lawn until it has grown at least 2 inches. The                 
roots are being renewed in the spring and grass needs vigorous                  
top growth initially.                                                           
                                                                                
* Label the clumps of daffodils that are too crowded, as over-                  
crowding inhibits blooming. Dig up and separate in July.                        
                                                                                
* The best time to plant shrubs and trees is on a windless,                     
cloudy day.                                                                     
                                                                                
* When pruning forsythia do not cut ends of the twigs. It is best               
to thin out the old branches as close to the ground as possible.                
This should be done immediately after blooming.                                 
                                                                                
* Fill the bare spots in the flower bed with moss roses (Portula-               
ca) and feed regularly to encourage blooms into the summer.                     
                                                                                
* When planning your vegetable garden, consider that vegetables                 
need at least 6 to 10 hours of sunlight in order to develop                     
properly. Most vegetables, such as tomatoes, squash, eggplant,                  
and peppers need full sun.                                                      
                                                                                
* When weather is wet or cold, allow about twice the germination                
time listed on the seed packet. If there is no sign of growth                   
after this time, dig around a little to check for sprouted seeds.               
If you find no signs of life, the seed has probably rotted and                  
you will need to replant.                                                       
                                                                                
* The date of the last killing frost in your area can be used to                
calculate the approximate earliest and latest planting date for                 
spring crops. VCES publication #426-331, Vegetable Planting Guide               
and Recommended Planting Dates can be used to determine planting                
dates and the average length of harvest for each crop. Harvest                  
dates are particularly important if you also plan on having a                   
fall garden.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Have you taken soil tests of your gardens, lawn, orchard and                  
berry patch in the past year?  Don't guess about fertilization.                 
Soil analysis will help you base fertilizer and lime applications               
on the present condition of the soil and the nutrients needed by                
your plants. Contact your local extension agent for instructions                
for sampling soil.                                                              
                                                                                
* Over or under fertilization can weaken or kill plants. Nitrogen               
deficiency is characterized by stunted, yellowing leaves near the               
bottom of the plant and slow, stunted growth. Over application of               
nitrogen may cause leaf tip burn or all vegetative growth (no                   
flowers or fruit).                                                              
                                                                                
* Harden transplants by decreasing water, fertilizer, and growing               
temperatures. Transplant on a shady day, in late afternoon or in                
early evening to reduce transplant shock. Water with a half-stre-               
ngth fertilizer solution. For a few days after transplanting,                   
protect the plants from wind and sun by placing a piece of                      
newspaper or cardboard on their south sides, or by covering with                
jugs, baskets, or flower pots. Water the plants once or twice                   
during the next week.                                                           
                                                                                
* Quality bedding plants are sold already hardened off. Woody and               
yellow plants are overhardened and will be slow to resume growth.               
                                                                                
* Plant Swiss Chard for a constant harvest of greens from spring                
until fall.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Delay mulching to allow soil to warm deeply, but act before                   
weeds become established.                                                       
                                                                                
* If fruit trees are lacking pollinators nearby, cut bouquets of                
blossoms from good pollinators and place them in pails under                    
blossoming trees. Make plans to plant pollinating varieties this                
fall.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Moles are tunnelling insect eaters particularly attracted to                  
grubs. When bulbs are missing, or shrubs have root damage, look                 
for voles or field mice to be the culprits. These rodents often                 
use mole tunnels as their runs.                                                 
                                                                                
* Estimate your grass seed needs at 2-3 lbs of bluegrass seed or                
4-8 lbs. tall fescue per 1000 square feet. Remove debris, level                 
and firm soil before seeding. Cover seed by raking the area                     
lightly.                                                                        
                                                                                
* The last Friday in April is National Arbor Day - plant a tree,                
or support an organization which does.                                          
                                                                                
* Once new growth begins on trees and shrubs, cut back twigs                    
affected by winterkill to green wood.                                           
                                                                                
* For more compact pyracantha bushes without the risk of losing                 
the crop of berries, pinch back new growth now.                                 
                                                                                
* Prune roses to buds which point outward to encourage good air                 
and sunlight penetration. Dark-colored canes indicate dead wood.                
Cut back an inch below these darkened areas. If no live buds are                
left, remove the entire cane or branch.                                         
                                                                                
* Wild greens are often best in early spring when their flavor is               
mild. Common weeds that are edible include: pigweed, mustard,                   
purslane, lambs quarter and dandelion greens. Harvesting these                  
plants from your garden plot will benefit you doubly.                           
                                                                                
* When iris leaves appear thin and limp, check for borers. These                
grub-like insects can ruin an entire planting if not detected and               
eradicated early.                                                               
                                                                                
* When chrysanthemums show signs of life, dig up and divide large               
plants. Discard woody portions and replant divisions 12-15"                     
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
* To ensure the dahlia tubers you plant have survived storage,                  
sprout them indoors in a warm, lit spot.                                        
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
April 1986 Press Releases                                                       
                                                                                
Spinach                             30 lines                                    
Annual Vines in the Landscape       49 lines                                    
Nasturiums                          42 lines                                    
Trickle Irrigation                  78 lines                                    
Minimum Chemical Gardening          70 lines                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
SPINACH                                                                         
                                                                                
Spinach is one of our most important crops for use as greens. It                
is an easy and quick vegetable to grow in the home garden during                
cool spring or fall weather.                                                    
                                                                                
Spinach is hardy and will withstand frost as low as 10 or 12                    
degrees below freezing. It may be planted a month or more before                
the average last frost date in your locality. Spinach is best as                
a spring or fall crop as seeds do not germinate well in warm                    
weather and plants bolt in the heat of summer.                                  
                                                                                
Spinach does not grow satisfactorily during continually wet                     
weather. If your soil is somewhat heavy, plant on low ridges to                 
provide extra drainage. Sow seeds 1/2" deep, 2-4" apart in rows                 
12-18" apart. In wide beds plant seed 4" apart in all directions.               
Crowding can stress plants and encourage early development of                   
flower stalks. Thin plants to about four inches apart in the row.               
                                                                                
Be sure to plant spinach on a fertile loam soil to ensure rapid                 
growth. The entire plant is cut when the desired size is reached                
in about 40 to 50 days after planting. Or outside leaves can be                 
harvested from the time the plant has 6-8 leaves until just                     
before the flower stalks develop.                                               
                                                                                
There are two common types of spinach: the savoyed or crumpled                  
leaf varieties used mostly for fresh market, and the smooth leaf                
varieties used commericially for canning. Long standing or slow                 
bolting strains should be planted as these go to seed slower than               
other types providing a longer harvest period.                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
ANNUAL VINES IN THE LANDSCAPE                                                   
                                                                                
Annual flowering vines are useful for many locations around the                 
home. They add new interest to the landscape when grown on a                    
fence, arbor or trellis. They grow rapidly to form an attractive                
mass of foliage and flowers.                                                    
                                                                                
Annual vines climb by twining around a support, or by clinging                  
with tendrils. They may be used to provide shade along a porch,                 
give new charm to a fence or add color and new appeal to the                    
side of the garage. Wooden lattice, woven wire fencing, or                      
string is all that is needed.                                                   
                                                                                
Morning glory is one of the most colorful vines you can plant.                  
Brilliant flowers are available in white and shades of blue                     
and red. The flowers are four to five inches across and are borne               
freely on vines which may grow to a height of 12 to 15 feet tall.               
Morning glories grow best on a well drained soil in a warm sunny                
location. Avoid rich soil and excessive fertilization which                     
produces vigorous vines with few flowers. Start seeds indoors in                
four inch pots, and plant outdoors two or three weeks after the                 
average last frost date in your area. Soaking the seeds in water                
overnight will speed germination. Be careful when choosing a                    
location for morning glory vines. The plants self sow readily and               
you will get volunteers in the following year.                                  
                                                                                
Vine-forming nasturtium cultivars grow four or five feet tall.                  
They bloom profusely, producing fragrant flowers in shades of red               
and yellow. The plants perform best in well drained soil of                     
average or low fertility. In rich soil, they will produce mostly                
leaves and very few flowers. The canary creeper is closely                      
related to the nasturtium. This tender vine grows to a height of                
about eight feet. Yellow flowers have two large fringed petals,                 
three smaller ones, and a green spur.                                           
                                                                                
Scarlet runner bean is an edible ornamental suitable for trellis-               
ing. Rosy scarlet flowers top long twining vines. The purplish                  
pods are ornamental and can be shelled for cooking purposes. A                  
white runner bean, `White Dutch' can be found in some seed                      
catalogs.                                                                       
                                                                                
Gourds have rather inconspicuous flowers, but produce colorful                  
fruit which are ornamental on the vine during late summer. The                  
fruit may be dried for fall and winter arrangements in the home.                
                                                                                
Avoid planting Japanese hops vines. These grow rapidly, reseed                  
prolifically, and may become a weed which is difficult to                       
control. Some people are sensitive to the prickly leaves of this                
plant, which may cause unsightly red welts.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
NASTURTIUMS                                                                     
                                                                                
Nasturtiums originated in the high Andes mountains of Peru and                  
are therefore, an important native flower of the western hemi-                  
sphere. They need plenty of light to produce good flowers                       
in shades of yellow, orange, red and mahogany. Double flower                    
cultivars are available.                                                        
                                                                                
Nasturtiums grow rapidly and come into bloom in about six or                    
eight weeks from seed, quicker than most other annual flowers.                  
Plant them after the danger of frost is past. Sow nasturtium                    
seeds in soil of below average fertility to encourage slow growth               
and abundant flowering. Rich soils will produce lush green plants               
with few blooms. These excellent plants are almost pest free                    
except for occasion aphid infestation.                                          
                                                                                
A unique feature of nasturtiums is that some parts of this                      
ornamental plant are edible. The young flower buds and unripe                   
seeds have a pleasant pungent flavor. Young leaves have a peppery               
flavor and may be used in sandwiches and salads. The flowers may                
be used as an edible garnish.                                                   
                                                                                
The low bushy type nasturtiums grow to a height of one or two                   
feet. They are fine as edging plants or massed in the flower                    
border. The flowers are produced freely and are useful in small                 
and medium sized arrangements.                                                  
                                                                                
The climbing type nasturtium rapidly grows to a height of six to                
eight feet, and will quickly cover a fence or lattice. This vine                
climbs by twining around its support; therefore, you will need                  
to provide string, wire, or a trellis for climbing nasturtiums.                 
Climbing types may also be used to hang down from a window box                  
or trail along a bank or stone retaining wall. Vining varieties                 
prefer shade from the midday sun.                                               
                                                                                
The canary creeper is closely related to the nasturtium. When                   
planted in a semi-shaded location with a rich moist soil, this                  
vine will grow to a height of six to ten feet. The leaves are                   
somewhat similar to maple but more deeply notched. The pale                     
yellow flowers about one inch across display two large and                      
three small petals, and a green spur. From a distance they look                 
like small canary birds.                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
TRICKLE IRRIGATION                                                              
                                                                                
The greatest interest in trickle irrigation usually occurs about                
July when the novelty of moving sprinklers and hoses about the                  
garden has worn off and the impossiblity of watering and harvest-               
ing in the garden at the same time has made itself clear. But                   
now is the time to plant and install your trickle system while                  
you are planting the garden.                                                    
                                                                                
Trickle irrigation involves frequent, sometimes daily, applica-                 
tions of small amounts of water to replace water in the soil as                 
it is used by plants. This is done by using a system of "remit-                 
ters" or hoses to slowly apply water under low pressure to the                  
plant root zone.                                                                
                                                                                
There are a number of advantages to trickle irrigation over                     
traditional watering systems:                                                   
  considerably less water is required to meet the plant's needs                 
for optimum growth.                                                             
  since the plant is never put under water stress, its production               
is increased, sometimes by as much as 100%.                                     
  since only a fraction of the soil is wetted, only that directly               
around the plant roots, the garden is accessible at all times.                  
  since you are not watering pathways and non-production areas,                 
fewer weeds are encouraged to grow; thus there are less weeds to                
control.                                                                        
  the foliage will not be wetted by a trickle system so disease                 
problems will be reduced.                                                       
  water soluble fertilizer can be applied through the trickle                   
irrigation, making the job easier and reducing the chances of                   
fertilizer burn on foliage and stems from sidedressing.                         
  since water is applied slowly, it puts less of a strain on the                
water system in dry periods particularly if you are on a well or                
spring.                                                                         
  the trickle irrigation system can be automated by the use of a                
simple timer and solenoid valves so you don't have to worry                     
about watering if you're gone for a few days.                                   
                                                                                
There are some problems associated with trickle irrigation that                 
you should be aware of in considering a system:                                 
 clogging. The holes that allow water to seep from the hose to                  
the soil are extremely small. Particles in some water such as                   
fine sand, algae, and mineral salts that build up due to evapora-               
tion can clog these holes. Chemical treatments or filters may be                
required to correct these problems.                                             
 run-off. Fine textured soils such as clays may not absorb water                
fast enough to prevent puddling and run-off. Sandy soils and                    
medium textured soils are usually best for trickle irrigation.                  
 sloped terrain. Steep slopes in the garden may result in 50%                   
more water being applied at the lower end than the upper end of                 
the hose. Terracing or raised beds will help this.                              
                                                                                
There are a number of commercially available emitters with                      
different application rates. Complete kits to set systems for a                 
backyard garden (usually 30x50) can be purchased.                               
                                                                                
A system generally consisits of a main line to carry water from                 
the house to the garden. A 1/2" diameter black polyetheylene                    
pipe will work. At the end of this pipe at the garden site, a                   
flow regulating valve is inserted with plastic adaptors to                      
control the amount of water delivered. A 1gpm (gallon per                       
minute) flow-regulating valve will supply enough water in 1 hour                
for a 1000 sq.ft. garden.                                                       
                                                                                
A 1/2" black plastic pipe is then continued across the garden as                
a header. Commercial emitters are attached to the header with                   
appropriate adaptors to carry water directly to the base of the                 
plant. The emitters or hose is most effectively placed under the                
soil surface or beneath mulch material.                                         
                                                                                
The rate and frequency of application will depend on the type of                
system installed, total application will be approximately 57                    
gallons of water per day (400 gal/wk) for a 1000 sq. ft. garden                 
as compared to the recommended one inch or 625 gallons per weeek                
(89 gal/day) with the traditional watering system.                              
                                                                                
(Agents: For additional information see 442-031 Trickle Irri-                   
gation for Home Gardeners)                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
MINIMUM CHEMICAL GARDENING                                                      
                                                                                
Public concern over the use and misuse of pesticides has led                    
increasing numbers of home gardeners to seek means of "natural"                 
pest control. Although some people do not have the time or                      
knowledge to practice all the available alternative methods                     
for controlling pests, there are many cultural practices which                  
will help reduce losses.                                                        
                                                                                
Soil conditions affect pest populations. Maintain a slightly acid               
soil (around pH 6.5). Appropriate pH allows vegetable plants to                 
have acess to all the necessary soil nutrients and provides a                   
suitable environments for earthworms and microorganisms.                        
                                                                                
Follow recommended fertilizer practices. Supplement fertilizers                 
with organic material or compost to help assure that all trace                  
elements are available, as well as major nutrients. "Feed" the                  
soil, not just the plants; providing and appropriate environment                
for all soil life will result in healthier plants which are more                
resistant to pests and diseases.                                                
                                                                                
Rotate your garden plot, if you can. Use related crops in one                   
site only once every three or four years.                                       
                                                                                
Use interplantings as opposed to solid plantings of a crop. This                
can slow the spread of diseases and pests, giving you more time                 
to deal with them.                                                              
                                                                                
Thin young plants to a proper standard. Overcrowding causes weak                
growth and subsequent insect and disease problems.                              
                                                                                
Keep down weeds and grass. They often harbor pests and compete                  
for nutrients and water.                                                        
                                                                                
Use a mulch to reduce soil splash, which brings soil borne                      
diseases into contact with lower leaves.                                        
                                                                                
Water in the morning so that plants have time to dry before the                 
cool evening. Drip irrigation prevents foliage from getting wet                 
at all when watering. For  plants susceptible to fungus infec-                  
tions leave extra space between them to allow for good air flow;                
orient rows so that prevailing winds will help foliage dry                      
quickly after a rain or watering.                                               
                                                                                
Select disease-resistant varieties and plant crops that are                     
suited to the soil and climate. If you do plant vegetables or                   
fruits that are not normally grown in your area, do your best to                
provide necessary conditions. Use certified seed and plants                     
if available.                                                                   
                                                                                
Remove infected leaves from diseased plants as soon as you                      
observe them. Dispose of severely diseased plants before they                   
contaminate others. Clean up crop refuse as soon as you are                     
finished harvesting.                                                            
                                                                                
Time plantings in such a way that the majority of your crop will                
avoid the peak of insect infestations. Keep a record of the                     
dates and conditions under which disease and insect problems                    
occur.                                                                          
                                                                                
Take advantage of the biological control already taking place in                
your garden by encouraging natural predators. Learn to recognize                
the eggs and larvae of the beneficial insects and avoid harming                 
them.                                                                           
                                                                                
The most effective and most important of all practices is to                    
observe what is going on in the garden. Many serious disease or                 
insect problems can be halted or slowed down early by the                       
gardener who knows what to look for and regularly visits the                    
garden for the purpose of trouble-shooting.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
April 1986 Question Box                                                         
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist, Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                  
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Mulching Vegetable Gardens                         55 lines                     
Foundation Plantings                               25 lines                     
Lithops ('Living Rocks')                           54 lines                     
Papaya Culture                                     15 lines                     
Windowbox Construction                             28 lines                     
Narcissus? Jonquil? Daffodil?                      12 lines                     
Aluminum Foil as Mulch                             18 lines                     
Bergenia                                           50 lines                     
Azalea Culture                                     26 lines                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
I plan to lay down my hoe and turn to mulches for most of my weed               
control this year. Would you recommend that I use black plastic                 
or some organic material such as leaves?                                        
                                                                                
Both organic and inorganic mulches reduce weed growth by making                 
conditions unfavorable for germination of weed seeds and by                     
providing a physical barrier for emerging weeds. A good mulch                   
layer can save many hours of laborious weeding. A thick layer of                
organic mulch material is especially effective at reducing the                  
number of annual weeds in the garden since weed seedlings have                  
difficulty penetrating such a layer. Some perennial weeds may                   
also be suppressed in this way if they are small, but often                     
dandelions or other taprooted weeds will eventually find their                  
way through the mulch. These are easy to spot, and since the soil               
stays moist beneath the mulch, they are easy to pull. Rhizoma-                  
tous grasses will often make their way through organic mulches as               
well, but often the rhizomes will be on or near the soil surface                
and will be easy to lift out. Black plastic and thick layers of                 
newspaper are often better mulches for controlling perennial                    
weeds.                                                                          
                                                                                
Mulches are also very useful for maintaining uniform moisture                   
conditions in the garden. Water losses through evaporation are                  
decreased and soil erosion is reduced as the impact of heavy                    
rainfall is lessened by the layer of mulch. Slow, steady water                  
infiltration occurs rather than puddling and subsequent soil                    
crusting. Mulch also reduces splashing of soil onto the fruit,                  
leaving fruits cleaner and helping to prevent the spread of                     
disease.                                                                        
                                                                                
Soil temperatures are modified by mulches to various degrees                    
depending on the material used. Plastic will warm the soil more                 
quickly in the spring, increasing early plant development.                      
Organic mulches applied later in the season, act as insulation,                 
help keep soil temperatures cooler, and reduce evaporative                      
losses.                                                                         
                                                                                
Organic mulches add nutrients and humus to the soil improving its               
tilth and moisture-holding capacity. Most orgainic mulches should               
be applied after plants are well established (4-6" tall).                       
Cultivate out all weeds before spreading mulch evenly over bare                 
soil between plants. Apply organic mulches when there is reason-                
able good soil moisture and before the weather turns hot.                       
Infiltration of rain water will be slowed somewhat by a mulch, so               
it is best not to place the mulch over soil that is dry. Water                  
thoroughly, or wait for a good soaking rainfall, before applying                
any mulch.                                                                      
                                                                                
Inorganic mulches such as plastic films and paper are applied                   
prior to planting. Black plastic and similar materials should be                
spread on land that has been completely prepared for planting and               
has a high moisture level. Place the mulch over the row to be                   
planted, then bury the edges to prevent it from blowing away. Cut               
slits for seeding or setting transplants. A few additional slits                
can be made to allow water to infiltrate.                                       
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I am looking at the front yards of many homes to get ideas for                  
landscaping my new home. Is it necessary to plant shrubs right                  
next to the house? I would prefer a flower bed.                                 
                                                                                
Just drive down the steet of any town and you can see an overuse                
of foundation plantings in front of houses. Old-style foundation                
plantings are still used in many home landscapes, although they                 
are rarely necessary. This style of landscaping can be attrac-                  
tive, but the need for foundation plantings has been nearly                     
eliminated by modern construction techniques. With no ugly                      
foundation to hide on today's houses, in most cases this type of                
planting simply hides the beauty and architecture of the house                  
itself.                                                                         
                                                                                
Climate control, windbreaks, privacy, and cutting glare from                    
street lights are legitimate reasons for placing plants in                      
particular places. Aesthetics, although just as important, should               
be considered after some of these landscape problems have been                  
dealt with first.                                                               
                                                                                
Landscape design should be thought out in a problem-solving                     
approach. Just as rooms are carefully planned before construction               
of a house, use of space outside the house should be planned                    
equally well. Plants, pavement and structures should be placed                  
with the overall property in mind, not just the front door of the               
house.                                                                          
                                                                                
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A friend of mine recently showed me a plant he called "living                   
rock." What can you tell me about these plants? Can I grow them                 
from seed?                                                                      
                                                                                
Living rock or lithops (meaning "like stones") is a handsomely                  
apt name for your friend's plant. The plants consist of two small               
very fleshy leaves facing each other, but joined to make one body               
usually with a shallow cleft between the leaves at the top. In                  
nature, the main body of the plant is buried in the ground with                 
only the ornamental top surface showing. Protection from the sun                
is afforded by an epidermal layer that is thick, tough and waxy.                
A few species have transparent tops for the sunlight to pass                    
through, but typically the tops are patterned into intricate                    
complexes affording large and small areas for the entry of                      
sunlight.                                                                       
                                                                                
Growing lithops from seed is not difficult. Seeds can be obtained               
from a mail order nursery which specializes in unusual plants, or               
you may be able to get seeds from your friend's plant. Seedlings                
flower in three or four years. To induce seed production, stop                  
watering three year old plants from December 1st to April 1st.                  
Then start watering every two weeks from the beginning of April;                
gradually increase water applications to once a week from the                   
middle of May through September. After September, taper off                     
watering to every two weeks.                                                    
                                                                                
Plants thus treated will fatten, push up out of the soil and                    
develop flowers which resemble tiny daisies of about 1 inch in                  
diameter. The flowers, which open up in the afternoon, are                      
generally white or yellow, but sometimes orange. In proportion,                 
flowers are very large and may cover the single plant from which                
they arise.                                                                     
                                                                                
One part each of good garden soil and clean builders' sand is                   
good propagation media. Pots 2 inches or larger can be used.                    
First, fill the pot 3/4 full with course drainage material such                 
as sand. Over this put fine organic media such as peat moss.                    
Seeds are very fine, so they should rest practically on the                     
surface. For the next year, seedlings must never become dry. A                  
dried-out lithops seedling cannot be revived. Pots may be placed                
in pans of water to eliminate possible disturbance to germinating               
seedlings if watered from overhead. Warmth and sunlight must be                 
provided to get the plants established.                                         
                                                                                
After about a year, lithop seedlings can be transplanted into a                 
loose media containing 3 parts topsoil, 2 parts builders' sand, 1               
part pea-sized perlite or builders' 3/8 inch gravel, and a bit of               
leafmold or peat moss. Bird gravel or pea-sized aquarium gravel                 
can be used in place of builders' gravel.                                       
                                                                                
In the cultivation of mature lithops, ventilation is very                       
important. In the summertime, in periods of muggy weather, hold                 
back on the water. A fan is valuable to modify the adverse                      
effects of high humidity. Dehumidifiers and air-conditioners                    
provide ideal air quality.                                                      
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
While vacationing in Florida, I sampled a papaya. I was so taken                
by the fruit, I wondered if I could grow a papaya tree in my                    
hobby greenhouse?                                                               
                                                                                
The Dwarf Philippino papaya can be planted in a large pot or                    
barrel-half and grown in a greenhouse. The plant's average height               
is 6 to 8 feet tall with fruit forming about 18 inches from the                 
ground. Because the fruit grows close and thick on the entire                   
trunk of the tree, it is easy to reach and to pick. Papaya fruits               
maybe as large, or larger, than footballs and the flavor is                     
delicious, sweet, and juicy.                                                    
                                                                                
Ten to twelve-inch papaya seedlings planted in late February will               
bear delicious fruit about eight months later. Every 10 days to                 
two weeks, spraying with a liquid seaweed compound benefits the                 
plant by supplying trace elements.                                              
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
What are your recommendations on wood and paint or stain for                    
window boxes? Will salt-treated wood be okay to use?                            
                                                                                
Salt-treated wood is recommended for use in window boxes.                       
Salt-treated wood protects wood from rotting in moist conditions                
such as a window box. Do not use wood treated with creosote or                  
pentachlorophenol ("Penta") on any part of window boxes as these                
two compounds are toxic to plants. Wash salt-treated wood before                
using it in plant box construction to remove any residual salt                  
deposits. Allow the wood to dry completely before applying paint                
or stain.                                                                       
                                                                                
Paint is the hardest coating to maintain on window boxes but                    
because it is readily available and has a decorative function, it               
is used extensively by homeowners. Paint does not protect the                   
wood from the constantly moist conditions found in window boxes.                
Moisture will cause the paint to blister in a few years. Exterior               
stain is preferred over paint as it makes the planting boxes                    
easier to maintain.                                                             
                                                                                
Another solution to the problem is to use a soldered sheet metal                
liner that has drainage holes. Metal liners can be purchased at                 
garden supply stores. An attractive outer box may be constructed                
to house the metal liner. The outer box should be made of                       
salt-treated wood and covered with exterior paint or stain.                     
Place the box liner on wooden blocks so that it drains well.                    
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
Are jonquil and daffodil two names for the same plant?                          
                                                                                
Daffodil is a colloquial term that has come to stand for all                    
narcissus and jonquils. Botanically speaking, all belong to the                 
genus Narcissus. However, there has been so much hybridization,                 
that it is very difficult to tell many of the narcissus species                 
apart. Some general guidelines are that jonquils have one                       
to many flowers per stalk; flowers tend to be a bit smaller with                
a wavy corona. Narcissus have predominately solitary flowers                    
which are a bit larger than jonquils, and their cups also tend to               
be shorter and frilled. Bear in mind that these are just general                
guidelines--if you were faced with a mixed field of narcissus and               
jonquils, it would be very difficult to tell them apart.                        
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
I noticed my neighbor using aluminum foil in her vegetable                      
garden. When asked, she said she heard it helps keep the bugs                   
from eating the plants. Is this true?                                           
                                                                                
The purpose of an aluminum foil mulch is to keep insects from                   
spreading an existing disease problem. Aphids and possibly leaf                 
hoppers are the main target. The light reflected from the foil                  
confuses the insects so that they aren't sure where the sun                     
is--and they don't land on your plants. However, soap is a much                 
cheaper and more effective means of aphid control. Be sure to use               
soap not detergent; detergents will damage some plants. Agricult-               
ural soaps are on the market for insect control.                                
                                                                                
In addition to insect control, aluminum foil is good for weed                   
control. Decomposition is very slow and soil temperatures are                   
decreased by up to 10 F. They provide additional reflection of                  
light to help speed up fruiting of such vegetables as peppers and               
eggplant in not-so-sunny gardens. However, aluminum foil is                     
expensive when compared to other weed control methods.                          
                                                                                
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While my wife and I were out driving one Sunday, we stopped at                  
one house to ask about the distinctive, large-leaf plants at the                
corner of the property. The owners told us they are bergenia. Can               
you tell us more about them?                                                    
                                                                                
Bergenia is a member of the Saxifragaceae family, for which no                  
common name is accepted. Most genera are perennial, evergreen                   
herbs with thick rootstocks which spread and develop into low                   
clumps. One genus, B. ciliata, looses its leaves during winter,                 
but the roots give rise to new plants in spring. Bergenia                       
have big, leathery, glossy round or oblong leaves on thick stems.               
Hardy species are pretty all year. Leaves are a deep green all                  
summer into early fall. As the days get shorter and colder, they                
begin to take on deep red and plum shades and remain colorful all               
winter. With warm spring days, the leaves turn green again                      
and remain so throughout summer.                                                
                                                                                
Although primarily grown for their foliage, bergenia do have                    
strong-stemmed inflorescences of pure rose, light or deep pink,                 
purple and white flowers. These appear in early spring, March to                
May depending on the location. Bergenia do best in a loamy soil                 
in a hot, dry location. They will grow in poor soils but they                   
are apt not to flower as well as when.                                          
                                                                                
There are only about eight species of Bergenia. B. cordifolia and               
B. crassifolia are hardy in Zone 2. B.cordifolia has rounded,                   
heart-shaped leaves with wavy-toothed margins and a broader base                
than does B. crassifolia. The flowers are produced on stems                     
twelve to fifteen inches high and are clear rose color in                       
nodding cymes. There is a cultivar `Purpurea' with deep reddish-                
purple flowers on taller stalks, and also cultivars `Alba' and                  
`Rosea.'                                                                        
                                                                                
Bergenia crassifolia has smooth, shiny leaves, obovate and                      
slightly toothed or entire. Rose, lilac or purple colored flowers               
stand well above the leaves. There is a cultivar `Orbicularis'                  
which has a branching habit and an abundance of light rose                      
flowers.                                                                        
                                                                                
Bergenia are suitable for border plantings or large rock gardens                
and also look good in open places in a wild garden. They are                    
attractive at the edge of a woods or as distinctive container                   
plants for sunny terraces. Bergenia are good plants for the                     
corners of flower beds because of their all year interest. They                 
require the minimum of maintenance and have few pests. Ornamental               
foliage serves as a setting or foil for plants that need a                      
background or contrast such as annuals, or Phlox divaricata,                    
Ajuga, Stachys lanata, Veronica incana, and others. They give a                 
finishing touch to the garden much like what a frame does                       
for a picture, or lawn and shrubs do for a house.                               
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
I would like to plant some azaleas in my yard, but I'm not sure                 
when I should buy the plants.                                                   
                                                                                
Azaleas burst into the landscape this month. With so many types,                
it's a problem to decide where to plant them and which colors to                
choose. Azaleas are showy plants, and unless you're already                     
familiar with the types and their colors, you could end up with a               
combination that's awkward in your lanscape. When you see                       
azaleas in your neighborhood coming into bloom, it's a signal                   
that the same selections sold at local nurseries are also in                    
bloom. That's the time to buy.                                                  
                                                                                
Inspect all plants before you buy checking for signs of insects                 
or diseases. Leaf spot and petal blight are difficult to control                
once established. Pests to look for include scale, mites, and                   
mealybugs.                                                                      
                                                                                
Azaleas are available in white, as well as various shades of red,               
pink, lavender, and orange. Choose colors compatible with the                   
color of your home. Red, pink, or orange clash with most shades                 
of red brick.                                                                   
                                                                                
Azaleas look best when several of the same color are grouped                    
together. Pick at least three or four of the same color, rather                 
than an assortment of colors. You can position color groups so                  
that one provides a background for another. You can also use                    
white to separate opposing colors such as red and pink.                         
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* In a sunny location with poor soil, plant nasturtiums for a                   
colorful show. They require warm soil to sprout and start                       
blooming in about 50 days. Too much water and fertilizer produces               
excess leaves and few flowers.                                                  
                                                                                
* Label the clumps of daffodils that are too crowded, as overcro-               
wding inhibits blooming. Dig up and separate in July.                           
                                                                                
* To extend the blooming period of gladiolus, plant early, middle               
and late-season selections each week until the middle of June.                  
Choose a sunny location and plant the corms 4-6 inches deep and                 
6-8 inches apart.                                                               
                                                                                
* When chrysanthemums show signs of life, dig up and divide large               
plants. Discard woody portions and replant divisions 12-15 inches               
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Aster contraster, a new flower introduction from 1986, is the                 
world's first aster with stripes. The fully double, incurving                   
three inch blooms come in a wide range of color. Pinks, carmines,               
blues, lilacs, rose, and mauve are contrasted with a white                      
stripe. The plant is dwarf, reaching only 9 to 12 inches, with a                
round compact habit. A. contraster looks equally well in a tub on               
the patio or planted as a group in the garden.                                  
                                                                                
* Scatter annual poppy seeds in flower borders. The fine seeds                  
need no covering. The plants grow rapidly and provide colorful                  
flowers in early summer.                                                        
                                                                                
* The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station reports that                  
larger plants with more flowers can be grown in a soil mix                      
consisting of 1 part sphagnum moss, 1 part peat moss, 2 parts                   
perlite, and 2 parts compost than with 4 other commonly used                    
mixes. Sphagnum moss is reported to increase aeration and                       
water-holding capacity and to suppress soil-borne diseases.                     
                                                                                
* Planted now, Sedum spectabile and Hosta tardifolia or H.                      
plantaginea will brighten your flowerbed in the fall with                       
flowers.  Hardy periennial asters which come in shades of blue,                 
red, white, purple and rose are also late-blooming.                             
                                                                                
* Many popular perennials can be divided now including: phlox,                  
fall asters, shasta daisies, baby's breath and liriope. Set up a                
plant exchange with friends and neighbors to share the excess.                  
                                                                                
* Consider planting flowers which may be dried for winter                       
arrangements. Some of the best are strawflower, statice, Chinese                
lantern, celosia, and globe amaranth.                                           
                                                                                
* Cut flower stalks back to the ground on daffodils, hyacinths,                 
and other spring flowering bulbs as the flowers fade. DO NOT cut                
the foliage until it dies naturally. The leaves are necessary to                
produce strong bulbs capable of reflowering.                                    
                                                                                
* Make a plot layout of your flower borders. This is a very                     
essential but easily neglected chore. With an accurate plot plan,               
you will know where to locate the spring flowering bulbs you                    
plant next fall. Also, it will make your spring and summer                      
gardening easier. You will be able to correctly identify the                    
plants in your border and plan for continuous blooming by setting               
young annuals between bulbs and early flowering perennials after                
their blooms have faded.                                                        
                                                                                
* When iris leaves appear thin and limp, check for borers. These                
grub-like insects can ruin an entire planting if not detected and               
eradicated early.                                                               
                                                                                
* Fill the bare spots in the sunny flower bed with moss roses                   
(Portulaca) and fertilize regularly to encourage blooms into the                
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
 * To ensure the dahlia tubers you plant have survived storage,                 
sprout them indoors in a warm, well lighted spot. Plant dahlia                  
tubers as soon as danger of frost is passed. Stake at the time of               
planting to avoid injury to tubers.                                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
* While commonly grown as a houseplant, strawberry begonia                      
(Saxifraga stolonifera) can also be grown as a groundcover in                   
light shade. It is cold hardy to -10 degrees F.                                 
                                                                                
* Plant clematis in locations which receive at least 6 hours of                 
sunshine a day. Use organic mulch or ground cover to shade roots                
and keep them cool. Plant in rich, well-drained loam.                           
                                                                                
* Blue amaryllis (Hippeastrum procerum) and green amaryllis                     
(H. calyptrata) present a rewarding challenge to patient gar-                   
deners. Seeds are available from selected mail order seed                       
companies and bloom in about 5 years.                                           
                                                                                
* For hot weather color, select one of the following: gloriosa                  
daisy, madagascar periwinkle, ornamental peppers, Mexican zinnia,               
amaranthus `Joseph's Coat'. Plant after all danger of frost is                  
past and plan for color until winter arrives.                                   
                                                                                
* Many herbs are excellent for natural appearing rock gardens or                
formal plantings with brick pathways. Those herbs that do well in               
sandy soil and are partial to full sun locations include creeping               
thyme, sage, santolina and garlic.                                              
                                                                                
* For a handsome addition to your herb collection, try lovage                   
(Levisticum officinale) a hardy perennial with a sharp but sweet                
celery flavor. Leaves can be used sparingly in soups and salads;                
stems can be blanched or eaten raw; and seeds can be added to                   
candies, bread, and cakes.                                                      
                                                                                
* Start herb seeds indoors in moist medium. Place in bright,                    
indirect light and move to a sunny window when germination                      
begins. When the seedlings are 2-3" tall, transplant into peat                  
pots for the garden or into clay pots for use on your terrace or                
balcony. Some herbs easily grown from seed include chives, sage,                
sweet marjoram, basil, summery savory, dill and parsley.                        
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* For more compact pyracantha bushes pinch back new growth now to               
avoid the risk of losing the crop of berries by pruning after                   
flowering.                                                                      
                                                                                
* The last Friday in April is National Arbor Day - plant a tree,                
or support an organization which does.                                          
                                                                                
* Some shrubs grow best on acid soils with a pH of about 5.0.                   
These include andromeda, azalea, blueberry, camellia, mountain                  
laurel, and rhododendron. At a higher pH value these shrubs may                 
become yellow and make very poor growth.                                        
                                                                                
* Prune roses to buds which point outward to encourage open                     
growth with good air circulation and sunlight penetration.                      
Dark-colored canes indicate dead wood. Cut back an inch below                   
these darkened areas. If no live buds are left, remove the entire               
cane or branch.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Tree seedlings can have a strong start in quart or half-gallon                
milk cartons. Remove top and bottom and stand on a frame covered                
with 1/4" mesh hardware. Fill with a mixture of peat moss,                      
perlite and vermiculite. As the tap root grows through the bottom               
of the milk carton tube and mesh, it is "air pruned" forcing the                
development of fibrous side roots.                                              
                                                                                
* Prune spring blooming shrubs such as forsythia, weigelia and                  
early spirea after they have completed flowering.                               
                                                                                
* Aphids on your roses will cause deformed, inferior flowers.                   
Insecticidal soaps are effective as a control. Apply them                       
according to package recommendations.                                           
                                                                                
* When pruning forsythia do not shear as you would a hedge. It is               
best to thin out the old branches as close to the ground as                     
possible. This should be done immediately after blooming.                       
                                                                                
* The best time to plant shrubs and trees is on a windless,                     
cloudy day.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Do not fertilize azaleas and camellias until they have finished               
blooming. They should be pruned, if necessary, after blooming                   
also.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Once new growth begins on trees and shrubs, cut back twigs                    
affected by winterkill to green wood.                                           
* Before planting bare-root shrubs and trees, soak the roots in                 
water overnight.                                                                
                                                                                
* If wisteria does not bloom, proper pruning should correct the                 
problem. Prune long, straggling canes and all dead wood. Root                   
pruning sometimes helps, too.                                                   
                                                                                
Landscaping                                                                     
                                                                                
* A tall evergreen hedge north of your home can cut heating bills               
by 34% in windswept regions or by 10% in sheltered areas. If your               
house is exposed to winter winds, consider establishing an                      
evergreen planting for a windbreak this spring.                                 
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Estimate your grass seed needs at 2-3 lbs of bluegrass seed or                
4-8 lbs. tall fescue per 1000 square feet. Remove debris, level                 
and firm soil before seeding. Cover seed by raking the area                     
lightly.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Remove sticks, rocks and other debris from your lawn to prevent               
damaging your lawnmower or injuring yourself when mowing. Check                 
your lawnmower and other lawn-care equipment in preparation for                 
the coming season.                                                              
                                                                                
* Do not mow the lawn until it has grown at least 2 inches. The                 
roots are being renewed in the spring and grass needs vigorous                  
top growth initially.                                                           
                                                                                
* Lawn grasses do best if mowed at the correct height:                          
   Kentucky Bluegrass     1 1/2 to 2 1/2"                                       
   Tall Fescue            1 1/2 to 3"                                           
   Creeping Red Fescue        2 to 3"                                           
   Perennial Ryegrass     1 1/2 to 2 1/2"                                       
   Bermudagrass             1/2 to 1"                                           
   Zoysia Grass             3/4 to 1"                                           
                                                                                
* Once the snow melts and the surface is dry, established but                   
uneven lawns will benefit from being rolled. Depressed areas may                
be filled with sifted topsoil. Fill in the sparser areas by                     
sowing new seed.                                                                
                                                                                
* The lawn mower blade should always be sharp so as not to tear                 
the grass. If you sharpen the blade at home, be sure to balance                 
it too. Place the center hole of the blade on a screwdriver                     
handle held upright in the vise. Check to see if it balances. If                
not, sharpen the heavier side some more until the blade balances                
on the handle.                                                                  
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Wild greens are often best in early spring when their flavor is               
mild. Common weeds that are edible include: pigweed, mustard,                   
purslane, lambs quarter and dandelion greens. Harvesting these                  
plants from your garden plot will benefit you doubly.                           
                                                                                
* The date of the last killing frost in your area can be used to                
calculate the approximate earliest and latest planting date for                 
spring crops. VCES publication #426-331, Vegetable Planting Guide               
and Recommended Planting Dates can be used to determine planting                
dates and the average length of harvest for each crop. Harvest                  
dates are particularly important if you also plan on having a                   
fall garden.                                                                    
                                                                                
* In the Piedmont and Mountain regions, this is the time to set                 
out cool-weather vegetables such as broccoli, brussel sprouts,                  
cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, and onions. When the danger of                   
frost has passed, transplant tomatoes, peppers and eggplant.                    
                                                                                
* When weather is wet or cold, allow about twice the germination                
time listed on the seed packet. If there is no sign of growth                   
after this time, dig around a little to check for sprouted seeds.               
If you find no signs of life, the seed has probably rotted and                  
you will need to replant.                                                       
                                                                                
* When planning your vegetable garden, consider that leafy                      
vegetables need at least 6 hours of sunlight in order to develop                
properly. Vegetables such as tomatoes, squash, eggplant, and                    
peppers need 10 hours of full sun.                                              
                                                                                
* For easier watering of tomatoes and other large vegetables,                   
plant a gallon can with holes punched in the bottom nearby. Wate-               
ring through the can keeps water off the top of the ground and                  
puts it near the roots where it's needed.                                       
                                                                                
* Home-made trellises can save space for vining vegetables. An                  
A-frame cucumber trellis consists of two matched ladder-like                    
structures hinged together at the top; the two sections are                     
staggered to allow nesting when stored.                                         
                                                                                
* For faster growth of vegetables in containers, use black                      
plastic pots to warm the soil to 81 degrees on sunny days                       
compared to 72 degrees for the same mixes in clay or white                      
plastic pots.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Plant a bush type winter squash like Table Ace or Gold Nugget,                
if your garden is small and you do not have adequate space for                  
the long vine varieties.                                                        
                                                                                
* Asparagus grows best in sandy loam soil. Set plants 18 inches                 
apart in rows four to five feet apart (or in wide beds of three                 
rows with plants 18 inches apart in all directions). Plants do                  
well if set in a 6-8 inch deep trench. The crowns are then                      
covered with two to three inches of soil. Firm well. As the                     
plants grow, continue to pull soil over the crown (about two                    
inches every two weeks) until the trench is filled.                             
                                                                                
* Plant Swiss Chard for a constant harvest of greens from spring                
until fall. Swiss chard is a soft-textured, mild-flavored green.                
It will give repeated harvests all summer because it does not                   
bolt and go to seed in hot weather like spinach. Swiss chard,                   
especially the red cultivars, look beautiful and hold up well in                
flower arrangements.                                                            
                                                                                
Fruits and Nuts                                                                 
                                                                                
* If fruit trees are lacking pollinators nearby, cut bouquets of                
blossoms from good pollinators and place them in pails under                    
blossoming trees. Make plans to plant pollinating varieties this                
fall.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Thin young fruits of apples, pears, and peaches to insure                     
larger, healthier fruit. Thin within 25 days of the peak bloom,                 
leaving 4 to 6 inches between fruit.                                            
                                                                                
* Plant strawberries if you haven't already. Place straw around                 
established plants as a mulch, after weeding and fertilizing the                
bed.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Improve the fruiting of your blueberries by removing unproduc-                
tive wood that is diseased or dead and broken. Also remove old                  
canes (5 to 6 years old) that have begun to lose their vigor.                   
Select 6 to 8 of the most vigorous, upright-growing canes for                   
fruiting wood and remove all others.                                            
                                                                                
* Raspberry canes can be pruned and thinned now. Removal of                     
excessive canes at ground level will improve air circulation and                
light penetration for heavier fruiting. All dead tips of the                    
canes should be cut off.                                                        
                                                                                
* Interior latex type paint may be used on the trunks of newly                  
planted trees to prevent sunburn. This material is easy to apply                
and will gradually weather away and allow the bark to become                    
resistant to exposure to the sun.                                               
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Don't overpot African violets. They bloom better in small pots.               
                                                                                
* A popular gift plant at Easter, the Easter lily needs bright,                 
indirect light. Avoid direct sunlight. Keep the soil moist. It                  
can be planted in a sunny spot in the garden after danger of                    
frost is over, where it will bloom next year.                                   
                                                                                
* Don't be too anxious to move your houseplants outdoors. Even a                
good chill can knock the leaves off of tender plants.                           
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
* Measure the rainfall with a rain gauge posted near the garden                 
so you can tell when to water. You can buy one or make one by                   
sinking a can partway into the ground and marking off its                       
interior in inches. The garden needs about one inch of rain per                 
week from April to September.                                                   
                                                                                
* Ice cream scoops are great to dig holes of uniform size when                  
setting out transplants, and the dirt slides right off when you                 
release the squeeze-handle.                                                     
                                                                                
Misc.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Moles are tunnelling insect eaters particularly attracted to                  
grubs. When bulbs are missing, or shrubs have root damage, look                 
for voles or field mice to be the culprits. These rodents often                 
use mole tunnels as their runs.                                                 
                                                                                
* Delay organic mulching to allow soil to warm deeply, but act                  
before weeds become established.                                                
                                                                                
* Quality bedding plants are sold already hardened off. Woody and               
yellow plants are overhardened and will be slow to resume growth.               
                                                                                
* Over or under fertilization can weaken or kill plants. Nitrogen               
deficiency is characterized by stunted, yellowing leaves near the               
bottom of the plant and slow, stunted growth. Over application of               
nitrogen may cause leaf tip burn or all vegetative growth (no                   
flowers or fruit).                                                              
                                                                                
* Don't guess about fertilization. Soil analysis will help you                  
base fertilizer and lime applications on the present condition of               
the soil and the nutrients needed by your plants. Contact your                  
local extension agent for instructions for sampling soil.                       
                                                                                
* Some people report luck with beer as a pesticide for slugs.                   
Place it in small aluminum pot-pie pans sunk in the ground so                   
that the soil is even with the rim.                                             
                                                                                
* When transplanting seedlings in peat pots to your garden, be                  
careful not to allow the rim of the peat pot to protrude above                  
the soil level. If the rim is above the soil level, it will act                 
as a wick and draw moisture away from the transplant. To prevent                
this from happening, break away the uppermost rim of the pot                    
before planting and make sure the pot is completely covered with                
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Control insect pests before they become unmanageable. Spray or                
dust tent caterpillars while they are still small.                              
                                                                                
* Put a birdhouse in the garden to attract insect-eating friends.               
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
PRESS RELEASES FOR APRIL 1987                                                   
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Home Horticulturist working               
with Jim Roberts, Extension Entomologist and Eric Day, Manager of               
the Insect ID Lab. The Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been               
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features               
and other educational programs.                                                 
                                                                                
Garden Practices to Minimize Pests              70 lines                        
Insect Damage to Plants                         84 lines                        
Vines in the Landscape                          54 lines                        
Gardens for Celebrating                         70 lines                        
Lilacs                                          52 lines                        
Pine Bark Aphid                                 47 lines                        
                                                                                
Garden Practices to Minimize Pests                                             
                                                                                
The most effective and most important of all practices to                       
minimize garden pests is to observe what is going on in the                     
garden. Many serious disease or insect problems can be halted or                
slowed down early by the gardener who knows what to look for and                
regularly visits the garden for the purpose of trouble shooting.                
                                                                                
Start by selecting varieties that are insect and disease resis-                 
tant and adapted to growing in Virginia.                                        
                                                                                
Time garden plantings in such a way that the majority of the crop               
will avoid the peak of insect infestations. For example, plant                  
squash as early as possible to avoid borers, which lay eggs in                  
July. Keep a record of the dates insect problems occur. Plant                   
warm weather crops after the soil has warmed to avoid problems                  
with seed and root rots. Growth will be more vigorous, as well.                 
                                                                                
Thin young plants to proper spacing. Overcrowding causes weak                   
growth and subsequent insect and disease problems.                              
                                                                                
Avoid planting the same kind of crop in the same place each year.               
Use related crops in one site only once every three or four                     
years. Some related crops are grouped as follows: (a) chives,                   
garlic, leeks, onions, shallots; (b) beets, Swiss chard, spinach;               
(c) cabbage, cauliflower, kale, collards, Brussels sprouts,                     
broccoli, kohlrabi, turnips, rutabagas, Chinese cabbage, mustard;               
(d) peas, broad beans, snap beans, lima beans; (e) carrots,                     
parsley, celery, celeriac, parsnips; (f) potatoes, eggplant,                    
tomatoes, peppers; (g) pumpkins, squash, watermelons, cucumbers,                
muskmelons; and (h) endive, salsify, lettuce.                                   
                                                                                
Staking plants or planting them in wire cages prevents the fruit                
from touching the soil and helps prevent fruit rots. Caging helps               
reduce sun scald often seen in staked tomatoes, since caged                     
plants do not require as much pruning, a heavier foliage cover                  
can act as a sunscreen. Boards or a light, open mulch such as                   
straw placed beneath melons will prevent rotting. Use a mulch to                
reduce soil splash, which brings soil borne diseases into contact               
with lower leaves.                                                              
                                                                                
Water in the morning so that plants have time to dry before the                 
cool evening. Drip irrigation prevents the foliage from getting                 
wet. For plants susceptible to fungus infections, leave extra                   
space between plants to allow good air flow; orient rows so that                
prevailing winds will help foliage dry quickly after a rain or                  
watering. To prevent spreading diseases, stay out of the garden                 
when the plants are wet with rain or dew.                                       
                                                                                
Keep down weeds and grass. They often harbor pests and compete                  
for nutrients and water. They provide an alternate source of food               
and can be responsible for pest build up.                                       
                                                                                
Do not use tobacco products such as cigarettes or cigars when                   
working in the garden. Tomato, pepper, and eggplant are                         
susceptible to a mosaic virus disease common in tobacco and may                 
be spread by your hands.                                                        
                                                                                
Remove infected leaves from diseased plants as soon as you                      
observe them. Dispose of severely diseased plants before they                   
contaminate others. Clean up crop refuse as soon as harvesting is               
finished if possible. Old sacks, baskets, decaying vegetables,                  
and other debris which may harbor insects and diseases should be                
kept out of the garden.                                                         
                                                                                
Avoid injury to plants. Cuts, bruises, cracks, and insect damage                
are often the site for infection by disease causing organisms. In               
cases where fruits are difficult to remove (such as cucumbers and               
watermelons) cut them off instead of pulling them off the plant.                
If you cultivate your garden, avoid cutting into the plant roots.               
Insect Damage to Plants                                                        
                                                                                
Insects damage plants in a variety of ways. Understanding the                   
damage can be useful in identifying and controlling the insects.                
                                                                                
Insects take their food in a variety of ways. One method is by                  
chewing off the external parts of a plant. Perhaps the best way                 
to gain an idea of the prevalence of this type of insect damage                 
is to try to find leaves of plants which have no sign of injury                 
from chewing insects. Cabbageworms, armyworms, grasshoppers, the                
Colorado potato beetle and the cankerworm are common examples of                
insects that cause injury by chewing.                                           
                                                                                
A second important way in which insects feed on growing plants is               
by piercing the epidermis (skin) and sucking out the sap from the               
cells within. These insects have a slender and sharp pointed                    
mouthpart which is thrust into the plant and through which sap is               
sucked. The hole made in this way is so small that it cannot be                 
seen with the unaided eye, but the withdrawal of the sap results                
in one or more of the following symptoms: minute spotting of                    
white, brown, or red on leaves, fruits or twigs; curling of the                 
leaves; deforming of the fruit; or a general wilting, browning                  
and dying of the whole plant. Aphids, scale insects, the squash                 
bug, leafhoppers, and plant bugs are well known examples of                     
piercing sucking insects.                                                       
                                                                                
As long as an insect feeds externally upon crops, it can usually                
be destroyed by insecticides. But many of the worst pests feed                  
within the plant tissues during a part or all of their life. They               
enter the plant either by having the egg thrust into the tissues                
by the sharp ovipositor of the parent insect or by eating their                 
way in after they hatch from the eggs. The hole by which they                   
enter is almost always minute, often invisible. A large hole in a               
fruit, seed, nut, twig, or trunk generally indicates where the                  
insect has come out and not the point where it entered.                         
                                                                                
The chief groups of internal feeders are indicated by their                     
common group names: (a) borers in wood or pith; (b) worms or                    
weevils in fruits, nuts or seeds; (c) leaf miners; and (d) gall                 
insects. Control internal insects by controlling the adults                     
before their young gain entrance to the plant.                                  
                                                                                
Almost as secure from man's attack as the internal feeders are                  
those insects that attack plants below the surface of the soil.                 
These include chewers, sap suckers, root borers, and gall                       
insects. Subterranean insects may spend their entire life cycle                 
below ground,(e.g., the woolly apple aphid); more often there is                
at least one life stage of the insect that has not taken up the                 
subterranean habit, as in the case of wireworms, root maggots,                  
pillbugs, strawberry root weevil, and grape and corn rootworms.                 
The larvae are root feeders while the adults live above ground,                 
making rapid control of the mature stage very important.                        
                                                                                
Probably 95% or more of direct injury to plants is caused by                    
insects feeding in various ways. In addition, most insects lay                  
their eggs in exactly the right place so that their young will                  
have the best chance to survive. Sometimes this provision for the               
young leads to serious injury to plants. The periodical cicada                  
deposits her eggs in the one year old growth of fruit and forest                
trees, splitting the wood so severely that the entire twig beyond               
this point often dies. It is interesting to note that these are                 
purely egg laying sites. As soon as the young hatch, they desert                
the twigs and injure the plant no further. In other cases, the                  
young subsequently feed upon the plant attacked by the egg laying               
act. For example, the plum curculio and its larvae ruin the fruit               
of apple, plum, peach, and cherry.                                              
                                                                                
Besides laying eggs in plants, insects sometimes remove parts of                
the plant for the construction of nests. This injury is more                    
interesting than it is serious. Leaf cutter bees nip out rather                 
neat circular pieces of rose and other foliage which are carried                
away and fashioned together to form thimble shaped cells one                    
above the other in a tunnel previously made in the stem of a                    
plant.                                                                          
                                                                                
In addition to causing direct damage to plants, insects spread                  
disease among plants. Since 1892, when it was first proved that a               
plant disease (fire blight of fruit trees) may be spread by an                  
insect (the honeybee), the knowledge of this subject has grown                  
rapidly. At present there is evidence that more than 200 plant                  
diseases are disseminated by insects. The majority of them, about               
150, belong to the group known as viruses, 25 or more are due to                
parasitic fungi, 15 or more are bacterial diseases, and a few are               
caused by protozoa.Vines in the Landscape                                      
                                                                                
Vines can be a versatile and interesting addition to any home                   
landscape. Often usable in places where no other plant is                       
suitable, vines may cover and soften a large blank wall, camoufl-               
age a compost pile or provide shade to a southern porch. Growing                
on a fence, a vine can be trained to have very much the same                    
effect as a hedge but with less space and less maintainence.                    
                                                                                
Before planting a vine it is important to know how far and how                  
fast it will grow. Some, such as the infamous Kudzu vine, are so                
rampant that they should not be planted at any cost. Others, such               
as some of the ivies, are slow growers and frustrate efforts to                 
achieve rapid visual change. Annual vines such as scarlet runner                
beans, sweet peas, and Luffa gourds will give rapid cover, but                  
the effect is temporary.                                                        
                                                                                
Understanding how the vine climbs will be useful in providing                   
supports and in selecting sites where the plant will be showy and               
successful without causing damage. There are basically four types               
of plants considered to be vines: twiners, climbers,                            
self-clingers, and scandent shrubs.                                             
                                                                                
Twiners utilize their curling stems to encircle anything appro-                 
priate within reach. These stems may be quite delicate but are                  
often so strong that they can girdle a young tree. The damage                   
done by honeysuckle can be seen in the dead branches of trees cut               
off from nutrients as they grow against the bounds of the                       
encircling vine.                                                                
                                                                                
Climbers cling tightly to their support with thread-like tendrils               
or, in some cases, with leaf petioles that curl around objects of               
small diameter such as wires, strings, or the vines of the                      
climber itself. Native grapes utilize their tendrils to overtake                
large trees in the forest. However, cultivated grapes have few of               
their leaves modified into these strange, but useful, appendages.               
                                                                                
Self-clingers attach themselves to walls, tree trunks, and other                
broad surfaces by holdfasts or aerial roots. Some tendril                       
climbers such as Virginia creeper can hold themselves to flat                   
surfaces with adhesive disks they develop at the tips of the                    
tendril. The hold exerted by self-clingers varies; in some, such                
as ivy, the roots tear loose from the plant before they can be                  
dislodged from the wall. Self-clingers tend to get behind window                
frames and under tiles and can be damaging to the mortar in brick               
walls if allowed to grow without maintainance.                                  
                                                                                
The smallest group of vines or vine-like plants are the scandent                
shrubs; that is, shrubs that have long, flexible branches that                  
lack means for self-support. When used as climbers, such as                     
climbing roses, these plants must be fastened to their support.                 
Selecting the type of vine best-suited to your location will                    
minimize the maintenance required and increase your gardening                   
pleasure and success.                                                           
Gardens for Celebrating                                                         
                                                                                
A well planned garden and landscape can be the source of much                   
material to help in celebrating our traditional holidays.                       
                                                                                
Corn on the cob is an American tradition for Fourth of July                     
picnics. Some gardeners like the challenge of being able to                     
harvest right in their backyard. In most parts of Virginia this                 
requires some real planning and preparation. The soil should be                 
prepared the fall before so it is ready for an early start. Clear               
plastic can be applied to the rows to warm the soil faster,                     
giving a head start of several days to a week. The                              
pre-germination of the seed, can speed up the harvest by an                     
additional day or two.                                                          
                                                                                
As a different approach to growing corn, try the decorative                     
miniature popcorn called Tom Thumb. It has three inch ears which                
are ideal for autumn dried arrangements. The ears should be                     
allowed to mature on the stalk before use. Never plant popcorn                  
and sweet corn where they can cross pollinate. The resulting crop               
would be of poor quality.                                                       
                                                                                
Labor Day is the ideal time for garden harvest picnics and most                 
garden crops lend themselves to the celebration. Halloween                      
definately demands pumpkins and there are a number of varieties                 
you might consider. Big Max and Big Moon will produce pumpkins                  
big enough for Cinderella's carriage but require an enormous                    
amount of garden space. Jack O'Lantern and Spookie have medium                  
and small size fruit respectively. Spirit produces a medium size                
fruit on a bush plant for those with small gardens. Jack Be                     
Little is the tiny ornamental pumpkin that excited everyone so                  
much this last year.                                                            
                                                                                
Thanksgiving brings to mind the herb garden with sage, thyme,                   
oregano and mints to season the feast. However, don't forget that               
the plants from your landscape can produce the table centerpiece                
and other decorative elements. Unless there has been an unusually               
severe freeze some of the late Chrysanthemum varieties will still               
be lovely. In the mountains it is wise to plant early and                       
mid-season chrysanthemum varieties for color outdoors and                       
experiment with a few late bloomers in a sheltered location for                 
Thanksgiving decorations.                                                       
                                                                                
Easy to make holiday decorations include grapevine wreaths and                  
dried flower arrangements. Annual flowers that are easy to grow                 
and can be collected all summer for fall use include: straw-                    
flowers, celosia, amaranth, blue salvia and many ornamental                     
grasses. Useful perennials for dried arrangements include yarrow,               
artemesia and lavender.                                                         
                                                                                
For Christmas decorations, landscape plants are a source of                     
celebration supplies. Magnolia leaves, fresh or treated in                      
glycerine, can be the basis for wreaths and arrangements. A few                 
pines in the landscape provide both cones and greenery.                         
Hollies are traditional but, remember that male and female                      
flowers are on separate plants and both are required for colorful               
fruit. Most hollies do not produce the display of fruit we                      
associate with English holly (Ilex aquifolium), so consider your                
plants carefully.                                                               
                                                                                
Valentine's and Mother's Day make us think of warm loving cards                 
with paper lace and flowers. Grow a few easily pressed flowers                  
this year so you can prepare the cards yourself next year. Good                 
ones to grow include pansies, Johnny-jump-ups, ranunculus, single               
flowered dianthus and any similar thin, non-fleshy flowers that                 
will dry rapidly.                                                               
                                                                                
If you add a few plants to this year's gardening plans for use                  
throughout the holiday year, you will get increased satisfaction                
from both your garden efforts and the holidays.                                 
                                                                                
Lilacs in the Landscape                                                        
                                                                                
Lilacs are among the most popular of the deciduous flowering                    
shrubs. They are highly valued for their appearance and fragrant                
flowers. The common lilac, Syringa vulgaris, and its many                       
cultivars are more popularly although mistakenly known as French                
hybrid lilacs. The name French hybrid came about because of the                 
many early lilac varieties which originated in France.                          
                                                                                
Because of their vigorous habit of growth, lilacs are ideal for                 
tall screen plantings, hedges, borders, and in mass plantings for               
their tremendous display of flowers. Few shrubs can rival lilacs                
for bloom even under adverse city conditions. They are useful as                
accent or specimen plants at the corners or along houses and                    
buildings. Another desirable landscape feature is their ability                 
to improve year after year if attention to their specific pruning               
and pest problems are met. Older lilacs display a unique and                    
attractive branching pattern in the winter when the branches are                
bare.                                                                           
                                                                                
Lilacs are quite hardy in cold climates, but require full sun to                
flower well. Lilacs are easily grown and apparently do well in                  
both acid or alkaline soil but respond with improved growth to                  
applications of limestone every three or four years where soils                 
are acid.                                                                       
                                                                                
Pruning and spraying to control pest problems are essential for                 
best growth and flowers. The lilac borer can be destructive if                  
not controlled. Oyster shell scale can be a serious problem with                
all lilacs but can be controlled with a dormant oil spray in the                
spring. The best time to spray is when the scale crawlers appear                
which is about mid to late May. In late summer the leaves may                   
become covered with powdery mildew especially after rainy spells.               
This does little harm to the plant.                                             
                                                                                
The best time to prune a lilac is right after it flowers. Pruning               
consists of removing old flower clusters and thinning out the                   
oldest branches at ground level to encourage new growth from the                
base of the plant. Outward spread of lilac shrubs can be                        
controlled by the removal of suckers. The strongest new shoots                  
should be left to take the place of the older stems which will                  
eventually be cut out.                                                          
                                                                                
Occassionally it is necessary to renew an older overgrown lilac.                
Cutting the whole plant down to within six inches of the ground                 
is a drastic means of rejuvenation. However, the plant will                     
survive. The best way to treat old plants is prune out one third                
of the older stems each year for three consecutive years. In this               
way the plant can maintain a reasonable height in the landscape                 
and still flower from the remaining wood. By the time the last                  
pruning is completed, replacement wood should be strong enough to               
support the plant and promote flowering.                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Pine Bark Aphid                                                                 
                                                                                
An insect commonly found on pines in April is the Pine Bark                     
Aphid. This insect is evident on the bark at the base of needles,               
on twigs, and on the trunks of pines. Homeowners most often                     
identify this pest by the conspicuous, white waxy material that                 
accompanies them. This white material clings to the bark of                     
infested trees causing an almost white-washed appearance. Pines                 
affected by this insect include the Eastern White Pine, Scotch                  
Pine, and Austrian Pine but it occasionally occurs on other                     
pines. Both the nymph and adult stages of this insect cause                     
damage which is not conspicuous until large populations build up                
or moderate populations have been present for several seasons.                  
Injury to bark tissues results in shorter needle growth, shorter                
shoot growth, fewer needles, and a general weakened appearance of               
trees.                                                                          
                                                                                
The aphids are seldom seen without closely examining the twigs or               
bark with a hand lens. They are less than one sixteenth inch long               
and reddish in color. When eggs are laid, cottony masses of wax                 
are produced to cover or mix with the eggs. The cottony wax is                  
very noticeable even at a distance, and occurs in bark crevices                 
and at the bases of the needles. Eggs are reddish or purplish                   
brown.                                                                          
                                                                                
Nymphs overwinter in the cottony masses of wax found in bark                    
crevices. The white, waxy material becomes prominent in the                     
spring when the nymphs lay their eggs after some early feeding.                 
The eggs hatch in mid to late May. Winged and non-winged females                
are produced. Non-winged females are continually produced in each               
generation and remain on the same tree. Winged females migrate to               
infest new trees. Several generations occur until fall, at which                
time the nymphs return to the bark to await another spring                      
feeding.                                                                        
                                                                                
Egg laying peaks are usually accompanied by the production of the               
cottony masses. However, there is a considerable overlap in                     
generations, therefore this is not a reliable indicator of the                  
best time to attempt control measures. Spray controls are best                  
applied twice a week during May, and repeated in mid June.                      
Consult your local extension agent for the recommended type of                  
spray. A non-chemical control for small colonies is to spray the                
bark of affected trees with a high pressure water spray from the                
garden hose.                                                                    
                                                                                
(Information provided by John Weidhaas, Extension Entomologist                  
and Eric Day, Manager of the Virginia Tech Insect I.D.Lab.)                     
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
APRIL 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                  
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Horticulture Extension               
Technician and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home Horti-                     
culture, working with John Luna, Extension Entomologist. The                    
Virginia Gardener Question Box has been developed for agent use                 
in preparing radio and newspaper features.                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
  Success with Transplanting                  42 lines                          
  Bleeding Heart                              22 lines                          
  Frequent Pruning of Shrubs                  10 lines                          
  Pruning Before Setting Out                  18 lines                          
  How to Prune Roses Properly                 16 lines                          
  Beneficial Insects                          50 lines                          
  Pregermination of Seeds                     32 lines                          
  Seed Tapes                                  12 lines                          
  Dividing Daylilies                          15 lines                          
  Leaf Cuttings                               30 lines                          
  All American Rose Selections                29 lines                          
  Hills or Rows of Cucumbers                  16 lines                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
How can I increase my success with transplanting flowers and                    
vegetables?                                                                     
                                                                                
Transplants of annual vegetables and flowers should be stocky,                  
healthy, free from disease, and have good roots. They should not                
be too small or too mature. Although tomatoes will transplant                   
well with fruits already on them, many other plants will drop                   
flowers or fruit after transplanting and most gardeners report                  
better success with tomatoes if fruit are removed. Be sure plants               
have been hardened-off so that they will easily adapt to                        
environmental change, but not so hardened that they are woody and               
yellow.                                                                         
                                                                                
Successful transplanting is achieved by interrupting plant growth               
as little as possible. This is one of the advantages of using                   
peat pellets, which do not have to be removed when transplanting.               
                                                                                
Have the garden soil prepared before transplanting. All additives               
which require time to break down, such as manures, limestone, and               
green manures, should be incorporated at least several weeks                    
before planting. Fertilizers and well-decayed compost may be                    
added just before planting.                                                     
                                                                                
Transplant on a shady day, in late afternoon, or in early evening               
to prevent wilting. It helps to water the plants several hours                  
before transplanting; if you are using bare-root plants, such as                
sweet potato slips or plants from a farm supply store, soak the                 
roots thoroughly an hour or two before setting them out in the                  
garden. Plants should not have been allowed to dry out completely               
at any time. Handle plants carefully. Avoid disturbing the roots                
or bruising the stems.                                                          
                                                                                
Dig a hole large enough to hold the roots of the plants. Set the                
plants slightly deeper than previously planted and at recommended               
intervals. Press soil firmly around the roots of transplants.                   
Pour about a cup of starter solution in the hole around the                     
plant. Fish emulsion or dilute manure tea may also be used.                     
                                                                                
For a few days after transplanting, protect the plants from wind                
and sun by placing a piece of newspaper or cardboard on their                   
south sides, or by covering with baskets, or flower pots. Water                 
the plants once or twice during the next week if there is                       
insufficient rain.                                                              
                                                                                
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Why isn't my bleeding heart blooming? Can I move it inside? Will                
it bloom there?                                                                 
                                                                                
Without information on the age of the plant, its location, and                  
and recent changes in its environment the cause of the problem is               
difficult to determine. However, there are several possible                     
explanations for the lack of flowers on the bleeding heart plant,               
(Dicentra spectabilis).                                                         
                                                                                
     1) The site is too dry. Bleeding hearts prefer moist soil.                 
     2) The location is too shaded. Although bleeding hearts                    
        thrive in light shade, too little sunlight would reduce                 
        flowering.                                                              
     3) The plant may be old and in need of rejuvination. If so,                
        divide and replant it when the foliage has turned yellow                
        after flowering.                                                        
     4) Any significant changes, such as the over-use of nitrogen               
        fertilizer, may cause a change in flower production.                    
                                                                                
Bleeding heart is unsuitable as a house plant. They require much                
space and require a dormant period. They are commonly confused                  
with the bleeding-heart vine, (Clerodendrum Thomsoniae), a                      
houseplant similiar in flower and name.                                         
                                                                                
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I have to prune one of my shrubs frequently. Is there something I               
can do to slow down its growth?                                                 
                                                                                
Over time, trees and shrubs will often grow to sizes that exceed                
the space allowed for them. Where space is limited, regular                     
pruning becomes necessary to keep plants in bounds. To reduce                   
labor, select plants that will not exceed allotted space. There                 
are dwarf shrubs now available to fit almost any need. If you are               
not prepared to replant your shrubs at this time the only                       
suggestion would be to avoid fertilizing and stimulating growth                 
as long as the plants have a healthy color.                                     
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
Is it necessary to prune shrubs before I set them out?                          
                                                                                
When deciduous shrubs are planted bare root, some pruning may be                
necessary. Light pruning of roots may be needed if any are                      
broken, damaged, or dead. The branches of shrubs should be pruned               
by the thinning method, not shearing, to reduce overall leaf                    
surface by approximately 30-50 percent. Remove numerous small                   
branches to accomplish this thinning without reducing the height                
of the plant or altering its basic shape.                                       
                                                                                
Shrubs transplanted with a ball of soil or from a container                     
require little if any pruning. Occasionally, branches may have                  
been damaged in transit, and these should be removed at the time                
of planting. Prune only to maintain desired size and shape.                     
                                                                                
Most evergreen trees and shrubs are sold B & B (balled and                      
burlapped) or in a container and, as with deciduous shrubs,                     
require little pruning of branches.                                             
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
Does it matter where I prune the branches on my shrubs and roses?               
                                                                                
When pruning twigs and small branches, always cut back to a                     
vigorous bud or an intersecting branch.                                         
                                                                                
When cutting back to a bud, choose a bud that is pointing in the                
direction you wish the new growth to occur. Be sure not to leave                
a stub over the bud or cut too close to the bud.                                
                                                                                
When cutting back to an intersecting (lateral) branch, choose a                 
branch that forms an angle of no more than 45 degrees with the                  
branch to be removed. Also, the branch that you cut back to                     
should have a diameter of at least one-half that of the branch to               
be removed.                                                                     
                                                                                
Make slanting cuts when removing limbs that grow upward; this                   
prevents water from collecting in the cut and expedites healing.                
                                                                                
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Should I buy predators or parasites to help control insect pests                
in my garden?                                                                   
                                                                                
Insects that eat other insects are considered in two groups known               
as predators and parasitoids. Predators are insects (or other                   
animals) that catch and devour smaller or more helpless creatures               
(called the prey), usually killing them in getting a single meal.               
The prey is generally smaller than the predator. Parasitoids are                
forms of living organisms that live on or in the bodies of living               
organisms (called the hosts) from which they get their food,                    
during at least one stage of their existence. The hosts are                     
usually larger than the parasitoids and are not killed promptly                 
but continue to live during a period of close association with                  
the parasitoids.                                                                
                                                                                
Naturally occuring predators such as ladybeetles should be                      
encouraged, but purchased ones often do not stay in the garden.                 
The trouble with ladybeetles is that their migratory habits                     
program them to fly away after they are released. Pre-                          
conditioning the ladybeetles before they're released is one way                 
to diminish this natural urge. This involves releasing the                      
beetles into cages where a high protein diet should be fed for                  
five days. Instuctions should accompany the beetles on arrival.                 
                                                                                
Another predator is the praying mantis which feeds on a wide                    
variety of insects. These predators are not as effective as other               
insects due to their low level of aggressiveness and lower rate                 
of reproduction. A better choice might be the green lacewing or                 
aphid lion. These creatures search for their prey which includes                
aphids, mealy bugs, spider mites, and thrips. One estimate                      
predicted that during its lifetime an aphid lion walks up to                    
eight miles on plant surfaces in search of pests.                               
                                                                                
Tichogramma and Encarsia formosa are examples of parasitoids                    
which are commercially available. Since parasitoids are more                    
selective than predators, parasitoids have been found to be                     
effective in 70% of all successful biological control cases.                    
Adult parasitoids, most of which are tiny wasps, usually lay                    
their eggs into the eggs or body of the host. After hatching, the               
parasitoid larvae feeds on the tissue of the host, eventually                   
killing it just prior to completion of its development.                         
                                                                                
No matter which devouring insects you choose, keep in mind these                
guidelines before ordering. Since there are several species of                  
predaceous and parasitic insects which prefer a certain pest,                   
know which pests are invading your garden and buy only the                      
species that fits your needs. Most importantly, know the life                   
cycles of the insects you want to control and plan for release of               
the predators or parasites during either the egg laying or adult                
stage depending on which you wish to control and don't spray with               
insecticides which will kill off your new "pets."                               
                                                                                
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What is the purpose of pregermination of vegetable seeds? How do                
I do it?                                                                        
                                                                                
Pregermination involves sprouting the seeds before they are                     
planted in pots or in the garden. This reduces the time to                      
germination as the temperature and moisture are easy to control                 
and guarantees a high percentage of germination since none will                 
be lost to environmental factors. Lay seeds between the folds of                
cotton cloth on a layer of vermiculite or similar material in a                 
pan. Keep moist in a warm place. When roots begin to show, place                
the seeds in containers or plant them directly in the garden.                   
While transplanting seedlings be careful not to break off tender                
roots. Continued attention to watering is critical.                             
                                                                                
When planting seeds in a container that will be set out in the                  
garden later, place one seed in a two to three inch container.                  
Plant the seeds only 1/2 the recommended depth. Gently press a                  
little soil over the sprouted seed and then add about 1/4 inch of               
milled sphagnum or sand to the soil surface. These materials will               
keep the surface uniformly moist and are easy for the shoot to                  
push through. Keep the pots in a warm place and care for them                   
just as for any other newly transplanted seedlings.                             
                                                                                
A convenient way to plant small delicate pregerminated seeds is                 
to suspend them in a gel. You can make a gel by blending corn                   
starch with boiling water to a consistency that is thick enough                 
to suspend the seeds. Be sure to cool thoroughly before                         
use. Place the gel with seedlings in a plastic bag with a hole in               
it. Squeeze the gel through the hole along a premarked garden                   
row. Spacing of seeds is determined by the number of seeds in the               
gel. If the spacing is too dense, add more gel; if too wide, add                
more seeds. The gel will keep the germinating seeds moist until                 
they establish themselves in the garden soil.                                   
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
Are seed tapes worthwhile?                                                      
                                                                                
Most garden stores and seed catalogs offer indoor and outdoor                   
seed tapes. Seed tape has precisely spaced seeds enclosed in an                 
organic, water soluble material. When planted, the tape dissolves               
and the seeds germinate normally. Seed tapes are especially                     
convenient for tiny, hard-to-handle seeds. However, tapes are                   
much more expensive per seed. Seed tapes allow uniform emergence                
of seedlings, eliminate overcrowding of seedlings and permit                    
sowing in perfectly straight rows. The tapes can be cut at any                  
point for multiple row plantings, and thinning is rarely                        
necessary. Opinion is divided on the value of seed tapes but some               
gardeners report that the convienence is worth the cost.                        
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
How often do daylilies need dividing? What is the best technique                
to use?                                                                         
                                                                                
Daylilies should be divided every three to five years, depending                
on how well they have grown. Division is best done in early                     
spring, as new shoots begin to emerge, or in the fall after the                 
plants are dormant. When dividing these, dig the whole clump.                   
Separate by using two spading forks inserted back to back into                  
the middle of the clump and then pried apart. This is less                      
damaging to the roots than cutting, which injures a large number                
of feeder roots.                                                                
                                                                                
If you are going to replant in the same location, replenish the                 
soil before planting with well-rotted compost and a fertilizer                  
high in phosphorus for root development. Space plants at two feet               
apart slightly less for dwarf cultivars.                                        
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
When and how do I make leaf cuttings?                                           
                                                                                
Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few indoor                      
plants. Leaves of most plants will either produce a few roots but               
no plant, or just decay.                                                        
                                                                                
There are several different ways of making leaf cuttings. Whole                 
leaf with petiole (ex. African Violet): Detach the leaf and 1/2                 
inch to 1 1/2 inches of petiole. Insert the lower end of the                    
petiole into the medium. One or more new plants will form at the                
base of the petiole. The leaf may be severed from the new plants                
when they have their own roots, and the petiole reused.                         
                                                                                
Whole leaf without petiole (ex. Most Succulents): This is used                  
for plants with sessile leaves, in other words leaves without a                 
petiole. Insert the cutting vertically into the medium. A new                   
plant will form from the axillary bud. The leaf may be removed                  
when the new plant has its own roots.                                           
                                                                                
Split vein (ex. Rex Begonia): Detach a leaf from the stock plant.               
Slit its veins on the lower leaf surface. Lay the cutting, lower                
side down, on the medium. New plants will form at each cut. If                  
the leaf tends to curl up, hold it in place by covering the                     
margins with the rooting medium.                                                
                                                                                
Leaf sections (ex. Snake plant): Cut snake plant leaves into two                
inch sections. Consistently make the lower cut slanted and the                  
upper cut straight so you can tell which is the top. Insert the                 
cutting vertically. Roots will form fairly soon, and eventually a               
new plant will appear at the base of the cutting. These and other               
succulent cuttings will rot if kept too moist.                                  
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
When buying roses at the local garden center, I wondered about                  
the little green and white tag with the letters AARS?                           
                                                                                
These letters stand for All-America Rose Selections, and roses                  
bearing that insignia have undergone two years of comparison with               
other new varieties as well as previously introduced ones and                   
have proven superior. This selection process helps the consumer                 
decide which of the many new varieties available each year should               
do well.                                                                        
                                                                                
In l938, the rose producers and introducers in the country                      
decided to form a non-profit organization with the purpose of                   
testing new rose varieties and determining which of them, if any,               
could be recommended to the public as exceptional. The test roses               
are judged by official AARS judges, usually  either professors in               
college horticultural departments or supervisors of large public                
gardens.                                                                        
                                                                                
During the two years of evaluation, the roses are graded by a                   
prescribed numerical scoring system on vigor, growth habit,                     
disease resistance, foliage, flower production, bud and flower                  
form, opening and finishing color, fragrance, stem, and overall                 
value.                                                                          
                                                                                
After the two-year test period, AARS compiles the scores sub-                   
mitted by each AARS judge for each entry. The scores are then                   
compared with the other roses of the same test period and with                  
the standards established by AARS for awarding the green and                    
white tag. That year's selections are then made by the AARS                     
members and publicly announced through the news media.                          
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Should you plant cucumbers in hills or rows? Can you grow                       
cucumbers on a trellis? What causes poor fruit set?                             
                                                                                
Cucumbers take up less space when seeded in rows and trellised                  
rather than planting in hills. Space single plants 4 to 6 inches                
apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. If extra space is available,                   
planting in hills is effective.                                                 
                                                                                
You can train cucumbers on a trellis or tomato cage but they will               
need frequent attention. Plants on trellis produce straight                     
fruits which is especially important when growing long, milder-                 
flavored, burpless, or oriental cultivars.                                      
                                                                                
Poor fruit set on cucumber plants generally results from planting               
seeds too thickly, resulting in a tight canopy of leaves which                  
discourages bee activity and flower pollination. Bee activity                   
will also be slowed by excessive amounts of cool or rainy weather               
as well as the use of pesticides while the bees are active which                
reduces populations.                                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
AUGUST NOTES 1986                                                               
                                                                                
* The last fall garden vegetables should be planted in August                   
in most sections of Virginia. For hardy crops like cabbage,                     
cauliflower, and collard, count back from your average first                    
frost date the number of days the particular variety requires                   
to mature and plant at that time. For half-hardy crops like                     
beets and carrots, allow an additional week. For tender crops                   
like beans and sweet corn, allow an extra 2 weeks to be sure                    
an early frost does not kill your vegetables before they mature.                
                                                                                
* If going on vacation this month, be sure to harvest all your                  
vegetables and then arrange for someone to pick such fast-matur-                
ing crops as squash and okra; otherwise, they will become                       
over-mature and stop producing.                                                 
                                                                                
* Potatoes continue to grow as long as the tops are green. Dig                  
only as many as you need for immediate use. The tubers will                     
keep better in the ground than in a warm, dry home.                             
                                                                                
* Be sure to mow the lawn before going on vacation. If you will                 
be gone over two weeks, arrange to have it cut while you are                    
away. If you don't, too much of the top growth will be removed                  
on its next mowing. Removal of over 2/3 of the growth at one                    
time weakens the plant.                                                         
                                                                                
* Cut strawflowers for winter use when the blooms are only half                 
open. Hang head down in a well-ventilated place to dry.                         
                                                                                
* Don't let your hybrid annual flowers go to seed. This weakens                 
the plant and reduces bloom. In addition, the seed are not                      
desirable to save as the plant will ordinarily be very different                
from the parent and of poorer quality.                                          
                                                                                
* Do not add weeds with ripened seed heads to your compost                      
pile. Many will remain viable and germinate wherever the compost                
is used next year.                                                              
                                                                                
* Order your spring-flowering bulbs now! Be careful about buying                
so-called "bargains," as the bulbs may be small or of inferior                  
quality.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Select a good site for spring flower bulbs. For daffodils                     
dig the soil twelve inches deep in a sunny location. Work in                    
bone meal and peat moss.                                                        
                                                                                
* Pinch off onion seed pods from the top of the plants to keep                  
them from going to seed.                                                        
                                                                                
* Pick winter squash and pumpkins with two or three inches of                   
stem; they'll keep better in storage.                                           
                                                                                
* Landscape plants, particularly trees, have important dollar                   
value and steps should be taken if anything damages or destroys                 
them. A folder is available for 10 cents from The Council of                    
Tree and Landscape Appraisers (232 Southern Bldg., Washington,                  
D.C. 20005) to help homeowners understand this value.                           
                                                                                
* August is the time to fertilize your strawberries. On plants                  
set out this spring, apply 4 to 6 ounces of ammonium nitrate                    
(33% actual nitrogen) or 12-18 oz. of 10-10-10 per 25 ft. of                    
row. Spread uniformly in a band 14" wide over the row when the                  
foliage is dry. Brush fertilizer off the leaves to avoid leaf                   
burn. For plants in the second year of growth, increase the                     
application rate to 6 to 8 oz. ammonium nitrate or 18-24 oz. of                 
10-10-10 per 25 ft. row.                                                        
                                                                                
* It's not too late to plant a fall garden. Lettuce, radishes,                  
spinach, turnip, and peas can be started from seed. Chinese                     
cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower transplants will still have                  
time to produce a good harvest. Be extra diligent in watching                   
for pests on these crops.                                                       
                                                                                
* Many plants in the flower border will make excellent house                    
plants this winter. Among the easy-to-maintain indoors are                      
begonias, coleus, geraniums, and ivy. If they are already being                 
grown in containers, it is a simple matter to bring them in-                    
doors. Start moving them in at night when the temperature                       
drops below 60 degrees F to maintain their vigor and flower                     
production. Locate them where they receive sunlight equivalent                  
to what they received out-of-doors for optimum bloom.                           
                                                                                
* Many plants growing in the ground can be successfully dug                     
and placed in pots. However, this is generally more difficult                   
and usually requires a severe pruning to insure survival. Some                  
plants are slow to recover from such treatment and may not give                 
good flowers during the winter. Cuttings taken from these plants                
started in late August and early September should make attrac-                  
tive, bushy pot plants before frosts kill the parent plant.                     
                                                                                
* Plan changes in your perennial plantings. Autumn is usually                   
the best time for moving and dividing perennials as the gardening               
pace has slowed considerably and it offers the opportunity to                   
add new bulbs to your design. Peonies, Bleeding heart, and                      
Oriental poppies resent being disturbed, so plan to work around                 
them without disturbance.                                                       
                                                                                
* Inspect your house plants for signs of insect damage. Pest                    
control is much easier and safer while the plants are outside                   
for the summer than after you bring them in this fall.                          
                                                                                
* Plant bulbs of the Hardy Amaryllis or Magic Lily in August                    
as soon as received at a depth of 5". They will produce foliage                 
in the spring which dies down by late summer. The lily-like,                    
pink flowers borne on three-foot stalks in clusters of six to                   
nine will appear in August. The bulbs will live almost indefin-                 
itely and prefer not to be disturbed.                                           
                                                                                
* Keep tall flowers staked and cut out dead stalks.                             
                                                                                
* Keep roots of lilies cool for best growth. Unless foliage                     
of surrounding plants shades the roots, mulch the ground with                   
grass clippings or similar weed-free material.                                  
                                                                                
* Do not mulch oriental poppies. They prefer hot, sun-baked                     
ground while "resting."                                                         
                                                                                
* Do not allow phlox to go to seed. Seedlings do not come true                  
to parent color and may overtake your planting, giving the                      
impression that the parent plants have reverted.                                
                                                                                
* Disbudding chrysanthemums produces larger blooms. Most mums,                  
except spray types, respond well to disbudding.                                 
                                                                                
* Fressia corms can be planted early this month for December                    
flowering. Plant 2 inches deep in pots, then place out of doors                 
in a shady place.                                                               
                                                                                
* Apples and pears trained as cordons and espaliers and other                   
formal shapes can be summer pruned in early August.                             
                                                                                
* Prop up branches of fruit trees that are threatening to break                 
under increasing weight of ripening fruit.                                      
                                                                                
* Fall is the time to rejuvenate or plant home lawns.                           
                                                                                
* Inspect trunks and branches of dogwood for injured bark or                    
fine dust being pushed from burrows in trunk by borers.                         
                                                                                
* Keep newly planted trees and shrubs well watered.                             
                                                                                
* Root cuttings of woody shrubs and evergreens, azaleas, holly,                 
hydrangea, and  verbena should do well at this time of year.                    
* Leaf miner's larvae tunnel inside leaves and produce whitish                  
trails as they move about inside leaf. Holly, boxwood, and                      
locust are particularly susceptible to damage.                                  
                                                                                
* Water shrubs deeply once a week during August. Many plants                    
(camellias, rhododendrons) are starting next season's bloom at                  
this time. Immature berries of hollies and pyracantha may be                    
lost if too dry.                                                                
                                                                                
* If azaleas look chlorotic (pale green to yellow) check pH. They               
need acid soil as alkalinity locks up soil iron needed for green                
color. Sulfur reduces pH.                                                       
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of roses to root, 6-9 inches long. Using a                      
sharp knife, remove all but top 2-3 leaves, insert 4-6 inches                   
deep in well-prepared soil in bright light out of the sun. Firm,                
water well, cover with inverted glass jar.                                      
                                                                                
* Remove bedding plants that have definitely finished blooming                  
for the season. Replace with annuals or mums.                                   
                                                                                
* Locate a manure source to start compost for next spring.                      
                                                                                
* Every weed that ripens seed means more trouble next year. Con-                
trol weeds now.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Herbs can still be harvested and used for a multitude of                      
purposes.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Sow annuals for winter flowering indoors if you have a                        
greenhouse or bright southern window. Calendulas bloom well                     
and keep long. Browallia, mignonette, ageratum, marigolds,                      
snapdragons and many others are good subjects.                                  
                                                                                
* Go over all the coldframe sashes and greenhouse glazing,                      
replacing broken glass, puttying and repainting.                                
                                                                                
* If you are planning to take some garden plants indoors to                     
provide for early fall bloom, use a sharp knife to root prune                   
them now to a size a little smaller than the pot. Remove all                    
buds and flowers and cut back the top growth severely. Water                    
well until ready to lift.                                                       
                                                                                
* Look over the house plants which are summering out of doors                   
to see that they are not suffering for want of water. Be careful                
not to disturb those now going through their rest periods.                      
                                                                                
* If you do not have a coldframe, now is a good time to plan                    
one.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Many self-sown seedlings of Hollyhocks, Larkspur, Columbine,                  
Sweet William, etc. are now appearing. If the parent plant                      
is not a hybrid the seedling should come true to type. They                     
should be carefully guarded, as this is a way to stretch your                   
garden budget.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Mound soil over the lateral or brace roots of corn stalks for                 
extra support against strong winds.                                             
                                                                                
* When cantaloupes reach softball size, place them on an inverted               
coffee can to increase the air circulation and sunlight they                    
receive. Puncture drainage holes on the can top to prevent fruit                
rot.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Pick summer squash and zucchini every day or two to keep the                  
plants producing.                                                               
                                                                                
* Remove old plants which have stopped producing to eliminate a                 
shelter for insects and disease organisms.                                      
                                                                                
* Clothing worn during pesticide handling should be laundered as                
soon as the job is finished. If you can't wash the clothing                     
immediately, store it in a plastic bag away from other clothing,                
children and pets.                                                              
                                                                                
* When washing clothing with pesticide residues, use a heavy-duty               
detergent and hot water. Use the amount of detergent recommended                
on the package. Clothing which has come in contact with full                    
strength chemicals needs to be laundered twice. You can remove                  
pesticide residues from your washer by running the machine                      
through a complete cycle using detergent, but no clothing.                      
                                                                                
* An old-time trick for germinating seeds in mid-summer is to                   
plant the seeds, water them in well, and then place a board over                
the row until the sprouts just reach the soil surface; at that                  
time remove the board.                                                          
                                                                                
* Plant a winter cover crop to enrich your garden soil. Annual                  
rye, red clover, and hairy vetch are good choices.                              
                                                                                
* A cover crop decreases erosion of the soil during the winter,                 
adds organic material when it is incorporated in the spring,                    
improves soil tilth and porosity, and adds valuable nutrients.                  
Winter cover crops can be planted as early as August 1 but should               
not be planted any later than November 1.                                       
                                                                                
* Where you have fall crops growing, you can sow cover crop seed                
between rows a month or less before expected harvest. This way                  
the cover crop gets a good start but will not interfere with                    
vegetable plant growth. Request 426-334 for list of suggested                   
cover crops.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Snap bean, tomato and pepper flowers fail to develop fruit                    
because of high daytime temperatures above 90 degrees F.                        
                                                                                
* Greening of potatoes is caused by exposure to sunlight. Cover                 
tubers that grow near the soil surface mounding up the soil                     
around the plant as it grows.                                                   
                                                                                
* Many Virginia counties have local fairs. Be sure to enter your                
vegetables, flowers, crafts and other items in the competitive                  
exhibits for ribbons and prizes.                                                
                                                                                
* By the time the seed catalogs arrive in January you will have a               
very vague idea of what this year's garden was like. Make notes                 
now so you can have a better garden next year.                                  
                                                                                
* A quick-and-easy method for reducing your slug population,                    
especially if you are squeamish about the little devils: put out                
squares of cardboard in your garden each night. In the morning,                 
pick them up and if there are any slugs clinging to the under-                  
side, discard the whole square in a trash bag. The number and                   
size of the squares depend on the size of your garden and how                   
heavy the infestation of slugs. No need for the messy and                       
tedious process of hand picking each one.                                       
                                                                                
* Check offcolor foliage, especially on conifers, for presence of               
red spider mites. If you suspect that your plants have mites,                   
hold a piece of white paper under some of the branches, then tap                
the foliage a few times. This will knock the mites onto the                     
white paper where they can be seen. If you have a magnifier (7x                 
or greater), you can easily observe mites by looking at the                     
underside of an infested leaf. Many times you will find all                     
stages of development along with cast skins and old eggs. Contact               
your agent for pesticide recommendations.                                       
                                                                                
* If your apple or pear trees have dead branches with leaves                    
still clinging to the twigs, it may be fire blight. This bacter-                
ium is best controlled by pruning. When making cuts, prune                      
at least 6" below the dead part of the twig and dip shears in a                 
10 percent bleach solution between cuts to prevent transmitting                 
the disease to healthy wood. Also avoid overfertilizing with                    
nitrogen in the spring, as succulent new wood is more susceptible               
to fire blight bacteria.                                                        
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
August 1986 Press Releases                                                      
                                                                                
Watering Landscape Plants                   65 lines                            
Butterfly-bush                              33 lines                            
Sweet Autumn Clematis                       30 lines                            
Flowering Kale                              47 lines                            
Planning for a Fall Harvest                 63 lines                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Watering Landscape Plants                                                       
                                                                                
Water in plants does 3 important things. The hydrogen in water                  
is a true nutrient and is required for photosynthesis (the                      
manufacture of food by the plant). Water also fills the plant                   
cells, making them firm enough to support the plant. This keeps                 
stems upright and leaves extended. In addition, water serves as a               
food carrier. Nutrients can enter plants and be used only in a                  
water solution.                                                                 
                                                                                
Water applied to soil fills up spaces between soil particles from               
the top down. A daily surface sprinkling which wets the soil to a               
depth of 1 inch or so is of little value to plants. Most plant                  
roots are at greater depths and remain in dry soil. Water should                
be applied less often and in larger quantities, so it will reach                
a depth of 5-6 inches.                                                          
                                                                                
Water should not be applied more rapidly than the soil will                     
absorb it. If applied too rapidly, water will be lost through                   
runoff and will erode the soil surface. Heavy clay soils are                    
difficult to wet and slow to dry out. They require more water                   
per application and applications at less frequent intervals than                
do sandy soils. Sandy or light soils are easy to wet, but because               
their water-holding capacity is less, they must be watered more                 
frequently than heavier soils.                                                  
                                                                                
It is possible to overwater. Plant roots need both moisture and                 
air for normal development. Adding large quantities of water too                
frequently to heavy clay soils may bring about a water-logged                   
condition. Without air, roots weaken and die. This happens most                 
frequently in disturbed soils when plants are located in clay                   
fill or in potholes in clay subsoil following construction work.                
The soil around plants in such sites should be tile-drained.                    
                                                                                
Oscillating or Rotating Sprinklers                                              
                                                                                
Place the sprinkler on a platform higher than the plants being                  
watered. Oscillating sprinklers deliver more water at the edges                 
than in the center; rotating sprinklers deliver more water at the               
center than on the outer edges. If one inch of water is to be                   
applied, operate the sprinkler until 1/2 inch of water has been                 
collected in a can placed where most water is received. Move the                
sprinkler and overlap the watering patterns.                                    
                                                                                
Trickle Irrigation                                                              
                                                                                
Several types of drip or trickle equipment are available. The                   
soaker hose is a fibrous hose that allows water to seep out all                 
along its length at a slow rate. There are also hoses with holes                
in them that do basically the same thing; water drips out the                   
holes. With the latter type, place the hose with the holes                      
pointed downward along one side of the plant or underneath a                    
plastic mulch. Measure the amount of water added by placing one                 
of the hole openings over a can.                                                
                                                                                
With an emitter system, tiny plastic tubes run to each plant,                   
supplying it with water. Measure the amount of water applied by                 
placing one tube in a can. Emitter type systems are best used                   
for small raised bed or container gardens.                                      
                                                                                
Drip (trickle) systems may have some problems with clogging from                
soil particles and/or mineral salts from water taken from springs               
or wells. New designs include filters and self-flushing emitters.               
Trickle irrigation systems are available through garden supply                  
stores and catalogs.                                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
Butterfly-bush                                                                  
                                                                                
A nice addition to the home garden that needs late summer flower                
interest, is butterfly-bush, Buddleia davidii. This semi-woody                  
ornamental produces long panicles of fragrant flowers on arching                
canes. Blossoms vary in color between white, pink, violet, red,                 
and deep purple depending on the cultivar. Flowers which grow in                
clusters up to 10 inches long appear in late July or early August               
and persist until frost.                                                        
                                                                                
Although this shrub can reach heights of 10-15 feet, it is seldom               
seen in these dimensions because it dies back to the ground each                
year in most areas of Virginia. These bushes require pruning to                 
remove dead wood each spring.                                                   
                                                                                
The cultivars usually available at local garden shops include:                  
'White Bouquet' (white flowers), 'Charming' (pink), 'Fascination'               
(lilac-pink), 'Royal Red' (red), and 'Dubonnet' (purple). Plants                
are best used in groups in the perennial or shrub border. Flowers               
can be cut and enjoyed indoors as well.                                         
                                                                                
Buddleia davidii is one of two species of butterfly-bush hardy                  
in Virginia. Fountain buddleia (Buddleia alternifolia), the other               
species, may also be of interest to gardeners. This shrub is                    
larger (up to 20 feet) and has lilac flowers that are produced                  
earlier in the summer.                                                          
                                                                                
Butterfly-bush requires full sun exposure to flower properly.                   
Loose, loamy soil is preferred. It transplants well and has few                 
disease or pest problems. If you enjoy butterflies hovering in                  
your garden, plant this shrub; it's named butterfly-bush for good               
reason.                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Sweet Autumn Clematis                                                           
                                                                                
The sweet autumn clematis (Clematis paniculata) is a vigorous,                  
woody climber native to Japan and adapted throughout Virginia.                  
It is an attractive vine having potential in home landscapes.                   
Ornamental features of this plant include its climbing habit,                   
dense foliage, and fragrant, showy flowers in late summer and                   
early fall.                                                                     
                                                                                
The heart-shaped 1-4" leaves of this deciduous plant remain                     
green throughout the spring, summer, and fall. Petioles (leaf                   
stalks) and tendrils wrap around structures supporting the vine                 
as it climbs. Sweet autumn clematis can grow to a height of 30                  
feet. Be sure to provide a strong trellis and plenty of room for                
this plant.                                                                     
                                                                                
The highlight of this vine lies in the plentiful snow-white                     
flowers that cover the entire plant. Fragrant panicles of 1/2 to                
1 1/2" wide flowers form August through October. The shape of                   
flowers is similar to dogwood but with oblong sepals and a more                 
dense flower mass. Since there are very few vines or other                      
landscape plants with outstanding fall bloom, this vine makes                   
a good specimen plant in almost any landscape. Silvery-plumed                   
seed heads add interest in autumn.                                              
                                                                                
Sweet autumn clematis is problably the easiest clematis to grow.                
It does well even if neglected or severely pruned. Diseases and                 
insects are seldom a problem. A light loamy soil and plenty of                  
moisture insures fast growth. Some shade, especially near the                   
roots, aids the plant.                                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Flowering Kale                                                                  
                                                                                
A relative of cabbage and broccoli, and a variant of the leafy                  
green - curly kale, flowering kale can bring beauty to the flower               
garden or food for the table. Curly, blue-green kale is a tasty                 
vegetable, beautiful in its own right, but its show-off cousin,                 
flowering kale, puts many flowers to shame.                                     
                                                                                
During the summer, great bluish-green rosettes with a rosy blush                
at the center bring a bold texture and accent to the herbaceous                 
border. Plants thrive all summer long lending special textural                  
contrast to more conventional border plants. Try flowering kale                 
in pots on the patio for an interesting effect. When cool autumn                
settles in, the foliage of flowering kale turns vibrant pink or                 
brilliant purple.                                                               
                                                                                
Curly kale and its ornamental cousin can be enjoyed as a vegeta-                
ble in the early spring or fall. Neither do well in warm weather;               
the flavor of both plants is improved by frost.                                 
                                                                                
Kales are usually eaten cooked, but the tender new growth is                    
good raw in salads too. The flowering types add color to a green                
salad in winter. When cooked the leaves of flowering kale turn                  
green. All kale varieties are good sources of vitamin A, B com-                 
plex, C (ascorbic acid), and thiamin.                                           
                                                                                
Flowering kale, also known as ornamental cabbage, grows in almost               
any type of soil, though it prefers a loose, sandy loam. It is a                
heavy feeder with a fibrous and shallow root mass. Sidedress with               
1 1/2 oz. 33-0-0 per 10' row when plants are 4-6" tall. Plants                  
need watering in dry periods.                                                   
                                                                                
In spring and fall, full sun exposure is recommended; partial                   
shade is preferred in hot weather. Plants exposed to too much                   
heat, stressed by too little water, or planted too early in                     
spring can bolt. The same insects and diseases that plague other                
members of the cabbage family, particularly the white cabbage                   
moth and aphids, attack kale.                                                   
                                                                                
When using flowering kale in designed flower beds, seed is best                 
sown indoors in potting soil in flats or any suitable container.                
Germination occurs within 10 days when soil temperature is                      
maintained at 60-70 degrees F; this is easily accomplished when a               
heating cable is used to provide bottom heat. Seed should be                    
started six weeks prior to transplanting into the garden.                       
Harden off seedlings for seven to 10 days at temperatures 10                    
degrees lower than that in which they were started.                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Planning for a Fall Harvest                                                     
                                                                                
By planning and planting a fall vegetable garden it is possible                 
to have fresh vegetables up to and even past the first frosts. At               
the time when retail vegetable prices are on the rise, you can                  
be reaping large and varied harvests from your still-productive                 
garden site.                                                                    
                                                                                
When planting fall crops, prepare the soil by restoring the                     
nutrients removed by spring and summer crops. A light layer of                  
compost or aged manure, or a small application of complete                      
chemical fertilizer will boost soil nutrients in preparation for                
another crop.                                                                   
                                                                                
Dry soil may make the soil difficult to work and inhibit seed                   
germination during midsummer. Plant fall vegetables after a                     
rain when the soil is moist, or water the area thoroughly the day               
before you plant. Seeds may be planted in a shallow trench to                   
conserve moisture. Cover the seeds about twice as deeply as you                 
do in the spring.                                                               
                                                                                
An old-time trick for germinating seeds in mid-summer is to plant               
the seeds, water them in well, and then place a board over the                  
row until the sprouts just reach the soil surface; at that time                 
remove the board. Plastic sheets will also work in aiding seed                  
germination, but the plastic must be completely anchored so that                
the soil underneath does not dry out and the plastic does not                   
blow away. Plastic, especially black plastic, may cause the soil                
to get too hot. An organic mulch on top will help keep soil cool.               
Starting transplants in a shaded coldframe or in a cool indoor                  
area is another possibility.                                                    
                                                                                
Once young plants are established, a heavier mulch may be used to               
hold moisture and control weeds. Irrigate when necessary so the                 
young plants have sufficient moisture.                                          
                                                                                
Fall plantings often have fewer insect problems, as they avoid                  
the peak insect activity period of midsummer. However, some                     
insects, such as cabbageworm and corn earworm, may be even worse                
late in the year than in summer; vigilance is still required.                   
Avoid some pests and diseases by planting crops of different                    
families than were originally in that section of your garden.                   
                                                                                
Some of the best quality vegetables are produced during the warm                
days and cool nights of the fall season. These environmental                    
conditions add sugar to sweet corn and crispness to carrots.                    
Parsnips and Jerusalem artichokes are examples of crops that are                
very much improved by a touch of frost.                                         
                                                                                
The fall garden gives you a chance to try again any spring                      
failures you might have encountered. Some crops, in fact, grow                  
well only in the fall in certain areas - cauliflower and long-                  
season Chinese cabbage are two examples of crops which do not                   
produce well in Virginia's mountain areas in spring because they                
cannot reach maturity before the cool weather ends.                             
                                                                                
Many varieties of vegetables can be planted in  mid- to late                    
summer for fall harvests. Succession plantings of warm season                   
crops (such as corn and beans) can be harvested up until the                    
first killing frost. Cool season crops (such as kale, turnips,                  
mustard, broccoli, cabbage, etc.) grow well during the cool fall                
days and withstand light frosts. Timely planting is the key to a                
successful fall garden. For more information request publication                
426-334, Fall Vegetable Gardening.                                              
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
August 1986 Press Releases                                                      
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Function of Water in Plants                       15 lines                      
Soil Color                                        40 lines                      
Sternbergia                                       22 lines                      
Relay Cropping                                    18 lines                      
Salt Build Up in Indoor Plants                    48 lines                      
Landscape Unity and Rhythm                        31 lines                      
Plant Nutirtion                                   78 lines                      
Fountain Grass                                    32 lines                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
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I know that water is important in plants to keep them from                      
wilting. What other functions does water serve in plants?                       
                                                                                
About 90% of the water that enters plants through the roots                     
leaves the plant through transpiration. The other 10% of the                    
water is used in chemical reactions and in maintaining plant                    
tissues.                                                                        
                                                                                
Transpiration is the process by which a plant loses water primar-               
ily from leaf stomata (pores located on the underside of leaves).               
Transpiration is necessary for mineral transport from the soil to               
the plant parts, for the cooling of plant parts through evapora-                
tion, to move sugars and plant chemicals, and for the maintenance               
of turgor pressure. The amount of water lost from the plant                     
depends on several environmental factors such as temperature,                   
humidity, and wind or air movement. As temperatures or air                      
movement increase, transpiration increases. As humidity de-                     
creases, transpiration increases.                                               
                                                                                
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In working a new garden site, I have found soil of several                      
different colors. What can I learn about soil from it's color?                  
                                                                                
When soil is examined, color is one of the first things noticed.                
Surface soil colors vary from almost white, through shades of                   
browns and grays, to black. In itself, color is of minor impor-                 
tance, but it indicates or reflects soil condi-  tions that are                 
extremely important.                                                            
                                                                                
In general, color is determined by organic matter content,                      
drainage conditions, and the degree of oxidation or extent of                   
weathering. Light colors indicate low organic matter content and                
dark colors can indicate high content. Light or pale colors in                  
the surface soil are frequently associated with relatively coarse               
texture and highly leached conditions, and occur in areas that                  
have high annual temperature. Dark colors may result from high                  
water table conditions (poor drainage), low annual temperatures,                
or other influences that induce high organic matter content and                 
at the same time slow the oxidation (burning) of organic mater-                 
ials. Or dark color may result from colors imparted by the parent               
material. Shades of red or yellow, particularly where associated                
with relatively fine textures, usually indicate that subsoil                    
material has been incorporated in the surface or plow layer.                    
                                                                                
Subsoil colors, in general, indicate air, water, and soil                       
relationships and the degree of oxidation of certain minerals in                
the soil. Red and brown subsoil colors indicate that the soil                   
allows relatively free movement of air and water. If these or                   
other bright colors persist throughout the subsoil it is indica-                
tive of favorable aeration. Some soils that are mottled (have                   
mixed colors) in the subsoil, especially where the colors are                   
shades of red and brown, are also well aerated.                                 
                                                                                
Soils with yellow-colored subsoils usually have some drainage                   
impediment. Most soils that have mottling in the subsoil,                       
especially where gray predominates, have too much water and too                 
little air (oxygen) much of the time. Red to brown color of                     
subsoils comes from iron coatings under well-aerated conditions.                
In wet soils with low oxygen levels the iron coatings are                       
chemically and biologically removed and the gray color of                       
background soil minerals shows.                                                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
Can you suggest an autumn-flowering, low-growing plant for a                    
difficult area in my yard?                                                      
                                                                                
Try Sternbergia lutea, an autumn-flowering member of the Amaryl-                
lis family with daffodil-gold flowers in the form of crocus. For                
glowing ground-level color when little else is in bloom, it is                  
peerless in borders and rock gardens, or naturalized on a                       
south-facing slope. Planted in August in full sun, each bulb                    
first produces glossy dark green 6-9 inch, strap-shaped leaves,                 
then several single-stemmed 2-4 " flowers. The flowers are long                 
lasting and weather resistant.                                                  
                                                                                
Sternbergias are hardy to at least -20 degrees F if given a                     
gritty soil with good drainage. Mulch for winter with a light                   
covering of hay that does not mat over the foliage which persists               
into spring. Set bulbs 4 inches deep and 4 inches apart, and                    
enrich the soil beneath with a handful of leafmold, plus a                      
liberal sprinkling of bonemeal. In summer, the bulbs should                     
almost literally bake in dry soil as they do in their native                    
habitat in the Middle East. This is substantially aided if the                  
gardener locates plants on a southern exposure, with a heat-                    
reflecting wall or rock behind them. Sternbergias multiply                      
readily and return reliably year after year.                                    
                                                                                
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My sister writes me that she is having great luck with relay                    
planting in her garden. Could you explain this technique?                       
                                                                                
Relaying consists of planting blocks of the same vegetable over a               
period of time. That is, a new block of the crop is planted                     
before the old one is removed. For instance, lettuce may be                     
planted at two-week intervals for a continuous harvest. This                    
method requires some forethought though as crops planted very                   
early in spring are likely to get a slower start because of low                 
temperatures. Later plantings could catch up to seeds sown                      
earlier and you can end up with more produce than you need at one               
time. At this time of the summer, you will want to plant heat-                  
tolerant varieties. Later in the season varieties which withstand               
cool temperatures will be better.                                               
                                                                                
Another way to achieve the same result is to plant at one time                  
varieties of the same vegetable which mature at different times.                
For example, some gardeners plant an early-, a mid-, and a                      
late-season corn at the same time to have a lengthy harvest.                    
                                                                                
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The soil on my houseplants has developed a white crust on the                   
top. What has happened? Will it harm the plants?                                
                                                                                
Soluble salts build up and form a yellow to white crust on soil                 
when fertilizer is applied repeatedly without sufficient water to               
leach or wash old fertilizer or salts through the soil. It also                 
occurs when water evaporates from the soil and minerals or salts                
stay behind. A ring of salt deposits may form around the drainage               
hole and on the outside of clay pots.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
As the salts in the soil become more and more concentrated,                     
plants find it harder and harder to take up water. If salts build               
up to an extremely high level, water can be draw out of the root                
tips causing them to die.                                                       
                                                                                
Soluble salts problems commonly occur on plants in containers but               
are rarely a problem in the garden. The best way to prevent                     
soluble salt injury is to stop the salts from building up by                    
watering correctly. When water is applied, allow some water to                  
drain through and then empty the drip plate. Water equal to                     
one-tenth the volume of the pot should drain through each time                  
you water. Do not allow the pot to sit in water. If you let the                 
drained water be reabsorbed by the soil, the salts that were                    
washed out are taken back into the soil. Salts can be reabsorbed                
through the drainage hole or directly through a clay pot.                       
                                                                                
Potted plants should be leached every 4 to 6 months. Leaching is                
done by pouring a lot of water on the soil and letting it drain                 
completely. The amount of water used for leaching should equal                  
twice the volume of the pot. A 6 inch pot will hold 10 cups of                  
water so 20 cups of water are used to leach a plant in a 6 inch                 
pot. Keep the water running through the soil to wash the salts                  
out. If a layer of salts has formed a crust on top of the soil,                 
you should remove the salt crust before you begin the leaching                  
but do not remove more than 1/4 inch of soil. It is best not to                 
add more soil to the top of the pot. Leach a plant before                       
fertilizing to avoid washing away all newly added fertilizer. If                
soluble salts are build up thickly or the pot has no drainage,                  
repot the plant.                                                                
                                                                                
The level of salts that will cause injury varies with the type of               
plant and how it is being grown. A plant grown in the home may be               
injured by salts at concen-  tration of 200 ppm. The same plant                 
growing in a greenhouse where the light and drainage are good                   
will grow with salts 10 times that level, or 2000 ppm. Some                     
nurseries and plant shops leach plants to remove excess salts                   
before plants are sold. If you are not sure that has been done,                 
leach a newly purchased plant the first time you water it.                      
                                                                                
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I like many styles of gardens - formal, informal, naturalistic,                 
Oriental... but I have a regular-size city lot and do not want it               
to look too busy. Please provide a few landscaping tips for my                  
situation.                                                                      
                                                                                
A garden with too many ideas expressed in a limited area lacks                  
unity. Too many showy plants or too many accessories on the lawn                
can claim more attention than the house itself. Using too many                  
accent plants or plants with contrasting textures, form, or color               
violates the principles of unity. In order to achieve unity it is               
necessary to group or arrange different parts of the design to                  
appear as a single unit. The design should be a pleasant picture                
from every angle.                                                               
                                                                                
Every square foot of landscape does not have to have something in               
it. Such objects as bird baths and plastic yellow daisies are                   
often overused. There is an design concept expressed as "less is                
more." This statement is especially true regarding landscape                    
design. Keep the landscape simple and it will look its best.                    
Avoid cluttering the yard with unnecessary objects. This includes               
plant material, statuary, and miscellaneous objects. When too                   
many extras are introduced the yard takes on a messy appearance.                
Use statuary or specimen plants with discretion. The simplist                   
landscapes are often the most attractive. Remember, create                      
spaces, don't fill them up.                                                     
                                                                                
Rhythm is a repetition of elements which directs the eye through                
a landscape. Rhythm results only when the elements appear in                    
regular measures and in a definite direction. Rhythm can be                     
expressed in color as well as form. Use groupings of the same                   
plants or plants of the same color or size at pleasing intervals                
to achieve the feeling of rhythm in your yard.                                  
                                                                                
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I need more information on plant nutrition. I'm never sure my                   
plants are getting enough fertilizer.                                           
                                                                                
Many people confuse plant nutrition with plant fertilization.                   
Plant nutrition refers to the needs and uses of the basic                       
chemical elements in the plant. Fertilization is the term used                  
when these materials are supplied to the environment around the                 
plant. A lot must happen before a chemical element, supplied in                 
a fertilizer, can be taken up and used by the plant.                            
                                                                                
Although nutrients can be absorbed passively, research has shown                
that active absorption must take place if the plant is to grow                  
and be healthy. Some of the factors that affect nutrient absorp-                
tion are type of ion, pH, solubility of ion pairs, water, soil                  
oxygen, sugar supply, plant stress, and temperature.                            
                                                                                
Plants need 17 elements for normal growth. Carbon, hydrogen, and                
oxygen are acquired by the plant from the air and water. Nitro-                 
gen, potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphorous, and sulfur are                 
retrived from the soil. The above six elements are used in                      
relatively large amounts by the plant and are called macro-                     
nutrients. There are eight other elements that are used in much                 
smaller amounts and are called micronutrients or trace elements.                
The micronutrients, which are found in the soil, are iron, zinc,                
molybdenum, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt, and chlorine. All                 
17 elements, both macronutrients and micronutrients, are essen-                 
tial for plant growth.                                                          
                                                                                
Most of the nutrients that a plant needs are dissolved in water                 
and then absorbed by the roots. Most nutrient elements are                      
absorbed as charged ions, or pieces of molecules (which are the                 
smallest particle of a substance that can exist and still retain                
the characterictics of the substance). In order for the ions to                 
be easily absorbed, they must first be dissolved in the soil                    
solution. Some combinations of ions are easily dissolved, such as               
potassium nitrate. When other ions combine, they may precipitate                
or fall out of solution and thus become unavailable to the                      
plant. Many of the micronutrients form complex combinations with                
phosphorous and calcium and precipitate out of the soil solution                
so the nutrients cannot be easily taken up by the plant.                        
                                                                                
The water and oxygen in the soil must also be in available                      
form. Since nutrients are taken up with water, there must be                    
sufficient water for the plant to absorb.                                       
                                                                                
These chemical reactions are greatly affected by pH, which is a                 
measurement of acidity or alkalinity. If the soil pH is extremely               
high (alkaline), many of the micronutrients precipitate out of                  
solution and are unavailable to the plant. When the soil pH is                  
extremely low (acidic), some of the micronutrients become                       
extremely soluble and ion levels may become high enough to injure               
the plant. The effect of pH varies with the ion, the types of                   
ions in the soil, the type of soil and the nature of the plant                  
being cultivated. This is why you may add lime to raise pH or                   
sulfur to lower pH.                                                             
                                                                                
The balance of ions in the soil is very important. Ions of the                  
opposite charges attract each other, while ions of similar                      
charges compete for chemical interactions and reactions in the                  
environment. Some ions are more active than others or can compete               
better. For example, both calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++)                   
are cations with two charges, however, magnesium is more active.                
If both are in competition to be absorbed, the magnesium will be                
absorbed. This explains why the results of a soil test may                      
indicate that while there is sufficient calcium in the soil the                 
plant may still exhibit a calcium deficiency because of an                      
excess of the more active magnesium. What may be expressed as a                 
deficiency in one micronutrient may really be caused by an excess               
of another.                                                                     
                                                                                
Anything that lowers or prevents the production of sugars in the                
leaves can lower nutrient absorption. If the plant is under                     
stress, due to low light or extremes in temperature, nutrient                   
deficiency problems may develop. The stage of growth or how                     
actively the plant is growing may also affect the amount of                     
nutrients absorbed.                                                             
                                                                                
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Please write about fountain grass. I am considering getting some                
for my yard.                                                                    
                                                                                
Fountain grass (Pennisetum ruppelii) is one of many highly                      
ornamental grasses. Its leaves are long (1-2'), narrow, and rough               
textured. Plants have a midgreen color and grow in clumps. One to               
three-foot tall stems are sent up from July through September.                  
Stems support 10-12 inch feathery plumes in shades of white                     
to purple.                                                                      
                                                                                
Fountain grass is a half-hardy perennial, but it is best grown as               
an annual especially in the colder zones of Virginia. It may                    
possibly be grown as a perennial in zone 8 (in Virginia on the                  
eastern shore) if winter protection is provided. If grown as an                 
annual, seeds should be sown indoors during March or April in a                 
cool location (59-63 degrees F). Seedlings should be transplanted               
outdoors after danger of frost is past. If grown as a perennial,                
the clumps should be divided in April or May.                                   
                                                                                
Plant fountain grass starts 18" apart in soil that is well                      
drained. A sunny location is necessary. Plants should be shelter-               
ed from strong winds especially in winter if it is grown as a                   
perennial. Care is minimal since fountain grass is free from                    
pests and diseases. In the cooler regions of the state, gardeners               
may dig fountain grass clumps in late October and overwinter them               
in a cool greenhouse.                                                           
                                                                                
In the landscape, fountain grass makes a nice background plant or               
it may be used as an accent. The movement of plumes swaying in a                
gentle breeze creates a graceful effect. Plumes may be left on                  
plants during fall and winter to create visual interest during                  
those seasons. Alternatively, they may be cut as they dry in                    
autumn and used for indoor decoration.                                          
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Herbaeceous Plants                                                              
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of roses to root, 6-9 inches long. Using a sharp                
knife, remove all but top 2-3 leaves, insert 4-6 inches deep in                 
well-prepared soil in bright light out of the sun. Firm, water                  
well, cover with inverted glass jar.                                            
                                                                                
* Many self-sown seedlings of hollyhocks, larkspur, columbine,                  
sweet William, etc. are now appearing. If the parent plant is not               
a hybrid the seedling should come true to type. They should be                  
carefully guarded, as this is a way to stretch your garden                      
budget.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Keep tall flowers staked and cut out dead stalks.                             
                                                                                
* Plan changes in your perennial plantings. Autumn is usually the               
best time for moving and dividing perennials as the gardening                   
pace has slowed considerably and it offers the opportunity to add               
new bulbs to your design. Peonies, Bleeding heart, and Oriental                 
poppies resent being disturbed, so plan to work around them                     
without disturbance.                                                            
                                                                                
* Don't let your hybrid annual flowers go to seed. This weakens                 
the plants and reduces bloom. In addition, the seed are not                     
desirable to save as the plant will ordinarily be very different                
from the parent and of poorer quality.                                          
                                                                                
* Select a good site for spring flower bulbs. For daffodils dig                 
the soil twelve inches deep in a sunny location. Work in bone                   
meal and peat moss.                                                             
                                                                                
* Sow annuals for winter flowering indoors if you have a                        
greenhouse or bright southern window. Calendulas bloom well and                 
keep long. Browallia, mignonette, ageratum, marigolds, snapdrago-               
ns and many others are good subjects.                                           
                                                                                
* Do not mulch oriental poppies. They prefer hot, sun-baked                     
ground while "resting."                                                         
                                                                                
* Keep roots of lilies cool for best growth. Unless foliage of                  
surrounding plants shades the roots, mulch the ground with grass                
clippings or similar weed-free material.                                        
                                                                                
* If you are planning to take some garden plants indoors to                     
provide for early fall bloom, use a sharp knife to root prune                   
them now to a size a little smaller than the pot. Remove all buds               
and flowers and cut back the top growth severely. Water well                    
until ready to lift.                                                            
                                                                                
* Many plants growing in the ground can be successfully dug and                 
placed in pots. However, this is generally more difficult and                   
usually requires a severe pruning to insure survival. Some plants               
are slow to recover from such treatment and may not give good                   
flowers during the winter. Cuttings taken from these plants                     
started in late August and early September should make attrac-                  
tive, bushy pot plants before frosts kill the parent plant.                     
                                                                                
* Disbudding chrysanthemums produces larger blooms. Most mums,                  
except spray types, respond well to disbudding.                                 
                                                                                
* Cut strawflowers intended for dried flower arrangements when                  
the blooms are only half open. Tie small bundles of the flowers                 
together and hang them upside down in a well ventilated place tp                
dry.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Hot dry weather can bring on an increase in the population of                 
red spider mites. Inspect roses, evergreens and marigolds for                   
signs of pale green coloration. Verify the presence of these                    
pests by holding a white sheet of paper underneath foliage and                  
briskly tap the branch. Severely infested annuals should be                     
removed from the garden and destroyed. Perennials may require                   
treatment. If infestation is light, mites may be discouraged by a               
forceful direct spray from the water hose.                                      
                                                                                
* Since container grown plants have a limited area from which to                
absorb water, plants in a sunny location may require watering                   
several times a day. Check plants often to avoid water stress.                  
Additional watering will leach nutrients from the media. Bi-week-               
ly fertilization may be necessary to maintain vigor.                            
                                                                                
* Do not allow phlox to go to seed. Seedlings do not come true to               
parent color and may overtake your planting, giving the impressi-               
on that the parent plants have reverted.                                        
                                                                                
* When buying spring flowering bulbs a good guideline to use is                 
'biggest is best' in regard to bulb size. Be careful about so                   
called 'bargain bulbs' as they may be small or of inferior                      
quality.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Remove bedding plants that have definitely finished blooming                  
for the season. Replace with fall annuals or mums.                              
                                                                                
* Plant bulbs of the Hardy Amaryllis or Magic Lily in August as                 
soon as received at a depth of 5". They will produce foliage in                 
the spring which dies down by late summer. The lily-like, pink                  
flowers borne on three-foot stalks in clusters of six to nine                   
will appear in August. The bulbs will live almost indefinitely                  
and prefer not to be disturbed.                                                 
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Root cuttings of woody shrubs and evergreens including azaleas,               
holly,and hydrangea.                                                            
                                                                                
* Leaf miner's larvae tunnel inside leaves and produce whitish                  
trails as they move about inside leaf. Holly, boxwood, and locust               
are particularly susceptible to damage.                                         
                                                                                
* Keep newly planted trees and shrubs well watered.                             
                                                                                
* Check offcolor foliage, especially on conifers, for presence of               
red spider mites. If you suspect that your plants have mites,                   
hold a piece of white paper under some of the branches, then tap                
the foliage a few times. This will knock the mites onto the white               
paper where they can be seen. If you have a magnifier (7x or                    
greater), you can easily observe mites by looking at the undersi-               
de of an infested leaf. Many times you will find all stages of                  
development along with cast skins and old eggs. Contact your                    
agent for pesticide recommendations.                                            
                                                                                
* The American elm may not become extinct, due to the ravages of                
Dutch elm disease, according to a recent survey of 14 sites in                  
eight states where Dutch elm disease was reported 50 years ago.                 
At each site, healthy American elms were observed, including                    
trees of seed-bearing size, large trees that survived early                     
epidemics, young seedlings in abundance, and relatively new                     
populations of trees of various ages. The elm continues to                      
survive, despite earlier predictions of its impending demise.                   
                                                                                
* Inspect trunks and branches of dogwood for injured bark or fine               
dust being pushed from burrows in trunk by borers.                              
                                                                                
* If the leaves of euonymus turn yellow and drop, check the stems               
and underside of the leaves for tiny, needle-like white insects                 
with a scattering of small, brown, shell-like shapes. This is                   
euonymous scale (males are white; females brown). Climbing                      
euonymus is more susceptible than most upright forms. Contact                   
your local Extension office for approved control methods.                       
                                                                                
* When it is necessary to transplant woody plants in hot weather,               
cover them with a sheet after they are planted. Dampen the sheet                
two or three times a day with the hose, and transplants should                  
suffer less setback from transpiration losses.                                  
                                                                                
 * If azaleas look chlorotic (pale green to yellow) check                       
pH. They need acid soil as alkalinity locks up soil iron needed                 
for green color. Use agricultural sulfur to reduces pH.                         
                                                                                
* Water shrubs deeply once a week during August. Many plants                    
(camellias, rhododendrons) are developing next season's flower                  
buds at this time. Immature berries of hollies and pyracantha may               
be lost if too dry.                                                             
                                                                                
* Powdery mildew diseases attack a great many ornamentals, most                 
often in late summer when the days are warm and nights cool. Some               
mildews, particularly those on roses, apples and cherries, are                  
also increased by high humidity. Prevention by culture is the                   
first defense. Grow resistant varieties; space and prune plants                 
to improve aeration and lessen shading; water early in the day;                 
and at the base rather than on leaves and reduce nitrogen                       
applications to avoid excessive late season growth.                             
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* August and September is the time to rejuvenate or plant home                  
lawns.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Be sure to mow the lawn before going on vacation. If you will                 
be gone over two weeks, arrange to have it cut while you are                    
away. If you don't, too much of the top growth will be removed on               
its next mowing. Removal of over 2/3 of the growth at one time                  
weakens the plant.                                                              
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* A quick-and-easy method for reducing your slug population,                    
especially if you are squeamish about the little devils: put out                
squares of cardboard in your garden each night. In the morning,                 
pick them up and if there are any slugs clinging to the under-                  
side, discard the whole square in a trash bag. The number and                   
size of the squares depend on the size of your garden and how                   
heavy the infestation of slugs.                                                 
                                                                                
* Greening of potatoes is caused by exposure to sunlight. Cover                 
tubers that grow near the soil surface mounding up the soil                     
around the plant as it grows.                                                   
                                                                                
* It's not too late to plant a fall garden. Lettuce, radishes,                  
spinach, turnip, and peas can be started from seed. Chinese                     
cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower transplants will still have                  
time to produce a good harvest. Be extra diligent in watching for               
pests on these crops.                                                           
                                                                                
* Snap bean, tomato and pepper flowers fail to develop fruit                    
because of daytime temperatures above 90 degrees F.                             
                                                                                
* The last fall garden vegetables should be planted in August in                
most sections of Virginia. For hardy crops like cabbage, caulifl-               
ower, and collard, count back from your average first frost date                
the number of days the particular variety requires to mature and                
plant at that time. For half-hardy crops like beets and carrots,                
allow an additional week. For tender crops like beans and sweet                 
corn, allow an extra 2 weeks to be sure an early frost does not                 
kill your vegetables before they mature.                                        
                                                                                
* Potatoes continue to grow as long as the tops are green. Dig                  
only as many as you need for immediate use. The tubers will keep                
better in the ground than in a warm, dry home.                                  
                                                                                
* Remove old plants which have stopped producing to eliminate a                 
shelter for insects and disease organisms.                                      
                                                                                
* Pick summer squash and zucchini every day or two to keep the                  
plants producing.                                                               
                                                                                
* When cantaloupes reach softball size, place them on an inverted               
coffee can to increase the air circulation and sunlight they                    
receive. Puncture drainage holes on the can top to prevent fruit                
rot.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Every weed that ripens seed means more trouble next year. Con-                
trol weeds now.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Locate a manure source to start compost for next spring.                      
                                                                                
* If you think you've grown a record-size vegetable, send photos,               
notarized witness identification and all pertinent background                   
data (crop, cultivar, date of planting, date of harvest, etc.) to               
Sterling Publishing Co. (2 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016),                    
representative for the "Guiness Book of World Records."                         
                                                                                
* Mound soil over the lateral or brace roots of corn stalks for                 
extra support against strong winds.                                             
                                                                                
* Pick winter squash and pumpkins with two or three inches of                   
stem; they'll keep better in storage.                                           
                                                                                
* Roots of vine crops like cucumbers and melons usually extend as               
far as the vines and sometimes farther when grown in friable                    
garden soil. Take caution when cultivating around these crops.                  
                                                                                
* Pinch off onion seed pods from the top of the plants to keep                  
them from going to seed.                                                        
                                                                                
* When going on vacation be sure to harvest all mature vegetables               
before you leave and arrange for someone to pick fast-maturing                  
crops such as summer squash and okra. Vegetables which become                   
over mature while still on the plant signal the plant to reduce                 
flower and fruit production.                                                    
                                                                                
* If your're harvesting and must leave your produce outdoors for                
several hours, provide some shade to keep the fresh foods                       
succulent and reduce the conversion of sugars to starch.                        
                                                                                
* Dutch experiments have shown that the storage life of (both                   
green and red) tomatoes can be significantly lengthened by                      
short-term (one to three days) storage at 55 degrees F. prior to                
storage at room temperature. Total storage life was longest after               
short-term cooling for three days.                                              
                                                                                
Fruits/ Nuts                                                                    
                                                                                
* If your apple or pear trees have dead branches with leaves                    
still clinging to the twigs, it may be fire blight. This bacter-                
ium is best controlled by pruning. When making cuts, prune at                   
least 6" below the dead part of the twig and dip shears in a 10                 
percent bleach solution between cuts to prevent transmitting the                
disease to healthy wood. Also avoid overfertilizing with nitrogen               
in the spring, as succulent new wood is more susceptible to fire                
blight bacteria.                                                                
                                                                                
* Prop up branches of fruit trees that are threatening to break                 
under increasing weight of ripening fruit.                                      
                                                                                
* August is the time to fertilize your strawberries. On plants                  
set out this spring, apply 4 to 6 ounces of ammonium nitrate (33%               
actual nitrogen) or 12-18 oz. of 10-10-10 per 25 ft. of row. Spr-               
ead uniformly in a band 14" wide over the row when the foliage is               
dry. Brush fertilizer off the leaves to avoid leaf burn. For                    
plants in the second year of growth, increase the application                   
rate to 6 to 8 oz. ammonium nitrate or 18-24 oz. of 10-10-10 per                
25 ft. row.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Apples and pears trained as cordons and espaliers and other                   
formal shapes can be summer pruned in early August.                             
                                                                                
* Don't neglect plantings of strawberries, blueberries and                      
bramble fruits just because the fruit has been harvested. These                 
plants are forming buds for next year's crop. Avoid waterstress                 
now to prevent buds from shriveling.                                            
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Look over the house plants which are summering out of doors to                
see that they are not suffering for want of water. Be careful not               
to disturb those now going through their rest periods.                          
                                                                                
* Inspect your house plants for signs of insect damage. Pest                    
control is much easier and safer while the plants are outside for               
the summer than after you bring them in this fall.                              
                                                                                
* To avoid soaking the soil when cleaning potted plants under the               
shower, slit an aluminum foil pie plate from the rim to the                     
center, turn under the cut edges, and slip it around the plant                  
stem so it covers the soil and makes the water run off.                         
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* If you do not have a coldframe, now is a good time to build                   
one.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Go over all the coldframe sashes and greenhouse glazing,                      
replacing broken glass, puttying and repainting.                                
                                                                                
* There are many resources for gardeners assisting in the                       
creation of an historical garden. Local historical societies                    
often have invaluable records, photographs and engravings.                      
Libraries at many universities, botanical gardens and horticul-                 
tural societies have numerous books--and some maintain extensive                
collections of old seed catatlogs. Horticulturists at public                    
historical gardens often will be immensely helpful. Dozens of                   
specialty seed compaies and nurseries are springing up to meet                  
the demand for "antique" plants.                                                
                                                                                
* By the time the seed catalogs arrive in January you will have a               
very vague idea of what this year's garden was like. Make notes                 
now so you can have a better garden next year.                                  
                                                                                
* Many Virginia counties have local fairs. Be sure to enter your                
vegetables, flowers, crafts and other items in the competitive                  
exhibits for ribbons and prizes.                                                
                                                                                
* Do not add weeds with ripened seed heads to your compost                      
pile. Many will remain viable and germinate wherever the compost                
is used next year.                                                              
                                                                                
* Where you have fall crops growing, you can sow cover crop seed                
between rows a month or less before expected harvest. This way                  
the cover crop gets a good start but will not interfere with                    
vegetable plant growth. Request publication 426-334 for list of                 
suggested cover crops including annual rye, red clover, and hairy               
vetch.                                                                          
                                                                                
* A cover crop decreases erosion of the soil during the winter,                 
adds organic material when it is incorporated in the spring,                    
improves soil tilth and porosity, and adds valuable nutrients.                  
Winter cover crops can be planted as early as August 1 but should               
not be planted any later than November 1.                                       
                                                                                
* An old-time trick for germinating seeds in mid-summer is to                   
plant the seeds, water them in well, and then place a board over                
the row until the sprouts just reach the soil surface; at that                  
time remove the board.                                                          
                                                                                
* Clothing worn during pesticide handling should be laundered as                
soon as the job is finished. If you can't wash the clothing                     
immediately, store it in a plastic bag away from other clothing,                
children and pets.                                                              
                                                                                
* When washing clothing containing pesticide residues, use a                    
heavy-duty detergent and hot water. Use the amount of detergent                 
recommended on the package. Clothing which has come in contact                  
with full strength chemicals needs to be laundered twice. You can               
remove pesticide residues from your washer by running the machine               
through a complete cycle using detergent, but no clothing.                      
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases August 1987                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, working with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab, and               
James Faiszt, Extension Specialist in Horticulture. The Virginia                
Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent use in                    
preparing radio and newspaper features and other educational                    
programs.                                                                       
                                                                                
Renovating Flower Beds for Fall                     52 lines                    
Propagating Trees and Shrubs                        67 lines                    
Anemones In Autumn                                  44 lines                    
Preserve Leaves with Glycerin                       67 lines                    
Rose Hips                                           50 lines                    
Azalea Lace Bug                                     46 lines                    
                                                                                
Renovating Flower Beds for Fall                                                
                                                                                
Renovate the landscape for fall by pulling up and disposing of                  
tired plants suffering from insect, disease or heat damage. Prune               
back or remove faded flowers from plants such as ageratum,                      
bachelor button, lobelia, annual dianthus, Black-eyed Susan                     
(Rudbeckia), snapdragons, coreopsis, phlox and verbena, allowing                
them time to bloom again before hard frosts settle in. Trim                     
begonias, coleus and annual vinca to keep them bushy.                           
                                                                                
Replace summer annual flowers that have been neglected while you                
were on vacation with cool season annuals. Look for fall blooming               
plants being highlighted at nurseries now. If your local garden                 
center does not have these plants available at this time let them               
know that there is a market for them.                                           
                                                                                
Petunias are one of the best all-around annuals available for                   
this time of year. Petunias are actually tender perennials,                     
treated as annuals, so they'll hold up and recover nicely even                  
after light frosts. They require very little care; bloom is only                
adversely affected by humid weather. Cascade petunias are the                   
all-time favorites for containers.                                              
                                                                                
Good cool season companions for petunias especially suited for                  
container plantings are the browallias. These lush, flowering                   
plants are covered with blue star-shaped flowers. There are a                   
variety of other good plants to consider to extend the range of                 
cool blues and pinks: alyssum, annual phlox, cynoglossom (Chinese               
forget-me-nots), centaurea (bachelor's button) and nierembergia                 
to name a few.                                                                  
                                                                                
Many gardeners like bright sunny colors such as yellow, orange                  
and red during cool weather as a reminder of the glory of the                   
summer just past. A daisy-flowered plant which has gotten a great               
deal of attention recently for its bright cheerful colors is                    
gazania. These plants grow with a basal rosette of attractive                   
divided leaves with flowers borne above the foliage. Gazanias                   
need little care, performing well even in hot, dry weather. They                
close their flowers in the late afternoon or when it clouds up.                 
Gazania plants should be obtained form the garden center since                  
they take a long time to bloom if directly sown from seed. Other                
good cool season flowers in bright colors include calendulas,                   
Shirley poppies, rudbeckias, and garden mums.                                   
                                                                                
When replacing flower borders, improve the soil in the beds by                  
adding organic matter, such as peat, compost or leaf mold. Some                 
gardeners who have used a heavy mulch during hot weather for weed               
and moisture control incorporate it into the soil at this time                  
and add new mulch after they've replanted. Replanting directly                  
into mulched beds without tilling is less work, but not as good                 
for the soil tilth. If you mix organic matter into the soil now,                
be sure to add nitrogen fertilizer to perk up the plants and                    
compensate for the portion of this nutrient tied up by soil                     
microorganisms as they break down organic material.                             
Propagating Trees and Shrubs from Cuttings                                      
                                                                                
Many of the trees and shrubs popular in the home landscape can be               
started from cuttings during August. With most of these plants,                 
it is not difficult to produce an abundance of tiny new plants.                 
But be warned that it may take three to five years before they                  
reach the sizes you see in the nursery. If you are equipped with                
a large supply of patience, propagating landscape plants can be                 
challenging and fun.                                                            
                                                                                
Depending on the plant involved, cuttings taken at this time of                 
the year should be semi-hardwood or softwood cuttings. Softwood                 
cuttings are taken from new growth that is still relatively soft                
and succulent before the tissue has matured or become woody. You                
can tell if the plant is in condition for rooting by trying to                  
snap off a three to six inch tip. If it breaks clean, it is                     
ready. Tips which bend instead of breaking are too soft and may                 
deteriorate before rooting. Those which are too woody will crack                
and may be slow to root.                                                        
                                                                                
Semi-hardwood or green wood cuttings differ from softwood                       
cuttings only in the maturity of the wood. For deciduous plants                 
that root better from semi-hardwood cuttings, the cuttings are                  
taken later in the season when the lower portion of the stem has                
become lignified or partially mature. Cuttings from evergreens                  
are generally obtained from new shoots, five to 10 weeks after a                
flush of growth when the wood is partially mature or semi-hard.                 
                                                                                
Make softwood cuttings three to six inches long. Remove the lower               
leaves before inserting the cuttings into the rooting medium.                   
Space cuttings so the leaves just touch each other, don't                       
overcrowd. In general, softwood cuttings root quickly in a warm,                
humid atmosphere such as a coldframe in a semi-shady location.                  
Among the landscape plants that root well as softwood cuttings                  
are abelia, pyracantha, weigela, magnolia, cotoneaster, buddleia,               
hybrid French lilac and roses.                                                  
                                                                                
To root broadleaved plants such as evergreen azaleas and holly,                 
take semi-hardwood cuttings six to eight inches long. Remove                    
leaves or small branches from the base of the cutting and insert                
it in a rooting medium. Broadleaved evergreens are easily rooted                
in a cold frame with a glass or plastic cover to increase                       
humidity. They will root more rapidly if provided with bottom                   
heat supplied with an electric heating cable. Semi-hardwood                     
cuttings allow these ornamentals to be propagated: boxwood,                     
holly,camellia, euonymus and pittosporum.                                       
                                                                                
Another type of cutting used to propagate plants is the hardwood                
cutting. This method involves taking cuttings from the previous                 
seasons growth stems usually during the dormant season. Some                    
plants can be propagated by either soft or hard wood cuttings.                  
Propagate the following deciduous shrubs by taking hardwood                     
cuttings: forsythia, privet, spirea, and honeysuckle. These                     
fruiting plants can also be propagated in this way: quince,                     
grape, gooseberry, currant and some plums. Cuttings from the                    
following narrowleaved evergreens can also be propagated using                  
hardwood: false cypress, yew, spruce, hemlock, and juniper.                     
                                                                                
During propagation, you must keep the rooting medium moist at all               
times. Do not allow it to dry out, but do not overwater. Keeping                
it soaking wet will be equally damaging. Stimulate and hasten                   
rooting of most cuttings, especially the more mature wood, with                 
root inducing powders available at most garden supply stores.                   
After the cuttings have rooted, they can be planted outdoors.                   
Leave those cuttings started in coldframes in the protected                     
location through the winter and transplant them into a growing                  
area the next spring.                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Anemones in Autumn                                                             
                                                                                
The beauty associated with anemones or windflowers, does not have               
to end in early summer. Fall blooming anemones, collectively                    
known as Japanese anemones, put on their floral show from late                  
summer until frost.                                                             
                                                                                
Like the early season anemones, Japanese anemones display a vivid               
profusion of mauve, rose, pink, and white blossoms. The flowers                 
which span up to three inches across, are borne on scapes 15 to                 
48 inches tall. Japanese anemone blooms last a long time on the                 
plant, but the flowers are not reliable as cut flowers.                         
                                                                                
Japanese anemones are hardy perennials capable of overwintering                 
outdoors throughout Virginia. A light organic mulch will protect                
the roots in cold areas. In rich, sandy loam, anemones spread and               
can be used in naturalizing. In areas with heavier soils, they                  
tend to remain in clumps. Well-drained garden soil amended with                 
peat or leaf mold provides a satisfactory root environment.                     
                                                                                
A sheltered location with filtered sunlight is ideal for Japanese               
anemones; but where summers are cool, they can take full sun.                   
Consider using them as border plants in rock gardens, and in open               
soil near deciduous trees. The roots dislike being disturbed so                 
the original site should be carefully chosen. Be aware that it                  
may take Japanese anemones several years to become established                  
and display their best bloom. In heavy soils, they are slow to                  
multiply, and divisions may be taken only when the clump becomes                
crowded.                                                                        
                                                                                
Root cuttings are the most common propagation method for Japanese               
anemones available to homeowners. During spring, rooted cuttings                
should be planted two inches deep in friable soil. Where the soil               
is heavy, space plants four to six inches apart. In lighter                     
soils, leave 8 to 12 inches between rooted pieces. If seeds are                 
purchased, sow them directly into the soil in autumn or early                   
spring.                                                                         
                                                                                
The lineage of Japanese anemones has become confused over the                   
years. Plants are usually marked as Anemone X hybrida, but may                  
also be sold as A. hupehensis, A. hupehensis var. japonica, and                 
A. japonica. Combining Japanese anemones with spring blooming                   
types, can extend anemone display from midsummer until frost.                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Preserve Leaves with Glycerin                                                  
                                                                                
Foliage for use in winter arrangements may be preserved now by                  
using glycerin. The leaves of many plants make interesting                      
arrangements even without flowers particularly when combined with               
seed heads and cones.                                                           
                                                                                
The procedure is simple. All you need to do is stand the stems or               
leaves in a mixture of one part glycerin and two parts water.                   
Midsummer is a good time to get started on this project because                 
the leaves are in an active stage of growth and will absorb the                 
glycerin rapidly. Absorption usually takes about two or three                   
weeks.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many kinds of leaves can be preserved by the glycerin process.                  
Leaves from trees such as beech, birch, peach, plum, poplar are                 
satisfactory. Of the shrubs try barberry, forsythia, blueberry,                 
privet, rhododendron and rose. The leaves of many perennial                     
herbaceous plants can be used including aspidistra, canna, coral                
bells, geraniums, iris, ivy and lily-of-the-valley.                             
                                                                                
If you are unsure of preserving the leaves of a certain plant,                  
first test them while they are in the green stage. Use leaves                   
which will exhibit a pleasing autumn color or those plants which                
have the structure or texture you plan to emphasize in the                      
arrangement. Prepare a mixture of glycerin and test possible                    
selections by letting the green leaves absorb the solution. If                  
the stems readily uptake the glycerin while green, success should               
also be obtainable on foliage cut in the fall.                                  
                                                                                
Select only perfect specimens and wash the foliage with water to                
remove dirt or spray residue. If the material has woody stems,                  
cut off the last inch with a sloping cut before starting the                    
treatment. Stand the stems or leaves upright in a jar of the                    
glycerin solution. The leaves of small herbaceous plant material                
such as ivy and lily-of-the-valley, can be submerged in a half                  
and half glycerin-water solution.                                               
                                                                                
Some leaves will change color as the solution is absorbed. Allow                
the stems to remain in the solution until the color is uniform                  
to the edge of the leaf. This indicates that the absorption is                  
complete. Good air circulation and warm weather will speed up the               
absorption. Wipe the leaves occasionally with a cloth dampened                  
with the solution. This will help prevent drying before the                     
glycerin reaches the edge of the leaves. The leaves may wilt if                 
left in the solution too long. If this occurs, wipe them off and                
hang upside down to dry.                                                        
                                                                                
The effect of the glycerin treatment on the color of the dried                  
foliage depends on the plant and its relative maturity. For good                
fall color, leaves should be collected as they approach their                   
peak color. Carefully observe the gradual change in the leaves                  
for proper timing. Waiting too long will result in a dropping of                
the leaves.                                                                     
Treatment at different stages of maturity can result in different               
colors. Barberry leaves gathered in the spring will turn red,                   
those gathered in late summer and fall will turn brown. Beech,                  
crabapple, plum and forsythia retain their natural color if                     
treated early in the season otherwise a brown shade will also                   
occur. With some leaves such as flowering plum, a few drops of                  
red food coloring added to the solution will give a glossy red                  
color.                                                                          
                                                                                
Leaves preserved by glycerin should be stored in boxes to protect               
them from damage and dirt until use. Before storage, wipe the                   
leaves carefully with a soft cloth to remove excess moisture.                   
Check the boxes frequently during the first few weeks, to be sure               
there is no leakage from the leaves which might cause mold.                     
Rose Hips                                                                      
                                                                                
People have grown roses for many centuries and for many reasons.                
At the present time we use roses mainly for the beauty of the                   
flowers. However, for much of the history of the rose it was also               
used as a source of food and medicine.                                          
                                                                                
Whether the quaint recipes from early manuscripts and printed                   
herbals for such concoctions as "melroset" and "syrope of roses"                
would actually "strengthneth the heart, and taketh away the                     
shaking and trembling thereof" is undoubtedly questionable. What                
is valid is the fact that rose hips are a good source of vitamin                
C, having a much higher content than citrus fruit. During World                 
War II, with limited imports, British volunteers gathered hips                  
from the hedgerows for making the rose hip syrup distributed by                 
the Ministry of Health. However we are not suggesting them as a                 
replacement to more superior vitamin supplements on the market.                 
                                                                                
Besides being healthful, rose hips today offer the adventurous                  
cook a different ingredient. Rose hips have a tangy yet sweet                   
flavor and can be used fresh, dried, or preserved. The simplest                 
use is to steep them for a tea. Rose hip syrup, puree, jam,                     
jelly, and sauce can be used as is or as a flavoring in other                   
recipes. The hips are usually left on the bush until after the                  
first frost when they are bright red and slightly soft. Warning:                
Never use the hips of any rose treated with a pesticide.                        
                                                                                
To prepare rose hips, trim off the blossom and stem ends with                   
scissors, cut in half lengthwise, remove the tiny hairs and seeds               
in the center, and rinse. To dry the hips, simply spread the                    
prepared halves in a single layer on screens or trays and place                 
in a dehydrator, an oven on the lowest setting, or in a dark,                   
dry, well-ventilated place. Store in glass jars in a dark, cool                 
place.                                                                          
                                                                                
Rose hip puree can be added by the spoonful to soups, cereals,                  
juices, fruit salads, and sauces or spread on bread to provide                  
extra vitamin C. To make the puree, simmer 2 pounds prepared                    
fresh hips in 1 quart water until tender, or about 20 to 30                     
minutes. Puree in a food mill or processor and store in a covered               
container in the refrigerator.                                                  
                                                                                
The somewhat spherical fruit of the rose, usually red in color,                 
is seldom allowed to develop on modern garden roses, but the old-               
fashioned shrub types like the rugosas bear them abundantly. The                
hybrid shrub rose BONICA, one of the All-America Rose Selections                
for 1987, combines the best of both worlds in providing both                    
flowers and rose hips. If all this seems a bit esoteric, then                   
just enjoy the colorful hips on your shrub roses for their winter               
beauty and as food for song birds.                                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
Azalea Lace Bug                                                                
                                                                                
Wherever azaleas are grown in the United States be aware of the                 
threat of the azalea lace bug. One of the most damaging pests to                
the Rhododendron species, this tiny insect infests large or small               
plantings of this garden favorite ravaging the leaves. Unfor-                   
tunately infestations often are not discovered until the foliage                
is badly damaged, usually after the numbers of insects has                      
dwindled to where spraying will do little good. Lace bug injury                 
usually becomes most noticeable in August as a bleached or                      
stippling of the upper leaf surface. This leaf injury can give an               
azalea a grayish-green look and reduce the strength of the plant.               
                                                                                
Control measures must begin early in the season. The first step                 
is to examine the underside of the leaves of your azalea and                    
rhododendron plants beginning as early as March 1 in the                        
Tidewater region of the state. This weekly examination period                   
should continue through the spring and summer. Control measures                 
should be applied when the insects are first found on the foliage               
(adults on deciduous plants; colonies of nymphs on azalea and                   
other broadleaved evergreens). A sure indicator that lace bugs                  
have infested the plants is a rusty-brown color on the undersides               
of the leaves which is due to their excrement. Lace bugs also are               
common on other ericaceous plants including mountain laurel,                    
rhododendron, and pieris. Other species of lace bugs attack                     
cotoneaster, hawthorn, Japanese quince, oaks, pyracantha, and                   
sycamore.                                                                       
                                                                                
Lace bugs lay their elongate eggs in the leaf tissues along the                 
veins of azalea leaves. The eggs hatch in 20 to 25 days, with the               
total life cycle completing itself in 35 to 45 days. There are                  
usually two or more generations per year. The first generation of               
overwintering eggs will hatch in mid-March in the Tidewater area                
with the second broods occurring in the summer months between May               
and September. In western Virginia eggs begin to hatch in May,                  
both hatch dates are relatively dependant on the weather. If the                
spring has been unusually warm then expect a earlier hatch while                
a cool spring may postpone their emergence. Nymphs when first                   
hatched are almost colorless eventually becoming black and spiny.               
The adults are 1/8 inch long with thin lacy wings dotted with                   
brown and black markings. The small nymphs and adults cause their               
damage by sucking the sap from the underside of the leaves of the               
azalea. This feeding results in the gray splotched appearance on                
the upper leaves. Later in the season as the tissue around the                  
tiny wounds die the damage manifests itself to the dismay of the                
gardener.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
August 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                 
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Horticulture Extension               
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home                  
Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                       
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                        
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Potato Seed Balls                                10  lines                      
Harvesting Brussels Sprouts                       7  lines                      
Leyland Cypress                                  26  lines                      
Saving Seed                                      28  lines                      
Drying Flowers                                   21  lines                      
Fothergilla                                      20  lines                      
Poppies                                          37  lines                      
Organic Fertilizers                              34  lines                      
LD50                                             17  lines                      
Strong Flavored Rutabagas                         8  lines                      
Sidedressing Vegetables                          32  lines                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
My potato plant has small green tomatoes on the top. Will they                  
ripen and become edible?                                                        
                                                                                
Potato plants sometimes produce small seed balls or true fruit.                 
Tomatoes and potatoes are closely related and the young fruit                   
look similar.  When ripe, the potato fruit normally contain many                
small seeds, although they can be seedless. If the seeds are                    
planted, they grow into new potato plants that produce tubers of                
varying sizes. However, these seed balls never produce an edible                
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
When do you harvest Brussels sprouts?                                           
                                                                                
Harvest as soon as the first sprouts are firm and 1 to 2 inches                 
in diameter. Start with older sprouts at the base of the plant.                 
Sprouts become firm in cool weather, and harvesting can last for                
a month or more. Brussels sprouts tolerate temperatures down to                 
about 23 to 25 degrees F.                                                       
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
I am converting a house into offices but since it lies on the                   
edge of a residential section it must be screened by plants. What               
can I plant down my property line that will grow quickly and act                
as a barrier?                                                                   
                                                                                
The best choice is Leyland Cypress (X Cupressocyparis Leylandii).               
In a situation where a rapid screen is needed this plant is                     
excellent. It is hardy from Zone 6 southward.                                   
                                                                                
Unlike some evergreens, Leyland Cypress presents a soft, feathery               
appearance in the landscape. It is also a versatile plant which                 
can be used in groups or as a formal accent as well as hedge. It                
is adaptable to soil extremes of pH and fertility including a                   
tolerance of salt spray.                                                        
                                                                                
In nature, Leyland Cypress forms a columnar to pyramidal outline.               
It is a fast growing tree in youth, producing as much as three                  
feet of new growth in a single season. Another factor in favor of               
this plant is its ability to withstand heavy pruning which allows               
hedge height maintenance.                                                       
                                                                                
Plants are best purchased in containers for less root disturbance               
in planting and transport. These trees have stringy roots which                 
make them difficult to ball and burlap. Plants can be                           
transplanted in spring or fall as long as proper watering                       
practices are observed during dry spells.                                       
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
Should I save seed from year to year from my vegetable garden?                  
                                                                                
Whether you should save vegetable seeds from one year to the next               
depends on what you mean by "saving seeds." If you mean seed from               
the crops you raise, the answer for most people is usually no,                  
although it can be an interesting hobby. If you mean seeds you                  
bought that were extra after you completed your planting, the                   
answer is a qualified yes.                                                      
                                                                                
The home gardener is usually better off not trying to save the                  
seed from the crops he has grown except for old-time varieties                  
which are not available from commercial suppliers.                              
                                                                                
Homegrown seeds may perform poorly or not at all because of                     
improper harvest and storage, or the presence of disease and                    
insects in the seed. If the seeds are hybrids, the offspring will               
not be like the parents. If you want to save seed from the                      
garden, learn what and how before you give it a try to avoid                    
wasted time and effort. See publication 426-316 available at the                
local extension office.                                                         
                                                                                
Most left over commercially produced seeds if stored properly can               
be used for at least one year. They should be put in an air tight               
container and kept in a cool, dry place such as a jar in the                    
refrigerator. A cool, dark, dry basement or unheated attic would                
also be good.                                                                   
                                                                                
Test theseed in laye winter. If germination is poor order new                   
seed.                                                                           
                                                                                
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How do I dry flowers for arrangements?                                          
                                                                                
The traditional air-drying method is still the simplest and best                
for preserving many plants for winter decorations. In addition to               
the usual celosia, ornamental grasses, seed pods of milkweed, and               
the many everlastings, it is relatively easy to air-dried flowers               
of heather, hydrangea and blue salvia; foliage of artemisia; and,               
seed pods of columbine, iris, sumac, and yucca.                                 
                                                                                
To preserve color, pick strawflowers and related plants just as                 
the flowers start to open and all others when fully mature.                     
Remove unnecessary foliage to hasten drying,and hang the plants                 
upside down in small bunches in a shaded, warm, dry, well                       
ventilated place. For curved sprays, drape the stems over a                     
rounded surface. If dried too long the flowers can change color.                
Drying is complete when the stems snap easily. Seeds for seed                   
paintings should be oven-dried to prevent germination. They can                 
be colored by dipping into fabric dye. Leaves and flowers dried                 
flat between non-textured absorbent paper under a weight can be                 
easily mounted on wood with one of the new spray-on adhesives,                  
then preserved with several coats of an acrylic medium.                         
                                                                                
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My garden is spectacular in the spring when all my azaleas and                  
rhododendrons are in bloom but in the fall it's just green. What                
can I add to this grouping for fall interest?                                   
                                                                                
Try Dwarf Fothergilla, (Fothergilla gardenii), in your                          
rhododendron bed. Fothergilla is hard to find in the nursery and                
landscape trade. However, this shrub is excellent in combination                
with azaleas and rhododendrons due to its outstanding fall color.               
Fothergilla attains a height  of only two to three feet but is                  
effective in both spring and fall. White blooms, similar in shape               
to a bottle brush, cover this plant in early May before the                     
leaves emerge. The leathery leaves remain dark green through                    
summer until fall when they gradually change to yellow, orange,                 
and scarlet providing a spectacular display, especially against                 
an evergreen background.                                                        
                                                                                
Fothergilla requires well drained, acid soil and may be grown in                
full sun or partial shade. It is also disease and insect free,                  
making it worthy of wide landscape use. This plant works well in                
borders, masses or foundation plantings but again is most often                 
found in combination with azaleas and rhododendron.                             
                                                                                
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I love poppies, what information can you give me about some of                  
the different members of this family?                                           
                                                                                
Gardeners who love the silken flowers that characterize all the                 
members of the poppy family (Papaveraceae) will find a great                    
variety obtainable today. Poppies are invaluable for bringing                   
bright color to the garden in early summer. Poppies are a diverse               
group of flowers with annuals, biennials and perennials in their                
ranks.                                                                          
                                                                                
Flanders poppy (Papaver Rhoeas), derived from the wild poppy of                 
Flanders fields, and Shirley poppies, a strain of the same                      
species,  are annuals which can be sown as the last snows melt,                 
for bloom in June and July. For long lasting bloom, the annual                  
California poppy (Eschscholzia californica) has single and double               
flowers in gold, orange, red or violet from June to October.                    
                                                                                
Iceland poppies (Papaver nudicaule) are long blooming,                          
short-lived perennials which are easy to grow. Seed sown in early               
spring will produce flowers from midsummer into fall then from                  
spring to autumn if the old flower heads are removed and not                    
allowed to set seed. Sowings can also be made in summer for bloom               
the next season. Also consider planting the dainty, low-growing                 
P. alpinum. This blooms readily from seed and prefers full sun,                 
poor soil and good drainage.                                                    
                                                                                
Golden-flowered celandine poppy, Stylophorum diphyllum is a fine                
perennial for naturalizing in partial shade and rich soil while                 
the annual prickly poppy, Argemone mexicana is good for the                     
hottest spots. The perennial Oriental poppy P. orientale blooms                 
for only a few weeks, but its huge, intense pink to red-orange or               
brick-red flowers make it an outstanding selection.                             
                                                                                
Most poppies self-sow lavishly and the seedpods are best                        
deadheaded to keep plants flowering and to control their spread.                
Some late flowers can be allowed to set seed for next year. The                 
one essential for these plants is perfect drainage.                             
                                                                                
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How are organic fertilizers different from the chemically derived               
types? Are they used differently in the garden?                                 
                                                                                
The word organic applied to fertilizers simply means that the                   
nutrients contained in the product are derived solely from the                  
remains, or a by-product of a once-living organism. Cottonseed                  
meal, blood meal, bone meal, hoof and horn meal, and all manures                
are examples of organic fertilizers. Most of these products                     
packaged as fertilizers will have the fertilizer ratios stated on               
the package labels. Most are high in just one of the three major                
nutrients and low or zero in the other two, although you may find               
some fortified with nitrogen, phosphorus, or potash for a higher                
analysis. Many are low in all three.                                            
                                                                                
Some organic materials, particularly composted manures and                      
sludges are sold as "soil conditioners" and do not have a                       
nutrient guarantee although small amounts of nutrients are                      
present.                                                                        
                                                                                
In general, organic fertilizers release nutrients over a fairly                 
long period. The potential drawback is that they may not release                
enough of their principal nutrient at one time to give the plant                
what it needs for best growth. Because organic fertilizers depend               
on soil organisms to break them down to release nutrients, most                 
of them are effective only when soil is moist and soil temper-                  
ature is warm enough for the soil organisms to be active.                       
                                                                                
Compared to synthetic fertilizer formulations, organic fertil-                  
izers contain relatively low concentrations of actual nutrients,                
but they perform other important functions which the synthetic                  
formulations do not. Some of these functions are: increasing                    
organic content of the soil, improving physical structure of the                
soil, increasing bacterial and fungal activity (particularly the                
mycorrhiza fungus which alone makes other nutrients more avail-                 
able to plants).                                                                
                                                                                
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What does LD50 mean on the pesticide label?                                     
                                                                                
The term LD50 is used to give an indication of the toxicity of                  
pesticides. LD50 stands for lethal dosage necessary to kill 50%                 
of a test population of animals. The LD50 values are measured                   
from zero up. The numbers after the 50 represent the                            
milligrams of the substance per kilogram of body weight necessary               
to kill 50% of the test population. The lower the LD50 value the                
more poisonous a pesticide is. For example, an LD50 of 5 is more                
poisonous than an LD50 of 20 because only 5 milligrams per                      
kilogram of body weight are necessary to kill 50% of the test                   
population.                                                                     
                                                                                
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What causes rutabagas to develop a strong flavor?                               
                                                                                
Rutabaga roots develop a strong flavor and become tough during                  
the hot, dry days of mid-summer. This is especially true when                   
rutabagas grow on soils that do not hold water well and are low                 
in nitrogen and potassium. Rutabagas need cool, moist conditions,               
ample space, and high balanced soil fertility for continuous                    
uniform growth and high quality.                                                
                                                                                
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During this time of the year many of my vegetable plants look                   
yellow as if something is lacking in the soil. Do I need to                     
fertilizer and what is the best method?                                         
                                                                                
By mid-season nitrogen may become limiting to some crops,                       
particularly if heavy or frequent rains earlier in the season                   
reduce soil nutrients available to plants by leaching. Plants may               
be starved of these nutrients during this time unless some                      
additions are made.                                                             
                                                                                
Sidedressing with a nitrogen fertilizer, or a complete fertilizer               
high in nitrogen is a beneficial practice for many plants.                      
Materials such as ammonium nitrate, urea, or ammonium sulfate                   
contain high levels of nitrogen and may be used for sidedressing.               
                                                                                
Ammonium nitrate may be used for sidedressing at about one-half                 
pound per 100 feet of row or 100 square feet of garden area.                    
Ammonium sulfate may be used at about 1 pound per 100 feet of                   
row. A garden fertilizer such as 10-10-10, requires about two                   
pounds per 100 feet of row.                                                     
                                                                                
Sidedressings are applied in bands or shallow trenches along each               
side of the row and about three to four inches from the row.                    
Although sidedressing may be done on only one side of a row, a                  
split application on each side of the row is less likely to burn                
roots and often gives better response.                                          
                                                                                
While sidedressings are applied to the soil surface, these                      
soluble forms of nitrogen move easily into the root zone after                  
watering or rainfall.                                                           
                                                                                
For more information ask for extension publication 426-323,                     
"Fertilizing Your Garden."                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December Notes                                                                  
                                                                                
* Minimizing traffic on the frozen lawn will reduce winter                      
damage.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Turn your houseplants frequently to insure uniform light                      
distribution and straighter growth. Avoid putting them on the                   
television, near the heater vents or other sources of heat. Don't               
overwater; growth has slowed significantly for the winter so less               
water and fertilizer is required.                                               
                                                                                
* Once the ground freezes in your area, mulch your perennial                    
flowers and small fruit plants to prevent winter heaving.                       
                                                                                
* Check any fruits and vegetables, or corms and tubers that you                 
have in storage. Sort out any that show signs of disease and                    
dispose of them.                                                                
                                                                                
* Start reviewing and expanding your garden notes to help with                  
next year's plans.                                                              
                                                                                
* Plan a visit to a public garden or nursery where you can                      
observe trees and shrubs in their winter phase. Some have quite                 
lovely shapes and colors that could be an asset to your land-                   
scape.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Assess the energy efficiency of your landscape. Do you have                   
evergreen trees or shrubs blocking a window where the sun's                     
warmth would be welcome? Consider replacing them with a deciduous               
plant that would let sun in in the winter but cast cooling shade                
in the summer.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Prepare gifts from your garden. Wreaths or swags from pruning                 
your evergreen will be welcome holiday decorations anywhere. If                 
you have seed from a treasured variety that you know comes back                 
the same year after year, share some with an equally treasured                  
friend. Write I.O.U.'s for perennials that you will be dividing                 
in the spring so the recipient can plan ahead for the best                      
location.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Handbook on Culinary Herbs, a complete concise manual of herbs                
for cooking, is available from the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens, 1000               
Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11225 for $2.25 plus .80 postage                
and handling. They have an extensive list of handbooks on a                     
variety of horticultural topics. Write them for a complete list.                
                                                                                
* Give a friend a subscription to The Virginia Gardener--an                     
inexpensive way to say "Good Gardening" all year long.                          
                                                                                
* Dust your foliage plants or give them an occasional shower.                   
They'll get more light and grow better without a coating of dust.               
                                                                                
* Don't forget to use some of those vegetables still out in your                
garden--carrots, turnip greens, kale, or other hardy one.                       
                                                                                
* For easy "country candle sticks" cut an assortment of 5 to 7                  
small logs (approximately 2-3 inches in diameter) into lengths                  
from 3 to 6 inches. Drill holes in the log tops the diameter of                 
the candles you plan to use. A collection of these surrounded                   
with pine cones and nuts make an attractive centerpiece for                     
the holidays.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Use hair spray to keep seed heads and dried flowers intact.                   
                                                                                
* Although most people postpone this chore to late winter, grape                
vines can be pruned between Thanksgiving and the end of Decem-                  
ber. Use the long vines to make wreaths, baskets, and other                     
country decorations.                                                            
                                                                                
* Pots of narcissus started indoors now will still bring fra-                   
grance of spring before their outside cousins bloom.                            
                                                                                
* Use branches from discarded Christmas trees to mulch beds of                  
bulbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Both live and cut Christmas trees need water while they are                   
inside. Keep live trees indoors for a minimum of time to keep                   
them healthy.                                                                   
                                                                                
* When cutting holly and boxwood for Christmas decorations, use                 
care to prevent harm to your plants. Distribute pruning over                    
entire plant. Limit cutting to mild shaping and thinning.                       
                                                                                
* Use a combination of red and green sweet peppers frozen from                  
last summer's garden to give holiday food a seasonal flair.                     
                                                                                
* The Avant Gardener (P.O. Box 485, New York, NY 10028) gives                   
three useful resource lists for gardeners interested in growing                 
and conserving wildflowers. These are "Nursery Sources for Native               
Plants" and "Botanical Clubs and Native Plant Societies", $2 each               
from the New England Wildflower Society (Hemenway Road, Framing-                
ham, MA 01701), and the new edition of "Sources of Native Seeds                 
and Plants", $2.50 from the Soil Conservation Society of America                
(7515 Ankeny Road, Ankeny, IA 50021)--the last also includes                    
trees and shrubs.                                                               
                                                                                
* Mice chew off the bark of fruit trees at ground level or below                
and often completely girdle a tree causing it to die. To reduce                 
this damage, keep mulch pulled away from the base of the tree and               
examine it frequently for the presence of mice.                                 
                                                                                
* To prevent rabbit damage, roll or bend a strip of 1/4" galvan-                
ized screen (approximately 14" x 18") around the trunk of the                   
tree so that the long side is up and down the trunk and the edges               
overlap. Twist a small wire loosely about the center to prevent                 
the strip from unrolling. Push the lower edges well into the                    
ground. This metal guard will last indefinitely and can be left                 
in place all year.list.                                                         
                                                                                
* Before the snow sticks, do filling and grading around the                     
yard. The loose soil will settle during the cold months.                        
                                                                                
* Fresh nuts of hickory, butternut, and black walnut germinate                  
quite readily if planted outdoors approximately 1" deep. The                    
alternating freezing and thawing splits their hard shells and                   
allows the root to emerge. A small wire cage placed over the nut                
will mark planting spots and keep the squirrels from excavating                 
the seeds.                                                                      
                                                                                
* The more tender plants in rock gardens will benefit from a                    
light covering of evergreen boughs or oak branches retaining                    
their leaves. The purpose of this covering is to lessen dessica-                
tion by wind. Care must be taken not to smother the plants. You                 
should be able to see the plants through the branches.                          
                                                                                
* Early winter is a good time to collect more stones for expand-                
ing the rock garden in spring. The rocks are more visible and the               
solid ground makes a good base on which to haul stone.                          
                                                                                
* Peat moss absorbs moisture very slowly. When it is used in                    
potting soil mixes, break clods apart and moisten the material                  
slightly before incorporating it into the mixture. Ideally,                     
prepare potting soil the day before you use it so the moisture                  
equalizes throughout the mixture.                                               
                                                                                
* Chicory is an easy winter salad plant to force. Plant roots in                
a box and place in a warm, dark place such as your cellar.                      
Keep the soil moderately moist. The shoots will be ready for                    
cutting in 3-5 weeks. Rhubarb roots also respond to this treat-                 
ment.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Check dahlia tubers and gladiolus corms in storage. If they are               
sprouting, place them in a cooler spot. If they show signs of                   
shriveling, rewrap them in ventilated plastic bags. Moldy or                    
damaged roots must be removed and destroyed. Molding indicates                  
over moist conditions. Move healthy bulbs to a location with                    
better ventilation and set in dry peat moss.                                    
                                                                                
* Erect snow deflectors over shrubs under the dripline of houses                
and other buildings to protect them against avalanches off the                  
roof.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Take a few minutes to decorate your home with materials from                  
your yard. Evergreen trees such as pines, junipers, cedar and                   
arborvitae tolerate selective pruning and their fragrance adds a                
holiday touch. Among the broadleaf evergreens, cut holly, laurel,               
and boxwood sprigs.                                                             
                                                                                
* Be unconventional -- offer perennial divisons, seedlings, and                 
shrub volunteers as gifts to your gardening friends.                            
                                                                                
* Ask Santa for a special plant or garden tool for yourself.                    
Begin a collection of your favorite perennials and request a new                
plant every year. If you garden indoors, start a collection of                  
succulents which can be added to yearly.                                        
                                                                                
* For hours of windowside enjoyment, trim a tree for the birds.                 
Tie on dried fruit, suet, and peanut butter covered pine cones                  
rolled in bird seed.                                                            
                                                                                
* On very cold nights, cover cold frames in which semi-hardy                    
plants are being overwintered. Use old carpet scraps, burlap bags               
stuffed with leaves, bales of hay or soil.                                      
                                                                                
* Where snow drifts, plan to plant a windbreak next spring. Ex-                 
periment with a movable barrier to decide the best angle and                    
position for the planting.                                                      
                                                                                
* Keep several jars of sprouts going to keep your family in fresh               
greens all winter long.                                                         
                                                                                
* Move gift plants with caution. Plants shocked by the cold may                 
drop their leaves in a few days and no longer be such a lovely                  
gift. Wrap each plant in ten or more layers of newspaper. If it                 
is freezing outside, warm up the car before loading the plants.                 
                                                                                
* You still have time to make herb vinegars from chives, shallot-               
s, garlic, or any windowsill herbs for the holidays. Use approxi-               
mately 4 oz. of fresh herbs to one quart of wine vinegar. Allow                 
the herbs to infuse for at least two weeks.                                     
                                                                                
* The aim of tree wrapping is to keep the trunk from heating                    
unevenly on bright, sunny winter days. The bark tends to split as               
it cools rapidly after the winter sun has warmed the south and                  
west sides. Use commercially available tree wraps or put up                     
canvas or burlap screens to shade young fruit trees. Even a plank               
leaned up against the south side of the trunk will help. Painting               
trunks with white latex paint is a technique used in orchards                   
which achieves the same purpose. Consider this practice if you                  
have many young tender-barked trees.                                            
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December Press Releases                                                         
                                                                                
Cranberries                               51 lines                              
Caring for Live Christmas Trees           47 lines                              
Minigreenhouse Project for Children       36 lines                              
Decorating with Houseplants               50 lines                              
Gift Plants Continue Giving               54 lines                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
CRANBERRIES                                                                     
                                                                                
     The cranberry is a traditional part of our menu and decora-                
tions during the Christmas holiday season. It is native to the                  
northeastern United States, and its commercial production is                    
confined primarily to this country. Practically the entire crop                 
is consumed in the U.S. with very small quantities being ex-                    
ported.                                                                         
     Cranberry production is a very specialized business. The                   
plants grow only in acid bogs or swampy areas, which are of no                  
value for other agricultural use. Almost half of the worlds'                    
supply is grown in Massachusetts. A few scattered fields are                    
found in Virginia, but there are no really important commercial                 
plantings in the state.                                                         
     Cranberries are not cultivated as are most horticultural                   
crops. They are grown as a solid mass of trailing evergreen                     
vines in a low flat bog, criss-crossed with drainage ditches. The               
thick mass of plants suppresses the growth of weeds.                            
     Although the cranberry is native to the cold northern                      
states, they are not extremely hardy. In their natural locations                
in bogs, the plants are usually covered by water during the                     
winter, which protects them from the cold. The commercial grower                
secures the same result by flooding his planting from November                  
until March.                                                                    
     Another reason why cranberries grow in wet swampy locations                
is that the plants have no root hairs for water intake. The                     
plants absorb water directly through the epidermis or outer layer               
of cells on the root.                                                           
     With such unusual production requirements, you can under-                  
stand why cranberries are not suggested as a crop for home                      
gardeners. In some localities you may be able to pick native                    
berries, but the best way to secure fine flavored fruit is from                 
your local food market.                                                         
     A unique aspect of cranberry production is the grading of                  
the crop. Whereas we handle most fruits with care to avoid                      
bruising, cranberries are deliberately dropped on a hard board                  
to separate the good from the bad berries. When the berries are                 
at their ideal stage of ripeness, they are firm and resilient.                  
The fruit is poured in a thin stream onto a sloping board. The                  
high quality berries bounce over a partition into a container.                  
The green and soft berries do not bounce, but roll down into a                  
bin for low grade fruit and are discarded.                                      
     The delicious unusual flavor of cranberries adds real zip to               
holiday meals. You may start with cranberry juice, cocktail, or                 
salad. Use cranberry sauce, jelly, or relish as a complement for                
meat, fish, or fowl. And close the meal with cranberry pie,                     
pudding, tarts, or cobbler.                                                     
     Cranberries are not only delicious, they are good for you.                 
They contain beneficial levels of vitamin A, ascorbic acid, and                 
thiamine. They also have an energy value of 26 calories per 100                 
grams.                                                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
CARING FOR LIVE CHRISTMAS TREES                                                 
                                                                                
     Many Virginians continue enjoying their Christmas trees                    
long after the holiday season has passed. These persons opt to                  
buy live trees offered by the many garden centers around the                    
state.                                                                          
     If you are planning to buy a live tree for planting after                  
the season, there are certain things that you should remember.                  
Decide ahead of time where the tree will be planted and dig                     
the hole before the ground freezes. (If you live in the moun-                   
tains, this should be done immediately.)  Remember to make the                  
hole larger than the root ball of the tree. A hole two to three                 
feet wide and two to three feet deep should be sufficient for                   
most trees.                                                                     
     Fill the hole with leaves and cover it with plastic. Make                  
certain that the plastic is mounded over the leaves so that rain                
water will not puddle and pull it down. Secure the plastic                      
edges with stakes, stones, or soil and place a board on top to                  
prevent someone from tumbling into the hole.                                    
     The act of moving a live tree from the cold into a warm,                   
dry house is a shock to the tree's system; do it gradually,                     
if possible. Keep the tree indoors for as short a period as                     
necessary, several days rather than several weeks, to prevent                   
the tree from drying out.                                                       
     Water the root ball to keep the roots moist while the tree                 
is indoors. Wrapping the root ball in plastic prevents water                    
from ruining the floor and helps preserve the moisture. But take                
care not to let roots sit in a puddle of water.                                 
     When planting the tree after Christmas, remove the protect-                
ive plastic from around the root ball. Uncover the hole, and                    
remove the leaves. Burlap should be loosened from around the                    
trunk but you do not need to remove it from the roots. You                      
should however make sure that no burlap will be exposed to the                  
air after filling in the hole as it will wick water away from                   
the roots. If the root ball has been wrapped with plastic or                    
vinyl, remove this covering before planting as it will not                      
decompose but will restrict the roots.                                          
     Set the tree so that it will grow at the same level at                     
which it was growing before being removed. Add soil to fill in                  
the hole, firming it with your feet. Soak with several buckets                  
of water. Mound the leaves around the base to prevent the deep                  
freezing of the soil and the drying of the roots. You may find                  
it necessary to thin the twigs and foliage because of the dense                 
outer growth that was created by the shearing.                                  
     If you are thinking of moving one of your own live trees,                  
remember it should be dug with an intact root ball and tightly                  
wrapped in burlap in the fall before the ground freezes.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
MINIGREENHOUSE PROJECT FOR YOUNGSTERS                                           
                                                                                
     As the weather grows colder, youngsters need indoor projects               
to occupy the evenings. Watching their own plants start to grow                 
in a mini-greenhouse can be a good project for youngsters to see                
the development of living things.                                               
     Here are the instructions for a mini-greenhouse. The                       
materials needed are a half-gallon milk carton, a coat hanger,                  
clear plastic or a plastic bag, wire cutters, masking tape, and                 
a few plant cuttings or seeds.                                                  
     First, clean a half-gallon milk carton. Lay it on its side                 
so that the opened spout is up. Cut off the side with the spout                 
to form an open box, and punch holes for drainage along the                     
bottom.                                                                         
     With wire cutters, cut coat hanger wire and bend it so that                
it makes an arch. Fit the two wires into the box - one on each                  
end so they form arches to support the plastic roof. Tape the                   
wires into the corners of the box so they will stand up.                        
     Fill the greenhouse directly with potting soil mix or use                  
peat pots filled with potting soil inside of it. Peat pots,                     
which can be purchased at garden supply stores, make trans-                     
planting easier for the person who is planning to plant the                     
seedlings into another container.                                               
     Once the greenhouse is filled, take the piece of clear                     
plastic or the plastic bag and drape it over the entire box and                 
wires. The wires will hold the plastic up over the box and the                  
plants as they grow. Tuck the ends of the plastic under the                     
box. If you are using a plastic bag, just put the greenhouse                    
into the bag and tie the end.                                                   
     A youngster could use the mini-greenhouse to start plants                  
to use as Christmas gifts. Try using seeds from grapefruits or                  
oranges to start plants for gifts. Or, get cuttings from indoor                 
plants such as ivy or coleus to give. If the mini-greenhouse                    
can be placed in a very sunny window, the young gardener might                  
even be able to use leftover marigold or zinnia seeds and grow                  
enough to create a pot full of flowers to give at Christmas.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
DECORATING WITH HOUSEPLANTS                                                     
                                                                                
     Many genuine plant lovers find the idea of decorating with                 
houseplants distressing since decorating, by definition, means                  
that the plants must be attractive and arranged artfully. The                   
hobbiest's clutter must be eliminated and the near-dead plants                  
removed.                                                                        
     Once people begin to see plants as assets, rather than                     
simply acquisitions, plants actually become fun and rewarding to                
have around. In fact, there are many different ways in which                    
plants can enhance your home.                                                   
     Plants may be used as an architectural or structural                       
element in a room. For example, several large plants can serve                  
as a room divider or a group of hanging baskets can act as                      
curtains in providing privacy at a window.                                      
     Plants also may serve as a form of art. Large plants with                  
distinct or unusual shapes can be displayed in the same way as                  
sculpture. Specimens of candelabra or pencil cacti are particu-                 
larly striking.                                                                 
     Caution must be exercised in selecting plants to complement                
the style of the home and furniture. Putting a cactus into a                    
French provincial living room would be counterproductive. The                   
same plant, however, would be a focal point in a Spanish,                       
Mediterranean, or modern setting.                                               
     An organized arrangement of small plants in a window or on                 
lighted shelves can serve the same function as a painting,                      
enhancing a color scheme and bringing pleasure to the viewer.                   
     Plants can add warmth and coziness to a room by softening                  
the effect of the interior architecture's straight lines. By                    
breaking up larger wall spaces and casting interesting shadows,                 
they can diminish the size of a room and make it more comfortable               
and personal. This effect can be enhanced by using lights on                    
the floor to increase wall or ceiling shadows. Ferns, ficus                     
benjamina, scheffleras, and other finer foliaged plants are                     
particularly useful to those who want to create this feeling of                 
intimacy.                                                                       
     Regardless of the decorating purpose to which you plan to                  
put your plants, there are certain guidelines to remember. Select               
plants that can do the intended job in the environmental condi-                 
tions provided. (Remember that no plant does well for long                      
in the dark.) If the plant doesn't do the job or begins to look                 
bad in a certain location, move it. You would never leave an                    
uncomfortable chair in front of the television. In a similar                    
manner, never leave your plants out of place.                                   
     Become familiar with your plants and give them what they                   
need. Different soils, various types and sizes of containers,                   
temperature, air flow and the amount of sunlight will influence                 
how much water a plant needs. Forget the idea that you can water                
all of your plants every Saturday morning and have them do well.                
Adjust your watering regimen to the individual plant's needs.                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
GIFT PLANTS CONTINUE GIVING                                                     
                                                                                
     Many of you received plants as gifts this season. To                       
assure that the plants will continue to bring you enjoyment, you                
should take certain protective steps.                                           
     Most plants need bright light, but do not place them                       
directly in the sun. Avoid putting potted plants in dry, over-                  
heated rooms. Most plants prefer temperatures between 60 and 70                 
degrees F. Remember to keep plants in locations that are free of                
drafts and where sudden temperature changes are not likely to                   
occur. Be especially careful of plants kept on window sills                     
where temperatures fluctuate widely between daytime and night.                  
     Before watering, stick a finger an inch into the soil. If                  
the soil is almost dry, water the plant remembering to keep the                 
soil moist but not wet. The water should be at or near room                     
temperature when used. The humidity around a plant can be raised                
by setting the pots on trays or pans of gravel and water.                       
     Plant foods are beneficial, but remember that a little                     
fertilizer can go a long way. Many gift plants may not need to be               
fertilized until spring.                                                        
     The special plants of the holiday season - the Christmas                   
cactus, the kalanchoe, and the poinsettia - need special care.                  
The Christmas cactus produces red flowers around Christmas                      
if given proper temperature and light conditions. It requires                   
12 or more hours of uninterrupted darkness and cool temperatures                
for several weeks before the desired bloom date. Although a                     
cactus, it will not tolerate extended dry periods, especially in                
the summer. The Christmas cactus prefers bright light but                       
should not be placed directly in the sun.                                       
     The kalanchoe is a succulent plant with bright orange or                   
red flowers. It should receive the full sun or very bright                      
light and should be watered when the soil is almost dry. The                    
kalanchoe will bloom most readily when it receives the same                     
long-night treatment that you give to the Christmas cactus.                     
     The poinsettia, a native of Mexico, has showy bracts of                    
red, pink, or white. The true flower is the small yellow one in                 
the middle of the bracts. To care for the poinsettia, remember                  
to keep temperatures between 65 and 75 degrees F and the humidity               
at more than 30 percent.                                                        
     If you would like the plant to survive to next year, you                   
should take certain steps. After the bracts and leaves have                     
dropped, start drying the plant by keeping it in a cool (50                     
degree F), dry, light place until May. Water just enough to keep                
stems and roots from becoming too dry.                                          
     In May, prune the stems to about six inches and start                      
watering and fertilizing. Place outdoors in June. Keep the                      
tips pinched off until early September when you bring the plant                 
inside and place it in a sunny window.                                          
     As the poinsettia is a short day plant, be sure it gets no                 
light from sundown to sunup as even a short period of light may                 
prevent it from flowering. The poinsettia requires 14 hours of                  
complete darkness daily from earle October until color shows,                   
which usually is around Thanksgiving. The plant then can be kept                
in the room and enjoyed as part of the holiday decorations.                     
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December 1985 Question Box                                                      
                                                                                
Flowering plants - Cyclamen, caleolaria, cineraria   37 lines                   
Apple trees from seed                                28 lines                   
Rhododendrons - Fall bloom                           26 lines                   
Why hollies fail to bear                             25 lines                   
Hoya - Inducing flowers                              19 lines                   
Creeping groundcovers                                31 lines                   
Amaryllis                                            17 lines                   
Staghorn fern                                        23 lines                   
Growing vegetables indoors                           48 lines                   
Turf damage by skunks                                25 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I would like a flowering plant for a cool room in my house. Any                 
suggestions?                                                                    
                                                                                
Cyclamen, calceolaria, and cineraria flowers offer a wide range                 
of color during the winter in a cool room. All of these plants                  
like night temperatures from 65 degrees F down to 50 degrees and                
plenty of light.                                                                
                                                                                
Although it is not related to violet, cyclamen is commonly called               
Swiss, Alpine or Persian violet. The flowers may be white with a                
red-violet or purple center or they may be pink, salmon, red, or                
lavender. The unusual flowers consist of oval petals, which are                 
swept back from the center. In some varieties, the petals are                   
fringed. Cyclamen requires frequent light waterings. Be sure that               
the water does not stand on the exposed cormlike structure for                  
this will cause it to rot. When flowering stops, allow the leaves               
to continue to grow until they yellow. Then let the soil dry out                
and once the ground has warmed bury the pot outdoors for the                    
summer. Be sure to bring cyclamen in before the first frost. Once               
indoors, water and feed to generate new growth.                                 
                                                                                
Pocket plant or slipperwort, some common names of calceolaria,                  
refer to it's pouch-shaped flowers. The flowers come in a range                 
of warm colors: yellow, orange, bronze, red, and rose. Some                     
flowers have splotches of one color on a background of another                  
color, such as bronze on yellow. Take care in watering calceo-                  
laria because water will spot the flowers.                                      
                                                                                
Cineraria's daisy-like flowers form a canopy over the foliage in                
a range of colors from white with a dark center to pink, scarlet,               
red, crimson, sky blue or purple. Both cinerarias and calce-                    
olarias benefit from "double potting" in which a small pot                      
is placed inside a larger one. The gap between the pots is filled               
with soil or sphagnum moss which is kept wet so that the inner                  
pot stays moist. Although they are perennials, cinerarias and                   
calceolarias will grow and bloom better if started anew each                    
year. Whether you chose one, two, or all three, purchase a plant                
in bloom so that you can see the color of the flowers.                          
                                                                                
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Can I start apples from seeds?                                                  
                                                                                
The likelihood of growing a tree which bears quality fruit from a               
seed extracted from an apple is extremely slim as the varieties                 
of apples we enjoy eating result from genetic crossing or                       
selected mutations called sports. The seeds produced from these                 
cultivars do not produce trees or bear fruit which resemble their               
parents.                                                                        
                                                                                
The primary use of seed-grown apple trees is for root stocks for                
grafting known varieties of apples. However if you would like to                
experiment, now is a good time to begin the cold treatment                      
required for apple seeds to germinate in spring.                                
                                                                                
Stratification is the name given to cold storage of seeds to                    
enhance germination. In fact, some seeds will not germinate at                  
all until they receive cold temperatures for a specific amount                  
of time. Apple seeds must be held for 60 to 90 days at 35 to                    
45 degrees F in order for the seeds to germinate. Some nurseries                
plant seeds in the fall so that they naturally receive their                    
chilling requirement. If your soil is not frozen, plant seeds                   
outdoors in shallow (1/2 inch) depressions. In the spring, you                  
will need to break the soil crust over these seeds to allow the                 
seedlings to grow straight. Alternatively, you can stratify                     
seeds in the coldest part of your refrigerator until you are                    
ready for spring planting.                                                      
                                                                                
Apple seedlings that do not grow to a satisfactory  size in one                 
year should be removed. Trees grown from seeds tend to be quite                 
large. Plan accordingly in your landscape.                                      
                                                                                
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Why did my azaleas and rhododendrons bloom last month?  Will they               
bloom again in spring?                                                          
                                                                                
Extended dry periods like the one we experienced this summer will               
cause rhododendrons to go dormant. When the hurricanes affected                 
our weather last month, the deluge of rain caused the rhododen-                 
dron buds to break dormancy and bloom. The bloom last month                     
probably was not a full bloom; that is, the whole flower cluster                
did not open as it does in the spring. Unfortunately, buds that                 
did not open in those clusters will probably be killed this                     
winter because they may not be prepared for cold weather.                       
                                                                                
Because flower buds are initiated in early summer, those florets                
which opened this fall will not bloom again this spring. Thus                   
bloom was sparse this fall and will be sparse in the spring.                    
Unfortunately, there is nothing you can do to prevent this                      
since it is a weather-related problem.                                          
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
I looked forward to decorating my home with boughs from my holly                
tree. But it has no berries on it. What could be wrong?                         
                                                                                
There are a number of reasons why hollies fail to produce                       
berries. Hollies are dioecious. That is, the plants have male and               
female flowers on different plants. The berries are produced only               
from the female flowers and it is necessary to have a male plant                
nearby to provide pollination. The female of most varieties will                
flower but will not set fruit if they are not pollinated.                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Bees are the principal pollinators of holly, thus these insects                 
must be present when the flowers open if an abundant crop of                    
berries is to be produced. If insecticides toxic to bees, such as               
those containing carbaryl, were used during flowering, bees in                  
the area may have been killed before pollination consequently no                
fruit set.                                                                      
                                                                                
Late freezes or frost may kill flower buds or flowers of holly                  
before they are pollinated. This often occurs in Chinese hollies                
since they are usually early flowering. The flower buds, which                  
develop late in the summer, may be killed by cold snaps in spring               
thus eliminating the possibility of a berry crop the next summer.               
                                                                                
Hollies occasionally shed their berries in extremely dry periods,               
especially in early summer. Also, about 8 years is required for                 
the plants to become old enough to produce berries.                             
                                                                                
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My neighbor gave me a Hoya cutting. Hers is blooming like mad                   
while mine has never produced a flower. How can I get mine to                   
bloom?                                                                          
                                                                                
Hoya carnosa, or wax plant, produces clusters of waxy-looking                   
pale pink or white flowers however it is rather picky in its                    
bloom requirements. First, the plants are slow to flower often                  
taking 3-4 years to do so. They will  bloom alittle sooner if                   
potbound. Second, they must also have full sun in order to bloom.               
Even if potbound, the hoya won't bloom if grown in shade.                       
                                                                                
Hoya requires fertilization spring through fall, but reduced food               
and water during the winter. The plant needs a winter rest in                   
order to bloom. Avoid high nitrogen fertilizer when the plant                   
should be forming flower buds in late winter. If your plant still               
won't bloom, try shocking it by changing the amount of light and                
water it receives or by slightly raising or lowering the tempera-               
ture, but don't let the plant get chilled. To keep hoya blooming,               
don't pinch off old flower spurs because new flowers grow out of                
these points.                                                                   
                                                                                
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I'm interested in a creeping vine for a naturalized area. I've                  
heard crownvetch described as the "miracle groundcover."  Would                 
this be a good choice?                                                          
                                                                                
Coronilla varia is a hardy perennial which produces a luxuriant                 
mat of foliage and bears pink flowers throughout much of the                    
season. It spreads rapidly by underground stems and may be too                  
vigorous for most gardens. In order to get rid of the plant,                    
all parts must be dug out and herbicides may have to be used. In                
fact, because of its extreme vigor, I would advise against its                  
intended use except in the most out of the way places.                          
                                                                                
While not strictly vines, the following are suggested under-                    
stories that offer flower interest. For sun to partial shade,                   
Hypericum calycinum, or Potentilla x Tonguei are good choices.                  
Hypericum is a semi-evergreen shrub that will grow 12 to 18" high               
with prostrate branches spreading 18 to 24". It is fast growing                 
and spreads from underground runners. Bright yellow flowers cover               
the plant from June to September. For a shorter plant, try                      
potentilla. It only reaches a height of 3" and has a spread of                  
18". Potentilla is covered with crimsoncentered yellow flowers                  
from June until frost. Both plants work well in informal areas.                 
                                                                                
For a shady location, it would be better to plant either Lamium                 
maculatum 'Beacon Silver' or Vinca minor, periwinkle. Lamium's                  
silvery leaves edged in green can brighten a dark spot. Small                   
clusters of pink flowers offer a secondary interest in the spring               
and may sporadically appear again in the fall. Vinca forms an                   
evergreen groundcover 3-6" high and roots along the stem. A                     
multitude of lilac-blue flowers open March through April or May                 
and will appear sporadically throughout the season.                             
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
I have received a beautiful potted Amaryllis. I know these bulbs                
can be stored to use again next year. How do I do this?                         
                                                                                
After-bloom care is necessary for next season's flowers on                      
Amaryllis. In general, at least four strong leaves are needed for               
each flower stalk. As flowers fade remove the spent blooms                      
including the seed pod, but leave the stem to wither on its own.                
Locate the plant in a room which is 70 degrees F by day and 60                  
degrees F at night. Keep the bulb well-watered and fertilized                   
with a houseplant fertilizer, such as 5-10-10, weekly until early               
July. Then stop fertilizer application and taper off watering                   
gradually throughout the month. Once the foliage is dry, trim it                
off and store the pots in a dark location until next November                   
when they can be watered and forced into bloom for the holidays.                
                                                                                
Every two or three years, it is best to repot Amaryllis bulbs in                
fresh media and increase the pot size if necessary. If offsets                  
are present, you may pot them individually. Immature bulbs                      
generally require 2-3 years to reach blooming size.                             
                                                                                
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I've had a staghorn fern for several years. At first it grew                    
pretty well, but recently has begun to decline. What is wrong?                  
                                                                                
In the wild, staghorn ferns grow epiphytically, that is, living                 
on the surface of another plant, in the crotches of tree tops.                  
The ferns have two types of fronds: shield fronds and fertile                   
fronds. The shield or basal frond is sterile. It clasps the tree                
bark to anchor the fern and may form a cup in order to catch                    
debris, water, and nutrients. The fertile fronds are the most                   
visible and resemble deer antlers, thus the plants' name.                       
The staghorn fern may be grown in a pot or anchored on a wooden                 
slab like a hunting trophy. If grown in a pot, provide ample                    
humus and keep the cup formed by basal fronds moist. Immerse                    
roots for ten minutes in likewarm water once or twice a week                    
if plant is mounted on a slab of wood. Give staghorn ferns a                    
bright spot out of the sun with cool night temperatures.                        
                                                                                
If the green fronds continually die back, the fern is probably                  
receiving too much heat or hot drafts. If the green fronds dry                  
out and turn brown, the plant is either getting too much sun or                 
inconsistent watering. Be sure to deep water staghorn ferns, but                
allow to dry out slightly before next watering.                                 
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
Is it possible to grow vegetables indoors during the winter? I do               
not have a greenhouse, but I am especially interested in tomatoes               
and other salad crops which have little flavor when bought at the               
grocery.                                                                        
                                                                                
A sunny south-facing window is almost a must for indoor vegetable               
growing. Fruiting vegetables such as tomatoes and peppers will                  
also need supplemental light, such as a combination  warm                       
white/cool white fluorescent fixture. Insufficient light will                   
result in tall, spindly plants and failure to flower and set                    
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
The small-fruited varieties of tomatoes such as Tiny Tim, Small                 
Fry and the paste tomato, Roma, may be raised quite satisfactori-               
ly in the home. They will challenge your gardening ability, and                 
supply fruits which can be eaten whole, cooked, or served with                  
salad. The Tiny Tim tomato grows to a height of about 12-15".                   
Small Fry, which is about three feet tall, and Roma will need                   
more space and should be located on a enclosed porch or in a sun                
room. Several new varieties have been developed for hanging                     
baskets. Check catalogs for greenhouse cultivars.                               
                                                                                
Some of the small-fruited peppers may be grown as house plants.                 
Like tomatoes, they prefer warm, bright conditions in order to                  
grow well. If temperatures are kept between 60 and 85 degrees F                 
and light is sufficient, tomatoes and peppers will be ready to                  
harvest about ten to twelve weeks after transplanting. Seed-grown               
plants will take an additional six to eight weeks to bear fruit.                
                                                                                
For a quick-growing crop, try radishes. These must be grown very                
rapidly if they are to be crisp and succulent. Scatter radish                   
seeds on moist soil in a six or eight-inch pot. Cover with 1/4                  
inch of soil and place a piece of glass or plastic wrap over the                
pot to conserve moisture until the seeds germinate. Thin to about               
1 and 1/2 inches apart after the first true leave appear.                       
                                                                                
Carrots are slower growing, but they can be grown in the same way               
as radishes. Use the small-rooted varieties, such as Little                     
Finger, for best results indoors.                                               
                                                                                
Experiment with various types of lettuce. Leaf lettuce and the                  
miniture Tom Thumb butterhead are some to try. Space them                       
according to package directions. Keep lettuce moist and in a very               
sunny spot.                                                                     
                                                                                
Lettuce, radishes and carrots can be grown where the temperature                
is below that needed for tomatoes and peppers. They will produce                
crops when kept above freezing, quite readily in warm locations                 
and more slowly when cool. Take care not to overwater plants when               
the temperature is low.                                                         
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Holes have been appearing in my yard. They are about three inches               
deep. The lawn company says it is not grubs. There are no mole                  
tunnels. What could this be?                                                    
                                                                                
The damage you describe sounds like the digging damage typically                
caused by skunks. Skunks dig cone-shaped holes 3-4" deep in the                 
ground searching for food. Some sod may be overturned in the                    
process especially where grubs have severed the grass blades                    
from the roots.                                                                 
                                                                                
Skunks do like to eat grubs which is one common reason they dig                 
in turf. However, skunks will eat other animal material which is                
high in protein and rich in calories. Some other insects in the                 
soil may have been their objective. Yellow jacket wasp larvae and               
other insects below the soil will attract them.                                 
                                                                                
The broad range of foods eaten by skunks is similar to that eaten               
by raccoons which occasionally dig at lawns. One way to find out                
which animal you are dealing with is to set several pieces of                   
cardboard covered with flour in areas where the lawn is most                    
disrupted. Animals travelling along the route will leave their                  
footprints. A book on animals tracks will let you to compare your               
visitor's tracks with common woodland animals. (Adapted from a                  
column by John K. Arbogast, Roanoke City Extension Agent)                       
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December Notes                                                                  
                                                                                
* Give a friend a subscription to The Virginia Gardener. It's an                
inexpensive way to say "Good Gardening" all year long. A 1 year                 
subscription is only $5.00. Send orders to The Virginia Gardener,               
Va Tech Extension Distribution Center, 112 Landsdowne Street,                   
Blacksburg, VA 24060. Make check payable to Treasurer, Va Tech.                 
                                                                                
* Minimizing traffic on a frozen lawn will reduce winter damage.                
                                                                                
* Turn your houseplants frequently to insure uniform light                      
distribution and straighter growth. Avoid putting them on the                   
television, near heater vents or other sources of heat. Don't                   
overwater; growth has slowed significantly for the winter so less               
water and fertilizer is required.                                               
                                                                                
* Dust foliage plants or give them an occasional shower. They'll                
get more light and grow better without a coating of dust.                       
                                                                                
* Check any fruits and vegetables, or corms and tubers that you                 
have in storage. Sort out any that show signs of disease and                    
dispose of them.                                                                
                                                                                
* Start reviewing and expanding your garden notes to help with                  
next year's plans.                                                              
                                                                                
* Plan a visit to a public garden or nursery where you can                      
observe trees and shrubs in their winter phase. Some have quite                 
lovely shapes and colors that could be an asset to your land-                   
scape.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Assess the energy efficiency of your landscape. Do you have                   
evergreen trees or shrubs blocking a window where the sun's                     
warmth would be welcome? Consider replacing them with a deciduous               
plant that would let sun in during winter but cast cooling shade                
in summer.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Prepare gifts from your garden. Wreaths or swags from pruning                 
evergreens will be welcome holiday decorations anywhere.  While                 
you're at it, take a few minutes to decorate your home with                     
materials from the yard. Evergreen trees such as pines, junipers,               
cedar and arborvitae tolerate selective pruning and their                       
fragrance adds a holiday touch. Among the broadleaf evergreens,                 
cut holly, laurel, and boxwood sprigs.                                          
                                                                                
* When cutting evergreens for Christmas decorations, use care to                
prevent harming plants. Distribute pruning over the entire                      
plants. Limit cutting to mild shaping and thinning. Do not                      
trim boxwoods when the temperature is below 40 degrees F.                       
                                                                                
* Be unconventional -- offer perennial divisons, seedlings, and                 
shrub volunteers as gifts to your gardening friends. If you have                
seed from a treasured variety that you know comes back the same                 
year after year, share some with an equally treasured friend.                   
Write I.O.U.'s for perennials that you will be dividing in spring               
so the recipient can plan ahead for the best location.                          
                                                                                
* Don't forget to use some of those vegetables still out in your                
garden--carrots, turnip greens, kale, or other hardy ones.                      
                                                                                
* For easy "country candle sticks" cut 5 to 7 small logs (approx-               
imately 2-3 inches in diameter) into lengths from 3 to 6 inches.                
Drill holes in the log tops the diameter of the candles you plan                
to use. A collection of these surrounded with pine cones and nuts               
make an attractive centerpiece for the holidays.                                
                                                                                
* Use hair spray to keep seed heads and dried flowers intact.                   
                                                                                
* Although most people postpone this chore to late winter, grape                
vines can be pruned between Thanksgiving and the end of December.               
Use the long vines to make wreaths, baskets, and other country                  
decorations.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Pots of narcissus started indoors now will still bring the fra-               
grance of spring before their outside cousins bloom.                            
                                                                                
* Use branches from discarded Christmas trees to mulch beds of                  
bulbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Both live and cut Christmas trees need water while they are                   
inside. Keep live trees indoors for a minimum of time to keep                   
them healthy.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Use a combination of red and green sweet peppers frozen from                  
last summer's garden to give holiday food a seasonal flair.                     
                                                                                
* Mice chew off the bark of fruit trees at ground level or below                
and often completely girdle a tree causing it to die. To reduce                 
this damage, keep mulch pulled away from the base of the tree and               
examine it frequently for the presence of mice.                                 
                                                                                
* To prevent rabbit damage, roll or bend a strip of 1/4" galvan-                
ized screen (approximately 14" x 18") around the trunk of the                   
tree so that the long side is up and down the trunk and the edges               
overlap. To keep the strip from unrolling, insert a small wire                  
near the center of the roll and twist the ends closed. Push the                 
lower edges well into the ground. This metal guard will last                    
indefinitely and can be left in place all year.                                 
                                                                                
* Do filling and grading around the yard. The loose soil will                   
settle during the cold months.                                                  
                                                                                
* Fresh nuts of hickory, butternut, and black walnut germinate                  
quite readily if planted outdoors approximately 1" deep. The                    
alternating freezing and thawing splits their hard shells and                   
allows the root to emerge. A small wire cage placed over the nut                
will mark planting spots and keep the squirrels from excavating                 
the seeds.                                                                      
                                                                                
* The more tender plants in rock gardens will benefit from a                    
light covering of evergreen boughs or oak branches retaining                    
their leaves. The purpose of this covering is to lessen dessica-                
tion by wind. Care must be taken not to smother the plants. You                 
should be able to see the plants through the branches.                          
                                                                                
* Early winter is a good time to collect more stones for expand-                
ing the rock garden in spring. The rocks are more visible and the               
solid ground makes a good base on which to haul stone.                          
                                                                                
* Peat moss absorbs moisture very slowly. When it is used in                    
potting soil mixes, break clods apart and moisten the material                  
slightly before incorporating it into the mixture. Ideally,                     
prepare potting soil the day before you use it so the moisture                  
equalizes throughout the mixture.                                               
                                                                                
* Chicory is an easy winter salad plant to force. Plant roots in                
a box and place in a warm, dark place such as your cellar.                      
Keep the soil moderately moist. The shoots will be ready for                    
cutting in 3-5 weeks. Rhubarb roots also respond to this treat-                 
ment.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Check dahlia tubers and gladiolus corms in storage. If they are               
sprouting, place them in a cooler spot. If they show signs of                   
shriveling, rewrap them in ventilated plastic bags. Moldy or                    
damaged roots must be removed and destroyed. Molding indicates                  
over moist conditions. Move healthy bulbs to a location with                    
better ventilation and set in dry peat moss.                                    
                                                                                
* Erect snow deflectors over shrubs under the dripline of houses                
and other buildings to protect them against avalanches off the                  
roof.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Ask Santa for a special plant or garden tool for yourself.                    
Begin a collection of your favorite perennials and request a                    
new plant every year. If you garden indoors, start a collection                 
of succulents which can be added to yearly.                                     
                                                                                
* For hours of windowside enjoyment, trim a tree for the birds.                 
Tie on dried fruit, suet, and peanut butter covered pine cones                  
rolled in bird seed.                                                            
                                                                                
* Ventilate cold frames on sunny days. Do not allow plants to                   
dry out. Remove any infected plants as soon as they are noticed.                
On very cold nights, cover cold frames in which semi-hardy                      
plants are being overwintered. Use old carpet scraps, burlap bags               
stuffed with leaves, or bales of hay.                                           
                                                                                
* Where snow drifts, plan to plant a windbreak next spring. Ex-                 
periment with a movable barrier to decide the best angle and                    
position for the planting.                                                      
                                                                                
* Keep several jars of sprouts going to keep your family in fresh               
greens all winter long.                                                         
                                                                                
* Move gift plants with caution. Plants shocked by the cold may                 
drop their leaves in a few days and no longer be such a lovely                  
gift. Wrap each plant in eight to ten layers of newspaper                       
stapled shut over the foliage. If it is freezing outside, warm up               
the car before loading the plants. Cold temperatures for 'only a                
minute' can be detrimental.                                                     
                                                                                
* You still have time to make herb vinegars from chives, shal-                  
lots, garlic, or any windowsill herbs for the holidays. Use                     
approximately 4 oz. of fresh herbs to one quart of wine vinegar.                
Allow the herbs to infuse for at least two weeks.                               
                                                                                
* The aim of tree wrapping is to keep the trunk from heating                    
unevenly on bright, sunny winter days. Bark tends to split as                   
it cools rapidly after the winter sun has warmed the south and                  
west sides. Use commercially available tree wraps or put up                     
canvas or burlap screens to shade young fruit trees. Even a plank               
leaned up against the south side of the trunk will help. Painting               
trunks with white latex paint is a technique used in orchards                   
which achieves the same purpose. Consider this practice if you                  
have young, tender-barked trees like fruit trees.                               
                                                                                
* It is a good practice to sow seeds of alpine plants early in                  
December in an outdoor coldframe. They will not germinate until                 
spring, so the frame should be kept shaded and ventilated.                      
Ideally, the seeds should remain frozen until March. Seeds may                  
also be sown in flats and placed in some convenient, shaded,                    
outdoor location where they will be stay frozen until spring. A                 
good covering of snow seems to help.                                            
                                                                                
* Place Christmas trees away form fireplaces, radiators, TV sets                
and anything else that could dry the needles. Keep your Christmas               
tree well watered from the time it is brought home until it is                  
discarded.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Melted snow contains minerals and can be used instead of tap                  
water for winter watering of house plants.                                      
                                                                                
* Mulch perennial borders for the winter after the ground first                 
freezes a couple of inches deep. Applying mulch too early                       
increases the chance of harboring destructive field mice which                  
are still on the lookout for comfortable winter quarters.                       
                                                                                
* Keep mistletoe out of the reach of children as the berries are                
poisonous.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Clean and sharpen lawn and garden tools and store them in a                   
dry storage area. A light coating of oil on exposed metal                       
surfaces will prevent rusting.                                                  
                                                                                
* Drain the fuel tank and run the lawn mower or tiller engine                   
dry before putting the machine away for the winter.                             
                                                                                
* Check belts and spark plugs and buy replacements, change the                  
oil, sharpen the blades or tines, and clean off dirt and plant                  
debris so equipment will be ready to go when you need it next                   
spring.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Research at Oregon State University has shown that dipping                    
berried shoots of holly (Ilex aquifolium) in 3 or 4% calcium                    
chloride solution for one minute results in firmer, better-keep-                
ing berries.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Ethylene has been shown to hasten cut flower aging, and can                   
cause premature aging of potted flowers and distortion of                       
foliage. Sources of ethylene include: ripening fruits (such as                  
apples), furnaces, stoves, engines with incomplete combustion, as               
well as smoke from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes.                               
                                                                                
* Write to nurseries to order seed and plant catalogs. A stack                  
of these and a blank check under the Christmas tree would be a                  
nice present from Santa Claus.                                                  
                                                                                
* Thoroughly mulch azaleas, rhododendrons, camellias, and laurel                
after the ground freezes. They prefer acidic materials such as                  
oak leaves and pine needles but any mixed dry leaves will do if                 
these are not available.                                                        
                                                                                
* Remove snow from evergreen shrubs to prevent suffocation and                  
breaking. Tap the branches gently.                                              
                                                                                
* If an ice storm damages your trees, prune the broken branches.                
In most cases the wood fiber will not grow back, and the branch                 
will die.                                                                       
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
PRESS RELEASES DECEMBER 1986                                                    
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Extension               
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture. The Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed               
for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features and                     
other educational programs.                                                     
                                                                                
PERIWINKLE                                      46 lines                        
WHY LEAVES DROP ON INDOOR PLANTS                52 lines                        
CHRISTMAS FERN                                  45 lines                        
WREATHS DON'T HAVE TO STOP WITH THE HOLIDAYS    64 lines                        
TWO MAPLES FOR WINTER LANDSCAPE INTEREST        62 lines                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
PERIWINKLE (Vinca minor)                                                        
                                                                                
Periwinkle also called myrtle and Vinca minor is a very popular,                
evergreen, groundcover. Its dark green color fades a little                     
with the cold, but plants still gives color and textural interest               
in the winter landscape. In early spring, lilac-blue blossoms                   
against shiny leaves will draw attention to the species. Culti-                 
vars with colored flowers ranging from white to dark purple also                
can be found.                                                                   
                                                                                
Periwinkle creates a mat of foliage about 6" high. Plants are                   
usually set in spring at 12 - 18" spacing and surrounded by an                  
organic mulch of wood chips or similar material. Closer planting                
will cover the area more rapidly but the cost of additional                     
plants can be prohibitive.                                                      
                                                                                
Ideally, the site to be planted in a ground cover is prepared by                
digging the soil at least 6" deep and incorporating 2 - 3" of                   
organic matter, such as leaf mold or rotted manure. Work in                     
2 lbs. of 10-10-10 fertilizer per 100 sq. ft. of planting bed.                  
Where the entire area cannot be worked, individual planting holes               
may be dug and backfilled with an amended soil mix after setting                
the plants. Water the plants deeply at planting time and once a                 
week for 4 - 6 weeks. After that rainfall should take care of the               
plants water needs. If weeds are kept in check, in good loose                   
soil periwinkle will fill in quickly covering the ground in two                 
or three years.                                                                 
                                                                                
Periwinkle does not climb on walls or plants making it useful                   
next to buildings or under shrubs. When used to edge a sidewalk,                
it seems to enhances the shape of the walk and the color of most                
paving. Plants can be cut to make a clean looking edge around a                 
bed or border, but in most landscapes they are trimmed infre-                   
quently for a less formal look. Slopes can be planted with                      
different colored cultivars to create interesting contrast. Tall                
bulbs such as daffodils may be interplanted to give additional                  
spring color.                                                                   
                                                                                
Periwinkle can grown in either sun or shade but its appearance                  
is somewhat better in the shade. In Zone 8, plants benefit when                 
they are located where they receive some shade during winter.                   
                                                                                
Gardeners may clip a few sprigs of periwinkle for indoor greenery               
from time to time. For color in window boxes at a time when                     
they are usually barren, plant some vinca in autumn. Its trail-                 
ing, green shoots enliven the space and can be augmented with                   
bows and other accessories for the holidays.                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
WHY LEAVES DROP ON INDOOR PLANTS                                                
                                                                                
Leaves occasionally turn yellow and drop from indoor green                      
plants. This situation concerns indoor gardeners especially                     
when more than just a few leaves start to turn light green or                   
yellow.                                                                         
                                                                                
There are several potential reasons for the decline of random                   
leaves on plants. Physical injury to a particular leaf may result               
in that leaf turning yellow and dropping from the plant. Alterna-               
tively, something may have occurred while a particular leaf was                 
forming and left it in a weakened condition. Adverse environ-                   
mental conditions, including drying of the soil or exposure to                  
exceptionally bright light or cold temperatures, could induce the               
decline of a single leaf in the center of a plant. One should not               
be overly concerned when a single leaf starts to decline regard-                
less of its location on the plant.                                              
                                                                                
Light plays a most important factor in the maintenance of                       
healthy, green leaves especially those leaves located near the                  
base of the plant. Lower leaves may be shaded and receive only                  
modest quanitities of light. When this occurs, there is a                       
tendency for the oldest leaves to turn yellow and drop from the                 
plant.                                                                          
                                                                                
Light also plays a role in terms of the plant's ability to                      
manufacture food and sustain all of its leaves in good condition.               
The oldest leaves are the first to decline when there is inade-                 
quate nutrition, especially nitrogen, to support the entire                     
plant. The appearance of new leaves often results in the subse-                 
quent drop of one or more older leaves.                                         
                                                                                
Changing the location of plants can bring about a decline of some               
of the older, more mature leaves. The plant must adjust to the                  
new environment; in the process, some leaves may be shed.                       
                                                                                
A decline of the root system also brings about yellowing of                     
mature leaves on a plant. Root injury may occur due to overferti-               
lization. High populations of soil insects feeding on the root                  
system can also trigger the decline of lower leaves.                            
                                                                                
Too much water in the soil and limited oxygen also result in a                  
rapid decline of the root system. This situation may occur due to               
the absence of adequate drainage openings in the container. Water               
may accumulate and in the process destroy some or all of the                    
roots. Heavy soils often become waterlogged, and roots decline                  
due to the absence of oxygen.                                                   
                                                                                
There are no simple answers to the question of why leaves turn                  
yellow. One must examine the history, environment, watering and                 
soil conditions in hopes of identifying the primary source of the               
problem.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
CHRISTMAS FERN                                                                  
                                                                                
A hardy fern which has dual use in this season is Christmas                     
fern (Polystichum acrostichoides). All year, this evergreen                     
provides areas of dense green color in the landscape. At Christ-                
mastime, the plants are additionally valued for their fronds                    
which may be cut and used for decoration indoors.                               
                                                                                
Christmas fern has long been used for interior decorations                      
during winter. Early New England settlers named the plant because               
its durable fronds made it a festive holiday green. Fronds may                  
be woven into wreaths or used to accent flowers in indoor                       
arrangements. Another reason for the name comes from the shape of               
the pinnae or fern leaflets. Each section resembles a tiny foot                 
or stuffed Christmas stocking.                                                  
                                                                                
You may find Christmas fern growing wild in shaded woods, but for               
a more reliable source of greenery obtain a few plants for the                  
landscape. Try them in the perennial border, near the base of                   
deciduous trees and shrubs, or other shady places in the land-                  
scape where you want delicate-looking, evergreen foliage. Plants                
have a spreading crown of closely spaced leaves that does not                   
crowd neighboring plants. Leathery fronds grow two to three feet                
tall ranging from medium to dark green. The plants retain the                   
color throughout the year and are among the first of plants to                  
begin new growth in the spring.                                                 
                                                                                
An ideal spot for Christmas fern would be under deciduous trees                 
where they would be shaded in summer and where the soil is                      
slightly acidic (pH 5.5 - 6.6), well drained and humusy. Where                  
the soil is not naturally rich in organic matter, a soil mix                    
consisting of one part garden loam, one part builder's sand, and                
two parts leaf mold can be used. Pack the soil firmly around the                
crown and rhizome (the fleshy stem tissue buried in the ground).                
From the very beginning, keep the soil surrounding the plant                    
moist, but not saturated. Overly wet conditions encourage crown                 
rot.                                                                            
                                                                                
Christmas ferns require little maintenance. Fertilize them twice                
yearly (spring and summer) with fish emulsion fertilizer diluted                
to one-half the recommended strength. Mulch plants with leaf mold               
3" deep at planting time, and every spring and fall thereafter to               
reduce water loss, keep roots cool, and decrease weeds. Once                    
established, they need watering only during dry spells when the                 
soil may dry out.                                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
WREATHS DON'T HAVE TO STOP WITH THE HOLIDAYS                                    
                                                                                
Wreaths traditionally have been a door decoration of the holiday                
season. But as people experiment with a variety of materials for                
wreathmaking, their uses multiply.                                              
                                                                                
Simple grapevine wreaths may become the classic door decor with                 
the addition of a festive bow. With a few dried herbs, hot                      
peppers and miniature popcorn, it is a year-round decoration for                
the country kitchen. The silver-green of dried mullein leaves and               
the bronze of glycerine-treated beech combine to enhance a                      
grapevine wreath for a country-style living room.                               
                                                                                
Herbal wreaths with a base of artemisia and decorations of                      
lavender, roses, baby's breath and other fragrant herbs are                     
equally attractive in a bedroom or bath. A miniature herbal                     
wreath can be made by coating a wooden or plastic curtain ring                  
with a generous amount of glue and dipping it in potpourri to                   
coat it. A tiny bow completes a perfect wreath for a doll house                 
or as a Christmas tree ornament.                                                
                                                                                
For a more traditional evergreen wreath, white pine, hemlock, red               
cedar or a combination of these and other conifers can be secured               
firmly to a heavy grade wire base using 2l weight wire. The trick               
is not adding too much greenery at a time and maintaining an even               
tension on the wrapping wire. These wreaths can be decorated by                 
wiring pine cones, well-berried holly branches, and ribbon over                 
the stems that form the structure of the wreath.                                
                                                                                
Boxwood, holly, and other small, broad leaved evergreens usually                
are made into wreaths by attaching several three to five foot                   
long stems to a straw base with florist pins. Attach the stems,                 
one layer at a time, completely encircling the wreath each time.                
These wreaths can be decorated with berries, dried flowers or                   
seed heads or fruit.                                                            
                                                                                
In Colonial Williamsburg, the use of fruit in wreaths was                       
inspired by Luce della Robbia, a l5th century sculptur who carved               
garlands of fruit and nuts in his work. Fruit can be tied in                    
place using a pliable l8 weight florist wire that is first                      
inserted through the fruit and then through the straw base.                     
                                                                                
Fruit tends to slip easily if the wire goes around, instead of                  
through, the structure of the wreath. In cold weather that is                   
above freezing, fruit will last for seven to eight days before it               
needs replacing unless birds decide to feast on your decor.                     
                                                                                
All wreaths made from cut greenery will last much longer if kept                
cold, so plan to use them outdoors. Bring them inside for short                 
periods on special occasions.                                                   
                                                                                
Living wreaths are also a tradition and can be created several                  
ways. Most simply, a pot of English ivy can be trained over a                   
wreath-shaped wire frame inserted into a pot. Frequent winding                  
and pruning will be required initially to develop a pleasing                    
shape.                                                                          
                                                                                
A wreath shape made from a cylinder of chicken wire stuffed with                
sphagnum can be used to produce a topiary wreath from a pot of                  
creeping fig or various vines. Cuttings of ivy can be inserted                  
directly into the sphagnum where they will root and grow,                       
producing a pot-free wreath. Such a wreath requires frequent                    
watering and fertilizing and is most suited for hanging on an                   
exterior mason stone wall.                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
TWO MAPLES FOR WINTER LANDSCAPE INTEREST                                        
                                                                                
A well planned landscape includes visual interest in all seasons.               
Because most herbaceous plant materials disappear completely from               
view during the cold months, landscapes must draw on woody plants               
to attract attention during the winter. Evergreens have been the                
staple for adding color to the barren months, but deciduous trees               
should not be overlooked.                                                       
                                                                                
The bark of several deciduous species can introduce colors not                  
normally associated with the outdoors in winter. The following                  
maples have distinctive color interest even after leaf drop.                    
                                                                                
Coral Bark Maple  - Acer palmatum  'Senkaki'                                    
                                                                                
Coral bark maple is a slow growing, small tree with enough year                 
round interest to be used as a specimen plant. The most outstand-               
ing feature of this cultivar of Japanese maple is brilliant red                 
bark which is especially striking on young twigs. As fall and                   
winter approach, the red color intensifies.                                     
                                                                                
Fine, lacy leaves are bright green in the summer. Fall color                    
varies from red to yellow golden tones. In spring, leaves often                 
have a reddish tinge about their margins which fades as the                     
leaves mature.                                                                  
                                                                                
'Senkaki' reaches 15 to 25 feet at maturity. The crown spreads                  
equally as wide giving it an upright, spreading form. It grows                  
well throughout hardiness zones 5 to 8 which includes all of                    
Virginia. Locate plants in moist, fertile, well-drained soil in                 
full sun or partial shade.                                                      
                                                                                
Coral bark maple will lend an artistic, touch year round to a                   
rural or suburban garden or lawn, but it is not suitable for                    
urban landscapes as it does not tolerate pollution. Although                    
'Senkaki' is being seen more often at nurseries, you may still                  
have to special order it for your yard.                                         
                                                                                
Paperbark Maple - Acer griseum                                                  
                                                                                
Another small maple to consider for winter landscape interest is                
paperbark maple. It displays exfoliating, cinnamon-brown bark                   
that is especially brilliant when caught by the slanting rays of                
the winter sun. This tree often grows with multiple stems so the                
bark becomes a more prominent feature than it would be on a                     
single trunked tree. A background of snow accentuates the tree's                
color and form.                                                                 
                                                                                
Summer color of the leaves of paperbark maple is dark green                     
sometimes with a hint of bluish-green. In fall, the tree may turn               
bronze or red.                                                                  
                                                                                
Paperbark maple matures into an oval shape 20 - 30 feet tall                    
with a spread equal or less than its height. The tree is slow                   
growing, gaining only 6 - 12" per year. It is well suited                       
for all zones of the state and adaptable to a wide variety of                   
soils. An environment with well drained, moist soil and full                    
sun will produce the best growth.                                               
                                                                                
Young trees are best transplanted in spring. Some nurseries carry               
balled and burlapped or container grown stock, but in some areas                
you may need to special order plants.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
DECEMBER 1986 QUESTION BOX                                                      
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Elizabeth                     
Tuchler, Horticulture Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                     
Extension Specialist in Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
WHY AFRICAN VIOLETS STOP BLOOMING                  23 LINES                     
BIRD OF PARADISE                                   27 LINES                     
CLEANING TOOLS BEFORE STORAGE                      45 LINES                     
SEED STRATIFICATION                                29 LINES                     
NIGHT LIGHTING CAN AFFECT HARDINESS IN BUCKTHORN   24 LINES                     
DON'T GROW MISTLETOE                               33 LINES                     
SHOVEL VS. SPADE                                   17 LINES                     
INDOOR PLANTS FOR WINTER BLOOM                     36 LINES                     
YAUPON HOLLY                                       21 LINES                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
The African violet I bought last month in full bloom stopped                    
blooming. Why?                                                                  
                                                                                
Chances are you have moved your African violet from a relatively                
high-light environment (the garden center) to a relatively                      
low-light environment (your home). Don't despair you don't have                 
to run out and buy artificial lights to promote blooming.                       
Research at the University  of Florida Agricultural Research                    
Center has shown that African violets transferred from high light               
levels to low light levels gradually become acclimated to lower                 
light, and begin flowering again after a few months, assuming                   
that the low light isn't too low.                                               
                                                                                
African violets bloom best when the light intensity is approxi-                 
mately 1000 foot candles. Insufficient light causes poor flower-                
ing and elongation of petioles (leaf stems). To give your plants                
suffient light, from November to February locate plants to                      
receive direct sunlight 12-18 hours per day. Move African                       
violets into indirect, bright light from March through October.                 
Light which is too intense will produce bleached or burned                      
leaves. If the plant is set near a sunny window, a sheer curtain                
will diffuse the sunlight enough so it will not bleach out the                  
color in the leaves.                                                            
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I'm looking for an unusual plant to decorate my office foyer. Can               
you suggest a striking plant for an important location?                         
                                                                                
One readily available, unusual plant is white bird of paradise,                 
Strelizia nicolai. An orange flowering species, Strelizia                       
reginae, is also available but it may be harder to find. Both                   
bird of paradise species produce large, beautiful blooms on                     
stalks up to 14" long. But plants rarely bloom until they mature                
in a pot 14" or larger. In containers 14' in diameter, bird of                  
paradise grows to its maximum height, 4-5' tall.                                
                                                                                
Bird of paradise plant will produce blooms several times per year               
if given the proper conditions. Blooms can last a month or longer               
if the the plant is in good condition. Plants use a substantial                 
amount of water and should be kept moist, but root problems will                
occur with improper drainage. To avoid this, use a well aerated                 
soil mix and make sure adequate drainage is provided.                           
                                                                                
Bird of paradise grown under fluorescent office lights will                     
benefit from a light fertilization with an indoor plant food                    
twice yearly. If supplemental lighting is used, more fertiliza-                 
tion would be needed. Plants prefers temperatures between 70-80                 
degrees F.; they will show chill damage at 40 degrees F. Bird of                
paradise are relatively pest-free but one should always monitor                 
indoor plants for outbreaks of aphids and red spider mites.                     
Plants look best when faded flowers and old foliage is pruned                   
off.                                                                            
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
How important is it to clean metal tools at the end of the                      
season? What is the best way to clean and sharpen garden tools?                 
                                                                                
All gardening hand tools (hoe, rake, spade, etc.) come in contact               
with soil. Water in the soil causes metal to rust or corrode.                   
Even brick-hard, dried-on dirt contains some water, and rust can                
form where that dirt is stuck on a metal tool. Digging tools work               
much easier when smooth metal is cutting into the soil rather                   
than metal coated with lumps of dry soil or rust. For these                     
reasons, cleaning metal tool parts of soil should be a routine                  
practice after every use, but it is especially important as the                 
tools are put away for the winter.                                              
                                                                                
The minimum cleaning of digging tools is to scrape off adhering                 
soil with a putty  knife or flat stick of wood. In preparation                  
for winter storage, take the extra step of washing off any                      
remaining soil using a stiff bristle or wire brush. Then let                    
tools dry thoroughly in the sun. Fine sandpaper should be used                  
on any rust spots not removed by the brushing. Tools can be                     
covered with a light coating of motor oil to prevent further                    
rusting.                                                                        
                                                                                
Another method of keeping tools clean is to sink a small but deep               
box (with a removable cover to keep rain out) into the ground                   
near your tool shed. Fill the box with sand and add used motor                  
oil. At the end of a gardening day, remove clinging dirt from                   
tools by plunging them into the oil-sand mix several times.                     
This will keep the tools cleaned and oiled, and will help prevent               
rusting.                                                                        
                                                                                
Washing is also appropriate for pruning tools, which usually                    
become coated with sticky sap. Water may be sufficient, but for a               
really complete cleaning, ammonia and water is best. Just be sure               
everything dries well before sharpening.                                        
                                                                                
Sharpen digging and cutting tools now. You will do a better job                 
since you are in less hurry to use them in the garden than in                   
spring. Pruners may only need light sharpening, but  spades and                 
hoes need a heavier treatment. If you have a grinding stone in                  
the workshop, this is an easy task, but using a hand file is                    
not that much more difficult. In all cases the cutting edge                     
should be sharpened to match the original edge bevel, and the                   
filing or grinding motion should start at the cutting edge. You                 
will be pleasantly surprised by how much easier digging, hoeing                 
and pruning is with a sharp tools. (Adapted from an article by                  
Dr. Alan McDaniel, The Virginia Gardener Vol. 2, No. 12.)                       
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
A friend recently gave me some pecan and walnut tree seeds. How                 
and when should I plant them?                                                   
                                                                                
Nearly all seeds of temperate climate nut trees require stratifi-               
cation. This means exposing the nuts to a temperature less than                 
45 degrees F for at least 6-8 weeks before planting. During this                
time seeds are best kept in a moist medium like sand, peat moss,                
or vermiculite. In actuality, you are trying to recreate the                    
conditions nut seeds would be exposed to in the wild.                           
                                                                                
Different seeds require different amounts of time for stratifica-               
tion. It is important to know the stratification requirements of                
the particular nut that you are growing. For example, pecans need               
l0-20 weeks depending on cultivar.                                              
                                                                                
To stratify nut seeds place seeds in damp peat moss in a plastic                
bag and store them in a refrigerator. You can also put the nuts                 
outdoors between layers of sand or peat moss in a box with a wire               
top and bottom to keep rodents out. Put the box in a well drained               
location and protect it from extreme temperature fluctuations by                
covering it with straw or leaves. Seeds can be damaged from                     
severe cold or if the medium is either too wet or too dry.                      
                                                                                
If rodents are not a problem in your area, nuts may be planted                  
directly in the soil in fall. The chilling requirement will be                  
met naturally in most areas of Virginia with the possible                       
exception of the coastal region. One of the best resources on nut               
tree culture is the Northern Nut Growers Association, Broken                    
Arrow Road, Hamden, CN 06518. If you wish to persue this topic                  
further, you may want to contact them.                                          
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
I planted a tallhedge buckthorn for its cold hardiness but it                   
showed some cold damage after last winter. What am I doing wrong?               
                                                                                
Tallhedge buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula 'Columnaris') is a hardy,                 
deciduous hedge plant with shiny foliage and attractive berries.                
Its hardiness (to -50 degrees F) may be reduced by several                      
factors which make it susceptible to dieback and fungal infec-                  
tions. One of the most common factors in reducing hardiness in                  
landscape plantings is night lighting.                                          
                                                                                
Tallhedge buckthorn is photosensitive, which means that night                   
lighting keeps it growing in the fall instead of allowing it to                 
harden off. Research has shown that the greatest winter injury is               
found around homes, parking lots and other areas that are lit at                
night. When continuous light conditions are combined with                       
fertilizing and watering late in the season, growth may be                      
stimulated and low-temperature injury is likely to occur on these               
immature branches.                                                              
                                                                                
The Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD 20705 has been                
studying the problem of photosensitivity in plants. Other plants                
such as catalpa and birch are also extremely photosensitive and                 
should never be planted where there is outdoor lighting. Many                   
others are affected to varying degrees depending on the type and                
duration of lighting.                                                           
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
I would like to grow mistletoe on our land so that we can use it                
for holiday decorations. How does it grow?                                      
                                                                                
Although mistletoe is a popular holiday decoration, growing                     
mistletoe is not recommended because it is a parasitic plant                    
which harms trees of value. There are two kinds of mistletoe:                   
dwarf mistletoe and true or leafy mistletoe, an evergreen which                 
is the one used as a Christmas decoration. Both mistletoe are                   
parasites that feed primarily on hardwood forest trees, but also                
attacks fruit trees, such as apples, cherries, and some conifers,               
like juniper and cypress.                                                       
                                                                                
Leafy mistletoe is spread by birds who eat its seed-containing                  
berries. Since the seeds are covered with a sticky substance,                   
they adhere to tree branches through wind and rain. When the seed               
germinates, a primary root or radicle grows along a branch until                
it finds a bud or leaf base There it penetrates the vascular                    
system of the plant and branches out into a network of root-like                
fibers that draw minerals from the host plant. After the mistle-                
toe is rooted, it produces buds that develop over the next few                  
years. Shoots emerge from the buds at the point of entry and in                 
concentric circles out from that point.                                         
                                                                                
Mistletoe has several negative effects on host plants. It causes                
a hormonal imbalance in tree branches which can cause normally                  
dormant lateral buds to grow profusely forming tangle of twigs                  
called a witches-broom. Branches can also swell up around the                   
point of infection. The affected area is severely weakened by the               
infection and is very susceptible to diseases, insects and                      
breakage.                                                                       
                                                                                
As you can see, to plant mistletoe would be destructive to your                 
property. Once established it is difficult to eradicate. Infected               
branches or even entire trees must be removed.                                  
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
What is the difference between a shovel, a garden shovel, and a                 
spade? Does handle style affect the efficiency of these tools or                
are they just decorative?                                                       
                                                                                
Shovels are earth movers with dish-shaped blades mounted to the                 
handle at an angle. For general purpose digging, lifting and                    
moving, a long handled shovel is ideal. A garden shovel usually                 
has a pointed blade and is lighter and smaller than most other                  
shovels. It is well suited for transplanting and turning garden                 
soil. A spade has a flat blade and is designed for cutting                      
rather than lifting or moving soil. Spades are excellent for                    
shaping straight-sided trenches and for edging beds.                            
                                                                                
Both shovels and spades come with long or short handles in                      
standard or D-shaped styles. Choice of handle style will depend                 
on personal preference; long handles offer greater leverage and                 
are less tiring to use in many cases. Short handles are often                   
thicker and stronger.                                                           
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
Which of the plants sold in flower shops now can I rely on for                  
blooms throughout winter? Besides pointsettias, I have seen                     
chrysanthemums, cyclamens and a few others for sale.                            
                                                                                
There are many flowering plants available from florists through-                
out the winter including mums, poinsettias, and cyclamen.                       
Although, with skill and luck, any of these can be induced to                   
rebloom after the initial show, many gardeners find that it                     
simply isn't worth the effort and disgard the plant when it                     
becomes unattractive.                                                           
                                                                                
One of the most reliable sources of winter bloom is a large                     
indoor plant called Spathyphyllum. Its white leaf-like flower is                
quite striking against deep green foliage. If you are considering               
this plant be aware that it reaches 2-3 feet tall and can easily                
outgrow most home settings.                                                     
                                                                                
Streptocarpus or cape primrose is a smaller and showier, plant                  
with blossoms in shades of purple, violet and rose, as well as                  
white. A relative of African violets, it is easy to care for but                
equally prone to mealybugs. Flame violet or Episcia is a vining                 
relative of African violet with deep orange-red blossoms.                       
Although some people report them difficult to grow, I've had                    
little trouble as long as I water thoroughly when the soil begins               
to dry and give them plenty of light.                                           
                                                                                
There are several bromeliads which create a showy display of                    
color in winter on coarse, odd-looking plants. These relatives of               
pineapple vaguely resemble the severed top of pineapple fruit.                  
Flame Sword and Air Alpine are the most available bromeliads.                   
Queen's Tears is an interesting though less common cultivar with                
spikes of pink, blue, and yellow flowers. Most bromeliads are of                
easy culture but some gradually die after flowering. Many of the                
short-lived varieties will put up side shoots that can be                       
repotted for future plants and flowers.                                         
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
I have liked Japanese holly as a hedge plant but I have read it                 
will not do well on the Virginia coast. Is there an evergreen                   
shrub which is similar to Japanese holly which will do well at my               
new seaside home?                                                               
                                                                                
Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) is a relative of Japanese holly suitable                
for Virginia's coastal areas. This evergreen shrub is native to                 
the east coast of the United States and has become popular in                   
landscapes along the coast of Virginia.                                         
                                                                                
Yaupon grows well near the seashore; it is tolerant of salt                     
spray, wind and hot weather. Since the plant is hardy in Zones                  
7-10, it is adaptable to all areas of Virginia excluding the                    
mountains. Yaupon usually develops as an upright shrub in Zone 7                
(the piedmont). In Zones 8-10 (the coast and southward), it                     
matures as a small tree.                                                        
                                                                                
The year round interest of yaupon makes it a valuable addition to               
the landscape. During the winter, lustrous, dark, green leaves                  
and vivid scarlet fruits are an asset indoors and out. Branches                 
can be trimmed for wreath making and other holiday decorations.                 
In spring, the purplish tinge of the new leaves and greenish--                  
white flowers soften the plant's appearance.                                    
                                                                                
One major difference between Japanese holly and yaupon is the                   
fruit color. In contrast to the black fruits of Japanese holly,                 
yaupon sports attractive, red fruits in large clusters. The                     
fruits develop in late summer and persist on the shrub until the                
following spring.                                                               
                                                                                
Yaupon holly is also called cassena or cassine. It transplants                  
easily and is extremely tolerant of many soil conditions. In                    
areas of high fertility, it grows fast adding about 2' of new                   
growth per year. Yaupon is considered one of the best small                     
leaved evergreen hollies for southern gardens. It is best used                  
as a specimen plant, or as a informal hedge or screen.                          
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
DECEMBER 1987                                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Mulch perennial borders for the winter after the ground first                 
freezes a couple of inches deep. Applying mulch too early                       
increases the chance of harboring destructive field mice which                  
are still on the lookout for comfortable winter quarters.                       
                                                                                
* It is a good practice to sow seeds of alpine plants early in                  
December in an outdoor coldframe. They will not germinate until                 
spring, so the frame should be kept shaded and ventilated.                      
Ideally, the seeds should remain frozen until March. Seeds may                  
also be sown in flats and placed in some convenient, shaded,                    
outdoor location where they will be stay frozen until spring. A                 
good covering of snow seems to help.                                            
                                                                                
* Winter protection for peonies is only necessary the first                     
winter to help prevent frost heaving. Mound soil over the new                   
planting for several inches, or after the ground freezes hard,                  
mulch with evergreen boughs or straw. Don't use a material that                 
will mat down such as leaves. In extremely cold climates, 10-20                 
degrees below zero, protection is also necessary to protect tree                
peonies.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Protect roses by mounding dirt around their bases, then cover                 
with 4-6" of mulch. You can order roses now for Spring planting.                
                                                                                
* Use branches from discarded Christmas trees to mulch beds of                  
bulbs and perennials.  Come spring, leave fallen needles from the               
branches in place as a permanent mulch.                                         
                                                                                
* Check dahlia tubers and gladiolus corms in storage. If they are               
sprouting, place them in a cooler spot. If they show signs of                   
shriveling, rewrap them in ventilated plastic bags. Moldy or                    
damaged roots must be removed and destroyed. Molding indicates                  
over moist conditions. Move healthy bulbs to a location with                    
better ventilation and set in dry peat moss.                                    
                                                                                
* Mums and pansies are easily heaved out of the ground during                   
freezes and thaws.  This causes root damage. Place Christmas tree               
branches over flower beds to prevent this from happening.                       
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* Chicory is an easy winter salad plant to force. Plant roots in                
moist sand or soil in a box and place the box in a warm, dark                   
place such as your cellar. Keep the soil moderately moist. The                  
shoots will be ready for cutting in 3-5 weeks. Rhubarb roots also               
respond to this treatment.                                                      
                                                                                
* Proper storage of herbs is very important. Most of us store                   
them within easy reach of our cooking area which is not always                  
the best spot. Herbs should be stored in a cool, dry place away                 
from heat and light. Herbs have a shelf life of 6 months to 1                   
year; it helps to write the purchase date on the label. Look over               
your collection and throw out any whose aroma, flavor, or color                 
have faded.                                                                     
                                                                                
* You still have time to make herb vinegars from chives, shal-                  
lots, garlic, or any windowsill herbs for the holidays. Use                     
approximately 4 oz. of fresh herbs to one quart of wine vinegar.                
Allow the herbs to infuse for at least two weeks.                               
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* If an ice storm damages your trees, prune the broken branches.                
In most cases broken branches will not recover, and pruning                     
reduces the chance of disease.                                                  
                                                                                
* Remove snow from evergreen shrubs by tapping the branches                     
gently.  This prevents suffocation and damage from heavy snow.                  
                                                                                
* The more tender plants in rock gardens benefit from a light                   
covering of evergreen boughs or oak branches retaining their                    
leaves. The purpose of this covering is to lessen dessication by                
wind.  Take care not to smother the plants. You should be able to               
see the plants through the branches.                                            
                                                                                
* Thoroughly mulch azaleas, rhododendrons, camellias, and laurel                
after the ground freezes. They prefer acidic materials such as                  
oak leaves and pine needles but any mixed dry leaves will do if                 
these are not available.                                                        
                                                                                
* Erect snow deflectors over shrubs under the dripline of houses                
and other buildings to protect them against avalanches off the                  
roof.                                                                           
                                                                                
* For well-developed fruit on your holly trees, there must be a                 
male tree to pollinate the female trees.                                        
                                                                                
* Place Christmas trees away from fireplaces, radiators, TV sets                
and anything else that could dry the needles. Keep your Christmas               
tree well watered from the time it is brought home until it is                  
discarded.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Don't use hemlocks as Christmas trees because they drop their                 
needles almost immediately after they are brought inside. Instead               
use balsam or douglas fir, sheared pine, or spruce.                             
                                                                                
* When cutting evergreens for Christmas decorations, use care to                
prevent harming plants. Distribute pruning over the entire                      
plant. Limit cutting to mild shaping and thinning. Do not trim                  
boxwoods when the temperature is below 40 degrees F.                            
                                                                                
* Prepare gifts from your garden. Wreaths or swags from pruning                 
evergreens will be welcome holiday decorations anywhere.  While                 
you're at it, take a few minutes to decorate your home with                     
materials from the yard. Evergreen trees such as pines, junipers,               
cedar and arborvitae tolerate selective pruning and their                       
fragrance adds a holiday touch. Among the broadleaf evergreens,                 
use holly, laurel, and boxwood to supply sprigs of greenery.                    
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* Plan a visit to a public garden or nursery where you can                      
observe trees and shrubs in their winter phase. Some have quite                 
lovely shapes and colors that could be an asset to your land-                   
scape.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Assess the energy efficiency of your landscape. Do you have                   
evergreen trees or shrubs blocking a window where the sun's                     
warmth would be welcome? Consider replacing them with a deciduous               
plant that would let sun in during winter but cast cooling shade                
in summer.                                                                      
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Do filling and grading around the yard. The loose soil will                   
settle during the cold months.                                                  
                                                                                
* Minimize traffic on a frozen lawn to reduce winter damage.                    
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Don't forget to use some of those hardy vegetables still out in               
your garden--such as carrots, turnip greens, or kale.                           
                                                                                
* Use a combination of red and green sweet peppers frozen from                  
last summer's garden to give holiday food a seasonal flair.                     
                                                                                
* Keep several jars of sprouts going to keep your family in fresh               
greens all winter long.                                                         
                                                                                
Fruits/ Nuts                                                                    
                                                                                
* Fruit trees can be pruned at any time during the winter                       
provided the temperature is above 45 degrees F.                                 
                                                                                
* Fresh nuts of hickory, butternut, and black walnut germinate                  
quite readily if planted outdoors approximately 1" deep. The                    
alternating freezing and thawing splits their hard shells and                   
allows the root to emerge. A small wire cage placed over the nut                
will mark planting spots and keep the squirrels from excavating                 
the seeds.                                                                      
                                                                                
* To prevent rabbit damage, roll or bend a strip of 1/4" galvan-                
ized screen (approximately 14" x 18") around the trunk of the                   
tree so that the long side is up and down the trunk and the edges               
overlap. To keep the strip from unrolling, insert a small wire                  
near the center of the roll and twist the ends closed. Push the                 
lower edges well into the ground. This metal guard will last                    
indefinitely and can be left in place all year.                                 
                                                                                
* Mice chew off the bark of fruit trees at ground level or below                
and often completely girdle a tree causing it to die. To reduce                 
this damage, keep mulch pulled away from the base of the tree and               
examine it frequently for the presence of mice.                                 
                                                                                
* The aim of tree wrapping is to keep the trunk from heating                    
unevenly on bright, sunny winter days. Bark tends to split as it                
cools rapidly after the winter sun has warmed the south and west                
sides. Use commercially available tree wraps or put up canvas or                
burlap screens to shade young fruit trees. Even a plank leaned up               
against the south side of the trunk will help. Painting trunks                  
with white latex paint is a technique used in orchards which                    
achieves the same purpose by reflecting the sun. Consider this                  
practice if you have young, tender-barked fruit trees.                          
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Ethylene has been shown to hasten cut flower aging, and can                   
cause premature aging of potted flowers and distortion of                       
foliage. Sources of ethylene include: ripening fruits (such as                  
apples), furnaces, stoves, engines with incomplete combustion,                  
and smoke from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes.                                   
                                                                                
* Turn your houseplants frequently to insure uniform light                      
distribution and straighter growth. Avoid putting them on the                   
television, near heater vents or other sources of heat. Don't                   
overwater; growth has slowed significantly for the winter so less               
water and fertilizer is required.                                               
                                                                                
* Ask Santa for a special plant or garden tool for yourself.                    
Begin a collection of your favorite perennials and request a new                
plant every year. If you garden indoors, start a collection of                  
succulents which can be added to yearly.                                        
                                                                                
* When buds of Christmas cactus show signs of opening, start a                  
regular watering program and keep the plant cool for the best                   
show.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Melted snow contains minerals and can be used instead of tap                  
water for winter watering of house plants.                                      
                                                                                
* Move gift plants with caution. Plants shocked by the cold may                 
drop their leaves in a few days and no longer be such a lovely                  
gift. Wrap each plant in eight to ten layers of newspaper stapled               
shut over the foliage. If it is freezing outside, warm up the car               
before loading the plants. Cold temperatures for `only a minute'                
can be detrimental.                                                             
                                                                                
* Dust foliage plants or give them an occasional shower. They'll                
get more light and grow better without a coating of dust.                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Pots of narcissus started indoors now will bring the fragrance                
of spring before their outside cousins bloom.                                   
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
Check belts and spark plugs and buy replacements, change the oil,               
sharpen the blades or tines, and clean off dirt and plant debris                
so equipment will be ready to go when you need it next spring.                  
                                                                                
* Drain the fuel tank and run the lawn mower or tiller engine dry               
before putting the machine away for the winter.                                 
                                                                                
* Clean and sharpen lawn and garden tools and store them in a dry               
storage area. A light coating of oil on exposed metal surfaces                  
will prevent rusting.                                                           
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* For hours of windowside enjoyment, trim a tree for the birds.                 
Tie on dried fruit, suet, and peanut butter covered pine cones                  
rolled in bird seed.                                                            
                                                                                
* Fertilizers containing nitrate of soda or sulfate of ammonia                  
should not be used on concrete drives and walks to melt ice as                  
they cause the breakdown of concrete surfaces. However,                         
fertilizers such as urea and ammonium nitrate can be used on                    
walks rather than rock salt, which may harm surrounding plants'                 
roots.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Although most people postpone this chore to late winter, grape                
vines can be pruned between Thanksgiving and the end of December.               
Use the long vines to make wreaths, baskets, and other country                  
decorations.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Sunflower seeds will attract desirable birds such as                          
chickadees, tufted titmouses, finches, cardinals and grosbeaks,                 
to your feeder. Goldfinches and woodpeckers are attracted to                    
suet.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Use hair spray to keep seed heads and dried flowers intact.                   
                                                                                
* Peat moss absorbs moisture very slowly. When it is used in                    
potting soil mixes, break clods apart and moisten the material                  
slightly with warm water before incorporating it into the                       
mixture. Ideally, prepare potting soil the day before you use it                
so the moisture equalizes throughout the mixture.                               
                                                                                
* For easy "country candle sticks" cut 5 to 7 small logs (approx-               
imately 2-3 inches in diameter) into lengths from 3 to 6 inches.                
Drill holes in the log tops the diameter of the candles you plan                
to use. A collection of these surrounded with pine cones and nuts               
make an attractive centerpiece for the holidays.                                
                                                                                
* Early winter is a good time to collect more stones for expand-                
ing the rock garden in spring. The rocks are more visible and the               
solid ground makes a good base on which to haul stone.                          
                                                                                
* Write to nurseries to order seed and plant catalogs. A stack of               
these and a blank check under the Christmas tree would be a nice                
present from Santa Claus.                                                       
                                                                                
* Start reviewing and expanding your garden notes to help with                  
next year's plans.                                                              
                                                                                
* Research at Oregon State University has shown that dipping                    
berried shoots of holly (Ilex Aquifolium) in a 3 or 4% calcium                  
chloride solution for one minute results in firmer, better-keep-                
ing berries.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Be unconventional -- offer perennial divisons, seedlings, and                 
shrub volunteers as gifts to your gardening friends. If you have                
seed from a treasured variety that you know comes back the same                 
year after year, share some with an equally treasured friend.                   
Write I.O.U.'s for perennials that you will be dividing in spring               
so the recipient can plan ahead for the best location.                          
                                                                                
* Keep mistletoe with its poisonous berries out of the reach of                 
children.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Check any fruits, vegetables, corms, and tubers that you have                 
in storage. Sort out any that show signs of disease and dispose                 
of them.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Both live and cut Christmas trees need water while they are                   
inside. Keep live trees indoors for the least possible time to                  
keep them healthy.                                                              
                                                                                
* When decorating for the holidays, be sure you do not place                    
fresh needled evergreens directly on finished furniture or a                    
mantlepiece; use felt or a tablecloth under them. Sap from                      
branches may take the finish off wooden surfaces.                               
                                                                                
* To make your long winter evenings by the fire more enjoyable                  
burn aromatic woods such as cherry, apples, and pine.                           
                                                                                
* Where snow drifts, plan to plant a windbreak next spring. Ex-                 
periment with a movable barrier to decide the best angle and                    
position for the planting.                                                      
                                                                                
* To avoid drying out your cut Christmas tree, transport the tree               
covered with a cloth in the trunk of the car. At home, cut an                   
inch or two off the trunk and plunge the butt into a pail of warm               
water. Keep in a cool, shaded, protected place until moved into                 
the house. Mount in a tree stand or place tree in a bucket with                 
rocks and sand and fill with water after tree is indoors.   Water               
the tree daily.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Ventilate cold frames on sunny days. Do not allow plants to dry               
out. Remove any diseased plants as soon as they are noticed. On                 
very cold nights, cover cold frames in which semi-hardy plants                  
are being overwintered, using old carpet scraps, burlap bags                    
stuffed with leaves, or bales of hay.                                           
                                                                                
* Give a friend a subscription to The Virginia Gardener. It's an                
inexpensive way to say "Good Gardening" all year long. A one year               
subscription is only $5.00. Send orders to The Virginia Gardener,               
Va Tech Extension Distribution Center, 112 Landsdowne Street,                   
Blacksburg, VA 24060. Make check payable to Treasurer, Va Tech.                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
Press Releases December 1987                                                    
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, Ellen M. Silva, Extension Technician, and Diane Relf,               
Extension Specialist in Home Horticulture, working with Eric Day,               
Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The Virginia Gardener Press                       
Releases have been developed for agent use in preparing radio and               
newspaper features and other educational programs.                              
                                                                                
Holly                                                  68 lines                 
Soiless Amendments                                     89 lines                 
Miniature African Violets                              58 lines                 
Terrariums                                             71 lines                 
Container Drainage								71 lines                                              
 ----------------------------------------------------------------               
Holly                                                                           
                                                                                
Holly, a traditional plant in Christmas decorating, has been used               
for celebrations for many centuries. The ancient Romans carried                 
holly in their processions, and decked images of their deities                  
with its glistening leaves. In the more recent past it was                      
commonly used in England as decoration during the Christmas                     
season, a custom brought to the U.S. by early settlers.                         
                                                                                
There are more than 300 species of holly. It is found in almost                 
all countries of the world in the temperate and sub-tropical                    
regions. The native American holly was probably one of the first                
plants sighted by the Pilgrams who settled at Plymouth in 1620.                 
                                                                                
The tree-type hollies, which grow to a height of about 40 feet,                 
are desirable landscape plants from which branches may be cut for               
decorative use. The English holly, Ilex Aquifolium, is the                      
preferred species with glossy leaves and brilliant berries.                     
Unfortunately it is not fully hardy in the colder, higher                       
elevations of Virginia, but grows very well in the warmer                       
sections of the state. The American holly, Ilex opaca, is similar               
to the English holly, but has slightly less attractive foliage                  
and berries. It is however, fully hardy in all parts of Virginia.               
                                                                                
All hollies have male and female flowers on different plants. The               
berries are produced only on the female plants. In most cases it                
is good to have a male plant in the garden to provide for                       
pollination if an abundant crop of berries is to be secured. If                 
male plants in the community are sufficently close, pollen                      
carried by wind or insects will sometimes result in berries.                    
                                                                                
Holly should not be planted in an exposed, windy location. The                  
plants vary in hardiness. The flower buds, which develop late in                
the summer, may be killed by cold in the winter and thus                        
eliminate the possibility of a berry crop the next summer                       
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
The Burford holly, Ilex cornuta 'Burfordii,' is a shrub type                    
holly with attractive, shiny, dark green leaves and large, red                  
berries. It has the advantage of producing fruit without                        
pollination. This selection of Chinese holly grows to a height of               
six to eight feet. The plant is quite hardy, but the leaves may                 
be damaged during the winter when planted in exposed locations in               
the colder sections of Virginia.                                                
                                                                                
Several species of Japanese holly, Ilex crenata, are very useful                
as landscape plants. They are fully hardy in Virginia. All                      
selections of this species have black berries and thus are less                 
useful for indoor decorations than the red berried types. All                   
types of Japanese holly will tolerate heavy pruning to maintain a               
desired size and form of growth.                                                
                                                                                
The roundleaf Japanese holly, Ilex crenata `Rotundifolia', will                 
attain a height of six to eight feet. It has attractive, glossy                 
leaves and will grow well in partial shade.                                     
                                                                                
The boxwood or boxleaf Japanese holly, Ilex crenata `Convexa',                  
grows to a height of about four feet. It has small, cupped leaves               
which give the plant an attractive, fine texture and make it                    
especially attractive for clipped hedges                                        
                                                                                
The Heller Japanese holly, Ilex crenata 'Helleri,' is a low                     
growing selection of the Boxleaf holly. It is fine as a                         
relatively dwarf species to locate in front of taller shrubs in                 
the foundation planting.                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Soiless Amendments                                                             
                                                                                
Commercially available potting soils are sterile (free of disease               
organisms, insects, weeds, nematodes, etc.) and convenient to                   
use. They may or may not actually contain any soil. In addition,                
while they are sterile, they may be extremely high or extremely                 
low in soluble salts, pesticide residues, etc. It is almost                     
impossible to know what you are actually getting in a bagged                    
potting soil.                                                                   
                                                                                
If you wish you can mix your own potting soil from various                      
organic and inorganic amendments. If garden soil is to be added                 
it should be sterilized to destroy undesirable organisms. This                  
can be accomplished by moistening the soil and spreading it in a                
shallow layer in an oven-proof pan. Cover the pan with foil,                    
insert a meat thermometer and place in a low temperature oven of                
approximately 250 degrees F. Heat the soil to a temperature of                  
180 degrees F for 30 minutes.  Most people find the odor of                     
baking soil to be somewhat unpleasant, so do your soil baking on                
a day you can keep your windows open.                                           
                                                                                
A "standard" potting soil for plants can be formulated from one                 
part loam soil, one part peat moss, sphagnum moss, or leaf mold,                
and one part coarse sand, perlite, weblite, or coarse bark.                     
                                                                                
Peat moss is partially decomposed vegetation which has been used                
as a potting medium amendant for years. Some plants can be grown                
successfully in pure peat. However, most peats are quite acid and               
must have lime added to raise the pH to a level more suitable for               
plant growth.                                                                   
                                                                                
Sphagnum moss is dehydrated plant tissue which is used as a                     
medium amendment in much the same way as peat moss. It decomposes               
more rapidly than peat. It is available in both milled and                      
unmilled forms; milled sphagnum is generally easier to handle.                  
Seeds can be germinated in sphagnum but should be transplatned                  
early since sphagnum lacks sufficient quantities of nutrients to                
sustain the growth of seedlings for very long. Milled sphagnum                  
moss is an excellant seed germinating medium for small or slow to               
germinate seeds because of its fungistatic qualities. Sphagnum                  
moss also has a very low or acid pH.                                            
                                                                                
Bark is rapidly gaining popularity as a medium amendment. Both                  
pine and hardwood barks are available. Particle size and                        
compostion vary considerably as does water retention, pH, and                   
porosity. Aged, partially decomposed bark is best for most                      
purposes.                                                                       
                                                                                
Leaf mold and other sources of composted organic matter are                     
excellent medium amendments which increase the porosity of the                  
soil. Fresh straw, shavings, and sawdust can be used, but may                   
result in nutrient deficiencies, particularly of nitrogen.                      
Sand is a relatively cheap, but good medium amendment. Particle                 
size varies, and this will affect porosity and water retention;                 
medium to coarse sharp sand is best for most purpose. Sand is                   
very heavy which can be a disadvantage. Clean sand is relatively                
free of weed seeds, insects, nematodes, and disease organisms.                  
                                                                                
Perlite is a sterile medium which is produced by heating volcanic               
rock. It is very lightweight, and the large particle size helps                 
to increase the porosity and aeration of various potting                        
mixtures. Perlite does not hold appreciable quantities of water.                
It is not easily broken down and can be reused. In light                        
mixtures, perlite may have a tendency to float.                                 
                                                                                
Vermiculite is a sterile medium manufactured by heating a                       
micaceous mineral. It is lightweight and helps increase the                     
porosity of heavy soils. Unlike perlite, vermiculite does hold                  
appreciable amounts of water. Its particular characteristics are                
easily destroyed by too much handling, especially when wet. No. 2               
is the regular horticultural grade.                                             
                                                                                
Weblite is a sterile expanded shale aggregate manufactured by                   
combining shale with low grade coal and heating it to high                      
temperatures.  The particles are fairly coarse, similar to small                
gravel.  Weblite increases the porosity of the medium when added                
as an amendment.                                                                
                                                                                
Turface is a calcined clay soil amendment used to aerate, retain                
moisture, and allow drainage in a loam soil mix. It is available                
in both fine and coarse particle sizes.                                         
                                                                                
Media which contain soil usually will contain sufficient                        
quantities of the micro-nutrients such that the plants grown in                 
them will not suffer any micronutrient deficiencies. This may not               
be the case if the potting medium is formulated entirely of                     
artificial organic and inorganic amendments so the indoor                       
gardener should keep this in mind.                                              
Miniature African Violets                                                      
                                                                                
Have you tried miniature African violets? If not, you have a new                
and exciting experience ahead. They are exact replicas of the                   
standard size plants, but do not exceed six inches in diameter,                 
and never outgrow a two inch pot.                                               
                                                                                
The true miniature African violet is an example of the success of               
plant breeders in providing new and interesting species for home                
gardeners. These unique violets are usually more symmetrical than               
the large varieties, with an even, round pattern of leaves, and                 
many blooms.                                                                    
                                                                                
The first miniatures were called violettes or tea cup plants, and               
usually were placed in a novelty class when exhibited at flower                 
shows. They are now becoming more widely grown and deserve                      
special recognition as a house plant, or when displayed at a                    
show.                                                                           
                                                                                
Now there are also semi-miniatures. The leaves and flowers are                  
somewhat larger than the miniatures. Mature plants may become                   
eight inches in diameter. They grow best in a three inch pot.                   
                                                                                
The culture of miniature African violets is similar to that for                 
the standard sizes. Because of the small pots in which they grow,               
they need water more frequently than other house plants. Be sure                
to inspect them daily and add water as needed.                                  
                                                                                
Use a high-humus soil mixture. With the small quantity of soil in               
a two or three inch pot you may need to replant your miniature                  
violets somewhat more frequently than your other house plants.                  
Give them any standard African violet fertilizer dissolved in                   
water as instructed on the package. Always apply water at room                  
temperature.                                                                    
                                                                                
The miniature African violets seem to grow better with more light               
than the standard varieties. They respond better to daylight than               
to fluorescent tubes. They grow very well on a windowsill, but                  
should not be exposed to a bright hot sun.                                      
                                                                                
Propagate the miniature violets by leaf cuttings. Roots will                    
develop in damp vermiculite in about two weeks, and new leaves                  
will appear in about six weeks. When the young plants are one or                
two inches tall they may be set in one inch thumb pots, or                      
directly into the two inch permanent container. Be sure to                      
provide good drainage in the bottom of the pot.                                 
                                                                                
Miniature African violets are available in a wide variety of                    
flower colors including light and dark tones of violet, blue, or                
pink, as well as white and bicolor. Various leaf forms are also                 
available including plain, scalloped, ruffled, and variegated.                  
                                                                                
Miniature African violets are very useful as house plants in the                
average home because they require so little space. They are also                
ideal as favors at a party, or as place card holders at dinner.                 
Your guests will be grateful for such an interesting and useful                 
favor. You may also give miniature violets as prizes for superior               
displays at your flower show or garden club meeting. Terrariums                
                                                                                
A terrarium is a miniature enclosed garden which is a practical                 
and inexpensive way to bring some of the outdoors into the home                 
for enjoyment during the winter. An easy to assemble terrarium                  
will grow well for weeks with very little attention. If carefully               
planted with suitable materials, it will remain attractive for                  
many months.                                                                    
                                                                                
Terrariums might be thought of as miniature, self operating                     
greenhouses. The basic structural feature is a large glass                      
container which can be closed to retain a humid environment. The                
moisture condenses on the glass and is returned to the soil and                 
plants to be used again.                                                        
                                                                                
Many types of glass containers may be used. The most attractive                 
are large brandy glasses, goldfish bowls, or small or medium                    
sized rectangular aquariums. A piece of glass is needed as a                    
cover to retain a humid atmosphere. Half gallon or gallon jars                  
with metal or plastic covers may also be used.                                  
                                                                                
Terrariums may be woodland or tropical. A small area of woodland                
near your residence will provide enough plants for many                         
terrariums. Collect only a minimum of material. You will need                   
only a few healthy small specimens.                                             
                                                                                
Mosses, ferns, and seedling evergreens not over four or five                    
inches tall, are the principal plant materials you need for a                   
woodland terrarium. Partridge berry plants add interest if they                 
are available in your area. Small dracaenas and table palms may                 
be secured from your garden center for a tropical terrarium.                    
                                                                                
Most flowering plants are not suited to the conditions in a                     
terrarium. You may secure blooms from miniature African violets                 
or small wax begonias if you want to try these items.                           
                                                                                
To complete a woodland scene you can use some small weathered                   
rocks, especially some with lichens attached. Bark or twigs with                
fungus, tiny hemlock cones, and acorns may be used to create a                  
naturalistic effect.                                                            
                                                                                
Start assembling your terrarium by washing your container with                  
strong detergent until it is sparkling clean. Place a layer of                  
small stones in the bottom for drainage and add a layer of                      
activated charcoal which can be purchased from an aquarium supply               
store. The charcoal will absorb gases and prevent souring of the                
soil. Now add a layer of soil mixture composed of equal parts of                
clean sand and leafmold or shredded peat moss.                                  
                                                                                
Do not use too many plants in your terrarium. Even though the                   
plants are small and will grow slowly, they will need plenty of                 
room. A few interesting specimens will be more attractive than a                
crowded collection. No plant leaves should touch the glass.                     
                                                                                
Insert your small evergreen trees first. Unless the container is                
quite large, only one or two will be needed. Then plant your                    
dwarf ferns, and fill the remaining space with moss. Appropriate                
sized stones may be allowed to protrude and create a typical                    
woodland effect. And last, you may insert some small pieces of                  
bark, tiny hemlock cones, or acorns. Do not clutter your                        
terrarium with too much material.                                               
                                                                                
Water your plants lightly with a bulb sprayer and put on the                    
glass cover. Locate your terrarium in a cool room out of                        
sunlight. It will need to be watered about every three or four                  
weeks. Water from the humid atmosphere inside will collect on the               
glass in the form of small beads. If the entire surface is                      
covered with mist, remove the cover for a few hours to allow the                
plants to dry off.                                                              
                                                                                
Container Drainage                                                             
                                                                                
The practice of placing gravel or some other material in the                    
bottom of the container is commonly reccommended to improve                     
drainage. Unfortunately, it can do just the opposite; more                      
container-grown plants are killed by overwatering and poor                      
drainage than by any other cultural practice, or any disease or                 
insect.                                                                         
                                                                                
When gravel or other coarse materials are put in the bottom of a                
container, they, in effect, raise the level at which water                      
drainage stops. They make the discontinuous column even shorter                 
and decrease rather than increase container drainage. This                      
negative effect can be either made worse, or lessened, by the                   
type of growing medium used and by the depth of the container.                  
                                                                                
If the growing medium is composed of materials that create very                 
small pores or air spaces, the medium will retain large                         
quantities of water and will drain less rapidly. This is one                    
reason regular garden soil is a very bad choice for a container                 
medium - its air spaces are very small. A mix of organic matter                 
such as compost or peatmoss combined with an inorganic material                 
such as perlitw or vermiculite will create much larger pore                     
spaces and will therefore be better drained.                                    
                                                                                
With regard to container depth, the shallower the container the                 
shorter the drainage column. Water drains downward in a container               
to a zone where all of the pores are filled with water and none                 
with air - (called the "perched water" table or zone).                          
                                                                                
For any type of medium this perched zone will be the same height.               
Therefore if the perched zone for a particular medium is one inch               
from the bottom of a container, for a six-inch-tall container                   
filled to the top there will be five inches of medium that can                  
drain well. Combine a short container with a medium that is not                 
very porous and the plant's roots will struggle to find adequate                
air. Combine that with a raised water line because you've put in                
pot shards or gravel, and the roots will actually often drown.                  
Container diameter has no influence on the height of the perched                
water zone; only depth matters in this connection.                              
                                                                                
With plastic, metal or glazed containers, all air that diffuses                 
into the soil enters either through the "soil" surface or through               
the drainage holes. If an unglazed clay pot is used, air can also               
enter through the pores in the clay (until theu become plugged                  
with medium oarticles or salts). An unglazed clay pot is                        
therefore the better choice for someone who tends to overwater;                 
and placing "drainage materials" in the other types of pots will                
not make up the aeration difference.                                            
                                                                                
As the time a plant spends in any one container increases, so too               
will the drainage problem. Organic materials (peatmoss, compost,                
bark etc.) in the medium will break down and decrease in volume.                
As the medium is continually watered it will be compacted. As it                
shrinks in volume and is compacted by watering the medium column                
will get shorter and shorter, as will the drainage column. After                
a plant has been expected to grow for a couple of years in a                    
shallow container filled with a non-porous medium it wil be lucky               
if any efforts can save it.                                                     
                                                                                
If you know that you have been doing any of these things that                   
could interfere with healthy root growth, carefully remove the                  
container and examine the plant's roots. Healthy roots on most                  
plants will be white or tan and the medium will simply have an                  
earthy smell. If the roots are brown or black and mushy when                    
touched, or if the medium has a foul, decaying odor, or both,                   
there has to be too much water in the medium. Trim off the dead                 
roots and repot your plant in a deeper pot with a more porous                   
medium. You may want to trim the top back at the same time, so                  
the limited roots won't have so much top growth to support.                     
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                               
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Ellen Silva, Horticulture Extension               
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home                  
Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                       
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                        
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Kiwi fruit								  34 lines                                                    
Persian violets							  29 lines                                                
Propagating and Harvesting French Tarragon		  16 lines                          
Sweet Cherry Pollination						  15 lines                                        
Symptoms of Incorrect Light Levels for Houseplants  25 lines                    
Increasing Humidity for Houseplants			  20 lines                                
Storing Potatoes							  31 lines                                               
Repotting Indoor Foliage Plants				  20 lines                                   
Inkberry Holly								  14 lines                                                
Growing Impatiens Indoors					  16 lines                                        
Caring for Streptocarpus						  15 lines                                        
                                                                                
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I have enjoyed kiwi fruit purchased at the grocery store, but                   
wish it were less expensive.  Can it be grown in the home garden                
in Virginia?                                                                    
                                                                                
Kiwi fruit, a fuzzy, egg-shaped fruit with a delicious, sweet/ta-               
rt flavor, can indeed be grown in Virginia.  There are actually                 
two species that can be grown in Virginia, Actinidia chinensis                  
and A. arguta.  A. chinensis, the typical grocery store kiwi, is                
a semi-tropical vine suited only to the eastern part of the                     
state.  A. arguta, the hardy kiwi, can be grown throughout the                  
state and produces a small, grape-sized, fuzzless fruit that can                
be eaten without peeling.  Both bear very heavy yields 2-5 years                
after     planting.                                                             
                                                                                
Grow the vigorous vines on a very sturdy arbor, trellis, or fence               
as for grapes.  Trellis posts should be 4"-6" in diameter and set               
2'-3' deep to support the very heavy mature plant.  Kiwi will                   
thrive in sun or light shade in rich or infertile soil, but                     
requires a very well-drained site as the roots are susceptible to               
rot.  Shade the root zone with mulch or a ground cover, and give                
extra water during dry spells until well established.  Both                     
species require the presence of a male plant for pollination,                   
with one male required for every 4 to 8 females.  One hardy kiwi                
variety, `Issai', is self-fruitful.  Prune the vines during the                 
winter for best fruit production.  Remove 3 year-old fruiting                   
branches along with any damaged wood and excessive first year                   
growth.  The fragrant, white flowers are borne in spring,                       
followed by the fruit which should reach full size by midsummer.                
Test for maturity by picking a few fruits and letting them soften               
and ripen to the firmness of a ripe peach.  Under-mature fruits                 
will shrivel rather than soften.  If freshly picked fruit is                    
place immediately in the refrigerator it will keep 8-12 weeks.                  
Remove the fruit several days before use to allow time for it to                
ripen.                                                                          
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
What are `Persian violets'? Are they related to African violets?                
                                                                                
Persian violets are not related to African violets, but they do                 
make as nice a houseplant.  There are actually two plants                       
commonly known as Persian violets, Cyclamen purpurascens, the                   
florist's cyclamen, and Exacum affine, also known as German or                  
Arabian violets.  The florist's cyclamen is usually purchased in                
bloom.  The numerous flowers, varying in color from white to deep               
red and purple, are held well above the attractive silver marked                
foliage.  The plants will bloom for 2 to 3 months, longer in                    
cooler rooms or when the surrounding humidity is high.  Place                   
them in bright light without direct sun and water only after the                
soil has become moderately dry.  Remove faded flowers and leaves.               
                                                                                
To bring the plant into flower the following year, gradually                    
reduce watering when the blooming period is over.  Let the soil                 
dry after all of the leaves fade, and store in a cool place for                 
the summer.  As new growth begins in the fall, repot the tuber,                 
bring it into the light, and start watering, keeping the soil                   
barely moist.  After the leaves develop, begin feeding every                    
other week with a standard houseplant fertilizer.                               
                                                                                
Exacum is also generally purchased in bloom.  Its lavender                      
flowers with bright yellow centers nearly cover its glossy                      
leaves, making it a very desirable houseplant.  Grow it in bright               
light but not strong direct sunlight, in a room with normally                   
warm temperatures.  Place the pots on trays of moist pebbles to                 
provide the high humidity exacum needs.  Pinch off fading flowers               
to encourage more blooms and bushy growth.  When the plant                      
becomes straggly, root cuttings to replace the parent plant.                    
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
I would like to increase my planting of French Tarragon.  How can               
I get it to set seed?  How can I maximize my harvest?                           
                                                                                
French Tarragon, Artemisia Dracunculus, does not set seed.  It                  
must be propagated vegetatively, that is, by taking cuttings or                 
making root divisions.  Perform this task in the spring.  French                
Tarragon needs to be reestablished in one of these ways every                   
three years or so to keep the plant from dying out.  Keep the                   
plant growing well by adding organic matter to the soil and                     
watering during dry spells.  This plant prefers light shade, so                 
plant it in a spot that might not be sunny enough for other                     
herbs.  When the plant is well established it will tolerate two                 
or three cuttings a year, the first and heaviest in June,                       
followed by lighter cuttings in July and August.  Alternatively,                
you may make light harvests continually throughout the summer                   
which will encourage new branches to grow.                                      
 -------------------                                                            
                                                                                
My three sweet cherry trees bloom every spring but never bear                   
fruit.  What could be the problem?  The varieties I am growing                  
are `Bing', `Napoleon', and `Lambert'.                                          
                                                                                
`Bing', `Napoleon', and `Lambert' are all late-blooming varieties               
of sweet cherries.  Unfortunately, though they bloom at the same                
time, they are unable to cross-pollinate each other.  You need to               
plant a cross-compatible variety such as `Viva' or `Valera' for                 
good pollination.  These varieties are early bloomers but the                   
flowering seasons overlap sufficiently for fruit production.                    
Another consideration in selecting cherry varieties is the amount               
of cracking in the ripe fruit.  Both `Viva' and `Valera' show                   
little cracking in Virginia while `Bing' shows quite alot.  If                  
you have no room to plant an additional tree, replace `Bing' with               
`Viva' or `Valera'.                                                             
                                                                                
 ------------------                                                             
                                                                                
How can I tell if my houseplants are getting the right amount of                
light?                                                                          
                                                                                
One of the most common signs of inadequate light is yellow and                  
dropping leaves.  That is also one of the most common signs of                  
too much light.  To figure out if either of these situations is                 
your problem, you will have to look more carefully at your                      
plants.  Flowering plants that don't flower, any plants with                    
leaves angled toward the light and long, spindly stems, plants                  
such as coleus whose red pigments have faded, or plants whose new               
leaves are smaller are all showing signs of inadequate light.                   
Either move these plants to a brighter spot or supplement natural               
light with artificial light.  Foliage plants require nothing more               
than an inexpensive, cool, white flourescent lamp;  combine a                   
cool white lamp with a warm red lamp to ensure the best bloom in                
flowering plants.  When your plant's leaves show signs of overall               
yellowing or have large spots of dry, dead tissue known as leaf                 
scorch or leaf burn, the problem may be too much light.  Use a                  
diffuser curtain to reduce the amount of direct sunlight hitting                
the plant, or move it further away from the window.  Even if the                
light level is correct for a given plant the same symptoms may                  
develop if it was moved straight from a low light intensity to a                
much brighter spot.  Make such moves gradually to allow the plant               
to adjust to the new light levels.                                              
                                                                                
 ------------------                                                             
                                                                                
It gets very dry in my house in the winter.  Does this hurt my                  
plants?  What can I do to help?                                                 
                                                                                
Most plants prefer a relative humidity of 50-60%.  During the                   
winter, most homes have a relative humidity of 10-15%.  Low                     
humidities such as these can cause plant leaf edges and tips to                 
brown, flower buds to brown and fall off, and keep the whole                    
plant from thriving.  The best solution is to use a humidifier of               
some sort to raise the relative humidity of the whole house or                  
the room where the plants are located.  This will not only help                 
the plants but will make the house more comfortable for human                   
inhabitants.  If this is not practical, try growing the plants in               
the kitchen or bathroom, where the air is naturally humid.  Small               
plants can be grown in a terrarium, where humidity levels are                   
easily kept high.  Place plants in groups where the water vapor                 
given off by each plant benefits the others.  Even better, group                
the plants on a tray of moistened pebbles or long-fibered                       
sphagnum moss.  This will raise the local humidity to an                        
acceptable level.  Misting the plants once or twice a day helps,                
but is really a very short-term remedy.                                         
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
How can I keep my stored potatoes from sprouting? I dig my                      
potatoes in September and keep them in a cool basement, but by                  
March they are shriveled and have sprouts two feet long. Can I                  
spray a chemical on them to prevent this?                                       
                                                                                
Commercial potato growers do spray antisprouting chemicals on the               
vines in the fields, but these chemicals are not available to                   
home growers.  Commercial potato storage operators also control                 
sprouting by fumigation, obviously not a process usable in home                 
storage.  Furthermore, there is some question as to the safety of               
the various chemicals being used for these purposes.  The best                  
route for the home gardener to take is to plant the right                       
varieties at the right time, prepare the tubers properly for                    
storage, and store them under the correct conditions.                           
                                                                                
Late-maturing potatoes are best suited for storage because they                 
are harvested at a time when it is easier to meet the cool, moist               
storage conditions potatoes require.  `Norgold Russet',                         
`Burbank', and `Kennebec' are all notable good keepers.  Check                  
your seed catalogs for other recommendations.  Harvest when the                 
potatoes are mature and the tops have completely dried.  There is               
no need to rush harvest - the tubers may remain in the ground for               
several weeks after the potato foliage dies back.  After digging                
the potatoes, cure the tubers in a moist, dark location for one                 
to two weeks at 60 degrees to 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Then store                 
them in a dark location at 35 degrees to 40 degrees Fahrenheit                  
and with a high humidity of around 90 per cent.  Light promotes                 
sprouting and will turn the potatoes green and inedible.                        
Periodically remove the sprouts by hand during the winter. It is                
the sprout growth combined with low humidity that shrivels the                  
potato.                                                                         
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
When should I repot my indoor foliage plants? How do I go about                 
it?                                                                             
                                                                                
Permanent houseplants usually need to be repotted annually until                
they attain their final size.  The best time for this procedure                 
is during a slow growth period, which will be during early spring               
for most plants.  Check the drainage holes of the pots to see if                
any roots are showing. If so, the plant is probably potbound and                
needs repotting. For best growth, the plant should be moved to a                
pot that has a diameter 1 to 1 1/2 inches larger than the one it                
is presently growing in.                                                        
                                                                                
Cover your work area with newspapers.  Prepare the new pot with a               
layer of potting soil at the bottom that is deep enough to hold                 
the plant at the desired height.  Place your hand over the old                  
pot with the plant extending between your fingers.  Turn it over                
and gently knock the root ball out of the pot.  Place the plant                 
in the larger pot then pour potting soil around the root ball.                  
Tamp or firm the soil gently with your finger tips as you fill                  
the pot.   Cover the root ball to the same depth it was                         
previously. Leave 1 to 1 1/2 inches of pot rim above the soil to                
facilitate watering.  Water thoroughly.  Place the plant in a                   
low-light area for a few days, then return it to its normal                     
location.  Do not apply any houseplant food for several weeks as                
the new potting soil will meet the plants needs.                                
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
Can you recommend an evergreen plant for use as a foundation                    
plant in a poorly drained site?  I would prefer something that                  
doesn't require much maintenance.                                               
                                                                                
One possibility would be the inkberry holly, Ilex glabra.  It is                
a very hardy evergreen shrub that does well in poorly drained                   
sites.  Its leathery leaves are glossy and dark green.  In May it               
has inconspicuous flowers which attract bees and are followed by                
black berries when a male plant is nearby to pollinate the                      
flowers.  The female cloned variety `Compacta' grows to a height                
of 3 to 3 1/2 feet with a 3 1/2 to 4 foot spread, making this                   
shrub very suitable for use as a foundation plant or for use in                 
an informal hedge.  Pruning would not be necessary to keep this                 
plant in bounds for such uses.                                                  
                                                                                
 ------------------                                                             
                                                                                
I have enjoyed impatiens in my garden all summer.  How can I grow               
them in my house during the winter?                                             
                                                                                
Impatiens, Impatiens wallerana, can easily be enjoyed as a                      
houseplant.  Cuttings taken from plants growing in the garden can               
be rooted in water and potted up for winter enjoyment.  The plant               
may also be purchased already growing as a houseplant.  Any soil                
will do for impatiens plants, as long as it is not highly                       
fertile.  Too rich a potting mix will discourage blooming and                   
encourage leggy growth.  When grown indoors the plant requires                  
some sun to bloom; an east or west window would provide enough                  
light for good growth and blooming.  The New Guinea hybrids                     
require more sun and require a south facing window.  The plants                 
will do well in rooms of average temperatures.  As the conditions               
get warmer the plants will need more water.  Impatiens have a                   
tendency to get leggy as they grow.  When this happens, simply                  
take new cuttings and start over.                                               
                                                                                
 ----------------                                                               
                                                                                
I have been given a streptocarpus as a gift.  How do I care for                 
it?                                                                             
                                                                                
Streptocarpus species, also known as cape primrose, are very                    
attractive flowering plants with their trumpet-shaped flowers and               
long primroselike leaves.  They are related to African violets                  
and require similar care.                                                       
                                                                                
Equal parts of good garden soil, granulated peat and sand are a                 
satisfactory soil mixture. They thrive in bright light but not                  
direct sun.  Set the pot on a layer of pebbles, and water the                   
pebbles whenever the plant is watered to provide high humidity                  
around the plant.                                                               
                                                                                
Water the plant liberally to encourage more flowers while the                   
plant is actively growing, but as blooming diminishes, so should                
watering.  When the plant ceases to bloom, allow the soil to dry                
almost completely between waterings.  Ferilize with a liquid                    
fertilizer every two weeks while the plant is blooming.                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
FEBRUARY NOTES                                                                  
                                                                                
* Planning pays off in the intensively cultivated vegetable                     
garden. If you are a novice vegetable gardener, request Publicat-               
ion 836, "Guide to the Beginning Gardener" from your local                      
extension agent. If you are more experienced but have specific                  
questions, there are over 80 fact sheets available to assist you.               
                                                                                
* Plan on hanging a few vegetables this spring, not for criminal                
offense, but for a convenient harvest on your porch or deck. Bush               
cucumbers, small tomato varieties, even lettuce and spinach                     
can be grown in hanging baskets. Many herbs including chives,                   
parsley, and thyme are well-suited to baskets.                                  
                                                                                
* Something new --- True Potato Seed (T.P.S.) are exactly                       
what they are called, true seed (not seed pieces from the tuber)                
for producing a potato crop. The variety Explorer represents                    
a significant breakthrough in potato breeding. Watch for it in                  
catalogs.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Water shrubs in your landscape if the soil is dry. Evergreen                  
plants transpire water from their leaves whenever air temperature               
is above 40 degrees F.                                                          
                                                                                
* Shrubs for spring planting should be ordered now. Bare root,                  
deciduous types should be planted while still dormant, about                    
1 month before the average date of last frost in your area. Hardy               
container-grown and balled and burlapped shrubs may be planted                  
anytime except during severe cold weather.                                      
                                                                                
* Time to transplant deciduous native plants if the ground is                   
not too wet or too frozen.                                                      
                                                                                
* Don't remove your mulch too early. A warm day may make you                    
think spring is almost here but there may be more cold weather                  
yet to come.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Bring branches of spring flowering shrubs and fruit trees                     
indoors to force into bloom. Within about 3 weeks, their flowers                
bring a promise of spring.                                                      
                                                                                
* Don't start your vegetable and flower plants indoors too                      
early. Six weeks ahead of the expected planting date is early                   
enough for the fast-growth species. Eight weeks allows enough                   
time for the slower-growing types.                                              
                                                                                
* Prune shrubs and trees on warm days this month after the                      
coldest weather is past in your area. In the cooler mountain                    
areas of Virginia wait until late February. Wait until early                    
summer to prune your spring flowering shrubs in order to get                    
maximum blossoms.                                                               
                                                                                
* Work the area for early spring garden crops as soon as pos-                   
sible. Apply lime if your soil tests indicate a need. Peas,                     
onions, and Irish potatoes can be planted before March 1 in                     
eastern Virginia.                                                               
                                                                                
* Fruit trees such as peaches, pears, apples and plums can be                   
sprayed with dormant oils to reduce insect problems.                            
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and grapes in late February or early March                  
after the worst of the winter cold is passed but before spring                  
growth begins.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Order gladiolus corms now for planting later in the spring                    
after all danger of frost has passed. Locate in full sun in                     
well-drained soil.                                                              
                                                                                
* Bare-rooted trees and shrubs can be planted in late winter                    
while still dormant. Prune off dead or damaged roots and plant                  
in a hole large enough to accommodate root spread in a natural                  
shape. Prune top to compensate for loss of roots.                               
                                                                                
* Kerosene heaters in a small home greenhouse may damage plants                 
from the fumes produced.                                                        
                                                                                
* Root pruning will enhance success of transplanting trees and                  
shrubs if you can wait until next year to move them. This spring                
use a sharp spade to cut a circle 8 inches deep around the                      
plant. (Distance from the trunk will depend on plant size.) New                 
roots form inside this circle during the growing season and can                 
be moved to the new location next spring.                                       
                                                                                
* On mild, sunny days be sure to ventilate cold frames and green-               
houses.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Onion seeds for transplants can be sown indoors early this                    
month.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Order your vegetable and annual flower seeds now while you                    
still have a selection.                                                         
                                                                                
* Remove honeysuckle and other weedy vines from deciduous plants                
while the plants are still leafless. It's easier to distinguish                 
between the weeds and desired plants.                                           
                                                                                
* Gardening in a raised bed improves drainage and gives an                      
earlier start in areas with cold, wet soil.                                     
                                                                                
* If your soil dries out extra fast in the summer, you may                      
experiment with gardening in a depression. Prepare soil in a hole               
or trough several inches below the surface of paths to reduce                   
evaporation and make watering easier.                                           
                                                                                
* Tired of Christmas poinsettia? Don't feel guilty if you toss                  
it out. It, like the Christmas tree, has its seasonal symbolism                 
that many of us prefer to keep intact.                                          
                                                                                
* Use some of the coldest days of February to sit by a fire and                 
read a good gardening book. It will give you ideas and inspira-                 
tion for the spring.                                                            
                                                                                
* Pressed flowers collected last summer or pictures from your old               
garden catalogs can be used to add a romantic floral touch to an                
old-fashioned valentine.                                                        
                                                                                
* Make labels for this spring's garden.  Plastic milk jugs or                   
bleach bottles cut in strips 1 inch by 6 or 7 work well. Use                    
permanent ink markers to write on them.                                         
                                                                                
* Grape vine pruning can be made into attractive wreaths decorat-               
ed with hearts or birds nests as a valentine gift or made into a                
heart shape over a wire frame.                                                  
                                                                                
* Wash your house plants and your windows occasionally to get the               
maximum light to the leaves. Showers for your plants will also                  
help reduce pests such as spider mites.                                         
                                                                                
* If you have seed left from last year, test for germination by                 
placing 10 or 20 in a moist paper towel and covering with                       
plastic. If seed germination is poor, order new seeds - the                     
smallest investment in your gardening budget.                                   
                                                                                
* Check any vegetables you have in storage. Use or dispose of                   
any that show signs of shriveling or rotting.                                   
                                                                                
* Ever wonder why apricots don't set much fruit in Virginia? It                 
is because of the warm days in February or March that encourage                 
the apricot to break dormancy and bloom - only to be followed by                
more freezing weather that knocks the fruit off.                                
                                                                                
* If a warm weekend shows up, consider working an area in the                   
garden for early spring planting. But check the soil first; it                  
should be dry enough to crumble in your hand before you work it.                
                                                                                
* For those who enjoy growing annual herbs but are frustrated by                
the number of extra seed in each packet, make a thoughtful gift                 
for friends or co-workers. On a card draw a design for a small                  
herb garden, then divide the seed from the packet into small                    
envelopes such as a stamp collectors use. Tape the seed to the                  
garden plan and offer a few cultural hints.                                     
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of "heaving" amoung your perennials and small                 
shrubs. The freezing and thawing of the ground can force shallow-               
rooted plants out of the soil. Replant any that have been                       
"heaved" and mulch with 2 inches of organic material to reduce                  
soil temperature fluctuation.                                                   
                                                                                
* In most of Virginia it's too early to start all but your                      
slowestgrowing seed (such as onions), but it's not too early to                 
start getting ready. Gather and wash seeding flats. Treat with a                
1:10 bleach solution to kill micro-organisms. Collect "pots"                    
for transplanting seedings such as styrofoam cups, 3-inch deep                  
bands cut from quart milk jugs, etc.                                            
                                                                                
* Start building up your supply of gardening aids such as plastic               
milk jugs for hot caps and orange juice cans to make guards to                  
stop cut worms.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Cold winds this month should remind you to order evergreen                    
windbreaks. Some suggestions: American arborvitae, Austrian                     
pine, Canadian hemlock, white spruce.                                           
                                                                                
* For cut flowers this summer, order phlox, daisies, dahlias,                   
cosmos, asters, gladiolus, and lilies.                                          
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and shade trees as buds begin to swell. For                 
disease and insect control, cut out dead wood and dispose of the                
prunings.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Apple and pear trees are best trained with a modified central                 
leader. Prune to maintain a pyramidal shape--wide at the bottom,                
gradually tapering toward the top. Order publication 426-841 for                
complete instructions.                                                          
                                                                                
* Peaches grow best when maintained with an open center (no                     
central leader). Keep three or four strong scaffold branches                    
evenly distributed around the trunk. Limbs which branch out at a                
60 degree angle are preferred, but spreaders can be used to                     
widen narrow crotch angles.                                                     
                                                                                
* Prune grapes, roses, bush fruits, foliage shrubs, and shrubs                  
which flower in summer while dormant but after the coldest part                 
of winter.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Branches of forsythia, pussy willow, quince, spirea, and                      
dogwood can be forced for indoor bloom. Make long, slanted cuts                 
when collecting the branches and place them in a vase of water.                 
Change the water every four days.                                               
                                                                                
* Bring some apple, cherry, and peach boughs indoors for forcing.               
While the color of fruit blossoms are somewhat pale when forced                 
they hint of the spring show ahead.                                             
                                                                                
* Incorporate any organic matter which you spread on the garden                 
this fall as soon as the soil is thawed and drained.                            
                                                                                
* For an early crop, sow spinach seed in well-drained soil which                
was turned over in autumn. Cover lightly with strawy manure.                    
                                                                                
* Pinch off early buds from developing pansies to encourage                     
plants to branch and form more buds.                                            
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of growth in spring bulbs. Start removing mulch               
gradually when foliage is 1" high. Cloudy days are best best for                
the intial exposure of the leaves as strong sunlight can burn                   
tender foliage.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Fertilize fruit trees as soon as possible after the ground                    
thaws but before blossom time.                                                  
                                                                                
* If bird feeding has been a favorite activity this winter,                     
order trees and shrubs which provide cover and small fruits for                 
your feathered friends. Consider species such as crabapple,                     
hawthorn, holly, dogwood, and pyracantha which help lure hungery                
birds from cultivated fruits, if planted on the opposite side of                
the yard.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Check valuable trees and shrubs for silvery gray, foamy-looking               
tent caterpillar egg masses and bag worms. Remove egg cases to                  
reduce the number of destructive pests this spring.                             
                                                                                
* As a mid-winter project grow plants from fruit seeds. Oranges,                
grapefruits, lemons, tangerines, and pomegranates may have viable               
seed. Try germinating them in a light potting soil mixture                      
containing half peat moss. Keep seeds well watered and in a                     
warm location. If seedlings fail to appear in six weeks, try                    
again.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Citrus plants grown from seeds generally will not produce                     
flowers or fruit, but they will have attractive shiny-leaved                    
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Blueberries are self-sterile. Be sure to plan for more than                   
one variety to achieve pollination necessary for fruit. High                    
bush blueberries make attractive ornamental hedges with bright                  
red fall color.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Design a flower bed for a shady area. Plan to try impatiens,                  
foxgloves, rosy vinca, begonias,and browallia.                                  
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
February 1986 Press Releases                                                    
                                                                                
Stems of Flowering Shrubs for Winter Decoration      52 lines                   
Pruning Summer Flowering Shrubs                      37 lines                   
Cabbage                                              53 lines                   
Planting Early Vegetables                            54 lines                   
Houseplants from Groceries                           37 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Stems of Flowering Shrubs for Winter Decoration                                 
                                                                                
     The stems of many types of flowering shrubs and trees may be               
used for beautiful winter arrangements. Those brown stems on your               
forsythia and other spring flowering shrubs will burst into bloom               
if you bring them into the house, unless they bloomed extensively               
last fall as they did in many parts of the state. Branches which                
have been out in the cold all winter are ready to break dormancy.               
Indoors they will bloom in a relatively short time once exposed                 
to warm temperatures.                                                           
     Do not be afraid that you will damage your shrubs by the                   
removal of a few stems. The cutting of branches from vigorous                   
shrubs is a beneficial part of the pruning operation. This will                 
help to renew the growth, and keep the bush in a well-proportion-               
ed form.                                                                        
     When cutting stems for indoor use, select those with                       
well-spaced side branches. Make a slanting cut at the base and                  
place the stem in a container of cool, fresh water. Remove any                  
buds or leaves from the part which will be under the water.                     
Place the dormant branches in a warm, well-lighted room until the               
flowers appear.                                                                 
     Open, spreading growth produces the best cut stems. The best               
branches can be secured from shrubs located on the edge of an                   
open lawn area or in a wide mixed border planting. Shrubs in the                
foundation planting which are heavily pruned will not provide                   
attractive, well-shaped branches.                                               
     Many types of flowering shrubs and trees add interest                      
and beauty to your landscape and supply branches for decorative                 
use. If you don't have them already, plant some of the following                
kinds this spring:                                                              
     Forsythia is one of the most popular spring flowering shrubs               
with bright yellow flowers which appear before the foliage.                     
     Winter Honeysuckle is a medium-size spreading shrub which                  
produces fragrant white flowers in April. The berries are                       
attractive to birds.                                                            
     Fragrant Viburnum is a tall, erect shrub which has fragrant                
pink to white flowers in late March.                                            
     Japanese Andromeda is a tall, compact, bushy evergreen shrub               
with white, urn-shaped flowers in sprays resembling Lily-of-the--               
Valley in late April.                                                           
     Mountain Andromeda is a medium-size, compact, slow growing                 
shrub which produces white flowers in upright open panicles.                    
     Pussy Willow has large silky gray buds which add unique                    
interest to early spring flower arrangements.                                   
     Fruit trees of many types can provide branches for early                   
spring forcing. The flowers of cherry, pear and plum are white.                 
Apple and peach flowers have attractive pink tones.                             
     Red Maple produces interesting stems when the small flowers                
develop and the young leaves first appear.                                      
     Horse Chestnut branches have showy flowers and attractive                  
young foliage.                                                                  
     For especially attractive arrangements, try mixing some of                 
the branches from different plants.                                             
                                                                                
Pruning Summer Flowering Shrubs                                                 
                                                                                
     Before the first signs of spring arrive, there are some                    
chores that the home gardener should do. Pruning of summer                      
flowering shrubs is one of those tasks.                                         
     The blooms of summer flowering shrubs develop on new wood;                 
therefore, in early spring, before the new growth begins, these                 
shrubs should be pruned. Here are suggestions on how to prune                   
some of the common summer flowering shrubs.                                     
                                                                                
Butterflybush--Cut the stems to the ground every year to promote                
new growth and produce large flower stalks.                                     
                                                                                
Crepe myrtle--Prune to control the shape and produce flowers. If                
this plant isn't pruned, it will produce small flowers or no                    
flowers at all. Heavy pruning is needed for vivid flower dis-                   
plays.                                                                          
                                                                                
Hydrangea--Prune back to a few buds to promote new growth. Cut                  
out crowded stems as necessary.                                                 
                                                                                
Magnolia--Cut back the tips of new shoots when necessary to shape               
the plant. Do not prune the branches except when a poorly shaped                
or damaged plant must be reshaped.                                              
                                                                                
Hypericum St. Johnswort--Thin crowded branches and cut other                    
branches back, leaving about two buds on each branch.                           
                                                                                
Spirea--Some common summer flowering types are Anthony Waterer,                 
Bumalda, Japanese and Billiard. Remove crowded stems as necessary               
and cut other stems back to a few buds. Remove the seed pods when               
they form.                                                                      
                                                                                
Sumac--The common types are staghorn and smooth sumac. Prune the                
stems to the grounds to promote new growth. Sumac can be trained                
to grow as a tree when only one stem is allowed to grow.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Cabbage                                                                         
                                                                                
     Remember cabbage when you start planning your spring                       
garden. This crop grows best during cool, humid weather. Well-                  
hardened plants will survive temperatures as low as 20 degrees                  
Fahrenheit.                                                                     
     You need not worry much about frost with this crop. Cabbage                
plants may safely be set in your garden about a month before the                
average date of the last frost in your area. Sow seeds indoors                  
about six or eight weeks earlier, to produce the young plants you               
need.                                                                           
     The edible part of cabbage is an enormous terminal bud,                    
composed of large leaves in a compact head. It is rich in                       
vitamins C and A, and quite low in calories. Cabbage is an                      
excellent food because it provides roughage to aid digestion, and               
in the raw form, it is a good cleanser for teeth and gums.                      
     Consider the different types of cabbage when you order your                
seeds. Popular green varieties are available for early, midseason               
and late maturity. Also try the red or purple types which will                  
add new interest when used for cole slaw or salad.                              
     Are you familar with the savoy cabbage? This type has                      
puckered or wrinkled leaves. The head does not become as hard as                
the green or red types. Savoy cabbage has a pleasant mild                       
flavor when served raw or cooked.                                               
     In selecting varieties of cabbage, look for those which are                
resistant to yellows. This fungus disease lives over winter in                  
the soil and is easy to control if you rotate crops and select                  
resistant varieties.                                                            
     Six to a dozen plants should give a family all the early                   
cabbage they need. Follow this with successive plantings of seeds               
to provide a continuous supply during the summer and fall.                      
     Promote vigorous growth with adequate water, and mulch to                  
conserve soil moisture. Do not allow the soil to become dry when                
the plants approach maturity. If you apply water, or have a good                
rainstorm after a drought, your cabbage heads may split open. To                
reduce splitting cut the roots on one side of the plant with a                  
sharp spade.                                                                    
     Cabbages may be harvested for home use over a period of                    
several weeks. Trim them carefully, leaving as many green leaves                
as possible. These outer leaves are the most nutritious.                        
     Cabbage may be served in many ways to tempt the appetite. In               
the raw form it is delicious as cole slaw, or when mixed with                   
apples and raisins as a combination salad. As a cooked vegetable,               
cabbage may be boiled, stuffed, or used in soup. It is a particu-               
larly tasty dish when combined with cheese in a casserole.                      
     One type of cabbage which may not be successful if planted                 
now is the Chinese cabbage. If sown in the spring for a summer                  
crop, the temperature may get too high before a good head is                    
formed and the plants may go to seed rather than make good heads.               
Chinese cabbage should be planted in midsummer about 90 days                    
before the average first fall frost date. It will then form crisp               
firm heads which may be used as coleslaw, salad, or boiled.                     
                                                                                
Planting Early Crops                                                            
                                                                                
     It is time to plant early vegetables in your garden. You may               
sow the hardy types about a month before the average last frost                 
date in your area. It is late already in some parts of Virginia.                
     To promote vigorous growth, apply a liberal application of                 
5-10-5 fertilizer when you plow your garden. Broadcast about four               
pounds per 100 square feet and disc it into the top five inches                 
of soil before planting.                                                        
     Do not cover seeds too deeply in your early plantings. The                 
soil is cool and moist and the seeds need only a light covering.                
A depth of two or three times their longest dimension is plenty.                
     Lettuce is one of the best early crops. Try Salad Bowl if                  
you have not selected it before. It is a leaf lettuce which grows               
very well even after warm weather arrives. Great Lakes is a                     
dependable lettuce of the solid, crisp-head type in areas where                 
spring is long and cool. However in much of Virginia it is very                 
difficult to get a good yield on crisp-head types of lettuse due                
to the heat. If you have had trouble producing a headed lettuse,                
you should also include a few plants of Buttercrunch. This is an                
All America Selection of the Bibb type which has thick, tender,                 
delicious quality in  a loose head. The Cos or Romaine type                     
lettuce are also quite heat tolerant and produce an attractive                  
elongated head.                                                                 
     Include a few radishes in your early garden, but not too                   
many. They will be ready to eat in about four weeks, but will                   
become quite sharp in flavor as soon as warm weather arrives.                   
     Secure some onion sets or small plants from your local                     
garden center of seed source. They will grow rapidly and soon be                
ready for use as early green onions. Silverskin is a mild white                 
variety which is ideal for this purpose.                                        
     Nothing surpasses the delicious sweet flavor of early green                
peas, fresh from the garden. Try Alaska or Greater Progress. All                
of these will be ready to pick in about 60 days. Wando matures                  
about a week later but will tolerate warm weather better than                   
most other peas. Also consider the edible-podded peas for an                    
early crop. The snow peas can be sown at the same time as other                 
green peas; however, the snap peas such as Sugar Snap will                      
germinate better if the soil has warmed slightly.                               
     For early greens, plant mustard. Tendergreen and Southern                  
Giant Curled varieties will be ready to harvest in five or six                  
weeks. Kale is another crop for greens which should be in your                  
early garden. Dwarf Blue Curled Vates is ready to harvest in                    
about eight weeks.                                                              
     Broccoli is an easy crop for the home garden. You will need                
to spray or dust a few times to control the green cabbage worms.                
Premium Crop is fine for the early crop because it tolerates                    
heat. Be sure to include early cabbage in the spring garden.                    
Plant yellows resistant varieties such as Stonehead. You will be                
able to harvest either broccoli, or cabbage about eight or nine                 
weeks after you set the plants in your garden.                                  
     For the latest suggestions on varieties, contact the                       
Extension Agent in your county for a copy of publication 426-480                
"Vegetables Recommended for Virginia."                                          
                                                                                
Houseplants from Groceries                                                      
                                                                                
     When you bring home produce from the grocery, you may very                 
well have purchased items which may be used to produce house-                   
plants. You and your children can gain some horticultural                       
knowledge by growing fruit and vegetable plants from kitchen                    
wastes.                                                                         
     Carrots produce graceful fern-like leaves. To start a carrot               
plant, cut a 1/2 inch section from the top of a carrot. Plant it                
in moist sand with the uppermost part exposed. Small leaves will                
soon appear if the carrot start is kept moist.                                  
     Pineapples can be started somewhat like carrots. Cut off                   
the part containing the top green leaves with one inch of solid                 
fruit attached. Place the basal part which includes the fruit                   
into water leaving the leaves exposed to the air. When roots                    
develop, transplant to a pot with well-drained potting soil.                    
Cover the plant with a plastic bag for three weeks to help it                   
acclimate to its new environment.                                               
     Sweet potatoes produce viny stems somewhat similar to                      
philodendron. Develop this plant by putting a sweet potato root                 
in a container of water leaving the top 1/3 exposed to the air.                 
The vines which grow can be trained on a stake or small trellis.                
     Try planting grapefruit, orange, lemon, or tangerine seeds.                
As soon as the seeds are removed from the fruit, plant them                     
in a soil mixture which contains 50% sphagnum peat moss. Keep                   
these seeds damp, warm, and in a bright but indirect light and                  
watch for plants to grow.                                                       
     Avocado pits are often rooted for indoor plants. After                     
cleaning off the pit, insert three or four toothpicks 1/2 inch                  
into the pit at its midpoint. Space the toothpicks evenly around                
the seed since they will support the the pit in a container of                  
water. Balance the pit over a glass of water, placing the                       
wider of the ends in the water. If kept in a warm, well-lit                     
environment a root will appear in 3-4 weeks followed by leaves.                 
After four leaves are present, transplant to a deep pot contain-                
ing potting media.                                                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
FEBRUARY 1986 QUESTION BOX                                                      
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
EDITOR'S NOTE: In the January 1986 TVG Question Box, in reference               
to little-leaf linden: Foliage feeding insects such as Japanese                 
beetles can cause serious damage to little-leaf and American                    
lindens in areas where there are high populations of these                      
insects.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Saffron                                       25 lines                          
Vegetable Gardening in the Shade              19 lines                          
Serviceberry                                  37 lines                          
Spanish Malibar Spinach                       15 lines                          
Terrace Construction                          20 lines                          
Storing Winter Squash                         14 lines                          
Pansies                                       25 lines                          
Cactus Blooming                               39 lines                          
Lithops (Living rocks)                        51 lines                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Where does the spice saffron come from?                                         
                                                                                
Saffron comes from the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus, autumn                  
crocus. Crocuses grow wild in the Mediterranean region and into                 
southwest Asia. They belong to the Iris family. There are more                  
than seventy-five species, and numerous forms or varieties.                     
Several are available through seed catalogs and garden centers.                 
                                                                                
Saffron flowers are called autumn crocus because as the weather                 
turns cold and the trees begin shedding their leaves, lovely                    
lilac flowers appear. Each flower has three scarlet-orange                      
stigmas which are collected, dried and used as a textile dye or                 
food spice.                                                                     
                                                                                
Purchase mature saffron plants or corms to observe the flowers.                 
New corms usually won't blossom for three years. The corms are                  
planted in late July to early August. Place them six inches deep                
and six inches apart. The soil should be light and rich; the                    
location sheltered.                                                             
                                                                                
If you expect to collect the stigmas, be sure to plant thousands                
of saffron as 60,000 stigmas weigh only a pound. Obviously, the                 
dried material is very expensive, and the spice sold is often                   
adulterated--or stretched--with arnica or calendula petals or                   
safflower florets.                                                              
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
Part of my yard is shaded from a nearby tree. Since this is the                 
only place I can have a garden, are there any vegetables which                  
can be grown in that area?                                                      
                                                                                
Provided that this section of your garden is not densely shaded                 
and receives some direct sun, you should be able to grow many                   
leafy vegetables and root crops. Some of the vegetables to                      
consider include lettuce, Swiss chard, spinach, mustard greens,                 
cabbage, kale, chives, parsley, beets, radish, turnips and                      
carrots. Fruiting crops such as tomato, cucumber, sweet corn,                   
beans and squash require a minimun of 6 to 8 hours of direct                    
sunlight each day for good growth and yields and would not be                   
recommended for the shaded area of your garden.                                 
                                                                                
One other consideration about gardening in this area is the                     
location of the trees' roots. A shallow rooted tree would remove                
water and nutrients your garden needs. You might have to install                
irrigation and increase fertilization if this is the case. If                   
your garden is quite a distance from the tree itself, this may                  
not be necessary.                                                               
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I'm looking for a large shrub, 20' tall or more, with year-round                
interest. What should I plant?                                                  
                                                                                
Amelanchier, or serviceberry, is a plant which adds landscape                   
interest throughout the year. In April, it produces a profusion                 
of small white flowers which last only a week or so. In summer,                 
the foliage is finely textured and turns into a vivid display                   
ranging from yellow-orange to red as fall approaches. In midsum-                
mer small reddish, apple-like fruits appear. These can be                       
made into jelly when the fruit ripens. During winter months, the                
silvery bark and graceful branches and trunks are noticeable,                   
especially when outlined with fresh snow.                                       
                                                                                
Species of serviceberry reach 30-35 feet at maturity and can be                 
used as a large shrub or small tree. The plant is especially                    
attractive against a dark woodland background. It looks best                    
when incorporated into natural or informal settings.                            
                                                                                
Since the serviceberry is a member of the rose family, it                       
sometimes is affected by diseases and insects that cause problems               
on other members of the family such as apple, quince, and                       
crabapple. However, none of these problems are serious enough to                
discourage the use of the plant.                                                
                                                                                
The three most common species are Amelanchier canadensis (shad-                 
blow serviceberry), A. laevis (allegheny serviceberry), A. x                    
grandiflora (apple serviceberry). A. canadensis is a shrub with                 
erect stems and spreads by suckers at the base of the plant. It                 
will grow from 6 to 20 feet tall and has yellow to gold fall                    
color. White flowers are born on 2-3" long racemes and fruit is                 
black, juicy, and sweet. A. laevis has bronze-colored unfolding                 
leaves. Its fruit is black and sweet. A. x grandiflora is a                     
natural hybrid between A. arborea and A. laevis. The young                      
leaves of A. x grandiflora are purplish and pubescent. The                      
flowers are larger and the racemes longer and slimmer than on                   
the above species. Also, its flower buds are tinged in pink.                    
Unless flowers and developing leaves are present, these species                 
are difficult to accurately separate.                                           
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
I just ordered Malabar spinach seeds. It was advertised as a                    
three-season, climbing spinach which does not bolt. Please                      
provide information on proper culture.                                          
                                                                                
For gardeners interested in a long production spinach crop,                     
Malabar spinach (Basella alba or B. rubra) may satisfy them. Also               
known as Ceylon Spinach and Vine Spinach, it is native to India.                
Although unrelated to spinach, it may be substituted for spinach                
in cooked foods.                                                                
                                                                                
Malabar spinach seed can be started under fluorescent light in                  
early spring, but do not place transplants outdoors until all                   
danger of frost has past. Germination at 70 degrees F with a                    
heating cable takes about seven days. Outdoors you can plant                    
seeds/plants 2-3 feet apart, six inches from a fence or trellis                 
as plants climb readily. Seeds should be sown 1" deep after the                 
last frost date in your area.                                                   
                                                                                
Malabar spinach is one of only a few leafy vegetables with a long               
production season. The more leaves harvested, the more new growth               
is produced. Two or three new leaves begin developing where one                 
leaf is pinched out. The process never quits until the plants are               
frost-killed in the fall. The crop is relatively disease and                    
insect-free but the fungus, Cercospora beticola sometimes causes                
leaf spotting. Infected leaves should be removed as soon as they                
are noticed.                                                                    
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
We're thinking of adding a terrace to our house. What things                    
should we take into consideration when planning the design?                     
                                                                                
A terrace can be an attractive and useful addition to the home                  
landscape. It will enhance the value of your property and                       
provide a location for recreation and entertainment. A terrace                  
near the house will provide an extra outdoor room for family                    
living. From a landscapers' point of view, the terrace serves as                
a platform for the residence and improves the relationship of the               
house to the grounds.                                                           
                                                                                
The terrace should be located adjacent to the kitchen or family                 
room of the home. Make it large enough for the intended use.                    
Allow adequate space for tables and chairs and the easy movement                
of people. As a general rule, the terrace should be as wide as                  
the height of the house from the ground to the eaves. A narrow                  
terrace will look skimpy. The shape may carry out the lines of                  
the adjacent building, but may have an irregular free form if                   
appropriate shrubs and trees are planted nearby to soften the                   
lines.                                                                          
                                                                                
The surface of your terrace should be firm and relatively                       
smooth. It should slope gently down from the house to be sure                   
water drains away from the foundation. A paved terrace will                     
provide a smooth surface for chairs and tables, and is easy to                  
clean. You may prefer the design which can be secured from                      
bricks or flagstones. If such materials are used, install them                  
on a firm, well-drained sand or tamped cinder base. A brick or                  
flagstone terrace will be much easier to clean and maintain in                  
an attractive condition if the cracks are completely mortared.                  
                                                                                
Your terrace should be designed to provide privacy for your                     
picnic or entertainment use. It should not be a part of the                     
walk or drive system around the home. A wood or masonry fence                   
will provide a partial screen. Vines or espaliered trees will                   
add interest to your fence. Shrubs or small trees may also be                   
used as a screen, but will require more space than a fence. One                 
or more trees may be located in the lawn near the terrace to                    
provide shade from the late afternoon sun.                                      
                                                                                
Plan to include accessories which will make your terrace more                   
useful. Install electric lights and weatherproof receptacles.                   
This will extend the hours of use and provide power for outdoor                 
grills, radios, or other appliances. Flowering plants or shrubs                 
in pots or tubs will make your terrace more attractive.                         
                                                                                
Provide a storage place for the grill, folding chairs and other                 
items which are used on the terrace. If space is not available                  
in a nearby basement or garage, an attractive garden shed may be                
constructed. Screen the shed with shrubs to help it to blend                    
into the landscape picture.                                                     
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
The winter squash I've stored in my basement are developing soft                
spots. The temperature is in the 50's. The squash are in bushel                 
baskets. Why aren't they keeping?                                               
                                                                                
Most winter squash should keep several months stored at 55                      
degrees F. and low humidity. If your basement is damp, you're                   
likely to have problems with mold and rot, especially with                      
squash piled on one another. Storing on open shelves, so fruit                  
do not touch one another, would be preferable. Avoid storing on                 
a cold concrete floor.                                                          
                                                                                
Storing squash with nicks, or other injuries will result in                     
storage problems. Use damaged fruits or any that got frost-nipped               
first. Store only unblemished squash. Check frequently and use                  
any that show signs of deterioration.                                           
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
When is the best time to plant pansies?  Should I plant seed or                 
set out transplants?                                                            
                                                                                
Pansy seeds for spring bloom are customarily started indoors in                 
midwinter and carefully "hardened off" by gradual exposure to the               
elements. Sow seeds in a flat and cover with 1/8" of soil. At                   
65 degrees F,  pansy seeds will take about 10 days to germinate.                
Give seedlings night temperature of 50 degrees F. for 10 to 12                  
weeks. Move to the garden 2 weeks before average last frost date.               
                                                                                
Pansy transplants can endure spring weather that is cold and                    
damp. On the first dry day in early spring, "set in" a border                   
or bed of pansy plants. Despite light frosts, rain or snow                      
showers, they will develop blooms.                                              
                                                                                
Pansies have large flowers, up to 3 inches in diameter during                   
cool weather. They decline in warm weather. First, the blossoms                 
decrease in size; then plants begin to die. Don't fight it.                     
Except where summers are short and cool you are better off                      
putting in a second planting for fall bloom.                                    
                                                                                
It's a much simpler matter to grow pansies for fall bloom because               
seeds can be sown directly in the garden during late summer. If                 
an early fall catches the young pansy plants before they bloom,                 
don't worry. Except where winters are long and extremely bitter,                
they will live over and bloom the following spring.                             
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
Do cactus bloom?  If so, how can I get mine to flower?                          
                                                                                
Most house plant cacti fail to bloom because they don't get                     
enough light. This can be easily remedied. Cacti take very well                 
to artificial lighting, so you can either grow them totally                     
dependent on fluorescent tubes or you can supplement their                      
natural light. The other major cause of flowerless cacti is the                 
lack of a dormant period. Their native homes offer them cool                    
temperatures and very little water in the winter. These plants                  
expect this period of dormancy in order to blossom when weather                 
changes in the spring. Most cacti need very cold air all winter                 
and lower light intensity to set buds. This dormancy period is a                
little tricky but is essential.                                                 
                                                                                
Beginning in October or November, place cacti on a window sill                  
between the window and the curtain. The temperature in this space               
can drop to between 40 and 50 degrees F but make sure freezing                  
does not occur. Cacti need short days or limited exposure to                    
artificial lights in order to form flower buds. In autumn, they                 
will receive this requirement naturally.                                        
                                                                                
At the same time, give the cacti a drought period by only                       
watering them when they begin to shrivel a bit (every 6 to 8                    
weeks). In March, when the days get longer and warmer, water the                
plants about every 2 weeks. Cacti will bloom in the spring.                     
                                                                                
Contrary to popular belief, cacti don't have to be very old to                  
blossom, nor do they flower only once in seven years. A mature,                 
healthy cactus flowers annually if it is treated to the right                   
conditions. Once a plant has bloomed, you can expect to enjoy its               
flowers every year. If it fails to produce blossoms twelve                      
months later, you are doing something wrong. On the other hand,                 
an immature cactus, won't bloom regardless of its treatment. Some               
take years and others need a lot of space to become fully mature                
enough to flower. Others are incapable of maturing in a container               
of any kind, but these aren't often sold as house plants.                       
Those that are available in pots or that can be purchased through               
the mail can and will flower if treated properly.                               
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
February 1987 Monthly Notes                                                     
                                                                                
Herbaceous plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Pinch off early buds from developing pansies to encourage                     
plants to branch and form more buds.                                            
                                                                                
* For cut flowers this summer, order phlox, daisies, dahlias,                   
cosmos, asters, gladiolus, and lilies.                                          
                                                                                
* Check bulbs, tubers, and corms you are storing to plant in                    
spring. Discard any that are soft or diseased.                                  
                                                                                
* Order gladiolus corms now for planting later in the spring                    
after all danger of frost has passed. Locate in full sun in                     
well-drained soil.                                                              
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of growth in early spring bulbs. Start removing               
mulch gradually when foliage is 1" high. Cloudy days are best for               
the initial exposure of the leaves as strong sunlight can burn                  
tender foliage.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Don't remove your mulch too early. A warm day may make you                    
think spring is almost here but there may be more cold weather                  
yet to come.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Design a flower bed for a shady area. Plan to try impatiens,                  
foxgloves, rosy vinca, begonias,and browallia.                                  
                                                                                
* Ageratum, begonia, marigold, and petunia seed can be started                  
indoors. Sprinkle the small seeds sparingly onto moist soil and                 
gently press them in.                                                           
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Water shrubs in your landscape if the soil is dry. Evergreen                  
plants transpire water from their leaves whenever air temperature               
is above 40 degrees F.                                                          
                                                                                
* Proper rose pruning is the key to successful summer blooms.                   
Prune roses back 25% if you want many medium-sized blooms. Prune                
back 50% if you want fewer, larger flowers. Modern roses should                 
be pruned just before the buds break dormancy after the last                    
frosts.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Check valuable trees and shrubs for silvery gray, foamy-looking               
tent caterpillar egg masses and bag worms. Remove egg cases to                  
reduce the number of destructive pests this spring.                             
                                                                                
* It is time to transplant deciduous native plants if the ground                
is not too wet or too frozen.                                                   
                                                                                
* Branches of forsythia, pussy willow, quince, spirea, and                      
dogwood can be forced for indoor bloom. Make long, slanted cuts                 
when collecting the branches and place them in a vase of water.                 
Change the water every four days.                                               
                                                                                
* Shrubs for spring planting should be ordered now. Bare root,                  
deciduous types should be planted while still dormant, about 1                  
month before the average date of last frost in your area. Hardy                 
container-grown and balled and burlapped shrubs may be planted                  
anytime except during severe cold weather.                                      
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of "heaving" among your perennials and small                  
shrubs. The freezing and thawing of the ground can force shallow-               
rooted plants out of the soil. Replant any that have been heaved                
and mulch with 2 inches of organic material to reduce soil                      
temperature fluctuation.                                                        
                                                                                
* To plant bare-rooted trees and shrubs, prune off dead or                      
damaged roots and plant in a hole large enough to accommodate                   
root spread in a natural shape. Prune top to compensate for loss                
of roots.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Wait until early summer to prune spring flowering shrubs in                   
order to get the maximum number of blossoms. If you prune now you               
are losing part of your spring show. Prune other shrubs and trees               
on warm days this month after the coldest weather is past in your               
area. In the cooler mountain areas of Virginia wait until late                  
February.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Remove honeysuckle and other weedy vines from deciduous plants                
while the plants are still leafless. It's easier to distinguish                 
between the weeds and desired plants.                                           
                                                                                
* Root pruning will enhance success of transplanting trees and                  
shrubs if you can wait until next year to move them. This spring                
use a sharp spade to cut a circle 8 inches deep around the                      
plant. (Distance from the trunk will depend on plant size.) New                 
roots form inside this circle during the growing season and can                 
be moved to the new location next spring.                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* Plan to attend garden and landscape meeting and clinics which                 
are arranged by the extension agents in your county or city. The                
latest and best in gardening information will be presented. Call                
your local Extension office for details.                                        
                                                                                
* If bird feeding has been a favorite activity this winter, order               
trees and shrubs which provide cover and small fruits for your                  
feathered friends. Consider species such as crabapple, hawthorn,                
holly, dogwood, and pyracantha which help lure hungry birds from                
cultivated fruits, if planted on the opposite side of the yard.                 
                                                                                
* Cold winds this month should remind you to order evergreen                    
windbreaks. Some suggestions: American arborvitae, Austrian pine,               
Canadian hemlock, white spruce.                                                 
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* "Chitting" is the green-sprouting of seed potatoes for quicker                
rooting and earlier maturity (as much as 3 weeks earlier).                      
Chitting is achieved by placing seed potatoes either in full                    
sunlight or under florescent lights 3 weeks prior to planting.                  
Canadian researchers chit potatoes in outdoor trays covered with                
plastic to prevent frost damage.                                                
                                                                                
* Planning pays off in the intensively cultivated vegetable                     
garden. If you are a novice vegetable gardener, request Publicat-               
ion 836, "Guide to the Beginning Gardener" from your local                      
extension agent. If you are more experienced but have specific                  
questions, there are over 30 fact sheets available to assist you.               
                                                                                
* For an early crop, sow spinach seed in well-drained soil which                
was turned over in autumn. Cover lightly with straw and manure                  
mixture.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Check any vegetables you have in storage. Use or dispose of any               
that show signs of shriveling or rotting.                                       
                                                                                
* Incorporate any organic matter which you spread on the garden                 
during the fall as soon as the soil has thawed and drained.                     
                                                                                
* Plan on hanging a few vegetables for a convenient harvest on                  
your porch or deck. Bush cucumbers, small tomato varieties, even                
lettuce and spinach can be grown in hanging baskets. Many herbs                 
including chives, parsley, and thyme are well-suited to baskets.                
                                                                                
* If you have a sandy soil which dries out extra fast in the                    
summer, you may experiment with gardening in a depression. Pre-                 
pare soil in a hole or trough several inches below the surface of               
paths to reduce evaporation and make watering easier.                           
                                                                                
* Gardening in a raised bed improves drainage and gives an                      
earlier start in areas with cold, wet soil.                                     
                                                                                
* Work the area for early spring garden crops as soon as pos-                   
sible. Apply lime if your soil tests indicate a need. Peas,                     
onions, and Irish potatoes can be planted before March 1 in                     
eastern Virginia.                                                               
                                                                                
* If a warm weekend shows up, consider working an area in the                   
garden for early spring planting. But check the soil first; it                  
should be dry enough to crumble in your hand before you work it.                
                                                                                
* Onion seeds for transplants can be sown indoors early this                    
month.                                                                          
                                                                                
* In most of Virginia it's too early to start all but your                      
slowest growing vegetables (such as onions), but it's not too                   
early to start getting ready. Gather and wash seeding flats.                    
Treat with a 1:10 bleach solution to kill micro-organisms.                      
Collect "pots" for transplanting seedings such as styrofoam cups,               
3-inch deep bands cut from quart milk jugs, etc.                                
                                                                                
* Don't start your vegetable plants indoors too early. Six weeks                
ahead of the expected planting date is early enough for the                     
fast-growth species. Eight weeks allows enough time for the                     
slower-growing types.                                                           
                                                                                
* If your asparagus bed's pH is too low, you can apply lime or                  
wood ashes. To find out how much, test your soil through the                    
extension service. The ideal pH for asparagus is 6.5 to 8.0.                    
                                                                                
Fruits/Nuts                                                                     
                                                                                
* If you want to raise fruit in your garden, try grapes, rasp-                  
berries, or strawberries. It is much less difficult to get good                 
results with them than with tree fruits.                                        
                                                                                
* Ever wonder why apricots set small amounts of fruit in                        
Virginia? It is because of the warm days in February or March                   
that encourage the apricot to break dormancy and bloom - only to                
be followed by more freezing weather that knocks the fruit off.                 
                                                                                
* Nut and fruit trees should be planted 3-4 weeks before the last               
killing frost in the spring.                                                    
                                                                                
* One of the most important sprays for fruit trees is the dormant               
oil which should be applied on a warm day in February or March.                 
                                                                                
* Native chestnuts cannot be grown because of their susceptibil-                
ity to blight. If you would like to have chestnuts, plant the                   
grafted Chinese varieties: Crane, Meiling, Nanking, or Orrin.                   
These are fine trees for the landscape and will produce nuts                    
within a few years after they are planted.                                      
                                                                                
* Grape vine pruning can be made into attractive wreaths                        
decorated with hearts or birds nests as a valentine gift or made                
into a heart shape over a wire frame.                                           
                                                                                
* Blueberries are self-sterile. Be sure to plan for more than one               
variety to achieve pollination necessary for fruit. High bush                   
blueberries make attractive ornamental hedges with bright red                   
fall color.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and grapes in late February or early March                  
after the worst of the winter cold is passed but before spring                  
growth begins.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Fruit trees require a thorough spray program, proper pruning,                 
and good care to produce insect and disease free fruit. Give                    
thought to this before planting a backyard orchard.                             
                                                                                
* Fertilize fruit trees as soon as possible after the ground                    
thaws but before blossom time.                                                  
                                                                                
* Bring some apple, cherry, and peach boughs indoors for forcing.               
While the color of fruit blossoms are somewhat pale when forced                 
they hint of the spring show ahead.                                             
                                                                                
* Peaches grow best when maintained with an open center (no                     
central leader). Keep three or four strong scaffold branches                    
evenly distributed around the trunk. Limbs which branch out at a                
60 degree angle are preferred, but spreaders can be used to widen               
narrow crotch angles.                                                           
                                                                                
* Apple and pear trees are best trained with a modified central                 
leader. Prune to maintain a pyramidal shape--wide at the bottom,                
gradually tapering toward the top. Order publication 426-841 for                
complete instructions.                                                          
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and shade trees as buds begin to swell. For                 
disease and insect control, cut out dead wood and dispose of the                
prunings.                                                                       
                                                                                
Indoor plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Wash your house plants and your windows occasionally to get the               
maximum light to the leaves. Showers for your plants will also                  
help reduce pests such as spider mites.                                         
                                                                                
* Citrus plants grown from seeds generally will not produce                     
flowers or fruit, but they will have attractive shiny-leaved                    
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* As a mid-winter project grow plants from fruit seeds. Oranges,                
grapefruits, lemons, tangerines, and pomegranates may have viable               
seed. Try germinating them in a light potting soil mixture                      
containing half peat moss. Keep seeds well watered and in a warm                
location. If seedlings fail to appear in six weeks, try again.                  
                                                                                
* Tired of Christmas poinsettia? Don't feel guilty if you toss it               
out. It, like the Christmas tree, has its seasonal symbolism that               
many of us prefer to keep intact.                                               
                                                                                
Tools and equipment (includes container)                                        
                                                                                
* Kerosene heaters in a small home greenhouse may damage plants                 
from the fumes produced.                                                        
                                                                                
* Repair and paint window boxes, lawn furniture, tools and other                
items in preparation for outdoor gardening and recreational use.                
                                                                                
* Make labels for this spring's garden. Plastic milk jugs or                    
bleach bottles cut in strips 1 inch by 6 or 7 work well. Use                    
permanent ink markers to write on them.                                         
                                                                                
* Start building up your supply of gardening aids such as plastic               
milk jugs for hot caps and orange juice cans to make guards to                  
stop cut worms.                                                                 
                                                                                
* On mild, sunny days be sure to ventilate cold frames and green-               
houses.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Avoid overcrowding in the greenhouse and hotbed. Crowding can                 
lead to trouble in the middle of winter when the ventilators are                
rarely opened. Still, damp air encourages fungus disease infec-                 
tion, and the soft new growth made by the plants invites aphid                  
infestation--particularly when crowding occurs.                                 
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Pressed flowers collected last summer or pictures from your old               
garden catalogs can be used to add a romantic floral touch to an                
old-fashioned valentine.                                                        
                                                                                
* Use some of the coldest days of February to sit by a fire and                 
read a good gardening book. It will give you ideas and inspira-                 
tion for the spring.                                                            
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* For those who enjoy growing annual herbs but are frustrated by                
the number of extra seed in each packet, make a thoughtful gift                 
for friends or co-workers. On a card draw a design for a small                  
herb garden, then divide the seed from the packet into small                    
envelopes such as a stamp collectors use. Tape the seed to the                  
garden plan and offer a few cultural hints.                                     
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
February 1987 Press Releases                                                    
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Extension               
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, and Jim Roberts, Extension Specialist, Entomology. The                 
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent                  
use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other                         
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
Benefits and Value of Insects     46 lines                                      
Selecting Pruning Tools           55 lines                                      
Pruning Young Shade Trees         47 lines                                      
Pruning Heavy Side Branches       38 lines                                      
Starting Seed Indoors             65 lines                                      
                                                                                
 ----------------------------------------------------------------               
                                                                                
Benefit and Value of Insects                                                    
                                                                                
Insects need to be studied carefully to distinguish the benefici-               
al from the harmful. People have often gone to great trouble and                
expense to destroy quantities of insects, only to learn later                   
that the insect destroyed was not only harmless but was actually                
engaged in saving their crops by eating destructive insects. Most               
entomologists have had correspondents send in the larvae of lady                
beetles with the complaint that they were injuring plants; at the               
same time overlooking the smaller aphids which were causing the                 
injury and which these larvae were continually devouring.                       
                                                                                
Insects are beneficial to the gardener in several ways:                         
                                                                                
1. Insects aid in the production of fruits, seeds, vegetables,and               
flowers, by pollinizing the blossoms. Most common fruits are                    
pollinized by insects. Melons, squash, and many other vegetables                
require insects to carry their pollen before fruits set. Many                   
ornamental plants, both in the greenhouse and out of doors, are                 
pollinated by insects for example, chrysanthemums, iris, orchids,               
and yucca.                                                                      
                                                                                
2. Parasitic insects destroy other injurious insects by living on               
or in their bodies and their eggs. Insects also act as predators,               
capturing and devouring other insects.                                          
                                                                                
3. Insects destroy various weeds in the same ways that they                     
injure crop plants.                                                             
                                                                                
4. Insects improve the physical condition of the soil and promote               
its fertility by burrowing throughout the surface layer. Also,                  
the dead bodies and droppings of the insects serve as fertilizer.               
                                                                                
5. Insects perform a valuable service as scavengers by devouring                
the bodies of dead animals and plants and by burying carcasses                  
and dung.                                                                       
                                                                                
Many of the benefits from insects enumerated above, although                    
genuine, are insignificant compared with the good that insects do               
fighting among themselves. There is no doubt that the greatest                  
single factor in keeping plant-feeding insects from overwhelming                
the rest of the world is that they are fed upon by other insects.               
It is easy to see how the industry of insects and their devotion                
to purpose, when coupled with almost unlimited numbers, can                     
benefit us when they seek and devour myriads of pests scattered                 
over a farm or a forest.                                                        
Selecting Pruning Tools                                                        
                                                                                
Hand pruning shears are good for branches up to one-half inch in                
diameter. Attempting to cut larger branches risks making a poor                 
cut and/or ruining the shears. There are two styles of hand                     
shears: 1) the scissor action; and 2) the anvil cut. In the                     
first, a thin, sharp blade slides closely past a thicker but also               
sharp blade. In the second style, a sharpened blade cuts against                
a broad, flat blade. The first one usually costs more, but makes                
cleaner, closer cuts.                                                           
                                                                                
Lopping shears have long handles and are operated with both                     
hands. Even the cheapest can cut one-half inch diameter material.               
The better ones can slice through branches of two inches or more,               
depending on species and condition (e.g., pin oak is tougher than               
linden and dead wood is tougher, until decay sets in, than live                 
wood).                                                                          
                                                                                
Pole pruners have a cutter with one hooked blade above and a                    
cutting blade beneath. The cutter is on a pole and is operated by               
a lanyard pulled downward. The poles can either be in sections,                 
that fit together or telescoping and can be made of several                     
materials. Wooden poles are heavy. Aluminum poles are light but                 
can conduct electricity if they touch an overhead wire. Fiber-                  
glass, or some type of plastic compound is probably the best                    
answer. Poles can be fitted with saws, but these usually are very               
frustrating to use. Use of pole pruners can be dangerous, as                    
material cut overhead can fall on the operator unless it hangs up               
in other branches. The user should exercise caution and wear head               
and eye protection.                                                             
                                                                                
Manual hedge shears have long, flat blades and relatively short                 
handles, one for each hand. Heavy duty shears with one serrated                 
blade are good for difficult jobs. Power hedge shears are also                  
available. The most common for home use are electric models.                    
                                                                                
There are many makes and models of hand pruning saws. Fineness of               
cutting edge is measured in points (teeth per inch). An 8 point                 
saw is for delicate, close work on small shrubs and trees.                      
Average saws are about 5 1/2 to 6 points, while 4 1/2 point saws                
are for fairly heavy limbs. Folding saws either require a                       
screwdriver (for a slotted-head holding screw) or will have a                   
protruding wingnut which can scar the trunk when a limb is cut.                 
If the saw suddenly folds while in use the operator's fingers can               
be damaged. A fixed blade saw with a leather scabbard is safer.                 
Blades can be either straight or curved. Many prefer a curved                   
blade that cuts on the draw stroke. A double-edged saw has fine                 
teeth on one side, coarse on the other. These are difficult to                  
use in densely branched plants. Bow saws are good only where no                 
obstruction exists for a foot or more above the area to be cut.                 
                                                                                
Chain saws come in a variety of sizes, both gas and electric.                   
However, in general, chain saws are not appropriate for pruning                 
of live plant material. They are better suited to tree removal                  
and firewood cutting.                                                           
                                                                                
Pruning Young Shade Trees                                                       
                                                                                
The initial pruning of shade trees consists of removing broken,or               
crossing branches. The rule of pruning away one-third of the top                
growth at transplanting to compensate for root loss is not                      
necessary for properly pruned nursery grown plants. Excessive                   
pruning at transplanting, according to research, reduces plant                  
size and does not aid in plant survival.                                        
                                                                                
The central leader of an ornamental tree should not be pruned,                  
except in the few cases when low-branched trees or multiple-                    
stemmed plants are desired. Trees with a central leader such as                 
linden, sweet gum, or pin oak may need little or no pruning                     
except to eliminate branches competing with the central leader;                 
these should be shortened. Some pruning may be necessary to                     
maintain desired shape and shorten extra-vigorous shoots.                       
                                                                                
The height of the lowest branch can be from a few inches above                  
the ground for screening or windbreaks, to seven to twelve feet                 
or more above the ground as needed near a street or patio. The                  
removal of lower limbs is usually done over a period of years                   
beginning in the nursery and continuing for several years after                 
transplanting until the desired clearance is reached.                           
                                                                                
For greatest strength, branches selected for permanent scaffolds                
must have a wide angle of attachment with the trunk. Branch                     
angles of less than 30 degrees from the main trunk result in a                  
high percentage of breakage while those between 60 and 70 degrees               
have a small breakage rate. However, branch angles greater than                 
70 degrees encourage suckers or small weak branches to sprout                   
along the top edge of the scaffold branch.                                      
                                                                                
Vertical branch spacing and radial branch distribution are                      
important. Major scaffold branches of shade trees should be                     
spaced at least eight inches and preferably twenty to twenty-four               
inches apart vertically. Closely spaced scaffolds will have fewer               
lateral branches. The result will be long, thin branches with                   
poor structural strength. Radial branch distribution should allow               
five to seven scaffolds to fill the circle of space around a                    
trunk. Radial spacing prevents one limb from overshadowing                      
another, which in turn reduces competition for light and                        
nutrients. Remove or prune shoots that are too low, too close, or               
too vigorous in relation to the leader and branches selected to                 
become the scaffold branches. Most nursery grown trees have been                
pruned with these considerations in mind. However, it is wise to                
examine the plant and correct for appropriate vertical and radial               
spacing.                                                                        
Pruning Heavy Side Branches                                                    
                                                                                
According to Dr. Alex Shigo, plant pathologist, USDA Forest                     
Service, thick, heavy branches should be removed flush to the                   
collar at the base of the branch, not flush with the trunk.                     
                                                                                
The collar is an area of tissue that contains a chemically                      
protective zone. In the natural decay of a dead branch, when the                
decay advancing downward meets the internal protected zone, an                  
area of very strong wood meets an area of very weak wood. The                   
branch then falls away at this point leaving a small zone of                    
decayed wood within the collar. The decay is walled off in the                  
collar. This is the natural shedding process when all goes                      
according to nature's plan. When the collar is removed, the                     
protective zone is removed, causing a serious trunk wound. Wood-                
decay fungi can then easily infect the trunk. If the pruned                     
branch is living, removal of the collar at the base still causes                
injury.                                                                         
                                                                                
For over half a century the recommendations for pruning have been               
to flush-cut and paint. These recommendations have no basis in                  
scientific fact. The flush-cut increases the tree injury which                  
the paint hides. The paint is primarily cosmetic, a psychological               
treatment for the person doing the pruning, to show that he or                  
she has done something to "help" the tree. In fact, paints and                  
wound dressings can trap moisture and increase disease problems.                
                                                                                
When cutting branches over 1.5" in diameter, use a 3-part cut to                
avoid damage to the bark of the tree's trunk. This is                           
accomplished by first sawing an undercut from the bottom of the                 
branch about six to twelve inches out from the trunk and about                  
1/3 of the way through the branch. Next, make a second cut from                 
the top, about three inches further out from the undercut, until                
the branch falls away. The resulting stub can then be cut back to               
the collar of the branch. If there is danger of the branch                      
damaging other limbs below, or objects on the ground, it must be                
properly roped and supported, then carefully lowered to the                     
ground after the second cut.                                                    
Starting Seed Indoors                                                          
                                                                                
The proper time for sowing seeds for transplants depends upon                   
when plants may safely be moved outdoors in your area. This                     
period may range from 4 to 12 weeks prior to transplanting                      
depending upon the speed of germination, the rate of growth, and                
the cultural conditions provided. A common mistake is to sow                    
seed too early and then attempt to hold the seedlings back under                
poor light or improper temperature ranges. This usually results                 
in tall, weak, and spindly plants which do not perform well in                  
the garden.                                                                     
                                                                                
After selecting a container, fill it to within 3/4 of an inch                   
from the top with moistened medium. For very small seeds, at                    
least the top 1/4 inch should be of a fine, screened mix or a                   
layer of vermiculite. Firm the medium at the corners and edges                  
with your fingers or a block of wood to provide a uniform, flat                 
surface. For medium-to-large seeds, make furrows about 1 to 2                   
inches apart and 1/8 to 1/4 of an inch deep across the surface of               
the container using a narrow board or pot label. By sowing in                   
rows, good light and air movement results and, if damping off                   
fungus appears, there is less chance of it spreading. Sow the                   
seeds thinly and uniformly in the rows by gently tapping the                    
packet of seed as it is moved along the row. Lightly cover the                  
seed with dry vermiculite or sifted medium if they require                      
darkness for germination. A suitable planting depth is usually                  
about twice the diameter of the seed.                                           
                                                                                
Do not plant seeds too deeply. Extremely fine seed such as                      
petunia, begonia and snapdragon are not covered but lightly                     
pressed into the medium or watered in with a fine mist spray. If                
these seeds are broadcast, strive for a uniform stand by sowing                 
half the seeds in one direction, then sowing the remaining seed                 
at a right angle to the first.                                                  
                                                                                
Large seeds are frequently sown into a small container or cell                  
pack which eliminates the need for early transplanting. Sow 2 or                
3 seeds per unit and thin to allow the strongest seedling to                    
grow.                                                                           
                                                                                
After the seed has been sown, moisten the planting mix                          
thoroughly. Use a fine mist or place the containers in a pan or                 
tray which has about 1 inch of warm water in the bottom. Avoid                  
splashing or excessive flooding which might displace small                      
seeds. When the planting mix is saturated, set the container                    
aside to drain. The soil should be moist but not wet.                           
                                                                                
To maintain moisture, slip the whole flat or pot into a clear                   
plastic bag after the initial watering. The plastic should be at                
least 1-1 1/2 inches from the soil. Keep the container out of                   
direct sunlight otherwise the temperature may rise to a point                   
harmful to the seeds. Many home gardeners cover their flats with                
panes of glass instead of using a plastic sleeve. Be sure to                    
remove the plastic bag or glass cover as soon as the first                      
seedlings appear. Surface watering can then be practiced if care                
and good judgement are used.                                                    
                                                                                
Seedlings must receive bright light after germination. Place them               
in a window facing south, if possible. If a large, bright window                
is not available, place the seedlings under a fluorescent                       
light. Use two 40-watt fluorescent tubes one cool white and one                 
warm white or special plant growth lamps. Position the plants 6                 
inches from the tubes and keep the lights on about 16 hours each                
day. As the seedlings grow, the lights should be raised. Tempera-               
tures of 55 to 60 degree F at night and 65 to 70 degree F during                
the day will prevent soft, leggy growth and minimize disease                    
troubles.                                                                       
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
February 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                               
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and J. T. Foley,                  
Horticulture Extension Technicians, and Diane Relf, Extension                   
Specialist Home Horticulture, working with Jim Roberts,                         
Department of Entomology. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Training grapes                   52 Lines                                      
Hints for the First Garden        41 Lines                                      
Pruning Vines and Ground Covers   18 lines                                      
Cloches                           25 lines                                      
Dormant Oil                       13 lines                                      
Annuals vs. Perennials            16 lines                                      
Texture vs. Structure of Soil     56 lines                                      
Value of a Garden                 39 lines                                      
Defining Biennial                 21 lines                                      
Different Types of Hoes           32 lines                                      
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
My grape vine is enormous but not very productive. Why?                         
                                                                                
For grapes to be most productive, they must be trained to a                     
definite system and pruned rather severely. There are several                   
training systems used. The two most common for the home garden                  
are the vertical trellis and the overhead arbor. Both of these                  
are satisfactory in the home planting if kept well pruned.                      
                                                                                
One of the many variations of the vertical trellis, the single                  
trunk, four-arm Kniffin system is the most popular. Posts are set               
fifteen to twenty feet apart and extend five feet above the                     
ground. Two wires are stretched between the posts, the lower                    
being about two and a half feet above the ground and the upper                  
wire, at the top of the posts. Set between the posts, the vine is               
trained to a single trunk with four semipermanent arms, each cut                
back to six to ten inches in length. One arm is trained in each                 
direction on the lower wire.                                                    
                                                                                
During annual winter pruning, one cane is saved from those that                 
grew from near the base of each arm the previous summer. This                   
cane is cut back to about ten buds. The fruit in the coming                     
season is borne on shoots developing from those buds. Select                    
another cane from each arm, preferably one that grew near the                   
trunk, and cut it back to a short stub having two buds. This is a               
renewal spur. It should grow vigorously in the spring and be the                
new fruiting cane selected the following winter. All other growth               
on the vine should be removed. This leaves four fruiting canes,                 
one on each arm with eight to ten buds each, and four renewal                   
spurs, one on each arm cut back to two buds each.                               
                                                                                
The same training and pruning techniques may be effectively used                
in training grapes to the arbor system. The only difference is                  
that the wires supporting the arms are placed overhead and                      
parallel with each other instead of in a horizontal position.                   
Overhead wires are usually placed six to seven feet above the                   
ground.                                                                         
                                                                                
If an arm dies or for any reason needs to be replaced, choose the               
largest cane that has grown from the trunk near the base of the                 
dead arm and train it to the trellis wire. To renew the trunk,                  
train a strong shoot from the base of the old trunk to the                      
trellis as though it were the cane of a new vine. Establish the                 
arms in the same manner as for a new vine, and cut off the old                  
trunk.                                                                          
                                                                                
Pruning may be done anytime after the vines become dormant. In                  
areas where there is danger of winter injury, pruning may be                    
delayed until early spring. Vines pruned very late may bleed                    
excessively, but there is no evidence that this is permanently                  
injurious.                                                                      
                                                                                
For more information and illustrations, see publication 426-840,                
"Planning the Small Fruit Garden."                                              
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
I will have my first garden this spring. Could you give me some                 
hints for success?                                                              
                                                                                
Plan your garden on paper first. Draw a map showing arrangement                 
and spacing of crops. If you wish to keep the garden growing all                
season, you may need a spring, summer, and fall garden plan.                    
(See Publication 426-335, Intensive Gardening Methods.) Order                   
seeds by January or February. Some plants may be started indoors                
as early as mid-February.                                                       
                                                                                
In your plan, place tall and trellised crops on the north side of               
the garden so they won't shade the shorter vegetables. Group                    
plants by length of growing period. Plant spring crops together                 
so that later crops can be planted in these areas when the early                
crops mature. Consider length of harvest as well as time to                     
maturity. Place perennial crops to the side of the garden where                 
they will not be disturbed by annual tillage.                                   
                                                                                
Vegetables grow best in a level area with loose, well-drained                   
soil, and at least six hours of sun (8-10 hours is ideal). Use                  
contour rows or terraces on sloped or hillside sites to avoid                   
erosion. South-facing slopes are warmer and less subject to                     
damaging frosts. Avoid placing the garden in low spots, at the                  
base of a hill, or at the foot of a slope bordered by a solid                   
fence. Such areas are slow to warm up in the spring and frost                   
settles in these places since cold air naturally drains into low                
areas. If there is a creek nearby, the water table may be very                  
high or the area subject to flooding.                                           
                                                                                
Choose a spot near your home so it is convenient to work in the                 
garden when you have a few minutes. Avoid windy locations; if you               
must plant in a windy spot, build or grow a windbreak. Locate                   
near a good and easily accessible supply of water if possible.                  
Avoid planting near trees and shrubs; they compete for nutrients                
and water, and may cause excessive shading. Sites too near                      
building may result in plants not receiving enough sunlight.                    
Observe shading patterns through the growing season if possible                 
before starting the garden. If you have a shaded area you wish to               
use anyway, plant it in shade-tolerant crops. Increase effective                
light if needed by providing reflective surfaces around plants.                 
                                                                                
Try not to plant related vegetables in exactly the same location                
in the garden more often than once in three years. Rotation                     
prevents the buildup of insects and disease. Use old plans as                   
guides for rotating crops.                                                      
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
Do vines and ground covers require pruning?                                     
                                                                                
The pruning of ornamental vines is similar to the pruning of                    
ornamental shrubs. Flowering vines are pruned according to flower               
production; those that flower on new wood are pruned before new                 
growth begins, those that flower on last season's growth are                    
pruned immediately after flowering. Vines that are grown for                    
foliage are pruned to control growth and direction. Timing is                   
less critical for flowering vines.                                              
                                                                                
Ground cover plants require very little pruning. Dead or damaged                
stems should be removed whenever observed. Some trailing ground                 
covers, such as English ivy, may need pruning to prevent en-                    
croachment on lawn areas or other plants. With liriope, a                       
grass-like ground cover, appearance is improved by an annual                    
pruning. Before new leaves are one inch tall in each clump,                     
remove the dead leaves from the previous year. For large liriope                
plantings a lawnmower set to cut above the new leaf tips will                   
speed this early spring job.                                                    
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
What are cloches and how are they used?                                         
                                                                                
The cloche (pronounced klosh) was originally a bell-shaped glass                
jar set over delicate plants to protect them from the elements.                 
The definition has expanded; however, to include many types of                  
portable structures which shelter plants from drying winds and                  
cold air.                                                                       
                                                                                
The idea is to provide a greenhouse-like atmosphere for seeds and               
small plants in order to get an early start on the season, or to                
extend the fall garden as long as possible. Cloches are set out                 
over individual plants or are made into tunnels for whole rows.                 
They trap solar radiation and moisture evaporating from the soil                
and plants. The hotkap and the ubiquitous cut-off plastic jug are               
simple forms. More elaborate ones are fiber glass tunnels,                      
special plastic cloches or row covers with slits in them to allow               
for some ventilation, and panes of glass connected by specially                 
designed hinges to form a tent. There are a variety of forms on                 
the market now, some of which work and some which don't, and some               
are easily constructed from materials around the home.                          
                                                                                
Cloches are generally lightweight, portable and reusable. It is                 
preferable to have a design which can be closed completely at                   
night to prevent frost damage and opened or completely removed                  
during the day for good air circulation. Cloches should be                      
anchored or heavy enough that they don't blow away.                             
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
What is dormant oil? What pests will it control on apples and                   
pears? How does dormant oil spray kill insects, and when should                 
it be applied to fruit trees?                                                   
                                                                                
Dormant oil is a highly refined petroleum oil used primarily to                 
control scale insects and the overwintering eggs of red spider                  
mites and aphids. It is diluted with water prior to spraying. The               
oil coating suffocates these pests as well as their eggs. Insects               
cannot become resistant to it.                                                  
                                                                                
Dormant oil should be applied to fruit trees in early spring                    
while they are dormant but just prior to bud swell. A dormant oil               
spray one week before bud break is most effective. The entire                   
tree should be covered with a layer of the oil.                                 
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
I have some flowers that come back every year but I am told that                
they are annuals not perennials. Can you please explain?                        
                                                                                
Plants are classified by the number of growing seasons required                 
to complete a life cycle. Annuals pass through their entire life                
cycle from seed germination to seed production in one growing                   
season, and then die.                                                           
                                                                                
Perennial plants live for many years and after reaching maturity                
typically produce flowers and seeds each year. Perennials are                   
classified as herbaceous if the top dies back to the ground each                
winter and new stems grow from the roots each spring. They are                  
classified as woody if the top persists, as in shrubs or trees.                 
                                                                                
Some annuals will self seed and come back year after year, giving               
the impression that the original plant is surviving and is                      
therefore perennial.                                                            
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
How can I change the texture of my heavy clay soil?                             
                                                                                
The term texture refers to the relative amount of different size                
soil particles, or the fineness or coarseness of the mineral                    
particles in the soil.                                                          
                                                                                
The coarser mineral particles of the soil are called sand. These                
particles vary in size. Most sand particles can be seen without a               
magnifying glass. All feel rough when rubbed between the thumb                  
and fingers. Relatively fine soil particles that feel smooth and                
floury are called silt. When wet, silt feels smooth but is not                  
slick or sticky. When dry, it is smooth and if pressed between                  
the thumb and finger will retain the imprint. Silt particles are                
so fine that they cannot usually be seen by the unaided eye.                    
Clays are the finest soil particles. Clay particles can be seen                 
only with the aid of a powerful electron microscope. They feel                  
extremely smooth when dry, and become slick and sticky when                     
wet. Clay will hold the form into which it is molded. Loam is a                 
textural class of soils that has moderate amounts of sand, silts                
and clay. Loam contains varying proportions of these ranging from               
7-27% clay, 28-50% silt and approximately 50% sand.                             
                                                                                
Texture of soil influences many different characteristics. A                    
brief comparison between sandy and clay soils will highlight                    
these points. Coarse-textured or sandy soils allow water to enter               
at a faster rate than fine-textured or clayey soils and to move                 
more freely in the soil. In addition, the relatively low water                  
capacity and the large amount of air present in sandy soils                     
allows them to warm up faster than fine-textured soils. Sandy                   
soils are also more easily tilled. They are best suited for the                 
production of special crops such as vegetables and fruits.                      
                                                                                
Unfortunately, texture of a clay soil is a characteristic that                  
can only be changed by the addition of great quantities of sand.                
A better approach is to change the structure of the soil.                       
                                                                                
Soil particles are grouped together in the formation processes to               
form structural pieces called aggregates. In surface soil the                   
structure will usually be granular unless it is disrupted. The                  
soil aggregates will be rounded and vary in size from very small                
shot to large pea. If organic matter content is low and if the                  
soil has been under continuous cultivation, the soil structure                  
may be quite indistinct.                                                        
                                                                                
Structure of the soil is closely related to air and water                       
movement within it. Good structure allows favorable movement of                 
air and water, while poor or no structure slows down this                       
movement. Water can enter a surface soil that has granular                      
structure more rapidly than one that has little structure. Since                
plant roots move through the same channels in the soil as air and               
water, good structure allows extensive root development while                   
poor structure discourages it.                                                  
                                                                                
Good structure of the surface soil is promoted by incorporating                 
organic matter such as compost or leaf mold, and by working the                 
soil when its moisture conditions are correct. Never work the                   
soil when it is wet.                                                            
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
What crops should I grow to make my gardening activities most                   
economical?                                                                     
                                                                                
It is difficult to determine the economic value of crops grown in               
the vegetable garden due to the different lengths of time they                  
require for maturity and harvest, the availability of varieties                 
and vegetable types not generally found in the marketplace, and                 
the lack of comparison values for vegetables that are not                       
acceptable by commercial standards (cracked tomatoes, crooked                   
cucumbers, etc.), but which are perfectly usable by the home                    
gardener. Nevertheless, several studies have attempted to                       
determine which crops bring the most value per square foot of                   
garden space, partly to aid small-space gardeners in making                     
decisions about what to plant. Of course, if no one in the family               
likes beets, there is no point in growing them just because they                
are economically valuable, but this list may help you determine                 
which vegetables to plant and which to buy. Perennial crops are                 
not on the list below because each of the studies was on a                      
one-season basis. But asparagus, rhubarb, horseradish and other                 
perennial crops do also have considerable economic worth.                       
Miniature varieties or trellising may also increase value per                   
square foot.                                                                    
                                                                                
The following list gives the top 15 vegetables in economic value                
based on several studies:                                                       
                                                                                
Tomatoes			     	Beets        Onions storage bulbs                              
Green bunching onions	     Carrots      Beans (pole,bush)                       
Leaf lettuce			     Cucumbers    Swiss chard                                    
Turnip (greens + roots)	     Peppers      Head lettuce                          
Summer squash			     Broccoli     Edible podded peas	                           
                                                                                
Values are based on pounds produced per square foot, retail value               
per pound at harvest time, and length of time in the garden.                    
                                                                                
You might also like to know the low value crops not recommended                 
for small gardens: corn,	 winter squash, melons, pumpkins.                      
___________                                                                     
                                                                                
How can you tell if a flower is biennial?                                       
                                                                                
Biennials are plants which start from seeds, then produce                       
vegetative structures and food storage organs the first season.                 
During the first winter a hardy evergreen rosette of basal leaves               
persists. During the second season, flowers, fruit and seed                     
develop to complete the life cycle. The plant then dies. Carrots,               
beets, cabbage, celery, and onions are biennial plants which                    
produce seed by flowers that develop the second year of                         
growth. Hollyhock Canterbury bells , and Sweet William are                      
biennials which are commonly grown for their attractive flowers.                
                                                                                
Plants which typically develop as biennials may in some cases                   
complete the cycle of growth from seed germination to seed                      
production in only one growing season. This situation occurs when               
drought, variation in temperature, or other climatic conditions                 
cause the plant to pass through the equivalent of two growing                   
seasons physiologically, in a single growing season. This pheno-                
menon is referred to as bolting.                                                
                                                                                
Some biennials such as foxglove have been bred to flower in one                 
year.                                                                           
__________                                                                      
                                                                                
In recent years, hoes have become available in a number of                      
different shapes. How do you use all these types?                               
                                                                                
A hoe is essential in any garden for preparing the seed bed,                    
removing weeds, and breaking up encrusted soil. Several different               
hoe styles are available. Probably the most commonly used hoe is                
the square-bladed hoe, which lends itself well to many garden                   
tasks. The pointed hoe with a heart shaped blade is light weight                
and useful for opening seed furrows and cultivating between                     
plants. There are several types of scuffle hoes which can be                    
useful in the garden. Pushing and pulling these just under the                  
soil surface eliminates newly emerging weeds and breaks up any                  
crust on the soil surface. This type of hoe is most easily used on              
soil which is not compacted, since the blades are relatively thin               
and lack the clod breaking capabilities of a heavier hoe; it is                 
also less effective in cases where weeds have gotten a good start.              
                                                                                
The hula or action hoe is a type of scuffle hoe which is very                   
light weight and maneuverable. There are other types of scuffle                 
hoes which are somewhat more sturdy, and are used with a pushing                
motion rather than pushing and pulling. Among these is the "Swoe"               
which at first glance favors a golf club. The blade of this hoe                 
has three sharpened sides which enable it to cut forward, backward              
or sideways, a unique approach in garden tools. Another of the                  
scuffle hoes has a diamond shaped head with four sharpened sides.               
This hoe tapers from 2 inches at the center attachment to 1/2 inch              
width at the tips. It works especially well when close cultivation              
is needed between small plants.                                                 
                                                                                
A last consideration is an imported English hoe which has a                     
characteristic design. Picture a long handled trowel with a "V"                 
section removed where the point would normally be. This allows the              
removal of rose suckers or stubborn weeds. Since the blade is                   
center mounted, a cutting edge is also on the rear of the blade                 
where a trowel handle is usually mounted. This edge is shaped like              
a "W" to be used in a pulling motion for weeds behind plants. For               
illustrations see tool catalogs or Crockett's Tool Shed.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
January Notes                                                                   
                                                                                
* Give your holiday gift plants the best care so you can retain                 
their original, attractive appearance. Keep them cool with a                    
temperature of 70 degrees F. during the day and 60 degrees at                   
night. Set the pots on crushed stone or gravel in a pan of water                
to maintain higher humidity.                                                    
                                                                                
* Recycle your holiday decorations. Greenery used in ornaments                  
can be used again in the garden. Wreaths and branches stripped                  
from Christmas trees make excellent mulch for protecting newly                  
planted ornamentals. Remove the material in the spring and                      
compost it.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Move garden ornaments such as urns or jars into the garage                    
or basement to prevent damage during the cold winter season.                    
                                                                                
* Keep all outdoor containers turned upside down during the                     
winter so water will not collect in them and freeze causing                     
breakage. If containers are too large to move, cover them with                  
wood or other sturdy material to prevent water collection.                      
                                                                                
* Avoid heavy traffic on the dormant lawn. Dry grass is easily                  
broken and the crown of the plant may be severely damaged or                    
killed.                                                                         
                                                                                
* When salt is needed to melt ice on walks and drives, spread                   
it carefully to avoid severe damage to nearby lawns and shrubs.                 
Damage to needle-type evergreens will be evident next spring by                 
copper and yellow tones. Damaged deciduous plants will have                     
bronze or reddish leaves.                                                       
                                                                                
* Turn and prune house plants regularly to keep them shapely.                   
Pinch back the stems of house plants as needed to promote                       
balanced growth.                                                                
                                                                                
* During the winter most houses are too dry for house plants.                   
Humidity may be increased by placing plants on trays lined with                 
pebbles and filled with water to within one half inch of the base               
of the pot. If you heat with wood, keep a pot of water on the                   
stove. The added moisture will be healthier for you as well as                  
your plants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* If you have some time this winter, paint the handles of garden                
tools red. This will preserve the wood and make the tools easier                
to locate next summer when you lay them down in the garden or                   
on the lawn.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Overhaul your garden sprayer, inspect leather washers and                     
plunger and replace any worn parts (after thoroughly oiling                     
new leather). It may be difficult to locate some exact parts                    
for your model sprayer. By starting now, you'll have them by                    
gardening season.                                                               
                                                                                
* When reviewing your garden catalogs for new varieties to try,                 
an important consideration is improved insect and/or disease                    
resistance over older plants. Watch also for drought-tolerant                   
plants.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't let snow build up on the branches of your shrubs as                     
the weight will distort and break them. Use care in brushing                    
it off to avoid damage.                                                         
                                                                                
* House plants and holidy gift plants should not be placed on                   
top of the television. It is too warm a location and in most                    
homes too far from windows to provide adequate light.                           
                                                                                
* Check all of your plants closely for insect infestations. Pests               
are sometimes brought in on gift plants and those that were                     
present in small numbers before the holidays, may have multiplied               
under neglect.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Plan your herbaceous flower beds now so you can make changes                  
early in the spring. Many perennials will need to be divided.                   
Perhaps you can arrange to trade with friends and neighbors.                    
Designate location in the bed for summer flowering annuals to                   
fill in color between your spring perennials and fall chrysanthe-               
mums.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Review your vegetable garden plans. Perhaps a smaller garden                  
with fewer weeds and insects will give you more produce.                        
                                                                                
* Start planning now for next year's holiday gifts and decora-                  
tions. Record those items you wished you had this year (dried                   
flowers, herbs, pickles and preserves) and make sure you plant                  
them for next year.                                                             
                                                                                
* Before ordering your spring seed, do a "rag doll" germination                 
test on those seeds left over from last year's order. Roll 10                   
or 20 seeds in a damp paper towel, keep moist in a warm location.               
On most crops, germination of viable seed will occur within a                   
week. If half the seeds germinate and you have enough left to                   
plant twice as many as you usually do, you should get an adequate               
crop. Otherwise, order more seed. It's a small investment to                    
insure success.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Don't wait too late in the winter to order seed. Many varieties               
sell out early.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Remember, trees and shrubs have an economic value. If killed                  
or damaged by ice or accident, they may be covered by homeowner's               
insurance or they may be a legitimate loss on your taxes.                       
                                                                                
* Do-it-yourself landscaping projects have a high priority these                
days. They provide savings in more ways than most people realize:               
(1) they enhance property value; (2) they can reduce the cost                   
of heating and cooling bills; (3) they save the actual out-of-                  
pocket expense of contracting to have the job done; (4) they                    
provide indirect savings on taxes (for example, someone in the                  
30% tax bracket would have to earn $430 to have enough after-tax                
cash to pay $300 for a job done around the home); (5) home                      
landscaping is great preventative therapy and improves one's                    
mental health.                                                                  
                                                                                
* For an interesting ornamental plant and a culinary addition,                  
buy a plump unshriveled ginger root at the grocery store and                    
plant in a light sandy soil just under the surface in a 6" to 8"                
pot. Place in a warm sunny window and keep damp until shoots                    
appear. Increase water and fertilize monthly with high phos-                    
phorus. Harvest your crop in about 8 months, saving a piece to                  
replant.                                                                        
                                                                                
* For tips on being a smart mail-order shopper and a list of                    
95 mail-order nurseries, send a self-addressed business sized                   
envelope with 37 cents postage to The Complete Guide to Gardening               
by Mail, Mail Order Association of Nurserymen, Inc., 210 Cart-                  
wright Blvd., Massapequa Park, NY 11762.                                        
                                                                                
* Look at your landscape. Do you need evergreens to protect                     
your privacy, reduce street noise, block the glare of street                    
lights? Order plants now and in February for March planning.                    
                                                                                
* In warmer parts of the state, tuberous begonias and caladiums                 
can be started indoors now. In mountain areas, start next                       
month. Set root starts in pots or shallow boxes of rich soil (1/3               
sand, 1/3 peat, 1/3 loam). Cover with one inch of mixture. Keep                 
moist, not wet, in good light at 65 degrees F. Transplant to                    
larger pots in 6 weeks and set outside in ground after all danger               
of frost.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Bring in bulbs of narcissus, and hyacinths started in pots                    
last fall for late winter indoor blooms.                                        
                                                                                
* Use care in putting wood ashes on the garden. They are alkaline               
and too much will raise the soil pH higher than optimum.                        
                                                                                
* One solution to the deer problem found effective in Louisiana                 
is rotten eggs. A mixture of 12-18 eggs in 5 gallons of water                   
sprayed over an acre emits enough odor to repel deer but not                    
offend the gardener.                                                            
                                                                                
* For added security around the home, plant thorny shrubs on                    
property lines and under windows. Some very thorny ones to                      
consider include pyracantha, tri-foliate orange, Rosa rugosa,                   
or thorny elaeagnus.                                                            
                                                                                
* Late winter (February and March) is the time to prune many                    
deciduous trees. Look over your plants now for dead, dying,                     
or unsightly parts of the tree; sprouts growing at or near the                  
base of the tree trunk; crossed branches (disease organisms                     
enter the tree through the abraded area where branches rub to-                  
gether); and V crotches. As the tree matures, V crotches become                 
increasingly susceptible to splitting. If possible, remove one                  
side of the crotch while the plant is young.                                    
                                                                                
* The 1986 edition of the American Rose Society's Handbook for                  
Selecting Roses is now available. More than 1000 roses are                      
listed alphabetically with color, classification, and a rating                  
as to how well they grow. There is also a section listing high                  
rated roses for easy reference or choice. To obtain your copy,                  
send 60 cents and a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: The                    
American Rose Society, Department US, P.O. Box 30,000, Shreves-                 
port, LA 71130.                                                                 
                                                                                
* For easier lawn maintenance, eliminate the hard to mow spaces.                
Put the bird bath in a flower bed or surround it with ground                    
cover. Eliminate acute angles. Combine single trees or shrubs                   
into a large planting connected with ground.                                    
                                                                                
* Do some reading on trickle irrigation this winter. It will                    
save you time and water and increase your garden yield.                         
                                                                                
* Watch for The Virginia Gardener on television this spring. A                  
weekly series of two-minute programs will be seen on cable                      
stations throughout the state during the 1986 growing season.                   
                                                                                
* After-bloom care is necessary for next year's flowers on                      
amaryllis. In general, at least four strong leaves are needed for               
each flower stalk. Keep the plant growing strongly until mid-July               
before allowing it to go dormant.                                               
                                                                                
* Every two or three years it is best to repot amaryllis bulbs in               
fresh media and increase the pot size is necessary. if offsets                  
are present, you may pot them individually. Immature bulbs                      
generally require 2-3 years to reach bloom size.                                
                                                                                
* Start ageratum, baby's breath, begonia, statics, pansy, sweet                 
pea and snapdragon seed indoors this month.                                     
                                                                                
* On warm days, check if any perennials have been heaved by                     
freezing and thawing of soil. Firmly press down any which have                  
lifted and cover with at least 2" of organic mulch.                             
                                                                                
* There are many prescriptions to keep deer from nibbling                       
ornamentals: fencing, plastic netting, repellants, sprays, hot                  
pepper sauce, egg whites, human hare, lion or tiger manure, even                
rock music. Try a few to find out what works for your uninvited                 
pruners.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Stamp down snow near young trees to discourage mice from                      
nesting under the snow around them.                                             
                                                                                
* Bring house plants which normally thrive on the north side of                 
the house to east windows, while allowing the plants from the                   
east more sun on the south. Also, give the plants that usually                  
are set on the tables away from direct light a short midwinter                  
visit to one of the less exposed windowsills. When extremely cold               
nights prevail, draw the window shades at night or slip lengths                 
of protective cardboard between plants and the glass. Move the                  
tenderest plants away from the window panes on the coldest                      
nights.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If you are considering installing supplemental lighting for                   
your indoor plants, the 48 inch, 40 watt fixture with two                       
fluorescent tubes is the industry standard. Spare parts are                     
readily available and high production assures lower costs for 48                
inch than for other size tubes. Use one cool white and one warm                 
white tube to obtain a light mix most beneficial to plants.                     
                                                                                
* Fluorescent tubes lose intensity with age. If your are using                  
quite a few fluorescent lamps, change a few tubes at a time to                  
avoid plant damage by the sudden increase in light intensity.                   
                                                                                
* Spend a cold evening in front of the fire going through seed                  
catalogs to decide what you are going to plant in this year's                   
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Analyze last year's planting records, and fertilizeing and                    
spraying calendar. Make notations to reorder successful varieties               
as well as those you wish to try again.                                         
                                                                                
* If you potted bulbs of daffodils, crocus, tulips, or hyacinths                
in fall, bring them indoors now to force them into bloom. Place                 
pots in a window that receives direct sunlight for at least a few               
hours each day. Allow soil to dry partially between each water-                 
ing.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Tree branches that have grown so much as to cast excess shade                 
over flower plantings should be cut off in winter when, in                      
falling, they can do no damage to the bed.                                      
                                                                                
* Continue harvesting the carrots, parsnips, turnips, and                       
horseradish you left in the garden in the fall.                                 
                                                                                
* Thin leaved plants seem most sensitive to transplant shock. If                
a plant wilts after repotting, encase the entire plant in a                     
plastic bag. Twist the bag shut and punch two or three holes in                 
it. Allow the plant to recuperate in this protected environment                 
for two or three days. Resist the urge to water a wilted plant if               
the soil is moist.                                                              
                                                                                
* Winter is the time to apply miscible oil sprays to kill                       
over-wintering mites, aphids, and scale. Use on deciduous plants                
and hardy evergreens but not on needleleaf species.                             
                                                                                
* Spray miscible oils when temperatures are above 40 degrees F                  
but not within 24 hours of a freeze. Because oil kills insects by               
suffocation, avoid spraying on windy days to ensure that all                    
surfaces of the plant are covered.                                              
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
January Press Releases                                                          
                                                                                
Assessing the Winter Landscape                     52 lines                     
Container Media                                    52 lines                     
Seed Storage                                       51 lines                     
Coping with the Catalog                            16 lines                     
Reading the Seed Packet                            56 lines                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
ASSESSING THE WINTER LANDSCAPE                                                  
                                                                                
     Winter is an "in-between" time for gardeners. It is the                    
time to take stock of last year's landscape and plan improvements               
for the next year. As you consider changes in your landscape,                   
take time to study the winter view from your favorite window and                
consider ways to enhance it.                                                    
     Three of the most prominent features of the winter landscape               
are the silhouettes of the trees and shrubs, the colors of the                  
bark, and the red and orange fruit on many species.                             
     The leafless silhouettes of trees and shrubs are individual                
to each species and can be used effectively to improve your                     
winter landscape. The convoluted branches of the hazel cultivar                 
"contorta" make an interesting pattern against a fence, while                   
the horizontal branches of the flowering dogwood can add an                     
oriental style to your garden. (A cultivar is a variety which                   
has evolved through horticultural efforts, rather than through                  
natural means.)                                                                 
     The bark of trees and shrubs now attracts attention. The                   
brightest reds and corals of the winter twigs are found among                   
the species of shrub dogwoods, particularly the cultivar                        
"sibirica."  Yellow colors can be found on the shrub dogwood                    
cultivar "flaviramea" and the kerria cultivar "aureo-vittata."                  
     Athea varieties of kerria are noted for their green winter                 
twigs, along with the trifoliate orange and the different types                 
of brown. However, the most striking of the barks is the white                  
of the trunks on branches of the white bush and sycamore. The                   
pink tones of a winter sunset on the white bark of sycamore                     
almost make me forget what a nuisance this tree can be the rest                 
of the year.                                                                    
     For red fruit throughout much of the winter, two good                      
selections are the autumn olive and the possum haw. The autumn                  
olive has silvery red fruit that 25 species of birds enjoy. The                 
possum haw is heavily covered with large red fruit about the                    
size of cherries.                                                               
     Many other trees and shrubs brighten the winter landscape                  
with their fruit. Washington hawthorn has an abundance of shiny                 
red corymbs of fruit. The Lalandei firethorn is one of the                      
hardiest and showiest of the firethorns, with scarlet red fruit                 
covering the shrub well into January.                                           
     If you bundle up against the cold and go outside, you can                  
explore more closely your winter landscape. Examine closely the                 
twigs around you to be awed by nature's complex protection of                   
life at rest. Each dormant bud that will become next year's                     
leaf or flower is sheltered by bud scales that protect it from                  
dry air which would wither it during the cold winter months.                    
     Look also at the bark. Discover the "wings" on the sweet                   
gum and the winged euonymus. Notice that the bark on the birch                  
and sycamore is not smooth but is exfoliating; that is, shedding                
off in long strips or flaking off in irregular patches.                         
     Visit arboreta or nurseries during this "in-between" season                
and gather more ideas for a year-round landscape.                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
CONTAINER MEDIA                                                                 
                                                                                
     Did you ever consider why we have different mixtures of                    
soil and other materials for use in growing and propagating                     
house plants?  Why not use good old garden soil instead of                      
bothering with all these special combinations?                                  
     The big problem with indoor plants is soil aeration, which                 
is related to drainage. Most garden soils contain so much fine                  
silt or clay that they pack down and provide poor aeration and                  
drainage when used in pots. To correct this problem you need to                 
mix sand and peat moss with your soil.                                          
     A good general purpose mixture for house plants, or the                    
seedlings you will raise next spring, is one part each of soil,                 
shredded peat moss, and coarse sand. Add one-half part of dried                 
manure to improve the nutritional level.                                        
     Any mixture which contains soil should be sterilized to                    
kill insects, nematodes, disease organisms, and weed seeds. This                
may be accomplished by baking in the oven at 180 degrees for 30                 
minutes or by using a soil fumigant following the instruc-                      
tions on the package.                                                           
     You can avoid the need for sterilization by using a peat                   
moss and vermiculite mixture. Mix equal parts of shredded peat                  
moss and No. 2 horticultural grade vermiculite. Add a cupful of                 
ground limestone and a cupful of 5-10-5 fertilizer per bushel.                  
This mixture is excellent for growing seedling plants. You may                  
provide a more enduring nutrient supply for potted plants by                    
adding six quarts of dried manure per bushel of the above                       
mixture. This mixture may be used without sterilization.                        
     An now, let's discuss the mixtures you need for plant                      
propagation by cuttings. This is a quite different situation,                   
because the cuttings need moisture from a well aerated medium,                  
but practically no nutrients. You need sand, peat moss, vermicu-                
lite or perlite as a propagating medium.                                        
     You should consider the characteristics of these materials                 
to appreciate why they are so useful for the gardener. Sand is                  
excellent because of its good aeration and lack of nutrients,                   
but it has very low water holding capacity. The addition of                     
peat moss or vermiculite will provide the needed water retention.               
     Peat moss is partially decomposed swamp vegetation. It has                 
a high water holding capacity and usually contains one to three                 
percent nitrogen. It may be acid or alkaline, depending on the                  
source. Peat is useful as a mulch or as a medium for rooting                    
cuttings when mixed with sand, vermiculite, or perlite.                         
     Vermiculite is a heat expanded mica which is very light in                 
weight and has a high water holding capacity. It is an excellent                
material for rooting cuttings when mixed with sand or peat moss.                
When seeds are planted in heavy soils, they may be covered with                 
vermiculite to promote improved germination and easy emergence.                 
     Perlite is a heat expanded volcanic lava. The small sharp                  
particles are very light because of small trapped air pockets. It               
is useful as a propagation media when mixed with peat moss or                   
vermiculite.                                                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
SEED STORAGE                                                                    
                                                                                
     Are those seeds any good which you had left over after                     
planting your garden last spring?  Most packets now cost 25                     
cents or more, compared to a dime only a few years ago. So, it                  
would be a nice saving if you could plant this spring those                     
which you did not use last year.                                                
     Many kinds of garden seeds remain viable for several years.                
Therefore, check your supply carefully before you make out your                 
new order.                                                                      
     The germination percentage you secure from old seeds                       
depends in part on the conditions under which they are stored.                  
The best way to keep most seeds from year to year is in a tight                 
jar in your home refrigerator. We appreciate that such space                    
usually is not available.                                                       
     The second choice is to store your seeds in a tight con-                   
tainer in a cool basement. Seeds may lose viability quite                       
rapidly in the warm temperatures of the average home.                           
     In general, garden seeds may be divided into three groups,                 
in terms of their longevity. Short life span seeds should give                  
satisfactory germination for one or two years. Medium life span                 
seeds usually will remain viable for three or four years. Long                  
life seeds should grow after storage of five to six years and                   
sometimes longer.                                                               
     Accurate information on the longevity of flower seeds is                   
hard to find. Based on limited observations, the following                      
should be considered as short ife span seeds:  astor, candytuft,                
cleome, columbine, honesty, kochia, phlox, salvia, strawflower,                 
and vinca.                                                                      
     Some of the more common flowers with long life seeds are                   
alyssum, calendula, centaurea, coreopsis, cosmos, marigold,                     
nasturtium, nigella, petunia, salpiglossis, scabiosa,                           
schizanthus, sweet pea, verbena, viola, and zinnia.                             
     Most vegetable seeds have rather long life, but there are a                
few important exceptions. For example, corn, leek, onion, and                   
parsnip seeds have short life spans. Those with medium longevity                
include beans, beet, carrot, Swiss chard, mustard, pepper,                      
pumpkin, and tomato. The seeds of other commonly grown vege-                    
tables will usually grow quite well even when five or more years                
old.                                                                            
     You may test the germination of your seeds by placing a                    
definite number on moist blotter paper in a dish or pan covered                 
with plastic or glass to maintain a high humidity. Place your                   
seed containers in a warm location and count those which germi-                 
nate in 10 to 14 days. From these figures you can easily deter-                 
mine the percentage germination and adjust the thickenss of                     
planting accordingly.                                                           
     Plant your old seeds more thickly than you do fresh ones. If               
the seeds are at or beyond the above suggested ages, plant                      
them about twice as thick as usual. Scatter them in a band in                   
the row rather than in a narrow dense line.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
COPING WITH THE CATALOG                                                         
                                                                                
     If you are like me, you can easily be overwhelmed by the                   
beautiful pictures in the catalog.                                              
     Best defense is a good plan. Look and dream, write down                    
what looks good, check it against last year's notes (what did                   
well) and extension agent's recommendations.                                    
     Test last year's seed for germination by placing 10-12                     
seeds between moist blotter or paper towel in warm location. The                
seed should germinate in 5-7 days if it's still good.                           
     Decide how much space you can really take care of.                         
     Then start making a list and refining your plan. Look for                  
disease resistance and drought resistance.                                      
     Only experiment with a few new things each year.                           
     Make your "final" list then talk to friends and neighbors.                 
Maybe you can share some seed.                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
READING THE SEED PACKET                                                         
                                                                                
     To the beginning gardener, reading the packets in a seed                   
display may seem a bit like reading a horticultural textbook.                   
Most seed packets contain a wealth of information if you know                   
what to look for and understand the terminology.                                
     A gardener who picks up a packet of tomato seeds may be                    
confronted with a description like "Small Fry VFN Hybrid A.A.S."                
It is important that the gardener decipher this code if he is to                
determine if that variety is the one to use.                                    
     Each variety is unique from the others that grow the same                  
crop. And often, one variety will be far more satisfactory for                  
your purposes than another. "Small Fry VFN Hybrid A.A.S." is a                  
determinate variety (with stems growing a predetermined length)                 
of tomato well-suited to certain culture, producing small, one-                 
inch diameter fruit. "Sweet 100 Hybrid" produces a smaller                      
fruit on a vigorous indeterminate vine that requires staking.                   
"Better Boy VFN Hybrid" may produce tomatoes up to 1 1/2 pounds                 
on large vines. So, the choice is yours.                                        
     Notice also the letters and words following the variety                    
name. Many of today's seeds are hybrids. This is a plant result-                
ing from crossing two plants of the same type to produce a                      
plant with a desired characteristic for one or more traits, such                
as height, fruit size, and flower color.                                        
     Hybrids usually are more vigorous, uniform in growth and                   
productive than non-hybrids. Also, they do not come true from                   
seed in the next generation. That is, the plants resulting from                 
the seed that you buy will have known characteristics but if you                
try to save seed from those fruits and raise additional plants,                 
they will be entirely different.                                                
     The letters VFN are codes to represent disease resistance.                 
(V = verticillium wilt, F = fusarium wilt, N = nematodes.)                      
Tomato varieties coded with these letters are less susceptible                  
to those specific problems. Always look for varieties which are                 
resistant to diseases. This will reduce your work and increase                  
your yield in the garden.                                                       
     The letters A.A.S. indicate that the variety was awarded a                 
medal for outstanding performance in variety trials nationwide                  
by the All-America Selections Committee. Although some varieties                
marked A.A.S. may not do well in Virginia, most will perform                    
superiorly.                                                                     
     Another item to watch for on the seed packet is the date. It               
should be clearly stated that the seed was packed for the                       
current growing season. Old seeds cannot be guaranteed to have                  
as high a germination rate, particularly if they were stored                    
improperly.                                                                     
     All packets will give some indication of the quantity of                   
content. The weight is far less useful than the number of seeds                 
or the amount of garden space that can be planted from that                     
packet. Information on timing the planting and spacing after                    
thinning or even drawings to help you identify the seedling when                
removing weeds add to the value of the packet.                                  
     After buying seeds, try storing them in a small file labeled               
with the date to plant them. After labeling the plants in the                   
garden with variety and date planted, return the empty packet to                
the file as a handy reference.                                                  
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
January 1986 Question Box                                                       
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
EDITOR'S NOTE: In the November 1985 TVG Question Box, in referen-               
ce to acidifying soil: Although aluminum sulfate has traditional-               
ly been recommended to lower pH, in some soils it may build up to               
toxic levels (ie. heavy metal accumulation). Consult with the                   
Extension Specialists in Agronomy for correct recommendations                   
for your area.                                                                  
                                                                                
JANUARY TOPICS                                                                  
                                                                                
Wire imbedded in tree trunk                  14 lines                           
Jade plant                                   15 lines                           
Vacation watering of houseplants             21 lines                           
Little-leaf linden                           27 lines                           
Slow release fertilizer                      31 lines                           
Tissue culture                               31 lines                           
Spaghetti squash                             15 lines                           
Tayberry                                     22 lines                           
Juniper identification                       18 lines                           
Venus fly trap/carnivorous plants            40 lines                           
Micronutrients                               38 lines                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Will a wire growing around a tree trunk harm the tree?                          
                                                                                
Wires which become embedded in bark can be very destructive to a                
tree. Although the wire will rust, it won't disintegrate.                       
Therefore, as the bark, and then the wood, envelop the wire, the                
obstruction interferes with water and nutrient flow. Conse-                     
quently, the tree may die. In addition, the wire may cause the                  
tree to become weak at this point and it may break in high                      
winds. Also, in years to come, if the tree is cut down for                      
firewood, the hidden metal may ruin the saw or pieces of metal                  
may fly up and hurt someone.                                                    
                                                                                
If the wire is near the surface, using pliers or a vice grip, try               
to remove the fencing but remember all tree wounds provide an                   
entrance for insects and pathogens. Therefore, if the wire is                   
deeply embedded, just cut the fence and route it away from the                  
tree to prevent further damage.                                                 
                                                                                
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Does jade ever flower?  How long will a jade plant live?                        
                                                                                
The common jade, one of the most popular house plants, is valued                
primarily for its glossy green leaves. It seldom flowers under                  
household conditions unless subjected to high light intensity. A                
healthy plant several years old grown in a sunny window with an                 
adequate water supply may display clusters of pale pink blossoms                
occasionally.                                                                   
                                                                                
Jade thrives as a foliage plant under a wide range of environmen-               
tal conditions. It tolerates low light levels, hot dry air and                  
infrequent watering. It propagates readily from cuttings which                  
grow quickly to respectable size. Given good care, a plant will                 
live as long as you or I.                                                       
                                                                                
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I am planning my vacation and have been unable to find anyone to                
tend my plants while I'm gone. Is there anyway to keep them                     
watered?                                                                        
                                                                                
To keep potted plants watered while you're away, all you need is                
heavy cotton clothesline, a sink or large container filled with                 
water, and several objects to act as weights. Cut the clothesline               
into lengths long enough to reach from the bottom of the water-f-               
illed sink or container to the soil of each plant. Weight                       
the ends down that are in the water; insert the other end into                  
the soil by making a hole with a pencil and then firm the soil                  
around the clothesline. Start the siphon action by watering the                 
plant. Be sure to place saucers under plants to catch excess                    
water.                                                                          
                                                                                
Water plants in this manner the day before you leave to be sure                 
that the system is working properly for all the plants. A three                 
gallon container will water six plants in 6" pots for ten days in               
a house with normal relative humidity. If your home is very dry,                
make more water available. Because this method tends to over-                   
water some plants, which may result in disease problems, use this               
watering system only as a temporary measure.                                    
                                                                                
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Our neighborhood planning committee has selected little-leaf                    
lindens as street trees in front of our home. What do they look                 
like? What kind of care will be required?                                       
                                                                                
The little leaf linden, Tilia cordata, often is called the                      
small-leaved European linden. The tree is easily recognized at a                
distance, particularly in winter, because of its symmetrical,                   
almost sheared, appearance. As a young tree it is mostly conical                
in shape but as it matures it develops a nearly columnar growth                 
habit. The leaves are 1 1/2 to 3 inches long and nearly as wide.                
You may look forward to small but fragrant yellowish flowers in                 
early summer. In a well-drained soil, little-leaf linden will                   
easily produce eighteen to twenty-four inches of growth a year.                 
                                                                                
Little leaf linden is a strong tree rarely subject to the                       
breakage from ice or snow. In addition, it falls prey to few                    
insect pests and diseases. Aphids, while occasionally present in                
the trees, are usually of little consequence to the plant's                     
overall health. Perhaps the worst enemy of the linden is man,                   
himself, when he plants the tree in a heavy clay soil with poor                 
drainage and overfertilizes, or when he applies herbicides over                 
the root system.                                                                
                                                                                
Little leaf linden is widely used on the streets in Europe and                  
has gained favor in many American cities. Crosses, using little                 
leaf linden as one of the parents, have also resulted in some                   
useful trees for the landscape, including the Crimean linden.                   
                                                                                
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A plant which was given to me last month has little tan balls                   
appearing on the soil surface. What kind of eggs could they be?                 
How should I treat for it?                                                      
                                                                                
Chances are the spheres appearing on the soil surface are not                   
eggs at all, but slow-release fertilizer pellets. Slow-release                  
fertilizer is supposed to release nutrients at the same rate they               
are taken up by the plants.                                                     
                                                                                
The slow release fertilizer used on most indoor plants is                       
composed of granular fertilizer coated with resin to control the                
rate of nutrient release from the granules into the soil. When                  
the resin-coated granules come in contact with water, the resin                 
swells and the pores increases in size allowing the fertilizer                  
to dissolve and move into the soil. Release rate depends on the                 
coating thickness, temperature, and water content of the soil.                  
Release timing can be from 1 to 6 months depending on the                       
coating.                                                                        
                                                                                
Slow release fertilizers provide benefits to both the plant owner               
and the plant. The grower only needs to reapply the fertilizer                  
every few months depending on the formulation. Fertilizer                       
concentrations higher than usual can be applied as there is                     
little danger from fertilizer burn. Plants may use the nitrogen                 
in slow release fertilizers more efficiently than in other forms                
since it is continually being released at the proper rate. The                  
plants also do not experience "feast or famine" in regard to the                
rate at which they recieve nutrients. One should consider                       
two other aspects about slow release fertilizers before before                  
opting to use them: 1) they are generally more expensive than                   
other types of fertilization; 2) they may encourage excess growth               
in plants you would prefer to keep small.                                       
                                                                                
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I hear a lot about tissue culture as the new way to propagate                   
plants? What does this involve?                                                 
                                                                                
Plant tissue culture techniques have become important for the                   
study of a wide range of problems in plant research. Although                   
technical prodecures for tissue culture are diverse and sometimes               
complicated, a simplified procedure can be followed in the home.                
All that is needed are a few basic supplies which can easily be                 
obtained at local grocery stores.                                               
                                                                                
The procedures can be used in the home to propagate various                     
species of plants which are either easy (African violets, coleus,               
chrysanthemums) or difficult (orchids, ferns, weeping figs) to                  
propagate. Small, actively growing portions usually result in the               
most vigorous plantlets. For example, ferns are most readily                    
propagated by using only 1/2 inch of the tip of a rhizome. For                  
other species, 1/2 to 1 inch of the shoot tip is sufficient.                    
                                                                                
Plant parts to be tissue cultured are first disinfected in a                    
dilute solution of bleach, then transferred to a sterile contain-               
er (such as a baby food jar) filled with a specially prepared                   
culture medium. This is then placed in a warm, well-lighted                     
environment to encourage growth.                                                
                                                                                
When plantlets have grown to a sufficient size, they are trans-                 
planted into a light media. Transplanting should be as gentle as                
possible because the plants are leaving a warm, humid environment               
for a harsher, drier one. If you would like complete instruc-                   
tions, request publication 426-385 Plant Tissue Culture for the                 
Homeowner. (Excerpt from article an by Mark Bridgen, Graduate                   
Assistant, and Richard Veilleux, Assistant Professor, Horti-                    
culture, Virginia Tech.)                                                        
                                                                                
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What is "spaghetti squash"?                                                     
                                                                                
Spaghetti squash is a vegetable that is rapidly moving off the                  
"unusual" list because it is becoming so popular. A substitute                  
for noodles, this winter squash is simply boiled or baked and the               
pulp, when "fluffed out" with a fork, looks like noodles and                    
tastes delicious served with a sauce or butter. Spaghetti squash                
is grown like other vining winter squash and is susceptible to                  
the same problems. The vine spreads over a large area but has                   
been successfully trellised on a heavy tomato cage; each squash                 
being supported by a net sling to prevent its pulling the vine                  
down or falling off. Because they have a long growing season,                   
they should be started early. Spaghetti squash are ready to                     
harvest when they turn light yellow. Most seed companies carry                  
spaghetti squash sometimes calling it vegetable spaghetti.                      
                                                                                
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I am seeing a new type of raspberry in seed catalogs. It is                     
called tayberry. What can you tell me about it?                                 
                                                                                
The tayberry, a result of a Scottish breeding program, is an                    
offspring of two very different bramble plants, the blackberry                  
and the red raspberry. Although it resembles the logenberry, its                
fruit are considerably larger and more conical. It pulls from the               
bush much like the blackberry where the core remains with the                   
fruit rather than staying attached to the plant as is the case                  
for the raspberry.                                                              
                                                                                
Tayberry's growth habit more resembles that of the spreading                    
blackberry than the raspberry. Some outstanding yields have been                
obtained from these plants under experimental growing conditions.               
Because they are propagated by tissue culture, which requires                   
special facilities and techniques, their price is greater than                  
that of similar plants. However, tissue culture insures that the                
brambles will be vigorous, superior plants.                                     
                                                                                
Tayberry plants are not widely available at present. However,                   
they deserve to be planted by all home gardeners interested in                  
bramble production. (Excerpt from article by Jerry Williams,                    
Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Virginia Tech)                               
                                                                                
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Do you have any tips for telling junipers apart?                                
                                                                                
The foliage of junipers are of two distinct kinds: the juvenile                 
stage with sharp-pointed, prickly needles, and the adult,                       
scale-like formation. The prickly needles may predominate in one                
tree, the scale-like needles in another. Both kinds frequently                  
appear on the same tree, either permanently or in the                           
transitional stage.                                                             
                                                                                
Aside from the division of juniper foliage as either juvenile or                
adult, there is little help in distinguishing junipers from                     
foliage alone. Identification of junipers is mainly reduced to a                
consideration of the color of the foliage and the habit of the                  
plant. Because of characteristic differences in this regard, it                 
is necessary to become familiar with shapes and colors exhibited                
in various species and varieties. However, junipers may be easily               
distinguished from other genera of evergreens if they are found                 
with their semi-fleshy, bluish or reddish-brown cones often                     
called "juniper berries."                                                       
                                                                                
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A friend gave me a Venus fly trap. Does this plant really eat                   
flies?                                                                          
                                                                                
Carnivorous plants, such as Venus fly trap, are true botanical                  
oddities. Many of these meat-eating plants evolved as a result of               
a habitat deficient in nitrogen, which is required for growth,                  
development, and reproduction.                                                  
                                                                                
All carnivorous plants can be grouped into three major categories               
(active, semi-active, or passive) based on the way they ensnare                 
their prey. Active traps, like Venus fly trap and bladderworts,                 
employ swift movements to prevent escape by prey. Semi-active                   
traps move much more slowly and generally have sticky, viscous                  
liquids to detain the victim in the interim; sundews and butterw-               
orts fit into this category. Finally, some carnivorous plants                   
must rely on peculiar shaped leaves to attract and trap insects.                
Such a mechanism is called passive since the trapping does not                  
involve leaf movement, only a clever arrangement of hairs and                   
other leaf modifications which permit the prey to travel in only                
one direction. Pitcher plants are representative of this categor-               
y.                                                                              
                                                                                
On Venus fly trap, the end of each leaf consists of two matching                
pads, outlined with needle-like teeth. Both pads are hinged                     
together and have the ability to open and close in the same way a               
clam or scallop does. This highly specialized ability is control-               
led by three sensory hairs projecting from the internal surface                 
of each pad. Trap closure depends on repeated stimulation, or                   
touching, of these hairs. This characteristic insures that if a                 
leaf or twig falls upon the trap with a single impact, it will                  
not cause the plant to expend energy enclosing a useless object.                
However, a potential victim stumbling over the hairs several                    
times will cause immediate entrapment.                                          
                                                                                
The Venus fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula) grows primarily in certain               
boggy areas within North Carolina. The Venus fly trap has been                  
placed on the endangered species list since careless and greedy                 
collecting occurred throughout the past. Vegetatively propagated                
plants are generally inexpensive and readily available from local               
or mail order sources.(Excerpt from article by Robert E. Lyons,                 
Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Virginia Tech)                               
                                                                                
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Some fertilizers (the expensive ones) contain micronutrients. Do                
my plants need these?                                                           
                                                                                
To understand the role that fertilization plays in supplying                    
plant nutrients, it is necessary to look at the plants's total                  
nutritional needs. Plants require 16 elements for proper growth                 
and development. Three of these 16 elements (carbon, hydrogen,                  
and oxygen) come directly from air and water. The remaining 13                  
elements come from the soil. In naturally occurring ecosystems,                 
most soils are able to supply adequate amounts of these 13                      
elements to support plant growth as can be seen by viewing our                  
native woodlands. In the production of crops and house plants,                  
however, it is necessary to supplement some of the nutrients in                 
the soil with fertilizer.                                                       
                                                                                
The 13 elements provided by the soil can be broken into 2                       
categories: those required by plants in large amounts, the                      
macronutrients, and those required by plants in small amounts,                  
the micronutrients or trace elements. The macronutrients consist                
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium. magnesium and                      
sulfur. The micronutrients or trace elements consist of zinc,                   
manganese, copper, iron, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine.                       
                                                                                
Trace elements are not normally supplied on a regular basis,                    
since the soil is usually able to supply the small amounts needed               
for plant growth. However, occasions do arise where on certain                  
soils and for certain crops, it is necessary to apply one or more               
of these trace elements. This is normally the exception rather                  
than the rule in crop production. Inadequate trace element                      
supplies can often be corrected by adjusting the soil pH to the                 
proper level, since pH has a direct effect on the availability of               
many soil nutrients.                                                            
                                                                                
To determine the nutrient requirements of your crop, have your                  
soil tested on a regular basis. Your county extension agent will                
provide you with the necessary information and materials for                    
taking and submitting a soil sample for analysis. (Excerpt from                 
an article by Stephen J. Donohue, Extension Specialist, Soil and                
Plant Analysis)                                                                 
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
January Notes 1987                                                              
                                                                                
Herbaceous plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Plan your herbaceous flower beds now so you can make changes                  
early in the spring. Many perennials will need to be divided.                   
Perhaps you can arrange to trade with friends and neighbors. Des-               
ignate location in the bed for summer flowering annuals to fill                 
in color between your spring perennials and fall chrysanthemums.                
                                                                                
* If you want lily bulbs free from disease, raise them from seed.               
Start seed in flats of vermiculite in a greenhouse this month.                  
Crows hybrids, 'Henryi', Preston hybrids and 'Princepts Creelman'               
seeds will germinate within three to six weeks. When seedlings                  
are large enough to handle, transplant into a good conventional                 
potting soil. The second spring plants may be moved outside to                  
flower beds which should be dug two to three feet deep as lilies                
require good drainage. They will start to bloom that summer. Be                 
careful not to overfeed lilies.                                                 
                                                                                
* Start ageratum, baby's breath, begonia, statics, pansy, sweet                 
pea and snapdragon seed indoors this month or next. Have plenty                 
of light.                                                                       
                                                                                
* In warmer parts of the state, tuberous begonias and caladiums                 
can be started indoors now. In mountain areas, start next                       
month. Set root starts in pots or shallow boxes of rich soil (1/3               
sand, 1/3 peat, 1/3 loam). Cover with one inch of mixture. Keep                 
moist, not wet, in good light at 65 degrees F. Transplant to                    
larger pots in 6 weeks and set outside in ground after all danger               
of frost.                                                                       
                                                                                
* On warm days, check if any perennials have been heaved by                     
freezing and thawing of soil. Firmly press down any which have                  
lifted and cover with at least 2" of organic mulch.                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
Woody Ornamental                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Stamp down snow near young trees to discourage mice from                      
nesting under the snow around them.                                             
                                                                                
* Remember, trees and shrubs have an economic value. If killed or               
damaged by ice or accident, they may be covered by homeowner's                  
insurance.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Tree branches that have grown so much as to cast excess shade                 
over flower plantings should be cut off in winter when, in                      
falling, they can do no damage to the bed.                                      
                                                                                
* When choosing a location for new shrubs and trees, take into                  
account that a sunny spot in the garden now may be an area of                   
shade in the spring or summer. However, ornamentals like azaleas,               
camellias, dogwood, sourwood, cape jasmine, spirea, mahonia, and                
leucothoe like shade. Plan accordingly.                                         
                                                                                
* The 1986 edition of the American Rose Society's Handbook for                  
Selecting Roses is now available. More than 1000 roses are listed               
alphabetically with color, classification, and a rating as to how               
well they grow. There is also a section listing high rated roses                
for easy reference or choice. To obtain your copy, send 60 cents                
and a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: The American Rose                    
Society, Department US, P.O. Box 30,000, Shrevesport, LA 71130.                 
                                                                                
* Late winter (February and March) is the time to prune many                    
deciduous trees. Look over your plants now for dead, dying, or                  
unsightly parts of the tree; sprouts growing at or near the base                
of the tree trunk; crossed branches (disease organisms enter the                
tree through the abraded area where branches rub together); and V               
crotches. As the tree matures, V crotches become increasingly                   
susceptible to splitting. If possible, remove one side of the                   
crotch while the plant is young.                                                
                                                                                
* Brush snow from evergreens as soon as possible after a storm.                 
Use a broom handle and an upward, sweeping motion. Serious damage               
may be caused by heavy snow or ice accumulating on the branches.                
                                                                                
* When salt is needed to melt ice on walks and drives, spread it                
carefully to avoid severe damage to nearby shrubs. Damage to                    
needle-type evergreens will be evident next spring by copper and                
yellow tones. Damaged deciduous plants will have bronze or                      
reddish leaves.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Coniferous and broadleaf trees react in different ways to wind                
stress. Conifers put on extra growth on the leeward side of                     
trunks and limbs, and broadleafs on the windward side. They also                
react differently to the strain of gravity. Confifers build up                  
growth of horizontal limbs on the underside, and broadleafs on                  
the upper side.                                                                 
                                                                                
* It is safer to prop up ice covered branches and let the ice                   
melt than to try to remove ice from brittle branches.                           
                                                                                
* Spray miscible oils when temperatures are above 40 degrees F                  
but not within 24 hours of a freeze. Because oil kills insects by               
suffocation, avoid spraying on windy days to ensure that all                    
surfaces of the plant are covered.                                              
                                                                                
* Don't delay planting a live Christmas tree especially if it has               
already been in the house three days or more. Have a whole predug               
in a planting site, that takes into account the plant's light,                  
soil, and drainage needs, along with how it fits into your                      
landscape plan. Susceptiblity of the plant to wind damage is also               
a concern.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Winter is the time to apply miscible oil sprays to kill                       
over-wintering mites, aphids, and scale. Use on deciduous plants                
and hardy evergreens but not on needleleaf species.                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
* For added security around the home, plant thorny shrubs on                    
property lines and under windows. Some very thorny ones to                      
consider include pyracantha, tri-foliate orange, Rosa rugosa, or                
thorny elaeagnus.                                                               
                                                                                
* Do-it-yourself landscaping projects have a high priority these                
days. They provide savings in more ways than most people realize:               
(1) they enhance property value; (2) they can reduce the cost of                
heating and cooling bills; (3) they save the actual out-of-                     
pocket expense of contracting to have the job done; (4) they                    
provide indirect savings on taxes (for example, someone in the                  
30% tax bracket would have to earn $430 to have enough after-tax                
cash to pay $300 for a job done around the home); (5) home                      
landscaping is great preventative therapy and improves one's                    
mental health.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Look at your landscape. Do you need evergreens to protect your                
privacy, reduce street noise, block the glare of street lights? -               
Order plants now and in February for March planning.                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
* For easier lawn maintenance, eliminate the hard to mow spaces.                
Put the bird bath in a flower bed or surround it with ground                    
cover. Eliminate acute angles. Combine single trees or shrubs                   
into a large planting connected with ground cover.                              
                                                                                
* Avoid heavy traffic on the dormant lawn. Dry grass is easily                  
broken and the crown of the plant may be severely damaged or                    
killed.                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Sow seeds of cool season vegetables now for transplanting in                  
the garden in March and April. Use individual peat pots, or                     
simply cover the floor of the cold frame with a rich soil mix and               
sow seeds directly into it. Start broccoli, brussels sprouts,                   
cabbage, cauliflower, collards, lettuce, and spinach,in the                     
warmer parts of the state.                                                      
                                                                                
* Bees provide pollination for your plants outside In your                      
greenhouse, youre in charge of fruit set for tomatoes, peppers                  
and eggplants. When your plants are in bloom, take a cotton swab                
or a fine paintbrush and transfer the pollen from one flower to                 
another. Just swirl the swab or brush lightly inside each flower,               
one after the other. Repeat this process again on the next day to               
make sure you catch the flowers when they're ready. Don't wait                  
too long after the blossoms appear to pollinate, or they'll wilt                
before you have a chance. For most plants, you'll have success                  
pollinating, a day after blossoms open. When you have met with                  
success, you will be able to see tiny fruits as the flowers wilt.               
                                                                                
* Continue harvesting the carrots, parsnips, turnips, and                       
horseradish you left in the garden in the fall.                                 
                                                                                
* Review your vegetable garden plans. Perhaps a smaller garden                  
with fewer weeds and insects will give you more produce.                        
                                                                                
* Analyze last year's planting records, and fertilizeing and                    
spraying calendar. Make notations to reorder successful varieties               
as well as those you wish to try again.                                         
                                                                                
* When reviewing your garden catalogs for new vegetable                         
varieties to try, an important consideration is improved insect                 
and/or disease resistance over older plants. Watch also for                     
drought-tolerant plants.                                                        
                                                                                
* Don't wait too late in the winter to order seed. Many varieties               
sell out early.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Before ordering your spring seed, do a "rag doll" germination                 
test on those seeds left over from last year's order. Roll 10 or                
20 seeds in a damp paper towel, keep moist in a warm location. On               
most crops, germination of viable seed will occur within a                      
week. If half the seeds germinate and you have enough left to                   
plant twice as many as you usually do, you should get an adequate               
crop. Otherwise, order more seed. It's a small investment to                    
insure success.                                                                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
Indoor plants                                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
* After-bloom care is necessary for next year's flowers on                      
amaryllis. In general, at least four strong leaves are needed for               
each flower stalk. Keep the plant growing strongly until mid-July               
before allowing it to go dormant.                                               
                                                                                
* To prolong bloom, poinsettias must be protected from drafts and               
kept moderately moist.                                                          
                                                                                
* Turn and prune house plants regularly to keep them shapely. Pi-               
nch back the stems of house plants as needed to promote balanced                
growth.                                                                         
                                                                                
* To maximize light reception, wash house plants with glossy                    
leaves every two weeks. Use soapy water and rinse with clear                    
water. The easiest place to do the job is in the bath tub.                      
                                                                                
* Give your holiday gift plants the best care so you can retain                 
their original, attractive appearance. Keep them cool with a                    
temperature of 70 degrees F. during the day and 60 degrees at                   
night. Set the pots on crushed stone or gravel in a pan of water                
to maintain higher humidity.                                                    
                                                                                
* Check all of your plants closely for insect infestations. Pests               
are sometimes brought in on gift plants and those that were                     
present in small numbers before the holidays, may have multiplied               
under neglect.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Overwatering indoor plants encourages fungal diseases. Water                  
only when the soil is dry to the touch, or when the foliage of                  
large-leaved plants is slightly drooping. Try to avoid splat-                   
tering or splashing the leaves.                                                 
                                                                                
* Feeding houseplants except where you're deliberately forcing,                 
should be kept to a minimum. Most plant growth is now at its                    
lowest, and food needs are correspondingly minimal.                             
                                                                                
* House plants and holidy gift plants should not be placed on top               
of the television. It is too warm a location and in most homes                  
too far from windows to provide adequate light.                                 
                                                                                
* Thin leaved plants seem most sensitive to transplant shock. If                
a plant wilts after repotting, encase the entire plant in a                     
plastic bag. Twist the bag shut and punch two or three holes in                 
it. Allow the plant to recuperate in this protected environment                 
for two or three days. Resist the urge to water a wilted plant if               
the soil is moist.                                                              
                                                                                
* If you potted bulbs of daffodils, crocus, tulips, or hyacinths                
in fall, bring them indoors now to force them into bloom. Place                 
pots in a window that receives direct sunlight for at least a few               
hours each day. Allow soil to dry partially between each water-                 
ing.                                                                            
                                                                                
* For an interesting ornamental plant and a culinary addition,                  
buy a plump unshriveled ginger root at the grocery store and                    
plant in a light sandy soil just under the surface in a 6" to 8"                
pot. Place in a warm sunny window and keep damp until shoots                    
appear. Increase water and fertilize monthly with high phos-                    
phorus. Harvest your crop in about 8 months, saving a piece to                  
replant.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Fluorescent tubes lose intensity with age. If your are using                  
quite a few fluorescent lamps, change a few tubes at a time to                  
avoid plant damage by the sudden increase in light intensity.                   
                                                                                
* If you are considering installing supplemental lighting for                   
your indoor plants, the 48 inch, 40 watt fixture with two                       
fluorescent tubes is the industry standard. Spare parts are                     
readily available and high production assures lower costs for 48                
inch than for other size tubes. Use one cool white and one warm                 
white tube to obtain a light mix most beneficial to plants.                     
                                                                                
* Bring house plants which normally thrive on the north side of                 
the house to east windows, while allowing the plants from the                   
east more sun on the south. Also, give the plants that usually                  
are set on the tables away from direct light a short midwinter                  
visit to one of the less exposed windowsills. When extremely cold               
nights prevail, draw the window shades at night or slip lengths                 
of protective cardboard between plants and the glass. Move the                  
tenderest plants away from the window panes on the coldest                      
nights.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Every two or three years it is best to repot amaryllis bulbs in               
fresh media and increase the pot size is necessary. if offsets                  
are present, you may pot them individually. Immature bulbs                      
generally require 2-3 years to reach bloom size.                                
                                                                                
* During the winter most houses are too dry for house plants. Hu-               
midity may be increased by placing plants on trays lined with                   
pebbles and filled with water to within one half inch of the base               
of the pot. If you heat with wood, keep a pot of water on the                   
stove. The added moisture will be healthier for you as well as                  
your plants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Mealy bugs on your house plants can be killed by touching them                
with a cotton swab dipped in alcohol.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tools and equipment (includes container)                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Do some reading on trickle irrigation this winter. It will save               
you time and water and increase your garden yield.                              
                                                                                
* Move garden ornaments such as urns or jars into the garage or                 
basement to prevent damage during the cold winter season.                       
                                                                                
* Overhaul your garden sprayer, inspect leather washers and                     
plunger and replace any worn parts (after thoroughly oiling new                 
leather). It may be difficult to locate exact parts for your                    
model sprayer. By starting now, you'll have them by gardening                   
season.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If you have some time this winter, paint the handles of garden                
tools red. This will preserve the wood and make the tools easier                
to locate next summer when you lay them down in the garden or on                
the lawn.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Keep all outdoor containers turned upside down during the                     
winter so water will not collect in them and freeze causing                     
breakage. If containers are too large to move, cover them with                  
wood or other sturdy material to prevent water collecting.                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Wood ashes will raise soil pH. Use them only if the pH is under               
7.0 based on a soil test. The safe rate of wood ash application                 
to lawn or gardens is 15-20 lbs. per 1000 square feet per year                  
(approximately a 5 gal. pail). Remember, a little wood ash is                   
beneficial, but a lot is not.                                                   
                                                                                
* Use branches from Christmas tree as shelter for birds or as a                 
light mulch over perennials or rock garden plants.                              
                                                                                
* Feed the birds regularly and see that they have water. Birds                  
like suet, fruit, nuts, and bread crumbs as well as bird seed.                  
They won't even complain if the food is stale.                                  
                                                                                
* One solution to the deer problem found effective in Louisiana                 
is rotten eggs. A mixture of 12-18 eggs in 5 gallons of water                   
sprayed over an acre emits enough odor to repel deer but not                    
offend the gardener.                                                            
                                                                                
* For tips on being a smart mail-order shopper and a list of 95                 
mail-order nurseries, send a self-addressed business sized                      
envelope with 37 cents postage to The Complete Guide to Gardening               
by Mail, Mail Order Association of Nurserymen, Inc., 210 Cart-                  
wright Blvd., Massapequa Park, NY 11762.                                        
                                                                                
* Spend a cold evening in front of the fire going through seed                  
catalogs to decide what you are going to plant in this year's                   
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* There are many prescriptions to keep deer from nibbling                       
ornamentals: fencing, plastic netting, repellants, sprays, hot                  
pepper sauce, egg whites, human hare, lion or tiger manure, even                
rock music. Try a few to find out what works for your uninvited                 
pruners.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Start planning now for next year's holiday gifts and decora-                  
tions. Record those items you wished you had this year (dried                   
flowers, herbs, pickles and preserves) and make sure you plant                  
them for next year.                                                             
                                                                                
* Recycle your holiday decorations. Greenery used in ornaments                  
can be used again in the garden. Wreaths and branches stripped                  
from Christmas trees make excellent mulch for protecting newly                  
planted ornamentals. Remove the material in the spring and                      
compost it.                                                                     
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
January 1987  Press Releases                                                    
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Diane Relf, Extension                    
Specialist in Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Press                    
Releases have been developed for agent use in preparing radio and               
newspaper features and other educational programs.                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
Water Impurities May Harm House Plants     48 lines                             
Gardening for Pleasure and Profit          52 lines                             
The Edible Landscape                       53 lines                             
Ginkgo                                     54 lines                             
Bulbs and Similar Structures               65 lines                             
Water Impurities May Harm House Plants                                         
                                                                                
There is more to water than meets the eye. After all, there are                 
many sources of water: well water, tap water, distilled water,                  
dionized water and rain water. Some water may be considered hard                
and other water is perceived as soft. Some of these types of                    
water contain more than H2O. They contain impurities, some of                   
which can alter the soil's pH and soil fertility or can actually                
damage sensitive plants.                                                        
                                                                                
Well water may contain dissolved minerals such as iron, calcium,                
magnesium and fluorides. If the level of these materials is high                
enough, the water is termed hard. The impurities in hard water,                 
such as calcium and magnesium can raise the pH and increase the                 
soluble salts in the soil.                                                      
                                                                                
Fluoride is present naturally in some well water, especially in                 
areas of Virginia. Concentration of fluorides in water and soil                 
can cause damage such as tip burn in certain plants particularly                
in the lily family. Fluoride damage is generally aggravated by                  
low pH. Most house plants do not seem to be affected by normal                  
levels of fluoride.                                                             
                                                                                
Tap water can also be hard depending on its source. Besides                     
natural impurities, tap water generally contains intentional                    
impurity as well. Most municipal water systems add chlorine and                 
fluoride to water for health reasons. The amount of fluoride                    
added should not damage most plants provided the pH is not too                  
low. Chlorine has been linked with damage to certain plants.                    
Chlorine concentration can be quite high in some city water                     
systems. Marginal necrosis may develop on tender foliage plants                 
due to chlorine.                                                                
                                                                                
Hard water can be softened by ion exchange units. However, water                
softeners usually replace calcium and/or magnesium with sodium.                 
Sodium has been found to cause damage on a few tender foliage                   
plants. There is, therefore, little if any advantage in using                   
this type of soft water.                                                        
                                                                                
Rain water, dionized water, and distilled water are good for                    
watering house plants because they contain little or no impuriti-               
es. Rain water is by far the cheapest and most available. The use               
of rain water or other naturally soft waters is recommended for                 
watering plants in containers without drainage holes, such as                   
terrariums, dish gardens, and bottle gardens.                                   
                                                                                
Some of the problems of tap water can be reduced by allowing                    
water to sit overnight as some of the impurities such as chlorine               
will volitalize.                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Gardening for Pleasure and Profit                                               
                                                                                
The best reason to plant a garden is the satisfaction gained from               
watching things grow. Gardening provides an excellent way to                    
express creativity; paint colorful pictures with summer annuals,                
design intimate hideaways with ferns, mosses and wild flowers, or               
build a beautiful vegetable garden with raised beds and ornate                  
trellises. Gardening is a constant challenge; grow unusual kinds                
of plants, and experiment with new garden layouts and different                 
cultural techniques.                                                            
                                                                                
However, economic impact can be very important in gardening. This               
may take the form of increased property value, savings on monthly               
bills or products for use by family and friends.                                
                                                                                
A survey of realtors showed that attractive landscaping can add                 
hundreds, sometimes thousands, of dollars to the sale price of a                
house. In one study, realtors felt a well-maintained lawn would                 
add $1,400 to the sale price of a  $45,000 home. An attractive                  
landscape may increase the value of the home by 7 to 14%.                       
                                                                                
According to an American Association of Nurserymen's study of two               
identical houses, one exposed and the other protected by trees                  
and shrubs, there can be as much as 40% savings in fuel consump-                
tion for heating the protected home. Summer cooling bills can be                
reduced by 30% by deciduous shade trees.                                        
                                                                                
The most noticeable and immediate economic returns come from the                
vegetable garden. As the cost of fresh produce increases, so does               
the value of the home garden. The most valuable vegetable                       
continues to be the tomato with a production well over $2.00/-                  
square foot. Valuable yields also come from green bunching                      
onions, leaf lettuce, turnips, summer squash and edible podded                  
peas. However, among the lowest per square foot values in                       
vegetables are pumpkins, watermelons and sweet corn.                            
                                                                                
Small fruit plantings such as blueberries, strawberries, black-                 
berries, and grapes have increased in popularity and give good                  
economic value as well as satisfaction. Apple trees require such                
an extensive spray program for high-quality fruit that many                     
homeowners feel they are better off buying a bushel of apples                   
than planting a tree.                                                           
                                                                                
Gifts from the garden, from pickles to preserves and from dried                 
flower arrangements to grape vine wreaths not only stretch                      
gardeners' pocketbooks, but also increase their imagination and                 
bring them closer to friends.                                                   
                                                                                
To more fully understand the economic impact of gardening, there                
are several other considerations. If you weren't gardening, you                 
might be traveling, bowling, or playing video games, far more                   
expensive hobbies. And, as a do-it-yourself gardener, remember,                 
if you are in the 20% tax bracket, you must earn $500 to pay                    
someone $400 for your garden maintenance work.                                  
                                                                                
The Edible Landscape                                                            
                                                                                
One way to stretch your food dollar, have a lovely landscape, and               
many hours of gardening pleasure is to plant edible ornamentals.                
Many fruits, vegetables, and herbs are very attractive and can                  
easily be incorporated into the landscape around your home.                     
                                                                                
Blueberries can be used as a tasty replacement for any acid-                    
loving shrub. Goosberries and currants will produce a good                      
harvest in those parts of the state where planting is not                       
restricted due to White Pine blister rust. A grape arbor provides               
summer shade and winter jellies. Strawberries offer an interest-                
ingalternative as a ground cover. Growing rapidly to cover an                   
area, strawberries are less expensive and provide better weed                   
control than some traditional ground covers. To the dark green                  
foliage of summer and the reds of fall is added the bonus of a                  
delicious harvest.                                                              
                                                                                
The coarse foliage of rhubarb adds an interesting texture to a                  
perennial border, while parsley, thyme, and lettuce make excel-                 
lent edging plants in any flower bed. The fruit on ornamental                   
peppers and eggplants are both quite showy and edible.                          
                                                                                
Many fruit trees, particularly dwarf varieties, lend themselves                 
well to the modern landscape. In addition, many of the tradition-               
al ornamental trees, shrubs, and flowers produce edible parts.                  
Crab apples, quince, and rose hips provide nutrition with good                  
taste. Nasturtium flowers and leaves add a peppery bite to                      
salads.                                                                         
                                                                                
If you want to make your landscape more edible, start reading and               
planning this winter so you will be prepared by planting time.                  
Make a rough sketch of your property to show existing buildings,                
fences, trees, shrubs, and other plants. Study the weather in                   
your area, the average frost dates and rainfall. Have a soil test               
done to determine pH and fertilizer needs. Become familiar with                 
different sites around your home, watch for frost pockets, amount               
of wind and sun, soil drainage, and such people influences as                   
children walking home from school. Put your findings on paper and               
use this information to select the plants that will grow best in                
each location.                                                                  
                                                                                
Plan for complications. Chemical pesticides applied to nearby                   
ornamental plantings during the harvest season may contaminate                  
your edibles. Birds love the fruit on blueberries and protective                
netting may be a necessary, but unnattractive addition to your                  
landscape for part of each year.                                                
                                                                                
Plant for use, not nuisance. Apples are a mess on the ground if                 
not used. Plan for convenience. In addition to identifying the                  
ideal location for your edible plants, consider the location that               
will insure the maximum use of the produce. Frequently used herbs               
as well as popular vegetables, such as tomatoes, deserve a place                
by the door step. Consider the resale of your property. The next                
owner may not want to bother. So if you will move in the next few               
years stick with edible annuals and leave the trees and shrubs as               
traditional ornamentals.                                                        
Ginkgo                                                                          
                                                                                
The ginkgo has been growing on earth for over 150 million years,                
and was once native to North America. However, it has survived as               
a truly wild tree only in a few mountain groves in the Chekiang                 
province of China, from where it was re-introduced around the                   
world about 300 years ago. In China and Japan this tree's                       
antiquity and beauty led to its being planted widely in temple                  
gardens. Elsewhere, however, it was often regarded merely with                  
curiosity and planted as a single specimen. Because of its high                 
tolerance to air pollution it has become an important urban tree                
in recent years.                                                                
                                                                                
Ginkgo has several unusual names. It is called maidenhair tree in               
English because of its lacy foliage and divided leathery leaves                 
that strikingly resemble the fronds of the maidenhair fern. The                 
Latin or scientific name of Ginkgo biloba is derived from ginkgo,               
the Japanese name for the tree, and biloba meaning two lobed.                   
Translation of the French name is the tree of forty shields, in                 
reference to its unusual leaf shape.                                            
                                                                                
The ginkgo's leaves are more frondlike than leaflike, broadening                
toward the tip, with fanning veins. Each leaf is divided into two               
marked lobes by a shallow notch or cut. When the leaves open in                 
spring, they are pale green and prominently veined. But soon the                
leaves turn a much darker green and are best known by this color.               
Ginkgo displays attractive yellowish gold color in autumn.                      
                                                                                
The ginkgo forms a lofty, spire-shaped tree, with gray-barked                   
trunk and an ascending pyramid of dense, slender little twigs                   
that in winter bear chestnut-red, knob-shaped buds. It is a slow                
grower, reaching 80 or 90 feet eventually. It blends well with                  
other colorful trees like copper beeches, making it a choice                    
ornamental. The wood of the ginkgo is yellowish, light, and                     
brittle. It is used in China for carving small objects.                         
                                                                                
Each ginkgo tree is either male or female. Female trees have                    
small, seed-bearing flowers on short stalks that are pollinated                 
by the wind and produce an orange-yellow seed rather like a plum.               
Once ripe, the seed fall from the tree and bursts. Although the                 
white kernel inside tastes like a chestnut, the juicy flesh gives               
off a foul smell. The kernel is commonly eaten in China under the               
name of Pai Kuo Shu, "white fruit tree" and is exported bottled                 
in water or as a syrup for dessert. However, the malodorus fruit,               
makes the female plants undesirable as an ornamental. As there is               
no difference in the growth habit between male and female trees                 
and it takes from 20 to 50 years before the ginkgo begins to                    
fruit, it is wise to purchase only named cultivars that are                     
guaranteed to be clones of male plants.                                         
                                                                                
Ginkgo adapts readily to most sites. It prefers sandy, deep,                    
moderately moist soil and tolerates soil salts and air pollution.               
It is extremely free of pests and is a durable tree for difficult               
landscape situations.                                                           
Bulbs and Similar Structures                                                    
                                                                                
Sometimes gardening terms can become confusing and lead to wrong                
cultural practises. For example, the term bulb is used to apply                 
to a number of different plant structures which are planted and                 
propagated differently. Although all of these structures are                    
modified stems, they go by different names depending on their                   
location and make-up. Above ground bulblike structures are called               
crowns, and  the below-ground ones are bulbs, corms, rhizomes and               
tubers.                                                                         
                                                                                
Crowns are found on such plants as strawberries, daylilies,and                  
African violets. Crowns are compressed stems having leaves and                  
flowers on short internodes. On most ornamental plants the crowns               
gradually thicken to include many stems in close proximity.                     
                                                                                
Rhizomes grow underground rather than above ground. Some rhizomes               
are compressed and fleshy such as Iris; they can also be slender                
with elongated internodes such as bentgrass. Johnsongrass is                    
an insidious weed principally because of the spreading capability               
of its rhizomes.                                                                
                                                                                
Below-ground stem variations such as the potato tuber, the tulip                
bulb and the iris rhizome are underground stems that store food                 
for the plant. The tuber, like any other stem, has nodes that                   
produce buds. The eyes of a potato are actually the nodes on the                
stem. Each eye contains a cluster of buds.                                      
                                                                                
Tulips, lilies, daffodils, and onions are plants that produce                   
true bulbs which are shortened, compressed, underground stems                   
surrounded by fleshy scales (leaves) that envelop a central bud                 
located at the tip of the stem. In November, if you cut through                 
the center of a tulip or daffodil bulb, you can see all the                     
flower parts in miniature within the bulb.                                      
                                                                                
Many bulbs require a period of low temperature exposure before                  
they begin to send up the new plant. Both the length of this                    
treatment and the temperature are of critical importance to                     
commercial growers who force bulbs for holidays. Easter lilies                  
are especially tricky to time since the date of Easter may vary                 
by six weeks.                                                                   
                                                                                
Corms have shapes similar to bulbs, but do not contain fleshy                   
scales. A corm is a solid, swollen stem whose scales have been                  
reduced to dry, scale-like leaves.                                              
                                                                                
Some plants produce a modified stem that is referred to as a                    
tuberous stem. Examples are tuberous begonia and cyclamen. The                  
stem is shortened, flattened, enlarged, and underground. Buds and               
shoots arise from the top or crown and fibrous roots are found on               
the bottom of the tuberous stem.                                                
                                                                                
In addition, some plants such as the dahlia and the sweet potato                
produce an underground storage organ called a tuberous root which               
is often confused with bulbs and tubers. However, these are                     
roots, not stems, and have neither nodes nor internodes.                        
                                                                                
All of these modified stems are useful for propagation. Crowns                  
can be divided with a spade or sharp knife; rhizomes can be                     
divided into pieces; bulbs form small bulblets at the base of the               
parent bulb; cormels are miniature corms that form under the                    
parent corm; and tubers can be cut into pieces containing eyes                  
and nodes.  The key to success with propagation is to make sure                 
that each plant part used, contains a node with buds from which                 
new stems can sprout. Tuberous roots do not have nodes so care                  
must be used in dividing them to make sure that part of the stem                
is included as a source of buds.                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
January 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, and Liz Warren, Work Study student, working               
with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The                    
Virginia Gardener Question Box has been developed for agent use in              
preparing radio and newspaper features.                                         
                                                                                
24 Hours of Light on Houseplants     31 lines                                   
Espalier of Fruit Trees              63 lines                                   
Building a Greenhouse                53 lines                                   
Changing the pH of Potting Soil      28 lines                                   
Understanding Root Systems           32 lines                                   
Scarifying Seed                      35 lines                                   
Green Thumbs                         39 lines                                   
Light Color and Plant Growth         20 lines                                   
Onions                               18 lines                                   
Spurs                                 9 lines                                   
___________                                                                     
                                                                                
What will 24 hours of light do to my indoor plants?                             
                                                                                
Many plants are grown in office buildings that are lighted for 24               
hours. Different plants react differently to this condition.                    
                                                                                
Most foliage plants grow along the equator, where plants get about              
12 hours of high intensity light year-round. Many of these plants               
grow better under 24 hour light than under 12 hour light as the                 
longer light periods enable plants to compensate for the low                    
intensity of artificial light, by absorbing light over a long period.           
Certain annual bedding plants may receive enough light order to                 
bloom indoors under continuous lighting. Some plants that do                    
particularly well under 24 hour lighting are Swiss cheese plant                 
(Monstera deliciosa), coleus, cissus, schefflera and cacti. Continuous          
light also speeds up growth of many slow growing, flowering plants              
like orchids and cacti. In this way, they can be brought to maturity            
much quicker.                                                                   
                                                                                
Some plants do well either both 12 and 24 hour days, including                  
philodendrons, Engligh ivy, pothos and dieffenbachia. Under                     
continuous lighting, they tend to keep their lower leaves longer.               
Spider plant (Chlorophytum spp) grows best with 12 hours of light.              
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
I recently read about the espalier method of growing fruit trees.               
Can you tell me more about this?                                                
                                                                                
The art of espalier, originated in France and Italy about 400 years             
ago as a method of training fruit trees in a flat plane usually in a            
symetrical form against a wall. There are many different                        
systems. Some are quite elaborate, requiring considerable time and              
patience as well as detailed knowledge of the plant's growth                    
characteristics. The easiest espalier system is the horizontal cordon.          
Apples, pears, and plums adapt well to this system. The trees are               
usually supported by a wall, a fence, or a wire trellis. Training to            
the four-tier cordon or four-wire trellis is relatively easy.                   
                                                                                
An espalier system can provide an effective way of producing a                  
large volume of high quality fruit in a limited area. Trees trained             
in this fashion should be on dwarfing rootstock, otherwise, they                
tend to grow too large and are difficult to hold within bounds.                 
                                                                                
A simple four-wire trellis may be constructed by setting 8' posts 2'            
in the ground, spacing them 12' apart, and running wires through                
the posts at heights of 18, 36, 54, and 72 inches. Plant two                    
unbranched whips of the desired variety 6' apart between each two               
posts.                                                                          
                                                                                
Before growth begins in the spring, cut off the whip just above the             
first bud below the point where the whip crosses the lowest wire.               
Usually three or more shoots will develop near the point of the                 
cut. Retain the uppermost shoot and develop it as the central                   
leader. The other two can be developed into main scaffold branches              
to be trained along the lower wire, one on each side of the central             
stem. Remove all other growth.                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
The two shoots selected for scaffold limbs should be loosely tied to            
the wire as soon as they are ten to twelve inches long. Twine,                  
plastic chainlink ties, or other suitable material may be used. Tie             
the shoots so that they are nearly horizontal. This reduces                     
vegetative vigor and induces flower bud formation. However, if the              
end of the shoot is tied below the horizontal, new growth at the                
end will stop and vigorous shoots will develop along the upper side.            
At the end of the first season, the lateral branches on the lower               
wire should be established and the central leader should have                   
grown above the second wire.                                                    
                                                                                
During the dormant pruning at the end of the first winter, cut the              
central leader off at a bud just below the second wire. Repeat the              
process of the previous spring by developing two scaffold branches              
to tie to the second wire and allow the central leader to grow                  
above the third wire.                                                           
                                                                                
This process is repeated during the next two seasons, at which time             
a total of eight scaffolds, four on each side of the tree, should be            
firmly established. The leaders should be bent to form one of the               
scaffolds rather than being cut off at the level of the top wire.               
                                                                                
By the end of the fourth season, the trees should be in heavy fruit             
production. All pruning is then done during the spring and summer               
months. After new growth in the spring is about two inches long,                
cut it off and also remove about one-fourth of the previous                     
season's growth. Terminals of the scaffold are left untouched.                  
                                                                                
About the first of August or as soon as new growth reaches ten to               
twelve inches in length, cut it back to two or three buds. Repeat               
about a month later, if necessary. This type of training encourages             
fruit bud formation and prevents vigorous growth from getting out               
of bounds.                                                                      
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
I want to build a greenhouse this summer. Can you tell me how to                
get started on my plans?                                                        
                                                                                
There is an almost overwhelming selection of greenhouses on the                 
market, and plans for building even more types are available.  If               
you intend to purchase or build a greenhouse, it is wise to                     
investigate the alternatives thoroughly, preferably visiting as many            
operating home greenhouses as possible.  List your needs and wants              
ahead of time and determine the uses you will make of your                      
greenhouse.  Then compare on that basis. Many companies will send               
free specifications and descriptions of the greenhouses they offer;             
look in gardening magazines for their ads.                                      
                                                                                
The conservation minded person may find an attached solar                       
greenhouse desirable. The initial cost is generally higher for a solar          
greenhouse than for the simpler free-standing, uninsulated types,               
but for maximum use with lower heating bills, one can insulate                  
north and side walls, provide liberal glass area for winter                     
sun-catching, and make use of some type of solar radiation storage.             
When attached to a house, these greenhouses can be used for                     
supplementary household heating, but there is a trade-off between               
heating the home and growing plants (especially heat-loving ones)               
in the greenhouse.  Some researchers have concluded that a good                 
compromise is to forget winter tomatoes and grow cool-weather                   
crops during the winter in a solar attached greenhouse.  Virginia               
Tech now has a publication, obtainable from your Extension Agent,               
entitled Attached Solar Greenhouses, Publication No. 324-919.                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Should the pH of potting soil be adjusted? The mix I use contains               
a lot of peat moss.                                                             
                                                                                
Many potting mixes are quite acidic (pH 3.5-5.5) because acidic peat            
is a major component of these mixes. You may want to send a                     
sample of your potting mix to the soil testing lab through your                 
local extension agent for analysis.                                             
                                                                                
To raise the pH to a level suitable for most plants, dolomite                   
(limestone containing magnesium), calcium carbonate (lime), or                  
calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) are generally used. A rule of                 
thumb that can be used is the following: add about 8 pounds of                  
dolomite per cubic yard of potting mix to raise the pH by one unit.             
Twice as much dolomite will not raise the pH by two units as the                
pH scale is not arithmetic.                                                     
                                                                                
Lime is slightly more efficient than dolomite in raising pH.                    
Hydrated lime can be substituted as follows: one teaspoon per                   
gallon of water added to the potting mix sufficiently for thorough              
moistening will raise the pH by a little more than half a unit. If              
necessary, you can do this again after two weeks to raise the pH                
higher. Do not use more than one teaspoon per gallon each time,                 
and be careful to rinse  off any of the solution that gets on the               
plant as it may burn leaves.                                                    
                                                                                
Occasionally, the pH of potting mixes can be too high. If the pH is             
7.5 or above, you can add about one half of a teaspoon of sulfur to             
each 6" pot. Sulfur can be applied as a drench or in granular form.             
Small amounts are available at the drug store.                                  
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
Some trees are easier to transplant than others. I've been told that            
this is related to the type of root system that the plant has. Please           
explain.                                                                        
                                                                                
The primary root originates at the lower end of the embryo of a                 
seedling plant. A taproot is formed when the primary root                       
continues to elongate downward into the soil and becomes the                    
central and most important feature of the root system with a                    
somewhat limited amount of secondary branching. Some trees,                     
especially nut trees like pecan, have a long taproot with very few              
lateral or fibrous roots which causes them to be difficult to                   
transplant and necessitates that they be planted only in deep                   
well-drained soil.                                                              
                                                                                
A fibrous root system is one in which the primary root ceases to                
elongate, and numerous lateral roots develop, which branch                      
repeatedly and form the feeding root system of the plant. The                   
greatest concentration of fibrous roots occurs in the top foot of               
soil, but significant numbers of laterals may grow downward from                
these roots to provide an effective absorption system several feet              
deep. The shallower roots and graeter total surface area of fibrous             
roots make them easier to dig and quicker to recover than                       
taproots.                                                                       
                                                                                
If plants that normally develop a taproot are undercut so that the              
taproot is severed early in the plant's life, the root will lose its            
taproot characteristic and develop a fibrous root system. This is               
done in nurseries so trees have a compact, fibrous root system,                 
allowing higher transplanting success.                                          
                                                                                
As plants become well established, the root system develops                     
laterally and usually extends somewhat beyond the spread of the                 
branches.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I have tried to germinate Honeylocust seed with no success.  Please             
tell me what I need to do.                                                      
                                                                                
The seed of the honeylocust (Gleditisia triacanthos), like many                 
trees and shrubs is dormant and requires special treatment to                   
encourage germination. One of the functions of dormancy is to                   
prevent a seed from germinating before it is surrounded by a                    
favorable environment. In some trees and shrubs dormancy is                     
difficult to break, even when the environment is ideal. However, in             
the honeylocust dormancy can be broken by the process of seed                   
scarification.                                                                  
                                                                                
Seed scarification involves breaking, scratching or softening the               
seed coat so that water can enter and begin the germination                     
process. There are several methods of scarifying seeds. In acid                 
scarification, seeds are put in a glass container and covered with              
concentrated sulfuric acid at about twice the volume of seed. The               
seeds are gently stirred and allowed to soak from 10 minutes to                 
several hours, depending on the hardness of the seed coat. When                 
the seed coat has become thin, the seeds can be removed, washed                 
and planted. Honeylocust seed need to be soaked 1-2 hours in                    
concentrated sulfuric acid at the rate of one part seed to two parts            
acid.                                                                           
                                                                                
Another scarification method is mechanical. Seeds are filed with a              
metal file, rubbed with sandpaper or cracked with a hammer to                   
weaken the seed coat. Okra seed will germinated more rapidly if                 
treated this way.                                                               
                                                                                
Hot water scarification involves putting the seed into hot water                
(170 - 212 degrees F). The seeds are allowed to soak in the water,              
as it cools, for 12 to 24 hours and then planted. A fourth method               
is one of warm moist scarification. In this case, seeds are stored in           
nonsterile warm damp containers where the seed coat will be                     
broken down by decay over several months.                                       
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
I have terrible luck with plants both inside and out. Can you tell              
me how I can get a green thumb?                                                 
                                                                                
The real seat of success with plants lies in the heart not the                  
thumb.  If you really love plants, the rest will come naturally. A              
true plant lover is not satisfied simply to have a plant setting in             
the window or growing in the yard but must know all about that                  
plant, its likes and dislikes, the proper way to care for it, the pest          
problems that may occur, the little surprises to anticipate such as             
flowers or berries and the ways to induce the plant to produce its              
best show. A plant lover is sensitive to a plant's appearance and               
the message it relates. Weak and spindly growth says the plant                  
needs more light. A dull and droopy look demands water. Many                    
plant lovers appear to be less successful with the green world than             
they actually are because they care too much and can't discard the              
failures.                                                                       
                                                                                
For those who like to have plants around but don't care to be                   
intimately involved and for those at the opposite extreme who care              
too much, there are a few basic rules to keep plants, indoors and               
out, looking their best.                                                        
                                                                                
First, garden in moderation.  Until you know what you are doing,                
smaller is better than larger, fewer is better than more. If you                
absolutely must root all 16 leaves that have been broken from your              
African violets, give the new plants away.  Since two zucchini                  
plants will supply the neighborhood, avoid the temptation to plant              
20. You don't have to use all the seed in a packet, or all the space            
in the yard.                                                                    
                                                                                
Second, be selective.  Don't take responsibility for every orphan               
plant you see.  Avoid buying plants just because they look good                 
today. Unless, of course, you won't mind tossing them next week                 
when they look bad.  Transitory pleasures have their value too.                 
The right plant for your particular site can be found, one that will            
do what you want it to.  So look a little harder to insure success.             
                                                                                
Finally, maintain a sense of adventure.  Growing plants is fun,                 
challenging, and rewarding as long as it's not taken so seriously as            
to be overwhelming. Let the heart and head do the caring and the                
planning; and the thumb will find success in the garden.                        
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
Does the color of light make any difference in how plants grow?                 
                                                                                
Light quality refers to the color or wavelength reaching the plant              
surface. Sunlight can be broken up by a prism into respective                   
colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. On a            
rainy day, raindrops act as tiny prisms and break the sunlight into             
these colors, producing a rainbow. Red and blue light have the                  
greatest effect on plant growth. Green light is least effective to              
plants as they reflect green light and absorb none. It is this                  
reflected light that makes them appear green to us. Blue light is               
primarily responsible for vegetative growth or leaf growth. Red                 
light, when combined with blue light, encourages flowering in                   
plants. Fluorescent light or cool white is high in the blue range of            
light quality and is used to encourage leafy growth. Such light                 
would be excellent for starting seedlings. Incandescent light is high           
in the red or orange range, but generally produces too much heat                
to be a valuable light source. Fluorescent grow lights have a                   
mixture of red and blue colors that attempts to imitate sunlight as             
closely as possible, but they are costly and generally not of any               
greater value than regular fluorescent lights.                                  
___________                                                                     
                                                                                
I have not had much success with my onions. How can I improve                   
my luck?                                                                        
                                                                                
Start by growing varieties adapted to Virginia. White Portugal is a             
good white variety but does not keep well. Mustang is a brown                   
onion that stores well after proper curing. Sweet Sandwich is a                 
new variety that stores well and produces large sweet onions                    
similar to the Vadalia from Georgia. Start seed of this variety in              
January indoors and transplant in March or early April.                         
                                                                                
Onions are heavy feeders. Fertilize the growing area, before                    
planting, with a granular 5-10-10 at 5 pounds per 100 square feet.              
Side dress the rows with the 5-10-10 about four weeks later. The                
soil must be light, friable, uncompacted, rich in organic matter and            
well drained. All-day sun, meticulous weed control, a minimum of                
three-inch spacing between plants and lots of water are necessary               
for good bulb formation. Soak the rows slowly and deeply at least               
once a week prior to bulb formation if natural rainfall is                      
inadequate.                                                                     
__________                                                                      
                                                                                
What are spurs?                                                                 
                                                                                
Spurs are short, stubby, side stems that arise from the main stem               
on wood that is at least in its second year of growth. The fruit of             
apples and pears is borne on spurs. An individual spur of the apples            
and pears produces fruit only every other year. However a                       
nutritional imbalance or the distruction of the crop can cause all of           
the spur to produce fruit in the same year and result in biennial               
bearing. If severe pruning is done close to fruit bearing spurs, the            
spurs can revert to a nonfruiting long stem.                                    
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
January 1988  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Ellen M. Silva, Horticulture Extension            
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Consumer              
Horticulture, using material provided by John Arbogast, Roanoke City            
Extension Agent.  The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                   
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features.              
                                                                                
Winter Grass Seeding						25 lines                                              
Fertilizer and Herbicide for Fall Seeded Lawns	43 lines                         
Shiny Coating on Weeping Fig Leaves			29 lines                                  
Vegetable Garden Weed Control					50 lines                                      
Pruning Overgrown Apple Trees					26 lines                                      
Lawn Maintenance Chores						54 lines                                           
Chiggers									27 lines                                                       
Pruning Clematis							39 lines                                                 
                                                                                
***********                                                                     
 I need some recommendations on turf seeding now.  What is your                 
opinion on winter grass seeding over a thin lawn?                               
                                                                                
The soil needs to be at least moderately warm in order for seed to              
germinate. For instance, Kentucky bluegrass requires a temperature of           
43 degrees F. for 50% germination, and tall fescue requires 55 degrees          
F. for the same germination rate.  Thus, this is not a good time to             
sow permanent grass seed since it is unlikely that many of the seeds            
will before the seed rots.                                                      
                                                                                
You may have heard about farmers scattering seed over their pastures            
in mid winter so that the ground freezing and changing will provide             
openings for the seed. This practice, even in mid winter, is not a              
good idea for homeowners, where we want a thick, dense turf.  Too many          
of the seeds may be washed away or injured before good weather and              
germination. For pastures, a thick, carpet-like stand of grass is not           
the object. Therefore, if the winter seeding produces a few new plants          
per 1,000 square feet, the farmer may consider his time well spent.             
                                                                                
The next good lawn-seeding time for us here in Virginia will be in              
late March and early to mid April.  If March is still cool and very             
wet, wait until April when the seed will germinate quickly and not rot          
or die.                                                                         
                                                                                
 -------------------------------                                                
I have an area of new grass seeded this fall that has not been                  
fertilized except for 5-10-10 when I seeded. When should I put the              
10-10-10 on it? Also, when can I put weed killer on this area for               
leafy weeds?                                                                    
                                                                                
Any later than mid-January is not a good time to apply additional               
fertilizer on grass.  You can make a light application of a turf-type           
fertilizer in late May or early June since your new grass was not               
fertilized again in the fall.  This would be after the normally                 
occurring spring  period of lush growth on bluegrasses and fescues.             
                                                                                
A high nitrogen fertilizer is considered best for turf since growing            
grass plants need more of this nutrient than they do of the other               
essential nutrients.  On an established lawn, you should use any of             
the turf-type fertilizers rather than the 10-10-10 that you                     
mentioned.  Turf or lawn fertilizer has a large first number, which             
gives the percentage of nitrogen, and smaller numbers for the other             
nutrients.  However, nothing is wrong with 10-10-10 in a new seeding            
situation.  When soil test show that your soil has reached high                 
phosphorous and potassium levels it is time to switch to a turf-type            
fertilizer.                                                                     
                                                                                
There are several brands of turf fertilizers on the market.  It is              
important that all directions be followed on which-ever you use.  Keep          
in mind that the Virginia Tech turf fertilizer recommendations for              
bluegrasses and fescues suggest only a LIGHT application of nitrogen            
(0 to 1/2 lb. N/1000 sq. ft. or approximately 5 lbs. of 10-10-10 per            
1000 sq. ft.) in the spring.                                                    
                                                                                
The application of a broad-leaf weed control product on new turf                
should be determined by the strength of the new grass plants.  The              
usual recommendation for most weed killers is to wait until the new             
grass has grown enough to require 3 regular mowings.                            
                                                                                
For many leafy weeds in grass, the months of April and May are good             
times for chemical application.  Thus, if the growth of this new grass          
appears tender until mid spring, there will still be time for your              
herbicide use.                                                                  
                                                                                
Just a little pointer - the mild weather and the tender new growth of           
landscape plants in the spring greatly increases the chances of weed            
killer drift injury to desireable plants at that time.  So, be extra            
careful.                                                                        
                                                                                
 ----------------------------                                                   
I have a fairly large weeping fig plant in my house that has developed          
a clear, shiny coating on many of the leaves.  The plant still looks            
good.  Is this something to worry about?                                        
                                                                                
The shiny coating on the weeping fig leaves may be a                            
residue left behind from aphids feeding (sucking) on the newer growth;          
scale insects can also leave clear secretions.  Sap that has been               
secreted from the leaves may also be the cause of the coating.  Look            
closely at the plant to seek clues.                                             
                                                                                
The aphids that can get on an indoor plant are often a light green              
color.  Since they love to get around the most tender parts of a                
plant, they may be noticed around the ends of the branches.  Also,              
look on the underside of leaves.  Scale insects look like tiny disks            
and can be either on the leaves or the stems.  The actual insect is             
under the disk.                                                                 
                                                                                
If you detect aphids on your plant, wash them off using soapy water.            
Do not use detergent as this may damage plant tissue, and be sure to            
rinse the plant well.  Scale insects are more difficult to eliminate            
as they can only be killed while in their crawler stage, when they are          
not protected by their hard scale.  Prune off and dispose of any                
affected leaves and branches.  If this in not possible, use one of the          
ready-made house plant insecticides sold at some garden centers or              
hardware stores.  These materials made for house plants should be safe          
for indoor use, but be sure to follow all label directions.  Repeat             
either treatment in about 7 days for complete control.                          
                                                                                
Since you mentioned that your fig still looks good, you may not have            
anything to worry about.  However, keep a continued watch for changes           
in the plant.                                                                   
                                                                                
 ---------------------------------                                              
What do you recommend to help control weeds in a vegetable garden,              
such as a wettable or dry chemical?                                             
                                                                                
In most home garden situations, it is more practical and also safer to          
use cultural methods of weed control rather than chemicals.  A hoe and          
rototiller are very effective if the weeds are controlled when small            
(in the seedling stage).                                                        
                                                                                
Mulching is a very good practice for weed control in a home vegetable           
garden.  The garden mulch could be several layers of newspaper,                 
shredded or whole leaves saved from the preceding fall, grass                   
clippings from a lawn that hasn't been treated with herbicides, or              
black plastic.                                                                  
                                                                                
Never allow weeds in and around the garden to go to seed, creating              
more severe weed problems for the years ahead.  When a crop is                  
harvested, cultivate that area to prevent weeds there from maturing             
and seeding.  If you can't till at once, run the lawn mower over the            
area.                                                                           
                                                                                
Most of the weed killers cleared for use in vegetable crops are                 
designed for commercial vegetable production, not the home garden.              
Chemicals that we can buy to control broadleaf weeds in turf or                 
landscape situations will injure most vegetable crops.  Few herbicides          
are safe on the wide range of species grown in a vegetable garden.              
                                                                                
DCPA is a preemergent herbicide that is cleared for use by the EPA on           
a wide variety of home grown vegetables.  It is sold under the trade            
name Dacthal and also under other trade names such as Ortho Garden              
Weed Preventer.  When purchasing DCPA under other trade names, make             
sure that the words "Dacthal", "DCPA", or "dimethyl                             
tetrachloroterephthalate" appear under the heading "active                      
ingredients".  DCPA is available in small quantities suitable for the           
home user.  It can also be used to control crabgrass in lawns and many          
ornamentals, including a wide range of bedding plants.  Since DCPA is           
a preemergence herbicide, it kills weeds as their seeds germinate but           
does not affect emerged weeds.  In other words, it affects the                  
germination process.                                                            
                                                                                
DCPA remains in the soil for about 8 weeks.  Thus, repeat treatments            
are necessary for season-long weed prevention.  Recommendations for             
timing of the DCPA application with regards to the age or seeding of            
individual vegetables are given on the product label.  DCPA is not              
cleared for use on okra, sweet corn, carrots, or beets.                         
                                                                                
(Trade names are used for illustrative purposes only.  No                       
discrimination is intended against trade names not mentioned.)                  
                                                                                
 -----------------------------                                                  
When is it OK to prune apple trees?  We recently acquired some                  
property with a few very overgrown apple trees on it.                           
                                                                                
Pruning of older, fruit-bearing apple trees can be done now since tree          
dormancy is one of the criteria for fruit tree pruning.  However,               
young, non-bearing apple trees should not be pruned until late                  
February to minimize the chances of winter injury.                              
                                                                                
One of the important reasons for pruning bearing fruit trees is to let          
sunlight into the tree areas, since light is the source of energy that          
produces the crop.  Bearing wood that is shaded is low in vigor and             
produces small, poorly colored fruits.  Good light exposure is                  
necessary for the development of flower buds as well as optimum size,           
color, and sugar content of the fruit.                                          
                                                                                
When pruning an apple tree also remove crossing branches, vigorous              
watersprouts (branches that go straight up), and diseased or damaged            
wood.                                                                           
                                                                                
Since you mentioned that you have a couple very overgrown apple trees,          
plan your work so that you remove no more than 1 or 2 large limbs per           
year.  If you see that large amounts of pruning are required, plan to           
spread this over a 2 or 3 year period so that excessive suckers or              
weak growth are not stimulated from over pruning.                               
                                                                                
 --------------------------                                                     
Can you give me a schedule for performing the following yard tasks?             
	1.  Herbicide application to kill broad-leaf weeds.                            
	2.  Herbicide application to kill crabgrass.                                   
	3.  Sowing new lawn seed.                                                      
	4.  Lawn fertilization.                                                        
I would like to get these all done in a few weeks in the spring and             
have them out of the way.                                                       
                                                                                
Unfortunately, it is not possible to go out and do all the things in            
your list in 1 or 2 weeks and get the lawn work out of mind for the             
year.  We can look at your list and discuss which things can be done            
in conjunction with other jobs to eliminate some repetition.                    
                                                                                
First, nitrogen fertilization of a bluegrass or fescue turf in the              
spring is optional in the Virginia Tech suggestions.  Fall is the               
proper time to make 2 or 3 applications of a high nitrogen fertilizer           
(20-10-10) to these grasses  for maximum storage the nutrients can be           
stored and so the root growth will not be hindered.  In LATE spring, a          
SMALL application (2 1/2 lbs. 20-10-10 per 1000 sq. ft.) of nitrogen            
fertilizer can be applied to bluegrass or fescue if that will make a            
person feel better, but too much and too early will lead to a lot of            
spring mowing and possibly to summer problems.                                  
                                                                                
Most common broad-leaf weed killers for lawns have a precaution about           
applying within several weeks before and after sowing new grass seed.           
However, late March and/or early April are optimum for the spring lawn          
seeding time and April and May are the months for broad-leaf lawn weed          
control in the spring.  You can seed as needed at the proper time and           
then make an application of Bromoxynil shortly after, since it is               
recommended to control young broad-leaf weed seedlings in newly seeded          
turf.  This chemical is sold as Nu-Lawn Weeder, Brominal, Buctril, and          
other trade names.                                                              
                                                                                
The recommended way to deal with crabgrass in lawns is to apply a               
crabgrass preventer (pre-emergent herbicide) in late winter or early            
spring (usually by April 1) before crabgrass emergence.  This can               
interfere with spring lawn seeding; however, there is the pre-emergent          
herbicide called Siduron (sold as Tupersan) that can be applied at the          
time of bluegrass, fescue, or perennial ryegrass seeding.  This                 
chemical kills the annual weedy grasses (like crabgrass) but does not           
affect the germination of the lawn grass seed mentioned.                        
                                                                                
Keep in mind that these special products like Bromoxynil and Siduron            
may cost more than chemicals that don't have the features you want.             
                                                                                
(Note:  Trade names are given for illustrative purposes only.  No               
discrimination is intended against trade names not given.)                      
 -------------------------------                                                
I think that I got chiggers in October from pulling up salad greens             
out of my garden in the back yard.  Or, could I have gotten them from           
being in the grass when I was hanging up clothes?  I've lived here for          
27 years and never before had anything like this.  If it is my garden,          
what could I spray with that would not hurt planting of a garden next           
year?                                                                           
                                                                                
The location where you got the chiggers (or where they got you) was             
most likely where there was tall grass, weeds, and/or brambles                  
around.                                                                         
                                                                                
Chiggers, or red bugs, are the immature (larval) stage of a small               
family of mites.  Adults lay eggs in the spring and the larva hatches           
from the egg in a few days in a hungry condition.  Thus, "chigger               
season" in Virginia begins in June and runs until early fall.                   
                                                                                
During the summer, Diazinon or other recommended chemicals can be used          
to treat grassy areas for chiggers, especially those areas that are             
not regularly mowed.  This recommendation is for during the summer,             
not now.  Also, mow areas around the house and avoid the areas                  
mentioned where chiggers are likely during the summer.                          
                                                                                
To prevent chiggers from attacking, there are a variety of insect               
repellents that can be used before you go into those areas of risk.             
                                                                                
 ----------------------------------                                             
Should clematis be cut back to the ground after the plant has turned            
all brown in the winter?                                                        
                                                                                
There are many clematis varieties that can be grown in Virginia, and            
the growth habit and flowering time determine the proper pruning time.          
However, pruning any clematis all the way back to the ground would              
likely be too severe.                                                           
                                                                                
The Jackmanii group of clematis hybrids is made of varieties that               
produce flowers on new growth in mid and late summer with some of the           
varieties even flowering until frost.  Because of this growth habit,            
stems of clematis in this group can be cut back to within two to four           
feet above the ground in late winter.  Suggested cultivars are `Alba'           
and `Rubra'.                                                                    
                                                                                
Hybrids in the Lanuginosa clematis group will flower in June if a               
major portion of the old growth is left unpruned in the spring.                 
However, if the stems of one of these clematis hybrids are cut back to          
within two to four feet of the ground in the spring, new shoots will            
grow quickly and abundant blooms will occur later in the summer.                
`Henryi' and `King Edward VII' are recommended cultivars.                       
                                                                                
Clematis varieties in the Patens group usually flower on the previous           
years' wood in the spring and/or early summer.  This means that a               
pruning would remove flower buds and eliminate the blooming for the             
year.  With these spring bloomers, the only pruning done in the winter          
is to prune out dead and broken growth.  Then, after flowering, a               
portion of old shoots should be cut back severely to encourage new              
growth that will be the flowering wood for the following spring.                
`Miss Bateman' and `Nelly Moser' are popular cultivars from this                
group.                                                                          
                                                                                
There is another summer flowering clematis group called the Viticella           
group that you may notice in garden literature.  Since this also                
flowers in the summer, clematis varieties in this group can be pruned           
back hard in the spring just like the Jackmanii group.group.  Recommended       
cultivars are `Huldine' and `Ville de Lyon'.                                    
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes July 1986                                                         
                                                                                
* Turning cabbage a quarter to a half turn if they start to crack               
will reduce water uptake. Or, use a shovel to cut through the                   
roots on one side of the plant. If that doesn't work, better                    
harvest them.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Plant Chinese cabbage in July about 90 days before the average                
date of the first fall frost in your locality. This will allow                  
crisp, firm heads to form in the cool days of early autumn.                     
                                                                                
* Fall is the best time to grow Brussels sprouts, since their                   
flavor is enhanced by a mild frost. Sow seeds directly in the                   
garden early in the month, or set out transplants. Brussels                     
sprouts are heavy feeders, so make monthly applications of                      
5-10-10 from the time the plants are 4" tall. Apply at a rate of                
1/2 cup per square yard.                                                        
                                                                                
* Strawberries need summer care. If you have your plants in                     
hills, pick off all runners. But if you planted a matted row,                   
encourage the runners to root and grow until the row is 2 feet                  
wide.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Store pesticides in a safe place in their original containers,                
away from children and pets. Use pesticides carefully in your                   
garden. Read the labels and follow the directions. The warnings                 
and precautions are for your protection.                                        
                                                                                
* Dry flowers now for use in arrangements next winter. Early                    
season blooms are better for this purpose than those that develop               
in late summer. Flowers for drying should be cut during midday,                 
in the late bud or early bloom stage.                                           
                                                                                
* Mulching herbs during hot weather protects the plant roots                    
and helps keep them healthy. Perennial herbs also need mulch                    
in the fall for protection from winter thaws and freezing.                      
                                                                                
* Japanese beetle traps should be placed at some distance from                  
the plants they are meant to protect. If placed nearby, beetles                 
lured by the trap will feed heavily on plants attractive to                     
them in the vicinity of the trap.                                               
                                                                                
* Hot, dry weather brings out the red spiders. Inspect roses,                   
evergreens, and marigolds, especially for signs of pale green                   
coloration. Hold a white sheet of paper underneath some foliage                 
and briskly tap it. Tiny, crawling mites will appear on the                     
paper if they are present. Severely infested annual plants may                  
be removed from the garden and destroyed. Others should be                      
chemically treated. If infestation is light, mites may be                       
discouraged by direct needle-like spray from the water hose.                    
                                                                                
* Moss in shady areas of lawns is a common problem brought on                   
by poorly-drained, compacted soil. Opening the soil with an                     
aeration machine allows more air and fertilizer to reach plant                  
roots.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Get a second bloom from faded annuals by cutting them back                    
to half their height; then fertilize with 1/2 cup 5-10-10 per                   
square yard of planted area, and apply a generous layer of                      
mulch.                                                                          
                                                                                
* If your annuals are dead, pull them out and add them to                       
the compost pile. You can replant beds with hardy annuals or                    
biennials, such as pansies, calendulas, globe thistle, or sea                   
pinks.                                                                          
                                                                                
* The soil in container grown vegetables and flowers can dry                    
out very quickly especially on a concrete patio in full sun.                    
Daily watering may be necessary. However, the soil should not be                
soggy or have water standing on top of it. Apply water until it                 
runs out the drainage holes. Clay pots have additional evapora-                 
tion from the sides and watering must be done more often. Small                 
pots dry out quicker than large window boxes. Check your contain-               
ers at least once a day and twice on hot, dry days. Feel the soil               
to see whether or not it is damp.                                               
                                                                                
* Protect plants in containers from very high heat caused by                    
light reflection from pavement. Move them to a cooler spot or                   
shade them during the hottest part of the day. Plants may be                    
moved to a more sheltered location during severe rain or wind                   
storms or as protection from the first fall frosts.                             
                                                                                
* July is a good time to begin looking for native and wild plants               
from which you can collect seed pods to use this fall and                       
winter. Be on the lookout for such material as dock, dried corn                 
tassels, and seed pods from locust, redbud, chaste tree, yellow                 
poplar and cattails.                                                            
                                                                                
* Chinese cabbage, if you are not familiar with it, does not                    
taste at all like regular cabbage. Its pleasant piquant taste                   
and texture are well-suited to salads and to cooking. Lightly                   
steamed and buttered Chinese cabbage is a delicacy. The best                    
planting time for Chinese cabbage is after July 1; plants will                  
mature when days are becoming progressively shorter and cooler.                 
Plants will head rather than shooting up flowers.                               
                                                                                
* July is an excellent month to root cuttings of such houseplants               
as coleus, fuchsia, geranium, gynura, poinsettia, shrimp plant,                 
Swedish ivy, wandering jew, wax plant, and other plants with                    
succulent (non-woody) stems.                                                    
                                                                                
* Continue to make successive plantings of crops like beans,                    
beets, cabbage, and sweet corn, to provide a continuous harvest                 
until fall. A small garden will produce a large quantity of                     
vegetables if replanting is done throughout the summer.                         
                                                                                
* Tall flowers should be staked to prevent damage by wind. Use                  
stakes which are large enough to support the plant but are not                  
too conspicuous. Use soft twine or the easy-twist tape and wire                 
ties.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Water early in the morning so that the least amount of water                  
will be lost to evaporation. This is particularly important                     
if you use overhead sprinklers. Morning watering is preferred                   
to evening watering as this allows an opportunity for the leaves                
to dry completely. Wet leaves at night encourage disease buildup.               
                                                                                
* Sidedress crops like corn and cabbage with 2 pounds of 5-10-5                 
per 50 feet of row about a month after growth starts. Scatter                   
the fertilizer between the rows and scratch into the soil with                  
a rake. If your garden is on an infertile sandy soil, sidedress                 
all of your vegetables to promote vigorous growth.                              
                                                                                
* Implement all the best cultural practices to reduce pest                      
problems but be prepared to spray as needed to control insects                  
and diseases. Some spraying or dusting usually is necessary to                  
insure the production of healthful, high-quality vegetables.                    
                                                                                
* Stop vine crops from taking over your garden or lawn by                       
pinching off the fuzzy growing tips. This also directs the                      
plant's energy into ripening fruit rather than producing more                   
vine.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Keep peas, beans, and berries cool while you pick them by                     
spreading a damp cloth over your harvest basket.                                
                                                                                
* Harvest your vegetables at the peak of maturity. One of the                   
most important advantages of the home garden is the opportunity                 
to have high quality vegetables. Don`t allow them to become                     
too old before you pick them. Harvest summer squash when about                  
6 inches long. Pick sweet corn just before it is to be used. If                 
it is held under warm conditions, the sugar changes to starch                   
and the corn is much poorer in quality.                                         
                                                                                
* Fireblight on apple and pear trees can be identified by looking               
for  blackened twigs and branches. The disease will spread                      
and kill the tree if not controlled. Remove all blighted twigs,                 
cutting below the infected area. Disinfect pruning tools after                  
each cut to prevent spread. Dip blades in a solution of 1 part                  
household bleach to 9 parts water.                                              
                                                                                
* Water your plants several hours before applying pesticides,                   
especially during dry weather. Drought-stressed plants have                     
less water in their plant tissues, and the chemicals that enter                 
the leaves will consequently be more concentrated and may burn                  
the leaves.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Light sprinkling is often harmful, especially on lawns. Proper                
watering means soaking. Soak the soil to the bottom of the                      
roots. Investigate automatic watering devices.                                  
                                                                                
* Now is the time to begin to sow cover crops between rows and                  
in vacated beds. Sow clover, rye and vetch. These, dug under                    
later, will return humus and nitrates to the soil.                              
                                                                                
* If the Sweet peas are heavily mulched, their roots will be kept               
cooler and their season prolonged. Use rough plant litter or                    
grass clippings. A little shade at midday will help to maintain                 
the quality of the flowers and prolong the season.                              
                                                                                
* When growth has stopped and vanished foliage indicates a                      
dormant condition, dig up a good root each of Bleedingheart,                    
Anchusa, Oriental Poppy. Cut these long roots into 1-2 inch                     
pieces and plant them in a mixture of sand and rich loam. Keep                  
the area fairly moist and soon tiny leaves will shoot up. The new               
plants will be ready for permanent quarters in the spring.                      
                                                                                
* Many plants are easily increased by layering. Verbenas, pinks                 
euonymus, pachysandra, ivy, daphne, climbing roses, in fact, all                
the things with reaching runners will probably take root if                     
fastened down on soft earth with a wire and covered with some                   
good soil.                                                                      
                                                                                
* For the largest flowers, the main stems of the dahlias should                 
be kept free of side shoots. In larger varieties, a single stalk                
is the best. Some sort of adequate support must be provided to                  
prevent storm breakage. Water well.                                             
                                                                                
* Cutting flowers is best done with a sharp shears or knife,                    
taking care to avoid injury to the growing plant by having tools                
sharp. A special pair of cutting scissors may be bought which                   
holds the cut-off stem, allowing the removal to be a one handed                 
operation. It is best to carry a bucket of water to the garden,                 
rather than the familiar cutting basket. A slanting cut will                    
expose a larger absorbing surface and will prevent the base of                  
the stem being sealed by resting upon the bottom of the vase.                   
                                                                                
* Ornamental kales and cabbage are among the showiest of all                    
winter plants and as the weather cools, the color intensifies.                  
Transplants of these improbably beautiful winter ornamentals are                
available at garden centers and nurseries now.                                  
                                                                                
* Clean greenhouse walls and under benches. Wash empty pots.                    
Change soil in benches. Spray to eliminate disease next winter.                 
                                                                                
* Sow seeds of hollyhocks, English daisies, foxgloves, violas,                  
Canterbury bells and Sweet Williams for next year`s bloom.                      
                                                                                
* Root holly, azalea, and camellia cuttings in a sand and peat                  
moss mixture, set in a cool, shady location. Ivy and periwinkle                 
can be rooted now to fill in any bare spots in your beds. Don`t                 
allow cuttings to dry out.                                                      
                                                                                
* During the hot dry summer set out a container of water to                     
attract birds to your garden.                                                   
                                                                                
* In response to the trend toward smaller gardens, new climbing                 
roses are being bred. The new climbers grow only 6 to 8 feet                    
tall and need little or no pruning. Look for cultivars such as                  
'Swan Lake' (creamy white), 'Spectra' (gold with red flush) and                 
'Rosarium Uetersen' (deep pink).                                                
                                                                                
* High temperatures accelerate respiration and evaporation from                 
cut flowers. Your refrigerator may be used to temporarily hold                  
floral arrangements if the temperature is no less than 40                       
degrees F, and if no fruit is stored in the cooler. Temperatures                
below 40 degrees F and ethylene gas given off by ripening fruit                 
can injury the petals of many flowers.                                          
                                                                                
* A cool basement will also work for temporary flower storage.                  
Remember to mist arrangements several times a day.                              
                                                                                
* Gerbera flowers (African daisy) can last up to two weeks in a                 
vase if the water is kept clean. Since gerbera stems are hairy                  
and easily dirty the water, do not immerse them more than a few                 
inches. Change the water every two days.                                        
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant bearded iris using the vigorous ends                    
of the rhizomes. Discard the old center portion. Cut the leaves                 
back to about 8" long. Do not worry about wounding the roots;                   
wounding actually encourages flowering.                                         
                                                                                
* In dry times, trees may shed up to 10% of their leaves to                     
reduce water loses through transpiration. This leaf loss causes                 
little or no harm.                                                              
                                                                                
* Inner leaves and twigs of trees normally drop from lack of                    
sunlight, but clusters of leaves attached to short twigs may                    
result from insect or squirrel activity. Girdling insects make                  
shallow, encircling depressions, while twigs broken by squirrels                
have diagonally several ends.                                                   
                                                                                
* Ripening grape clusters may be covered with brown paper or                    
polyethylene bags, or nylon netting to reduce bird damage. If                   
bags are used, make ventilation holes in the bottom of the bags.                
                                                                                
* Blueberry bushes also need to be covered with plastic netting                 
or fine cloth (tobacco cloth) to control birds. When harvesting                 
blueberries, remember to allow berries to remain on the plants                  
for 3-5 days after they turn blue. Waiting several days allows                  
berries to reach their maximum sugar content.                                   
                                                                                
* Gardeners in the mountainous regions of Virginia start planting               
fall vegetables this month. Request publication 426-334 Fall                    
Vegetable Gardening from your extension agent or The Virginia                   
Gardener for guidelines on planning and planting fall crops.                    
                                                                                
* In summer, dry soil may make working the soil difficult and                   
inhibit seed germination. Plant your fall vegetables when the                   
soil is moist after a rain, or water the area thoroughly the day                
before you plant. Seeds may be planted in a shallow trench to                   
conserve moisture. Cover the seeds about twice as deeply as you                 
do in the spring. Early maturing varieties are best for late                    
plantings.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Continue attracting insect eating birds to the garden area by                 
providing them a fresh water source.                                            
                                                                                
* Bromeliads are being promoted as new indoor plants. They are                  
ideal in the home because they tolerate low light conditions.                   
                                                                                
* Check the soil moisture of container grown vegetables and                     
flowers daily. As the temperature rises, some plants may need                   
water twice daily.                                                              
                                                                                
* Petunias vary their growth habit according to temperature and                 
daylength. At temperature of 62 degrees F and below, petunias                   
will be branched, bushy, compact and multiflowered. From 63 to                  
75 degrees, daylength affects their growth habit. If plants                     
receive less than 12 hours of sunlight at these temperatures,                   
petunias will be single stemmed and have only a single flower.                  
Over 75 degrees F, daylength has no effect and plants will always               
be tall, leggy and bear few flowers.                                            
                                                                                
* To encourage petunias to branch, pinch them at planting time                  
and again in mid-July. During July, cut them off about 3" to 4"                 
above ground level. Weed, fertilize and clean up around them. The               
next pinching should take place in mid-August, and the last,                    
during early September.                                                         
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases July 1986                                                        
                                                                                
Growing Onions                             62 lines                             
A Close Look at the Garden                 82 lines                             
Renovating Strawberries                    60 lines                             
Harvesting Vegetables                     120 lines                             
Geraniums                                  75 lines                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
Growing Onions                                                                  
                                                                                
Several different types of onions grow well in Virginia home                    
vegetable gardens.                                                              
                                                                                
The Egyptian onion, also known as the walking onion or tree                     
onion, is a perennial onion. It bears flowers on tall stalks,                   
which are later followed by small bulb-like structures called                   
bulbils. These tiny bulbs can be eaten, or may be replanted to                  
increase the size of the onion patch. If the plants are left                    
unattended, the stalks bend to the ground, the bulbs root                       
and seemingly "walk" through  your garden.                                      
                                                                                
Egyptian onions require little care and will grow almost any-                   
where. The best time to plant them is from the middle of August                 
to November so the plants can get a good start before winter. For               
best results, the ground should be prepared by mixing in generous               
quantities of compost.                                                          
                                                                                
All parts of the Egypian onion are edible at some time. The top                 
bulbs can be used cooked or raw for flavoring. Once dried, they                 
keep very well. The new green tips can substitute for chives. The               
white lower stalks can be chopped raw in a salad. Even the                      
coarser stalks can be added to a favorite stew.                                 
                                                                                
Another perennial onion is the Welsh onion. This onion produces                 
no true bulbs, but the leaves and stems are used for flavoring.                 
Compared to common onions, the flavor is quite mild and sweet.                  
Welsh onion seed can be planted in rows or beds in spring. They                 
will usually thrive in ordinary soil.                                           
                                                                                
Shallots can be used like green onions, or they can be allowed to               
mature into dry bulbs. As with other onions, there is no need to                
worry about light frosts on shallots. They are quite hardy and                  
resistant to cold.                                                              
                                                                                
In most of Virginia, shallots are planted in spring. In warm                    
areas, you may plant them in fall for winter and spring harvest.                
Bury the clove to half its depth, then firm the soil around it                  
making sure the top remains uncovered. Place the cloves at four                 
to six inch intervals in rows that are nine inches apart. After                 
five or six shoots have developed, mulch with straw, leaves, or                 
dry, unfinished compost. Too heavy a mulch will encourage onion                 
maggots and root rot. If grown in a well-drained, sunny location,               
shallots should not suffer from pest or disease damage.                         
                                                                                
Leeks are low in calories and care, and high in vitamins and                    
flavor. Leeks have a long history of being grown in Europe,                     
but they are not as popular in the United States.                               
                                                                                
Like shallots, leeks are generally grown from seeds. Because                    
they have a long growing season (four to five months), they                     
should be sown as early in spring as possible. In the colder                    
parts of the state it is beneficial to start seeds indoors. The                 
plants are very hardy; they can be harvested well into winter.                  
                                                                                
Although the leek is a member of the onion family, it does                      
not develop a true bulb; it grows straight from the neck to                     
the root. The white stems grow to be two inches thick and between               
six and eight inches long, with large, flat, grey-green tops                    
over a foot high. Leeks grow in just about any climate, but                     
require high fertility.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
A Close Look at the Garden                                                      
                                                                                
Somewhere between the first burst of enthusiasm in the spring                   
and the heat of July, many gardeners tend to lose track of their                
gardens. After the initial soil preparation and sowing of seed,                 
they quit looking to the earth and see only the products from                   
the garden.                                                                     
                                                                                
Believing well-laid plans were properly implemented in the                      
spring, most gardeners are ready to reap the harvest. Rarely do                 
they review those plans to verify their effectiveness. To become                
a more effective gardener, make notes throughout the growing                    
season. At different times of day, take a note pad to the garden.               
Look and record what you see.                                                   
                                                                                
Look at the soil. A key to successful gardening is well-prepared                
soil rich in organic material. Does the soil dry too fast or stay               
water-logged for long periods of time? Has it developed a rich,                 
crumbly texture that makes it a pleasure to work? If it hasn't                  
reached the ideal condition, then there is more work to do.                     
                                                                                
If you have not had a soil test in several years, contact your                  
local Extension agent and do one now. If lime is required to                    
raise the pH, it should be applied in the fall to affect the                    
next year's garden. Till two inches of compost or four to six                   
inches of organic material into your garden this fall. Don't                    
leave it on the surface until spring, as that will slow down                    
the warming of the soil and will not enrich it as much as it                    
could were it tilled in.                                                        
                                                                                
Last spring when you planted the garden, there were no leaves                   
on the trees. Notice now where their shadows fall. Are any                      
of the taller vegetables casting shade on others? Design next                   
year's garden now to provide at least between six and eight                     
hours of full sun to the fruiting crops. Plan for leafy greens                  
in the semi-shade and tall crops and trellises to the north                     
end of the garden to reduce shading.                                            
                                                                                
After watering, the soil should be moist to a depth of at least                 
eight inches to insure deep root penetration. This requires                     
approximately one inch of water. If, your soil is not damp                      
at root depth, evaluate your watering technique.                                
                                                                                
A handheld hose delivers water at such a high rate that it                      
creates runoff before water can penetrate deeply. This partially                
can be overcome by burying a gallon can full of holes near larger               
plants such as tomatoes, and filling it with water for slow                     
seepage.                                                                        
                                                                                
Unfortunately, a greet deal of sprinkler water is lost to                       
evaporation and muddy pathways. Consider a trickle irrigation                   
system where the water removed from the soil by plants is                       
replaced daily. Most home systems will last about three years,                  
reduce water use and significantly increase yield.                              
                                                                                
Much of the work on the garden can be reduced by the proper                     
use of mulch. A good mulch such as leaves or straw helps maintain               
soil moisture, while a poor one such as fresh sawdust or peat                   
crusts and reduces water penetration. Avoid using grass clippings               
from lawns that have been treated with weed killer.                             
                                                                                
The bottom line of success in the garden for most of us is the                  
genuine satisfation we gain from producing some of our food.                    
If your yield is not what you expect, look over your garden                     
practices. If the peppers and tomatoes are vigorous but have no                 
fruit, you may have overfertilized with nitrogen. Low cucurbits                 
yields may be traced to poor bee pollination, perhaps due to                    
indiscriminate use of carbaryl insecticide which kill bees                      
as well as pests.                                                               
                                                                                
If the lettuce is bitter and your broccoli in bloom, you just                   
waited too late to harvest and they succumbed to summer heat.                   
Poor corn development may result from planting in single rows                   
instead of blocks of four or more rows to insure good wind polli-               
nation.                                                                         
                                                                                
If squash is woody, tomatoes rotting on the vine, and green                     
beans too old to snap, you probably planted too much. Reduce                    
the size of the garden and plant flowers, or invite friends                     
over to help with the harvest. Either way, you add a new dimen-                 
sion to the joy of gardening.                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Renovating Strawberries                                                         
                                                                                
Renovation of the strawberry patch is greeted with less enthu-                  
siasm than many other tasks in the garden. One has the feeling                  
that to delay the renovation will somehow lengthen the year's                   
harvest another day or another week. The best time to get your                  
berries ready for good yield next year, however, is to start as                 
soon as this year's harvest is complete.                                        
                                                                                
If your strawberry planting has made vigorous growth and is                     
free of weeds, it is a relatively simple task to rejuvenate it.                 
Remove the mulch and clip the tops of the plants to about one                   
inch above the crowns with a scythe or mower. Be careful not                    
to cut into the crown (the heavy growth point) at ground level.                 
If the crown is damaged, the plant may not recover.                             
                                                                                
If insects and foliage diseases are prevalent, dispose of the                   
leaves and mulch material. Apply a quickly soluble nitrogen                     
fertilizer such as nitrate of soda at the rate of 1/2 to 3/4                    
pounds per 100 feet of row to encourage vigorous top growth.                    
If nitrogen of soda is not readily available, you can substitute                
three pounds of 5-10-5 or 1.5 pounds of 10-10-10 fertilizer                     
per 100 square feet broadcast over the entire planting. Rototill                
or dig between the rows to incorporate the fertilizer and mulch                 
into the top few inches of soil.                                                
                                                                                
If the matted row is quite thick, the plants may require thin-                  
ning. After new foliage appears, thin the plants to six to eight                
inches apart leaving the strongest, most vigorous plants. Keep                  
the planting cultivated throughout the summer and irrigate when                 
necessary during dry periods to keep plants growing vigorously.                 
Fertilize again in the fall and renew mulch after freezing                      
weather begins.                                                                 
                                                                                
Early next spring, it would be a good idea to start a new                       
strawberry patch so that you can turn the one you renovated this                
year into a fall garden or plant a cover crop in its place. Two                 
really good harvests are about all you can expect from one patch                
so it's nice to have another one ready.                                         
                                                                                
Some people report maintaining the same patch for many years.                   
Either they have been incredibly fortunate with insects and                     
disease and have the most unbelievable soil in the area, or they                
have become accustomed to poor quality and low yield, and                       
forgotten that things can be much better.                                       
                                                                                
Don't try to scavenge plants from last year's beds to start                     
a new patch. Old plants will likely infest the bed with red                     
stele or other diseases and insects. Instead, order disease-free                
plants and experiment with new varieties.                                       
                                                                                
If your strawberry harvest comes from a strawberry jar, crock,                  
raised pyramid or other container, it is equally important to                   
renovate it and insure vigorous growth for next years. Try the                  
"hill" system of culture for such containers. Select the most                   
vigorous plants and remove all others that developed over the                   
last year. Keep all runners removed so that all of the plant's                  
energy goes into development of the primary plant. Use hand                     
shears to remove last year's foliage one inch above the soil                    
level to eliminate insect and diseases that they may harbor.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
Harvesting Vegetables                                                           
                                                                                
Does a vine-ripened, home-grown tomato look different from a                    
hot-house produced, grocery-store tomato? With tomatoes, it may                 
be easy to tell when fruit is ripe, but for a beginning gardener,               
telling when to harvest produce may be difficult. Sometimes, as                 
much produce is lost due to improper harvesting as due to                       
insects. Here are descriptions of harvesting techniques for some                
common home grown vegetables.                                                   
                                                                                
Green or Wax Snap Beans--Pick when the pods are full size. The                  
newer varieties can be delayed until the beans are full size as                 
long as the pods are still tender. They should break off easily                 
with a "snap" when ready for harvesting. The seeds should not                   
cause the pods to bulge.                                                        
                                                                                
Pole and Half Runner Beans--Harvest as snap beans when young and                
stringless or shell beans when mature.                                          
                                                                                
Lima Beans--Pods should be green with swellings to show the                     
beans inside. Open a pod or two; beans should be plump but still                
green or gray-green (not white). Pick often to prolong picking                  
season.                                                                         
                                                                                
Sweet Corn--Harvest while the husk is still dark green. Kernels                 
should be full size and yellow or white to the tip of the ear,                  
but still in the soft, `milk stage' of growth. Corn is sweetest                 
just as the silk blackens. Remember that corn matures very                      
rapidly in hot weather and that it should be refrigerated                       
immediately after picking to prevent the sugar from turning to                  
starch.                                                                         
                                                                                
Cucumbers--Those of moderate size are best. Yellowing indicates                 
old age. Don't allow old cucumbers to remain on the vine because                
they will keep the vine from bearing more cucumbers. Harvest                    
while young and green when the seeds are soft. To use cukes for                 
sweet pickles, harvest when two to three inches long; for dills,                
five to six inches; and for slicing, six to eight inches.                       
                                                                                
Muskmelons--They develop the best flavor when they ripen in                     
warm, dry weather. They may taste more like cucumbers if they                   
mature in cool, rainy weather. Pick them at "full slip" stage                   
when the stem separates readily from the fruit. Fully ripe                      
melons are sweetest. As the melon ripens, the netting becomes                   
more prominent and the background color changes from a light                    
green to a tan or yellow cast. After harvesting, the fruit can be               
held at room temperature for one to three days until the blossom                
end softens.                                                                    
                                                                                
Okra or Gumbo--The best quality is when the pods are two to                     
three inches long. They may have to be harvested daily to get                   
the quality size. Pick within a few days after the flower                       
petals have fallen whether pods are to be used or not. If pods                  
are allowed to ripen, the plant ceases to produce.                              
                                                                                
Eggplant--Harvest when the fruits are large and shiny and an                    
even deep purple color. Keep mature fruits picked off and plants                
will produce over a long period of time. Fruit in which the                     
seeds have turned brown are of poor quality and past the edible                 
stage. To tell if the fruit is mature, press the side of the                    
fruit slightly. If the indentation remains, it is mature.                       
                                                                                
Potatoes--Dig them whenever tubers are large enough to eat.                     
Dig only what will be used immediately, because they keep better                
in the soil than in a warm house or basement. Harvest when the                  
tops have died down but before the first heavy freeze. When                     
digging, avoid skinning and injury. Avoid long exposure of                      
potatoes to light.                                                              
                                                                                
Tomatoes--Harvest them when fully vine-ripened and dark red.                    
Regardless of the state of maturity, picked tomatoes should be                  
put in the shade, not the sun. Light is not necessary for                       
immature tomatoes to ripen. Sun causes uneven ripening and                      
abnormal color formation. To obtain good color and flavor, hold                 
partly riped fruit at 70 degrees F then place in the refriger-                  
ator. Pick some green tomatoes and store in a cool (about 55                    
degrees F), moist, dark place before the first killing frost.                   
Ripen by putting them in a location that is 70 degrees F.                       
                                                                                
Cabbage--Harvest anytime after a firm head develops. If some                    
plants can't be harvested after they reach full maturity, bend                  
them to the ground on one side and break part of the roots to                   
reduce the possibility of head splitting from excess water                      
intake. If heads have not split, they can be stored for long                    
periods at tempertures of 32 to 45 degrees F.                                   
                                                                                
Broccoli--Cut while clustered flower heads are firm and green.                  
Take heads with leaves and 5 or 6 inches of stem (also edible).                 
Don't damage short side branches; they will produce smaller                     
heads if left to grow.                                                          
                                                                                
Brussels sprouts--Twist or snap off sprouts when they are firm                  
and still deep green (usually about the time lowest big leaves                  
start to yellow). Harvest lowest sprouts first. Upper ones will                 
continue to enlarge to harvesting size. The flavor of Brussels                  
sprouts improves after exposure to frosts.                                      
                                                                                
Cauliflower--As soon as blossom heads (farmers call them curds)                 
begin to form, pull the upper outer leaves over them to shade                   
from the sun. This blanching process gives a white curd. Inspect                
from time to time and cut off curd when the flower sections begin               
to separate.                                                                    
                                                                                
Kale--Cut off outer leaves from plants as needed. In thinning,                  
pull smaller plants and use (but don't eat roots).                              
                                                                                
New Zealand Spinach--Pinch off or cut with a sharp knife 2 to 3                 
inch lenths of tender stem tips with leaves. New shoots will grow               
to replace them.                                                                
                                                                                
Turnips and rutabagas--Pull young plants with tiny roots to thin                
rows and give growing room to the remaining plants. Eat thin-                   
nings, tops and all. At 2-inch diameters, roots are tastiest,                   
and tops are still good as greens. At 3 inches and above, roots                 
are still good and store a little better. Late planted rutabagas                
can stay in the ground until needed.                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
Geraniums                                                                       
                                                                                
For over 300 years, gardeners have enjoyed the continuously                     
renewing color of geraniums in the garden. Bright colors, perky                 
flower heads, and contrasting foliage have made them increasingly               
popular. Geraniums come in every flower color, except blue and                  
yellow. Their diversity of flower form and color, growth habits,                
and garden requirements make them highly adaptable for home                     
gardeners.                                                                      
                                                                                
Zonal Geraniums                                                                 
                                                                                
So-called because many of them have zones or patterns in the                    
center of the leaves, these are the ones most people recognize                  
as geraniums (even though they're not geraniums to the botanist,                
but Pelargoniums). Varieties with self-branching habit and                      
compact growth make tidy, well-shaped plants with a show of                     
color all summer long. Some of the varieties have unusually dark                
green foliage which makes a particularly striking contrast to                   
the colorful flower heads held above the foliage. Semi-double                   
flower types are highly desirable because they resist weather                   
damage well and are not as subject to shattering as are singles.                
                                                                                
Many of the new zonal geranium varieties (Pelargonium hortorum)                 
have been bred for free flowering, earliness, compactness and                   
self-branching characteristics making them particularly good                    
plants for every geranium use, from planting beds to container                  
plants for porch and patio.                                                     
                                                                                
Ivy Leaf Geraniums                                                              
                                                                                
Ivy-leafed geraniums have been developed from Pelargonium                       
peltatum. In Europe, over 45% of all geraniums produced are ivy                 
geraniums. Ivy geraniums bear semi-double flowers in colors                     
from white through all the pastels of pink to red. Plants are                   
particularly valuable for use in container plantings, hanging                   
baskets and window boxes where their flowering character provides               
soft effects. Traditionally, they've been used alone, but in                    
recent years the trend has been to combine them with other                      
flowers such as bachelor buttons and ageratum in mixed plantings.               
The key to these plantings is fullness--one or more kinds of                    
flowers for a vertical line, lower growing plants for mass, and                 
trailing varieties such as ivy geraniums to drape over container                
edges for softness and color.                                                   
                                                                                
Ivy geraniums prefer full sun and an eastern exposure where                     
temperatures generally remain below 80 degrees F, but can grow                  
well and bloom in dappled shade where temperatures go higher. For               
container plantings, top dress with a slow-release fertilizer to                
provide nutrient needs. Water is critical in container plantings,               
even more so in hanging baskets where all parts of the container                
are exposed to air movement.                                                    
                                                                                
Cascades                                                                        
                                                                                
Breeding work has brought about a new class of geraniums called                 
cascades. Cascade varieties are the ultimate container plants                   
so heavily covered with blooms that the foliage becomes hidden by               
the blossoms. Cascades are very popular in Europe where they are                
widely used for balcony plantings, window boxes and other                       
container plantings. They also make outstanding ground cover                    
plantings where you want bloom all summer long. Use them on                     
slopes or in ground beds.                                                       
                                                                                
Plant in full sun for the most bloom, but cascade geraniums are                 
also delightful in partial shade or dappled shade. Plants bloom                 
well even if exposed to four hours of full shade per day. The                   
plants are self-branching; each one becomes a mound of color,                   
flowing over the edges of containers to soften the lines and                    
enhance the plantings. The plants are also self-cleaning, which                 
means that spent flower heads drop away when finished blooming.                 
Varieties range in height from tall (24 inches) to very compact                 
kinds which may not exceed 12 inches in length. Fertilize and                   
water regularly to produce a great crop.                                        
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
July 1986 The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                    
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Summer Pruning Black Raspberries                     14 lines                   
Foliar Fertilization                                 28 lines                   
Succession Planting                                  21 lines                   
Water Conservation in the Garden                     46 lines                   
Temperature and Its Affect on Garden Plants          48 lines                   
Surfactants                                          73 lines                   
Potato 'Fruits'                                      14 lines                   
Tomato - Fruit or Vegetable                          42 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
I have been watching a neighbor pruning the tops of her black                   
raspberries. I have never pruned my berry bushes like this. Is                  
it something new I should be doing?                                             
                                                                                
Tip pruning, also called summer topping, is practiced in July                   
and early August. It encourages branching in some brambles.                     
Black raspberries can be summer topped when the new shoots are                  
about 24" high; purple raspberries, when about 30" high. Red                    
raspberries should not be summer topped.                                        
                                                                                
Summer topping consists of removing the top three to four inches                
of the new shoots by snapping them off with the fingers or                      
cutting them with shears or a knife. Where trained to supports,                 
let new shoots grow six to eight inches taller before topping.                  
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
What can you tell me about the fertilizers you are supposed                     
to spray on your plants?                                                        
                                                                                
Under normal growing conditions, plants absorb most nutrients                   
from the soil. However, some nutrients can also be absorbed by                  
the leaves if a dilute solution is sprayed on the leaves. Care                  
must be taken that the concentration of nutrients is not too high               
or the leaf will be injured.                                                    
                                                                                
Foliar feeding can be useful when: 1) insufficient fertilizer                   
was used before planting; 2) a quick growth response is wanted;                 
3) micronutrients (such as iron or zinc) are unavailable to the                 
plant; or 4) the soil is too cold for the plants to extract or                  
use the fertilizer applied to the soil. Foliar applied nutrients                
are absorbed and used by the plant quite rapidly. Absorption                    
begins within minutes after application and, with most nutrients,               
it is completed within 1 to 2 days.                                             
                                                                                
Foliar nutrition can be a supplement to soil nutrition at a                     
critical time for the plant, but not a substitute. At transplant-               
ing time, an application of phosphorus spray will help in the                   
establishment of the young plant in cold soils. For perennial                   
plants, early spring growth is usually limited by cold soil, even               
when the air is warm. Under such conditions, soil microorganisms                
are not active enough to convert nutrients into forms available                 
for roots to absorb; yet, if the nutrients were available, the                  
plants could grow. A nutrient spray to the foliage will provide                 
the needed nutrients immediately to the plants, allowing them to                
begin growth.                                                                   
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I have a very small area for gardening. Now that some crops like                
peas and radishes are over, can I replant these areas in other                  
vegetables?                                                                     
                                                                                
Succession planting is an excellent way to make the most of a                   
intensive garden. To obtain a succession of crops, plant some-                  
thing new in the spots vacated by spent plants - corn after                     
peas is an example of succession planting.                                      
                                                                                
Planting a spring, summer, and fall garden is form of succession                
planting. Cool season crops (broccoli, lettuce, peas) may be                    
followed by warm season crops (beans, tomatoes, peppers),                       
and, where possible, these may be followed by more cool-season                  
plants, or even a winter cover crop.                                            
                                                                                
Starting seeds indoors for transplanting is an important aspect                 
of this type of gardening. To get the most from your garden plot,               
a new crop should be ready to take the place of the crop being                  
removed. Several weeks may be gained by having 6" transplants                   
ready to go into the vacated area. Don't forget to recondition                  
the soil for the new plants.                                                    
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
It's been too dry for the garden plants but water is expen-                     
sive. I have already mulched. What else can I do to conserve                    
moisture for my plants?                                                         
                                                                                
Shading and the use of windbreaks are other moisture-conserving                 
techniques you should try. Plants that wilt in very sunny areas                 
can benefit from partial shade during the afternoon in summer.                  
Small plants, in particular, should be protected.                               
                                                                                
Air moving across a plant carries away the moisture on the leaf                 
surfaces, causing more water to be needed by the plant. In very                 
windy areas the roots often cannot keep up with leaf demands, and               
plants wilt. Temporary or permanent windbreaks can help tremen-                 
dously.                                                                         
                                                                                
In areas prone to drought, remember to look for drought-resistant               
varieties when buying plants or seeds.                                          
                                                                                
During those times when cultural practices simply aren't enough,                
when rainfall is sparse and the sun is hot, watering can benefit                
your garden with higher yields, or may save the garden altogether               
in severe drought years. By knowing the critical watering                       
periods for specific vegetables, you can reduce the amount of                   
water you add. In general, water is most needed: 1) during the                  
first weeks of plant development; 2) immediately after trans-                   
planting; and 3) during the development of storage organs which                 
are eaten. Specifically, make sure lettuce and cole crops have                  
ample water during head development. Beans and peas need water                  
when the pods are filling. The critical watering periods for                    
cucumbers, squashes, melons, tomatoes, eggplants and peppers are                
during flowering and while the fruits develop. Corn benefits from               
from moisture when silking and tasseling, and at ear development.               
                                                                                
If water supplies are short, you may want to consider using                     
'gray water', water recycled from household uses on your garden.                
A few rules should be observed:                                                 
    1. Apply gray water to the soil, not to plant leaves.                       
    2. If water is used from the bathtub or washing machine,                    
use mild, biodegradable soaps. Omit softeners and bleaches.                     
Never use borax-containing products such as washing soda, in                    
water intended for the garden because of the danger of boron                    
toxicity.                                                                       
    3. It is preferable not to use kitchen waste water that                     
contains grease, harsh cleaners or non-biodegradable detergents.                
    4. Never allow any water which has run through the toilet                   
to enter a gray water irrigation system. Organisms from human                   
wastes can contaminate food products.                                           
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
How does temperature effect growth of vegetables and flowers?                   
                                                                                
Temperature affects the productivity and growth of a plant,                     
depending upon whether the plant is a warm or cool season                       
crop. If temperatures are high and day length is long, cool                     
season crops such as spinach will flower. Temperatures that are                 
too low for a warm season crop such as tomato will prevent fruit                
set. Adverse temperatures also cause stunted growth and poor                    
quality vegetable production; for example, bitterness in lettuce                
is caused by high temperatures.                                                 
                                                                                
Sometimes temperatures are used in connection with daylength to                 
manipulate the flowering of plants. Chrysanthemums will flower                  
for a longer period of time if daylight temperatures are 59                     
degrees F.                                                                      
                                                                                
Temperatures alone also influence flowering. Daffodils are forced               
to flower by putting the bulbs in cold storage in October at 35                 
to 40 degrees F. Cold temperatures allow bulbs to mature. The                   
bulbs are transferred to the greenhouse in midwinter where growth               
begins. The flowers are then ready for cutting in 3 to 4 weeks.                 
                                                                                
Thermoperiod refers to a daily temperature change. Plants respond               
to and produce maximum growth when exposed to a day temperature                 
that is about 10 to 15 degrees higher than a night temperature.                 
This allows the plant to photosynthesize (build up nutrients) and               
respire (break down) during an optimum daytime temperature and to               
curtail the rate of respiration during a cooler night. Tempera-                 
tures higher than needed cause increased respiration, sometimes                 
above the rate of photosynthesis. This means that the products of               
photosynthesis are being more rapidly used than they are being                  
produced. For growth to occur, photosynthesis must be greater                   
than respiration.                                                               
                                                                                
Too low temperatures can  produce poor growth. Photosynthesis is                
slowed down at low temperatures. Since photosynthesis is slowed,                
growth is slowed, and this results in lower yields. Not all                     
plants grow best under the same temperature range. For example,                 
snapdragons grow best at nighttime temperatures of 55 degrees F                 
and poinsettias at 62 degrees F. Florist cyclamen does very well                
under very cool conditions while many bedding plants prefer a                   
higher temperature.                                                             
                                                                                
However, in some cases, a certain number of days of low tempera-                
ture are needed by plants in order to grow properly. This is true               
of crops growing in cold regions of the country. Peaches are a                  
prime example: most varieties require 700 to 1,000 hours below 45               
degrees F but above 32 degrees F before they break their rest                   
period and begin growth. Lilies need 6 weeks of temperatures at                 
33 degrees F before blooming.                                                   
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Some pesticide labels mention that a surfactant should be added                 
when mixing them. What is this and what is its purpose?                         
                                                                                
When added to a pesticide, a surfactant reduces the surface                     
tension between two unlike materials, such as a spray film and a                
solid surface. For example, by adding a surfactant to a sprayer,                
oil and water will mix and can be sprayed on plant surfaces. With               
increasing emphasis on safe application of pesticides, such                     
factors as droplet size, spray pattern, and pesticide drift have                
focused more attention on surfactants to give ideal coverage                    
for pesticides.                                                                 
                                                                                
Surfactants include: activators, compatibility agents, defloccu-                
lators, detergents, dispersants, emulsifiers, foam and drift                    
suppressants, and spreading, sticking and wetting agents. These                 
materials are added to a spray mix to help keep the pesticide                   
in suspension; improve cohesiveness and dispersion of the spray;                
and increase the wetting (or coverage) of the leaves, fruits, and               
stems.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many surfactants act as spreading, sticking and wetting agents.                 
They are most useful when spraying the hard-to-wet foliage of                   
such plants as azalea, boxwood, camellia, carnation, conifers,                  
euonymus, gardenia, gladiolus, holly, iris, narcissus, peony,                   
rose, and yew. Whether a spray rolls off or sticks to a plant                   
surface depends on the physical and chemical properties of the                  
spray mixture and the physical properties of the surface itself.                
If the surface tension of the mixture is high, or if the plant                  
surface is waxy, the spray droplets will roll off. The list                     
below contains examples of surfactants and their purposes.                      
                                                                                
Spreader or Film Extender (spreader-activator)  A spreader is a                 
substance that, when added to a pesticide mix, increases the area               
that a given volume of spray will cover and improves contact                    
between the pesticide and the plant surface. A spreading agent                  
builds spray deposits and improves weatherability. Most wettable                
powder insecticides benefit from the addition of a spreader.                    
                                                                                
Sticker or Adhesive   A sticker is a material that, when added to               
a spray mix or dust, improves the adherence (tenacity) to a plant               
surface rather than increasing the initial deposit. Commercial                  
sticking agents are oily in consistency and increase the amount                 
of suspended solids retained on plant surfaces by coating the                   
particles in a resin or varnish-like film. Most fungicides,                     
especially wettable powders, benefit greatly from the use of                    
stickers. Stickers may be judged in terms of resistance to wind                 
and water, length of adherence, and mechanical or chemical                      
action.                                                                         
                                                                                
Wetting Agent  A wetting agent is a material that, when added to                
a pesticide, lowers the interfacial tension between a liquid and                
a solid; in this case, a plant surface. The effectiveness is                    
measured by the increase in spread of a liquid over a solid                     
surface and the ability of the spray film to make complete                      
contact with it. When a wetting agent reduces surface tension,                  
spreading naturally occurs.                                                     
                                                                                
The pesticide label should state whether a surfactant is needed                 
or should be added to a spray mix for certain applications and                  
should indicate restrictions in the selection of compatible                     
surfactants. In many cases, surfactants have been designed speci-               
fically for use with fungicides, insecticides, or herbicides.                   
Although choosing an effective surfactant to accompany a specific               
pesticide is no simple task, the label will state whether a                     
surfactant is needed and the brand that should be used.                         
                                                                                
All commercial spreading, sticking and wetting agents should be                 
mixed strictly according to label directions. Adding more                       
surfactant than recommended may cause excessive runoff, resulting               
in a poor spray deposit and reduced pest control. In general, if                
the spray mix contains one or more pesticides produced or                       
formulated by the same company, use a surfactant sold or recom-                 
mended by that company. Surfactants are sold separately from                    
pesticides and are not subject to EPA registration.                             
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Why do my potato plants have little tomatoes on them?                           
                                                                                
Frequently gardeners observe small green fruit on potatoes, and                 
think they have a freak plant which will have tomatoes on top                   
and potatoes underground. This is not the case. Fruit formation                 
on potatoes is a normal occurance which should cause you no                     
concern.                                                                        
                                                                                
Potatoes and tomatoes belong to the same botanical family and                   
have similar fruits. On potatoes fruits remain relatively small                 
and green, and are of value only as a means of securing seeds,                  
if you are trying to breed a new variety. On tomato plants                      
fruits become large and fleshy, turn color when ripe, and are one               
of our most important vegetables.                                               
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable?                                             
                                                                                
Tomato is actually a fruit, a berry, and a vegetable. It is a                   
fruit because it develops from the pistil or center part of the                 
flower, which usually contains the seeds. It is a berry type of                 
fruit because it is soft and succulent all the way through. And                 
it is a vegetable because of the way it is used in our diet.                    
                                                                                
A vegetable is any edible part of a plant which you want to call                
a vegetable. It sounds crazy, but consider some different parts                 
of plants which are edible, and which we call vegetables.                       
                                                                                
Carrots, beets, turnips, and sweet potatoes are roots, which are                
also considered vegetables. In asparagus we eat fleshy stems. The               
potato also is a stem, but a specialized underground stem which                 
stores food reserves. (The eyes of the potato are buds at nodes                 
which the growing points located on stems. Roots do not have                    
nodes.)                                                                         
                                                                                
Many of the vegetables we eat are leaves for instance kale,                     
spinach, and leaf lettuce. In celery we eat mostly the stalk or                 
petiole of the leaf. This is not the stem. The stem is the small                
hard basal portion from which the long celery leaves arise.                     
                                                                                
In cabbage and head lettuce we eat enormous terminal buds which                 
develop on the top of short stems. The bud is, of course,                       
composed of many tightly folded leaves, but the whole thing is a                
bud. In Brussels sprouts we eat small side or lateral buds.                     
                                                                                
With shelled beans and peas, we eat seeds. While in the snap                    
beans and edible podded peas we eat the entire fruit with the                   
immature seeds inside. In sweet corn, the principal edible part                 
is the seed.                                                                    
                                                                                
There are many vegetables which actually are fruits such as                     
cucumber, okra, pumpkin, squash, and pepper. Technically musk-                  
melon and watermelon also fall into this catagory even though in                
our diet we think of them as fruits. In some cases we cut the                   
fruit open and discard the seeds for example muskmelon and                      
pumpkin. In many other cases, when the fruit is consumed when                   
quite young, we eat the seeds also, as in cucumbers, okra, and                  
summer squash.                                                                  
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes for July 1987                                                     
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* If your annuals look poor, pull them out and add them to the                  
compost pile. You can replant beds with hardy annuals or biennia-               
ls, such as pansies, calendulas, globe thistle, or sea pinks.                   
                                                                                
* A plastic mesh bag filled with marbles holds flower arrange-                  
ments beautifully. Set it in the container and cover it with                    
water and the marbles will grip flower stems firmly without                     
injuring them.                                                                  
                                                                                
* A cool basement works well for temporary flower storage.                      
Remember to mist arrangements several times a day.                              
                                                                                
* High temperatures accelerate respiration and evaporation from                 
cut flowers. Your refrigerator may be used to temporarily hold                  
floral arrangements if the temperature is no less than 40 degrees               
F, and if no fruit is stored in the cooler. Temperatures below 40               
degrees F and ethylene gas given off by ripening fruit can injury               
the petals of many flowers.                                                     
                                                                                
* If the sweet peas are heavily mulched, their roots will be kept               
cooler and their season prolonged. Use rough plant litter or                    
grass clippings. A little shade at midday will help to maintain                 
the quality of the flowers and prolong the season.                              
                                                                                
* When growth has stopped and vanished foliage indicates a                      
dormant condition, dig up a good root each of Bleedingheart,                    
Anchusa, Oriental Poppy. Cut these long roots into 1-2 inch                     
pieces and plant them in a mixture of sand and rich loam. Keep                  
the area fairly moist and soon tiny leaves will shoot up. The new               
plants will be ready for permanent quarters in the spring.                      
                                                                                
* Often, you may run into a perennial whose habit and hardiness                 
has been untested in your region. If you like the look of the                   
plant, give it a try. Most perennials can be purchased at                       
reasonable cost and half the fun of gardening can be experimenti-               
ng with something new.                                                          
                                                                                
* In planning a perennial bed, first assess the site of the                     
garden. Is it shady? Sunny? Filtered shade? Is the soil acid or                 
alkaline? Does the soil tend to be dry or moist? What climatic                  
conditions are usual throughout the year? Is the soil well-                     
drained? Sandy? Full of clay? Once these things have been                       
considered, you can develop a plant list of possible plants for                 
such a location. Then the plan can be made.                                     
                                                                                
* The soil in container grown vegetables and flowers can dry out                
very quickly especially on a concrete patio in full sun.  Daily                 
watering may be necessary. However, the soil should not be soggy                
or have water standing on top of it. Apply water until it runs                  
out the drainage holes. Clay pots have additional evaporation                   
from the sides and watering must be done more often. Small pots                 
dry out quicker than large window boxes. Check your containers at               
least once a day and twice on hot, dry days. Feel the soil to see               
whether or not it is damp.                                                      
                                                                                
* Many plants are easily increased by layering. Verbenas, pinks                 
euonymus, pachysandra, ivy, daphne, climbing roses, in fact, many               
of the plants with reaching runners will probably take root if                  
fastened down on soft earth with a wire and covered with some                   
good soil.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Geranium cuttings should be made in late July to start plants                 
for winter and spring indoor bloom. To get flowers in the winter                
months you may need to install some fluorescent tubes over the                  
bench or shelves where you grow your plants. To make cuttings,                  
use the tip of branches about 4 inches long. Cut off the bottom                 
leaves and stick the cuttings about 1/3 their length in a moist                 
sand-peat mixture. Roots will develop rapidly and new plants                    
should be ready for potting in about 4 weeks.                                   
                                                                                
* In response to the trend toward smaller gardens, new climbing                 
roses are being bred. The new climbers grow only 6 to 8 feet tall               
and need little or no pruning. A wide range of colors are                       
available.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Time of bloom, height and size of mature plants, flower and                   
foliage colors, and texture are important considerations in                     
planning a perennial garden. Choices of specific plant varieties                
are very personal. Perennial gardens might include only a number                
of varieties of the same plant or they might, for instance,                     
include only plants that have gray foliage and white flowers.                   
Choices are countless; the important thing is to have a specific                
aim, to know what effect you are trying to achieve.                             
                                                                                
* Sow seeds of hollyhocks, English daisies, foxgloves, violas,                  
Canterbury bells and Sweet Williams now for next year`s bloom.                  
                                                                                
* For the largest flowers, the main stems of the dahlias should                 
be kept free of side shoots. In larger varieties, a single stalk                
is the best. Adequate support must be provided to prevent storm                 
breakage. Water well.                                                           
                                                                                
* Tall flowers should be staked to prevent damage by wind. Use                  
stakes which are large enough to support the plant but are not                  
too conspicuous. Use soft twine or the easy-twist tape and wire                 
ties.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant bearded iris replanting only the vigorous               
ends of the rhizomes. Discard the old center portion. Cut the                   
leaves back to about 8" long.                                                   
                                                                                
* Cutting flowers is best done with a sharp shears or a knife.                  
Take care to avoid injury to the growing plant by having sharp                  
tools. A special pair of cutting scissors may be bought which                   
holds the cut stem, allowing the removal to be a one handed                     
operation. It is best to carry a bucket of water to the garden,                 
for fresh cuttings rather than the familiar cutting basket. A                   
slanting cut will expose a larger absorbing surface to water and                
prevent the base of the stem from being sealed by resting upon                  
the bottom of the vase.                                                         
                                                                                
* Hot, dry weather brings out the red spiders mites. Inspect                    
roses, evergreens, and marigolds, especially for signs of pale                  
green coloration. Hold a white sheet of paper underneath some                   
foliage and briskly tap it. Tiny, crawling mites will drop to the               
note paper if they are present. Severely infested annual plants                 
may be removed from the garden and destroyed. Others should be                  
chemically treated. If infestation is light, mites may be                       
discouraged by direct spray from the water hose.                                
                                                                                
* Gerbera flowers (African daisy) can last up to two weeks in a                 
vase if the water is kept clean. Since gerbera stems are hairy,                 
do not immerse them more than a few inches. Change the water                    
every two days.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Chrysanthemums should be lightly fertilized every two weeks                   
with a water soluble fertilizer. To keep plants compact and full                
of blooms, pinch out new tip growth until eight weeks before they               
are to bloom, approximately mid-July. For large exhibition mums,                
allow only one or two shoots to develop, stake these shoots, and                
remove side buds as they start to develop.                                      
                                                                                
* Protect plants in containers from very high temperature caused                
by light reflection from pavement. Move them to a cooler spot or                
shade them during the hottest part of the day. Plants may be                    
moved to a more sheltered location during severe rain or wind                   
storms or as protection from the first fall frosts.                             
                                                                                
* Mulching herbs during hot weather protects the plant roots and                
helps keep them healthy. Perennial herbs also need mulch in the                 
fall for protection from winter thaws and freezing.                             
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* In dry times, trees may shed up to 10% of their leaves to                     
reduce water loses through transpiration. This leaf loss causes                 
little or no harm.                                                              
                                                                                
* Root holly, azalea, and camellia cuttings in a sand and peat                  
moss mixture, set in a cool, shady location. Ivy and periwinkle                 
can be rooted now to fill in any bare spots in your beds. Don`t                 
allow cuttings to dry out.                                                      
                                                                                
* When it is necessary to transplant woody plants in hot weather,               
cover them with a sheet after they are planted. Dampen the sheet                
two or three times a day with the hose, and transplants should                  
suffer very little setback due to transpiration losses.                         
                                                                                
* Inner leaves and twigs of trees normally drop from lack of                    
sunlight, but clusters of leaves attached to short twigs may drop               
as a result of insect or squirrel activity. Girdling insects make               
shallow, encircling depressions, while twigs broken by squirrels                
have diagonally severed ends.                                                   
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Light sprinkling is often harmful, especially on lawns. Proper                
watering means soaking. Soak the soil to the bottom of the                      
roots. Investigate automatic watering devices.                                  
                                                                                
* Moss in shady areas of lawns is a common problem brought on by                
poorly-drained, compacted soil. Opening the soil with an aeration               
machine allows more air and fertilizer to reach plant roots. Also               
have a soil test done to check fertility and the possible need                  
for lime.                                                                       
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Pick vegetables as they mature and weed regularly; over-ripe                  
vegetables and weeds use precious moisture and reduce production.               
                                                                                
* For a fall harvest of cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower and                      
Brussels sprouts, set transplants in late July. For a fall                      
harvest of lettuce, radish, carrots, beets, turnips, kale, and                  
spinach sow seeds in late July to early August.                                 
                                                                                
* When your green beans have finished producing, mow the plants                 
down with the mower set to cut 3-4" high, then water well and                   
feed with manure tea. Plants will regrow and give you another                   
harvest in about a month.                                                       
                                                                                
* Fall is the best time to grow Brussels sprouts, since their                   
flavor is enhanced by a mild frost. Sow seeds directly in the                   
garden early in the July, or set out transplants. Brussels                      
sprouts are heavy feeders, so make monthly applications of                      
5-10-10 from the time the plants are 4" tall. Apply at a rate of                
1/2 cup per square yard.                                                        
                                                                                
* In summer, dry soil may make working the soil difficult and                   
inhibit seed germination. Plant your fall vegetables when the                   
soil is moist after a rain, or water the area thoroughly the day                
before you plant. Seeds may be planted in a shallow trench to                   
conserve moisture. Cover the seeds about twice as deeply as you                 
do in the spring. Early maturing varieties are best for late                    
plantings.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Gardeners in the mountainous regions of Virginia start planting               
fall vegetables this month. Request publication 426-334 Fall Veg-               
etable Gardening from your extension agent or write The Virginia                
Gardener for guidelines on planning and planting fall crops.                    
                                                                                
* Harvest your vegetables at the peak of maturity. One of the                   
most important advantages of the home garden is the opportunity                 
to have high quality vegetables. Don`t allow them to become too                 
old before you pick them. Harvest summer squash when about 6                    
inches long. Pick sweet corn just before it is to be used. If it                
is held under warm conditions, the sugar changes to starch and                  
the corn is much poorer in quality.                                             
                                                                                
* Stop vine crops from taking over your garden or lawn by                       
pinching off the fuzzy growing tips. This also directs the                      
plant's energy into ripening fruit rather than producing more                   
vine.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Implement all the best cultural practices to reduce pest                      
problems but be prepared to spray as needed to control insects                  
and diseases. Some spraying or dusting usually is necessary to                  
insure the production of healthful, high-quality vegetables.                    
                                                                                
* Sidedress crops like corn and cabbage with 2 pounds of 10-10-10               
per 100 feet of row about a month after growth starts. Scatter                  
the fertilizer between the rows and scratch into the soil with a                
rake. If your garden is on an infertile sandy soil, sidedress all               
of your vegetables to promote vigorous growth.                                  
                                                                                
* Continue to make successive plantings of crops like beans,                    
beets, cabbage, and sweet corn, to provide a continuous harvest                 
until fall. A small garden will produce a large quantity of                     
vegetables if replanting is done throughout the summer.                         
                                                                                
* Turning cabbage a quarter to a half turn if they start to crack               
will reduce water uptake. Or, use a shovel to cut through the                   
roots on one side of the plant. If that doesn't work, better                    
harvest them.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Ornamental kales and cabbage are among the showiest of all                    
winter plants and as the weather cools, the color intensifies.                  
Transplants of these beautiful winter ornamentals are available                 
at garden centers and nurseries now.                                            
                                                                                
* To reduce Japanese beetles: remove all flower blossoms as soon                
as they begin to fade, all fruit as soon as it is ripe. Japanese                
beetles are especially fond of over-ripe fruit and deteriorating                
flower blossoms. After these preventive steps, go out to your                   
garden daily and knock the insects off their perches and into a                 
wide-mouthed jar of soapy water. That will gum them up and                      
prevent them from flying away.                                                  
                                                                                
* Chinese cabbage, if you are not familiar with it, does not                    
taste at all like regular cabbage. Its pleasant piquant taste and               
texture are well-suited to salads and to cooking. Lightly steamed               
and buttered Chinese cabbage is a delicacy. The best planting                   
time for Chinese cabbage is after July 1; plants will mature when               
days are becoming progressively shorter and cooler. Plants will                 
head rather than shooting up flowers.                                           
                                                                                
* Greening of potatoes is caused by not covering tubers that grow               
too big. Mound up the soil around the plant as it grows.                        
                                                                                
* Snap bean flowers fail to develop because of high daytime                     
temperatures above 90 degrees F.                                                
                                                                                
* Keep peas, beans, and berries cool while you pick them by                     
spreading a damp cloth over your harvest basket.                                
                                                                                
Fruits/Nuts                                                                     
                                                                                
* Grape leaves, the "wrappers" in many Middle Eastern appetizers                
and entrees, are easy to freeze for a year-round supply. Gather                 
young, unsprayed leaves, lay them flat in freezer containers and                
freeze. When ready to use, scald them in boiling water for 30                   
seconds, then run cold water over them until cool.                              
                                                                                
* If you grow your own raspberries, harvest berries frequently to               
discourage Japanese beetles or sap beetles from becoming trouble-               
some. Both insects are especially attracted to ripe and overripe                
fruit. Prune out canes that have bore fruit immediately after                   
harvest.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Fireblight on apple and pear trees can be identified by looking               
for  blackened twigs and branches. The disease will spread and                  
kill the tree if not controlled. Remove all blighted twigs,                     
cutting below 8 inches of the infected area. Disinfect pruning                  
tools after each cut to prevent spread. Dip blades in a solution                
of 1 part household bleach to 9 parts water.                                    
                                                                                
* Blueberry bushes may need to be covered with plastic netting or               
fine cloth (tobacco cloth) to control birds. When harvesting                    
blueberries, remember to allow berries to remain on the plants                  
for 3-5 days after they turn blue. Waiting several days allows                  
berries to reach their maximum sugar content.                                   
                                                                                
* Ripening grape clusters may be covered with brown paper or                    
polyethylene bags, or nylon netting to reduce bird damage. If                   
bags are used, make ventilation holes in the bottom of the bags.                
                                                                                
* Strawberries need summer care. If you have your plants in                     
hills, pick off all runners. But if you planted a matted row,                   
encourage the runners to root and grow until the row is 2 feet                  
wide.                                                                           
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Bromeliads are ideal in the home because they tolerate low                    
light conditions. In addition, some plants may produce a long                   
lasting and brightly colored floral spike.                                      
                                                                                
* July is an excellent month to root cuttings of such houseplants               
as coleus, fuchsia, geranium, gynura, poinsettia, shrimp plant,                 
Swedish ivy, wandering jew, wax plant, and other plants with                    
succulent (non-woody) stems.                                                    
                                                                                
* To avoid soaking the soil when giving potted plants a shower,                 
slit an aluminum foil pie plate from the rim to the center, turn                
under the cut edges, and slip it around the plant stem so it                    
covers the soil and makes the water run off.                                    
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Do you know how many ways you can use an old (or new) laundry                 
basket? When you're going out to the "North 40" to work, use your               
basket to carry your hand tools, gloves, seeds, and fertilizer;                 
and when you're finished gardening, haul all those weeds and                    
clippings to the trash can or compost pile in your handy basket.                
When harvesting root crops such as beets, turnips, or carrots,                  
leave your bounty in your basket while you wash it with a                       
forceful squirt from the garden hose.                                           
                                                                                
* A garden needs 1" of rain or water each week. Early morning is                
the best time to water. Evening watering is less desirable                      
because leaves that remain wet through the night are more suscep-               
tible to fungus diseases. Mulch plants to reduce water losses and               
save money.                                                                     
                                                                                
* July is a good time to begin looking for native and wild plants               
from which you can collect seed pods to use in arrangements this                
fall and winter. Be on the lookout for such material as dock,                   
dried corn tassels, and seed pods from locust, redbud, chaste                   
tree and cattails.                                                              
                                                                                
* Now is the time to begin to sow cover crops between rows and in               
vacated beds. Sow clover, rye and vetch. These, dug under later,                
will return humus and nitrates to the soil.                                     
                                                                                
* Check the soil moisture of container grown vegetables and                     
flowers daily. As the temperature rises, some plants may need                   
water twice daily.                                                              
                                                                                
* Water your plants several hours before applying pesticides,                   
especially during dry weather. Drought-stressed plants have less                
water in their plant tissues, and the chemicals may burn the                    
leaves.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Attract insect eating birds to the garden area by providing                   
them a fresh water source.                                                      
                                                                                
* Dry flowers now for use in arrangements next winter. Early                    
season blooms are better for this purpose than those that develop               
in late summer. Flowers for drying should be cut during midday,                 
in the late bud or early bloom stage.                                           
                                                                                
* Store pesticides in a safe place in their original containers,                
away from children and pets. Use pesticides carefully in your                   
garden. Read the labels and follow the directions. The warnings                 
and precautions are for your protection.                                        
                                                                                
* Clean greenhouse walls and under benches. Wash empty pots.                    
Change soil in benches. Spray to eliminate disease next winter.                 
                                                                                
* Be alert for ground bees--particularly dangerous to those who                 
are allergic to bee venom. To eradicate ground bees spread Sevin                
dust on bee holes.                                                              
                                                                                
* Eliminate stagnant water to control mosquitos.                                
                                                                                
* Japanese beetle traps should be placed at some distance from                  
the plants they are meant to protect. When placed nearby, beetles               
lured by the trap will feed heavily on plants attractive to them                
which are in the vicinity of the trap.                                          
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Press Releases July 1987                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, working with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The               
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent                  
use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other                         
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
Pesticide Label                                  98  lines                      
To Shear or Not to Shear                         57  lines                      
Woodland Ferns for the Home and Garden           100 lines                      
Sow Perennials Now for Blooms Next Spring        63  lines                      
Statice                                          43  lines                      
Greenstriped Mapleworm                           37  lines                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
The Pesticide Label                                                            
                                                                                
The use of a pesticide is potentially hazardous if done                         
improperly. An understanding of the label information is                        
essential before work begins. The label printed on or attached to               
a container of pesticide will tell how to use the product                       
correctly and what special safety measures need to be taken. Read               
the directions before mixing or applying any pesticide. If you                  
are confused about any part of the instructions as listed on the                
label consult your extension agent or a representative of the                   
company which makes the product. Many pesticides now list a toll                
free number for consumers. Specific parts of the label include:                 
                                                                                
Contents Description:                                                           
                                                                                
Brand name: Each company uses brand names to identify its                       
products. The brand name shows up plainly on the front panel of                 
the label.                                                                      
Type of formulation: The same pesticide may be available in more                
than one formulation such as wettable powder and water soluble                  
concentrate.                                                                    
Ingredient statement: Each pesticide label must list the names                  
and amounts of the active ingredients and the amount of inert                   
ingredients in the product. Compare the amount of active                        
ingredient to cost on different brands of the same product to                   
save money.                                                                     
Common name and chemical name: Pesticides have complex chemical                 
names derived from their chemical composition, some have also                   
been given a common name to make them easier to identify.                       
Pesticides may be sold under several brand names, but you will                  
find either the common name or chemical name on all of them.                    
Net contents: The net contents tells how much is in the con-                    
tainer.                                                                         
                                                                                
Source and Registration:                                                        
                                                                                
Name and address of manufacturer: The law requires the maker or                 
distributor of a product to print the name and address of the                   
company on the label.                                                           
Registration number: A registration number must be on every                     
pesticide label. It shows that the product has been approved by                 
the E.P.A. for the uses listed on the label.                                    
Establishment number: The establishment number tells which                      
factory made the chemical.                                                      
                                                                                
Safety Information:                                                             
                                                                                
Precautionary statements: A section with a title similar to                     
"Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals" will tell the ways in                  
which the product may be poisonous to man and animals. It will                  
also describe any special steps necessary to avoid poisoning,                   
such as the kind of protective equipment needed. If the product                 
is highly toxic, this section will inform physicians of the                     
proper treatment for poisoning.                                                 
Environmental hazards: The label tells how to avoid damage to the               
environment. Some examples are: "This product is highly toxic to                
bees exposed to direct treatment or residues on crops." "Do not                 
contaminate water when cleaning equipment or when disposing of                  
wastes," and "Do not apply where runoff is likely to occur."                    
                                                                                
Physical and Chemical Hazards: lists specific fire, explosion, or               
chemical hazards that the product may have.                                     
                                                                                
Signal words and symbols: Some pesticides may be hazardous to                   
people. You can tell how toxic a product is by reading the signal               
word and symbol on the label. Signal words to look for are                      
danger, poison, warning, and caution with the symbol of the skull               
and cross bones accompanying them.                                              
                                                                                
Statement of practical treatment: If swallowing or inhaling the                 
product or getting it in the eyes or on the skin would be                       
harmful, the label contains emergency first aid measures and                    
states types of exposure requiring medical attention. The                       
pesticide label is the most important information you can take to               
the physician when someone has been poisoned. Without the label,                
it may be difficult for the physician to help.                                  
                                                                                
Directions for use: The directions for use will include the pests               
the product will control; the crops, animal or other item the                   
product can be used on safely; how the product should be applied;               
how much to use; where and when the material should be applied.                 
                                                                                
Application to harvest periods: When used on fruits or vege-                    
tables, there may be a period of time that must pass from the                   
time of application until it is safe to pick and use the                        
crop. Known as the application to harvest period and expressed as               
"days to harvest," this is the time required for the residue to                 
drop to safe levels. It is often listed as a number in                          
parentheses following the crop name. It is a mistake to assume                  
that a residue can be washed off.                                               
                                                                                
Misuse statement: This section will remind you that it is a                     
violation of Federal law to use a product in a manner incon-                    
sistent with its labeling.                                                      
                                                                                
Storage and disposal directions: Every pesticide should be stored               
and disposed of correctly following label directions for                        
environmental and human safety.                                                 
To Shear or Not to Shear                                                       
                                                                                
The most common summer pruning practice is undoubtedly the                      
shearing of hedges. While this is an effective way of maintaining               
a neat and formal appearance to the landscape it may not be the                 
most beneficial treatment your shrubs can receive.                              
                                                                                
In shearing, the new young growth at the end of a branch is                     
removed. This encourages side buds near the cut end to sprout and               
increases the appearance of bushiness; but, this bushiness is                   
only skin deep. Shearing actually encourages the development of a               
skin or shell of thick leafy growth that can be detrimental to                  
the health of the shrub. The dense layer of outer leaves prevents               
penetration of light to the center of the shrub and gradually the               
inside leaves die and fall off. If the shrub is damaged, new                    
growth will be very slow to fill in the area and the shrub will                 
be unattractive for a long time.                                                
                                                                                
Shrubs with multiple stems arising from the ground are                          
particularily susceptible to damage from continuous shearing. The               
dense foliage shell prevents new stems from developing at the                   
base of the shrub. New stems are needed to maintain the vigor of                
the shrub. On most flowering shrubs the quantity and quality of                 
blossoms decline as the stem grows older. Therefore, overall                    
flower production will decrease greatly with the lack of young                  
stems.                                                                          
                                                                                
Shearing has other negative aspects. In most home landscapes                    
there is little room for the highly formal look of a sheared                    
shrub. The more informal lines of shrubs grown in their natural                 
state blend into the landscape and enhance the home setting                     
rather than contrasting and detracting from it.                                 
                                                                                
Shearing is actually a lot of work that is usually unnecessary if               
proper plant material is selected and appropriate pruning                       
techniques understood. Since the main goal of shearing is usually               
size control, it makes good sense to replace rampant growing                    
shrubs with dwarf varieties that require little maintenance.                    
                                                                                
Proper pruning of slow growing shrubs consists of a combination                 
of thinning out excessive growth and heading back or shortening                 
extra long branches. With single-stem shrubs, size control and                  
shaping are simply a matter of making the cuts at different                     
heights within the shrub, cutting to a bud, a branch, or a main                 
stem as appropriate. Besides maintaining the natural shape, other               
benefits include better interior growth, fewer cut leaves and                   
exposed stems and less regrowth requiring another pruning session               
in a few weeks.                                                                 
                                                                                
On multiple-stem shrubs new growth appears from the base. A                     
renewable system of pruning is used that allows the development                 
of new vigorous stems to replace old ones that are removed at                   
ground level after three to four years of growth. Six to ten                    
healthy middle age stems are left with the vigorous young canes                 
when the older wood is removed. On spring flowering shrubs such                 
as forsythia this is done in late spring to early summer after                  
blooming is complete.                                                           
Woodland Ferns for the Home and Garden                                         
                                                                                
Ferns are among the most adaptable of plants for home gardeners.                
They are ideal for ground cover or border plantings in the                      
landscape, and are especially useful as potted plants in the                    
home.                                                                           
                                                                                
Ferns are an ancient type of vegetation which occupied the world                
long before the evolution of seed producing plants. They are                    
strictly foliage plants, since they reproduce without flowering.                
                                                                                
Ferns produce long fronds which are similar to the leaves of seed               
producing plants. Fronds arise directly from the ground with no                 
central stem. The small brown spots on the underside of the                     
leaves contain spores which serve the same purpose as seeds in                  
reproducing the plant.                                                          
                                                                                
Most ferns used in Virginia landscapes are shade loving woodland                
types, although there are sun tolerant ferns available through                  
gardening catalogs. Native ferns grow abundantly in wooded areas                
and may be transplanted easily. They will thrive best if located                
near trees, or on the east or north side of a building, where                   
they will receive partial shade. Woodland ferns may grow quite                  
poorly if subjected to hot afternoon sun. Most ferns used in                    
Virginia landscapes are shade loving woodland types, although                   
there are sun tolerant ferns available through gardening                        
catalogs.                                                                       
                                                                                
Ferns start growth very early in the spring, and retain their                   
delicate leafy foliage until several light frosts freeze them                   
back in the fall. They are quite free from disease or insect                    
pests, and thus are easy to grow in the native gardens or border                
plantings around the home.                                                      
                                                                                
Woodland ferns grow best in a soil which has a high humus                       
content, almost pure leaf mold is ideal. The average garden soil                
may be made suitable for ferns by adding liberal quantities of                  
peat moss or compost. An abundant supply of water is also needed                
throughout the season to promote vigorous growth.                               
                                                                                
The best time to transplant ferns is in the spring about a month                
before the average last frost date, or in the fall a couple weeks               
after the average first frost date. Keep the roots covered with a               
protective ball of moist soil or peat moss at all times. Apply                  
water as needed after transplanting to maintain a high moisture                 
content in the soil.                                                            
                                                                                
Although ferns grow abundantly in moist woodlands, care should be               
taken in digging up the plants for landscaping your home. They                  
spread rather slowly from underground rootstocks. They also                     
reproduce from spores, but several years are required to produce                
a mature plant in this way. Therefore, in gathering ferns from                  
wild sources, first make sure you have permission from the land                 
owner to dig the ferns, then dig only a few plants and leave an                 
adequate group to maintain the original native collection.                      
                                                                                
Nursery or garden centers may have ferns, or they may be willing                
to secure plants for you. This may be a more practical way to                   
start than to collect them from the wild. Make sure that the                    
plants you buy are hardy woodland ferns and not tropical plants                 
that would die outdoors during the winter.                                      
                                                                                
The ferns in your landscape planting may serve as a source for                  
potted plants for use in the home. Maidenhair ferns and                         
spleenworts found in Virginia forests are particularly suitable.                
These smaller woodland ferns are easy to grow as house plants.                  
The key to growing outdoor ferns indoors is humidity. This can be               
provided by placing the pots on pebbles or crushed stone in a                   
tray of water. The pots should not stand in the water. The                      
atmosphere provided in a terrarium or bottle garden is ideal. Use               
a high humus potting soil and ample drainage material in the                    
bottom of the pot. Ferns are attractive only when making vigorous               
green growth. Therefore, apply a soluble house plant fertilizer                 
regularly. In the winter, locate ferns in bright light, but never               
in a hot sunny window.                                                          
                                                                                
The following is a list of ferns suggested for indoor and outdoor               
planting.                                                                       
                                                                                
Outdoor Ferns (hardy)                                                           
                                                                                
Japanese silver-painted fern - Athyrium Goeringianum cv.'Pictum'                
cinnamon fern - Osmunda cinnamomea                                              
Christmas fern - Polystichum acrostichoides                                     
maidenhair fern - Adiantum pedatum                                              
hay-scented fern - Dennstaedtia punctilobula                                    
ostrich fern - Matteuccia Struthiopteris                                        
                                                                                
Indoor Ferns (non-hardy)                                                        
                                                                                
Boston fern - Nephrolepis exaltata cv. 'Bostoniensis'                           
bird's-nest fern - Asplenium nidus                                              
staghorn fern - Platycerium bifurcatum                                          
rabbit's-foot fern - Davallia fejeensis cv.'Plumosa'                            
button fern - Pellaea rotundifolia                                              
strawberry fern - Hemionitis palmata                                            
                                                                                
Either Indoor or Outdoor                                                        
                                                                                
maidenhair fern - Adiantum pedatum                                              
walking fern - Camptosorus rhizophyllus                                         
spleenwort - Asplenium sp.                                                      
squirrel-foot fern - Devallia Mariesii                                          
felt fern - Pyrrosia sp.                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Sow Perennials Now for Blooms Next Spring                                       
                                                                                
Midsummer is an ideal time to sow the seeds of many types of                    
perennials for plants to be set in the flower border this fall or               
next spring. A few short rows in a location which receives some                 
shade from the hot afternoon sun will provide plenty of plants.                 
                                                                                
Sow the seeds thinly in shallow furrows. Cover lightly with sand                
or shredded sphagnum moss. Water carefully with a fine sprinkling               
nozzle, and repeat as needed to ensure rapid germination. The                   
seeds of most perennials will germinate in one or two weeks, and                
emerge easily through the sand or moss.                                         
                                                                                
When the seedlings have developed their second set of leaves,                   
they should be thinned out and the extra plants set about six                   
inches apart in rows of about two feet apart. Sidedress with 5-                 
10-5 or 10-10-10 fertilizer and keep the soil moist during the                  
late summer to promote the growth of sturdy plants.                             
                                                                                
The perennial plants will be ready for moving to flower beds and                
borders in the fall at about the time of the first frost. Trans-                
plant them with a good ball of soil around the roots. If spring                 
is a more convenient season for transplanting, the best time is                 
about a month before the average date of the last spring frost.                 
Perennials can be moved anytime the ground is not frozen in the                 
spring or fall.                                                                 
                                                                                
After transplanting, apply a one-inch mulch of shredded leaves,                 
peat moss, or similar material to conserve soil moisture and help               
control weeds. The plants should be protected during the winter                 
with several additional inches of coarse mulch. Stiff straw, corn               
stalks, or evergreen branches are suitable materials.                           
                                                                                
Along with the many perennial plants you can seed in mid-summer,                
pansies are easy to grow for blooming next year. The large                      
flowered Majestic Giant Hybrids, Steele's Jumbo, or Roggli's                    
Swiss Giant strains produce beautiful blooms. The tufted viola                  
with its solid colors, and medium size flowers is also excellent                
as an edging plant.                                                             
                                                                                
The delightful fragrance of pinks add interest to the garden, and               
provide small, stiff-stemmed flowers for arrangements. Perennial                
babysbreath is an ideal plant to provide filler material for cut                
flower arrangements.                                                            
                                                                                
Columbine with their graceful flowers are easy to raise. Dwarf                  
strains are about 18 inches tall, and the giant types may reach a               
height of 36 inches, with four-inch flowers.                                    
                                                                                
For daisy type flowers plant shasta daisy and rudbeckia or                      
coneflower. These provide striking colors in the garden, and                    
sturdy, long-lasting blooms for arrangements.                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
For the border background, foxglove and Pacific hybrid                          
delphiniums have tall spikes three to four feet tall. A few                     
clumps of these larger plants will increase interest in the                     
border. A few hollyhocks could also be grown as background                      
plants. Some of the new double varieties have beautiful blooms                  
similar to roses.                                                               
                                                                                
Many other periennials can also be raised from seeds planted in                 
July. Consult your favorite garden catalog, and start plant now                 
to increase the beauty of next year's your flowers border.                      
Statice                                                                        
                                                                                
With the ever increasing interest in dried and cut flowers, one                 
plant stands out as a favorite due to its durability. Statice has               
been a standard in flower arrangements for many years but many                  
people do not realize this plant can be grown in the home garden.               
Provide yourself with a constant source of flowers for fresh or                 
dried arrangements by planting a statice bed in the garden.                     
Statice (Limonium sp.) comes in many colors including shades of                 
blue, yellow, rose, lavendar and white. Plant statice seeds in                  
flats during early April. Set the flat in a sunny window or                     
greenhouse to germinate. Once the seedlings are up transplant                   
them into small pots. Harden them off for setting out in May.                   
                                                                                
There are both annual and perennial forms of statice, ranging in                
height from 18 to 36 inches. Annual species thrive in any fertile               
garden soil. Hardy perennial species perform best in light sandy                
soils which are well drained. Heavy clays should be lightened by                
adding quantities of compost for optimum plant growth. Plants                   
flower prolifically once they become established in a site. Leave               
them undisturbed except for an occasional top dressing of decayed               
manure.                                                                         
                                                                                
The annual growing species of statice available includes the most               
popular of the statice family, L. sinuata, which comes in many                  
colors with a height of 12 t0 24 inches. Another popular species                
is L. suworowii which has erect pink flowering spikes which can                 
reach a height of 18 inches. L. bonduelli, boasts bright yellow                 
blooms on 12 inch spikes.                                                       
                                                                                
The perennial species of statice on the market include L.                       
latifolium which grows to a height of 24 inches producing wide                  
spreading sprays of lavendar blue flowers. L. tatarica, has large               
silvery white flower heads to 12 to 20 inches tall. L. perezii,                 
has bright blue flowers with a growing height ranging from 18-36                
inches. It is hardy only in the deep south but could be grown as                
an annual in most of Virginia.                                                  
                                                                                
The best method for drying statice is to cut the flowers when the               
blooms are fully open and hang them in bundles in a cool shed or                
room to dry. Good air circulation is preferred with a minimum                   
amount of direct sunlight to keep the blooms from fading. Drying                
agents such as glycerine can also be used.                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
Greenstriped Mapleworm                                                         
                                                                                
An unwelcome guest in the garden and landscape is the                           
greenstriped mapleworm. This caterpillar which is native to the                 
eastern United States will attack various trees and shrubs                      
including maples, oaks and boxelder. Though it is found all                     
across Virginia it ranges as far west as Kansas, where most of                  
the severe damage occurs.                                                       
                                                                                
Mapleworm caterpillars or larvae are a pale yellowish-green with                
seven dark green lines running along their back and a double row                
of spines on each side of the body which end with four large                    
spines on the abdomen. The larvae also display a characteristic                 
pair of horns located behind a red head. These caterpillars reach               
an average size of one and a half inches.                                       
                                                                                
The life cycle of the mapleworm begins with the laying of eggs                  
from June to July by moths. These moths, identifiable by pale                   
yellow wings banded with pink, emerge from their overwintering                  
stage to lay their pale green eggs on the undersides of maple                   
leaves. Larvae appear from these eggs in approximately ten days                 
and begin feeding immediately. The larvae feed for a month before               
returning to the soil for the pupal stage. In Virginia, there are               
typically two generations per year.                                             
                                                                                
A severe mapleworm attack can defoliate a tree twice in a single                
season but this can be avoided if proper precautions are taken                  
during the growing season. Large populations can be reduced by an               
effective spray program and damage in subsequent years should                   
decline. Though several insect parasites and birds aid in                       
control, a spray program is the best means of stopping a severe                 
infestation once the mapleworm has been identified. Consult your                
local extension agent for the most recent control recommendations               
for greenstriped mapleworm.                                                     
                                                                                
(See the Pest Management Guide for further control                              
recommendations.)                                                               
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
July 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                   
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Horticulture Extension               
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home                  
Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                       
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                        
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Cuttings From Flowering Shrubs                   17 lines                       
Fertilizing Hanging Baskets                       8 lines                       
Purple-leaved Redbud                             11 lines                       
Gaillardia                                       16 lines                       
Watering Plants in the Heat of the Day           10 lines                       
Remove Tips of Winter Squash                      7 lines                       
Hardy Ferns                                      19 lines                       
Gerberas                                         28 lines                       
Okra Harvest                                      7 lines                       
Sourwood                                         28 lines                       
Harvest Sweet Corn                                9 lines                       
Japanese Iris                                    21 lines                       
Crop Placement for Maximum Sunlight              26 lines                       
Pruning Boxwood                                  17 lines                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
I would like to increase my hedge of flowering shrubs. When can I               
take cuttings?                                                                  
                                                                                
Mid- to late July is a good time to take cuttings from many woody               
plants. Take cuttings  4-6 inches long, from this year's growth                 
as it begins to harden or mature. A cutting taken too soft will                 
rot. One that's too mature will not root.                                       
                                                                                
Dip the cuttings in a rooting hormone, and then place the end                   
about an inch deep in rooting medium such as a mixture of equal                 
parts peat moss and either coarse sand, or perlite.                             
                                                                                
Water well, then cover with a clear plastic bag. A few garden                   
labels or sticks will keep the bag from collapsing. Place in the                
shade and water if needed until roots form.                                     
                                                                                
Plant rooted cuttings in a cold frame for protection the first                  
winter. Shade them the summer after transplanting.                              
                                                                                
 ------                                                                         
                                                                                
My hanging baskets are looking a little yellow. What is the best                
way to fertilizer them?                                                         
                                                                                
The best way to fertilize hanging plants is to apply a diluted                  
solution of soluble fertilizer. Fertilizing every two weeks                     
according to package instructions will keep the plants vigorous                 
into the fall. Plants that are overgrown can be cut back and                    
reshaped.                                                                       
 -------                                                                        
                                                                                
On my vacation, I saw what appeared to be a purple leaved redbud.               
Is there a cultivar with this leaf color?                                       
                                                                                
The plant you saw was Cercis canadensis 'Forest Pansy'. The newly               
emerging leaves on 'Forest Pansy' are a bright and glossy dark                  
purple color turning a dark greenish purple with maturity. These                
plants may occasionally be found in retail nurseries. If you have               
access to a plant, cuttings may be grafted onto native redbud                   
rootstocks. Purple-foliaged woody ornamentals are sure to arouse                
interest. In addition to the redbud, there are the purple-leaved                
forms of Norway maple, flowering plum, European beech, hazelnut,                
birch, smoke bush, and flowering crabapples.                                    
                                                                                
 -----                                                                          
                                                                                
Is gaillardia an annual or a perennial?                                         
                                                                                
Both. The two commonly recognized species are the sun-loving                    
annual gaillardia, Gaillardia pulchella, and its perennial cousin               
the blanketflower, Gaillardia x grandiflora.                                    
                                                                                
Annual gaillardias bloom in midsummer from seeds. The annuals are               
propagated by seeds sown in the open where the plants are to                    
grow. They thrive on ordinary but well drained soil. The color                  
mixture includes yellow, orange, gold, maroon and red. Perennial                
can be propagated by seeds, cuttings taken in late summer, or by                
division in early spring.                                                       
                                                                                
Gaillardia flowers will last for a week or more when cut. Stems                 
on the 18-36 inch high plants are long and leafless. Regular                    
harvesting will prolong bloom.                                                  
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
Does it harm plants to water with a over head sprinkler in the                  
heat of the day?                                                                
                                                                                
No. However, overhead sprinkling results in water loss due to                   
evaporation. If you do water by a sprinkler, it is best to use it               
in early morning to reduce evaporation. Add water slowly so it                  
will soak deeply into the soil. Always water early enough in the                
day to allow foliage to dry out before night to reduce disease                  
problems.Consider trickle irrigation and mulches to conserve                    
water.                                                                          
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Should I remove tips of winter squash vines late in the season?                 
                                                                                
You can remove tips of winter squash vines in late August to stop               
plants from spreading. Any fruits that set after that time will                 
not ripen before early fall frost. Winter squashes need a long,                 
warm growing season to fully mature and develop good texture,                   
sweetness and flavor.                                                           
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
I would like to grow hardy ferns. What conditions should I                      
provide for their growth?                                                       
                                                                                
The main requirements for growing most of the common hardy ferns                
are shade and a light, highly organic moist soil. Given these                   
elements ferns will establish themselves quickly and thrive under               
minimal care. Plants should be set at soil level. Once the fronds               
have developed fully, mulch can be applied to maintain soil                     
moisture.                                                                       
                                                                                
Two fern species that merit special mention are the cinnamon and                
Japanese silver-painted fern. Cinnamon fern is a vigorous                       
specimen that withstands dry soil and partial shade. It is                      
recognizable for the wooly brown appearance of the unfurling                    
fronds. Japanese silver-painted fern is noted for the highly                    
visible silver-green fronds which contrast well with other shade                
plants such as hosta. Growing to a height of no more than 18                    
inches, this fern is particularly suitable for those shady yet                  
noticeable areas of a garden.                                                   
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
I enjoy flower arranging and am always on the look out for                      
something new. A florist arrangement that I received contained                  
gerbera daisy. What can you tell me about them?                                 
                                                                                
Gerber daisy, Gerbera Jamesonii, a long-time florist favorite, is               
readily available through a variety of sources for the home                     
flower garden. The expense of these plants has turned many a                    
gardener away. However with proper attention, the reward will be                
worth the investment.                                                           
                                                                                
Gerberas are versatile plants which provide a pleasing show in                  
containers, in the summer border, or as cut flowers. The flowers                
can last as long as two weeks when cut. It is usually best to                   
purchase started plants rather than seeds since their germination               
is erratic. A good routine for buying and maintaining gerberas is               
to purchase budded plants as soon as available in spring to be                  
used indoors. Once the threat of frost has passed, transplant                   
them outdoors into beds or larger containers for summer show. In                
the fall, the plants can be dug or left in the container and                    
brought indoors for winter bloom if placed in a cool, sunny                     
window. This system works well in most of the state but gardeners               
near the coast can usually leave their gerberas outdoors year                   
round and treat them as perennials.                                             
                                                                                
Once established, gerberas have vigorous deep reaching root                     
systems; therefore, they should be transferred to larger contain-               
ers once each year. When provided full sun and moist soil,                      
gerberas can remain an attractive plant for many years.                         
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
When do you harvest okra?                                                       
                                                                                
Harvest fruits while young and tender. For most cultivars, this                 
is when the fruits are 3 to 3 1/2 inches long. Begin cutting okra               
pods when the first fruits are ready and continue every 2 to 3                  
days throughout the season. If the pods are allowed to mature the               
plant will stop producing.                                                      
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
There is a small tree near the edge of my woods which produces                  
white blooms in the summer and the bees just flock to it. Can you               
tell me what it is and something about it?                                      
                                                                                
The tree you described sounds like sourwood, Oxydendrum arboreum.               
Sourwood produces beautiful flowers from June through July. The                 
urn shaped, 1/4 to 3/8 inch long, white, fragrant flowers are                   
borne in a 4 to 10 inch long panicle. The flowers appear as a                   
lacy veil over the entire tree.                                                 
                                                                                
Sourwood displays excellent shade tolerance although flowering                  
and fall color are maximized in full sun. It grows in mixed                     
forests with oaks, beeches, maples and hickories on well drained                
slopes. This pyramidal to oval shaped tree has a rather graceful                
demeanor. In Virginia, sourwood is generally a small 25-30 feet                 
tree, with a 20 foot spread. But it can grow much larger nearing                
heights of 50 to 75 feet in optimum conditions.                                 
                                                                                
Sourwood is a reliable landscape plant whose lustrous green, 3 to               
8 inch long leaves are handsome throughout spring and summer.                   
With the advent of fall, sourwood offers a splendid fall color                  
display of red, reddish purple, and scarlet.                                    
                                                                                
Transplanting sourwood may be difficult. Using balled and                       
burlapped or container produced small trees reduces transplanting               
problems. As the tree flowers at a young age from seed, the use                 
of small trees is not a great disadvantage. Soil should be acid                 
(5.5 to 6.5), peaty, moist but well drained.                                    
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
How can I tell when my sweet corn is ready for harvest?                         
                                                                                
When the silks dry up and the kernels begin to crowd each other                 
closely, the sweet corn should be mature. Pop a kernel with your                
thumb nail. If the juice is clear, the ear is immature. If the                  
juice is milky, pick a batch and eat. If it is pasty you've                     
missed the optimum time for a high quality harvest. With practice               
you can learn to judge the maturity of an ear by how it feels                   
without opening the husks.                                                      
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
A friend suggested that I add Japanese iris to my flower border                 
to extend the blooming season. When do they bloom? Are they hardy               
here? Please give me any other pertinent information.                           
                                                                                
The Japanese iris (Iris Kaempferi) is a showy garden flower that                
blooms from late June into July. Japanese iris are hardy                        
throughout Virginia. Their colors include shades of white, pink,                
lavender, blue and deep purple. The flowers come in single and                  
double forms with various patterns and contrasting veins                        
accentuating the blooms. The plants thrive under high moisture                  
conditions and must have acid soil. However, while the plants are               
not in active growth the soil should be maintained relatively                   
dry. A possible reason why Japanese iris have not been as popular               
as the German bearded iris is the relatively short life span of                 
each individual bloom. An average bloom will last two to three                  
days while the normal bearded iris bloom lasts for three to six                 
days. A program initiated by U.S.D.A. plant breeders has started                
breeding and selection processes in order to increase the bloom                 
period of Japanese iris. Some growers recommend applications of                 
liquid manure just before blooming if especially large flowers                  
are desired.                                                                    
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I am planning my landscape and want to include fruit trees and                  
brambles as well as a vegetable garden. My space is limited. Can                
you give me some planning hints?                                                
                                                                                
In city backyards with many shade trees, fruit trees and                        
ornamentals, availability of sunny spaces for growing vegetable                 
crops is often a limiting factor. However, by careful planning in               
the placement of trees and vegetables you can maximize the                      
interception of sunlight. Here are a few tips that may help.                    
                                                                                
Where possible place fruit trees, brambles and asparagus beds                   
along the north or west side of the garden area so shadows are                  
cast away from the garden.                                                      
                                                                                
Plant tall vegetables such as pole-beans, tomatoes and sweet corn               
toward the north side to avoid shading low-growing crops. For                   
successive plantings of sweet corn, start at the north side and                 
continue toward the south. Also, each corn planting should be in                
small blocks rather than in a single row to achieve better                      
pollination.                                                                    
                                                                                
Another suggestion is to use light reflecting material such as                  
white painted plywood or a white plastic fence angled to give                   
maximum sun reflection. This could also be accompanied by white                 
plastic mulch around each plant to increase the chance of light                 
reflection.                                                                     
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
How should I prune a large boxwood?                                             
                                                                                
Boxwood foliage is very dense. Outer shoots should be pruned so                 
that inner shoots can get light and air. Smaller branches should                
be removed at their juncture with larger branches by snapping                   
them out by hand with a twisting motion. Small hand pruners can                 
be used if you prefer. In this way air circulation is increased                 
without ruining the form of the plant. The plant should never be                
sheared. Shearing will create a thin outer layer of foliage and                 
large holes may appear due to damage such as ice breakage. The                  
bare branches beneath this hole will eventually fill in the void                
but because of the slow growth rate the process will take years.                
                                                                                
At least once a year, remove debris (leaves, twigs, etc.) that                  
have accumulated in your boxwoods. Much of it will come out if                  
you shake the bushes vigorously. Pick out the rest. If debris is                
not removed, it may promote disease.                                            
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes June 1986                                                         
                                                                                
* Plants may wilt from a lack of oxygen rather than a lack                      
of water. When the soil is compacted, the plant's tender feeder                 
roots and root hairs suffocate. The problem is compounded when                  
the well-meaning gardener assumes that the wilting is a sign of                 
water stress and immediately irrigates. Well-aerated soil,                      
enriched with organic matter, allows both air and water to                      
circulate freely about the root system for a vigorous plant.                    
                                                                                
* For very efficient, steady feeding of vegetables sink a                       
large can or bucket with many holes in its sides into the soil                  
and fill it about 2/3 full of rotted manure or compost; rain                    
or occasional watering will keep a rich supply of nutrients                     
seeping out to feed plants in a circle several feet wide.                       
                                                                                
* Divide spring and early summer flowering perennials. Instead                  
of severing the clump in half, try jiggling the roots apart                     
with two, sharp, spading forks. This takes more time, but consid-               
erably less root area is lost during division.                                  
                                                                                
* Stop cutting asparagus in mid or late June when the spears                    
become thin. Allow the tops to grow during the summer to store                  
food in the roots for the crop next spring.                                     
                                                                                
* As soon as the last cutting of asparagus is made, remove all                  
the weeds from the bed and fertilize with a 10-10-10 formula at                 
the rate of 3 pounds per 50 foot row.                                           
                                                                                
* To prevent overwatering of plants in containers without drain                 
holes, stick two or three plastic straws vertically down into the               
layer of gravel or rocks at the bottom of the pot before plant-                 
ing. Then cut them off just above the soil surface after plant-                 
ing. This will allow evaporation of excess moisture in the                      
drainage layer.                                                                 
                                                                                
* If in clay pots, plunge house plant pots to the rim in a                      
partially shaded flower bed or border for the summer. If in                     
glazed or plastic containers, remove the pot.                                   
                                                                                
* Energy Reporter - The Citizens' Newsletter of the Federal                     
Energy Administration says that, "a tall evergreen hedge north                  
of your home can cut heating bills by 34% in windswept regions                  
or by 10% in sheltered areas." As costs go up, this figure must                 
increase.                                                                       
                                                                                
* To get faster growth from your trees and shrubs, mulch is                     
better than grass or ground covers. In three experiments across                 
the country, researchers have shown that a variety of trees and                 
shrubs including dogwood, forsythia, Burford holly, Japanese                    
black pine and cottonwood had growth reduced significantly by                   
both ground covers and grasses.                                                 
                                                                                
* According to tests conducted by VA Tech Department of Human                   
Nutrition and Foods, microwave-blanched vegetables have less                    
flavor and poorer color and texture than vegetables blanched                    
with hot water or steam.                                                        
                                                                                
* Before pouring gasoline into the fuel tank of your lawn mower,                
garden tillers or other equipment, be sure to turn off engine                   
and allow to cool 5 minutes.                                                    
                                                                                
* Do not allow children to ride or drive riding lawn mowers. They               
are more dangerous than they appear. Always disengage the mower                 
blades and set the brake before getting off for any reason.                     
                                                                                
* Remove old flower heads from bedding plants to prolong the                    
period of bloom.                                                                
                                                                                
* Remove foliage from spring bulbs after it turns yellow and                    
begins to dry. Set out bedding plants in space previously                       
occupied by foliage, using care not to damage bulbs.                            
                                                                                
* Lacebugs feed on azaleas, pyrcantha and other woody plants                    
causing a gray, blanched or stippled appearance on the upper                    
surface of the leaves.                                                          
                                                                                
* Watch for and control blackspot and powdery mildew on rose                    
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Continue plantings of warm season crops such as beans, squash                 
and tomatoes. Toward the end of the month, start seeds of Chinese               
cabbage and cauliflower for fall harvest.                                       
                                                                                
* Yellow flowered perennials which abound this month include: St.               
John's Wort (Hypericum); Evening Primrose (Oenothera); yellow                   
loostrife (Lysimachia punctattta).                                              
                                                                                
* For hanging baskets in a cool shady location, select trailing                 
tuberous begonias, fuchsias, ferns, English ivy, impatiens or                   
fiberous rooted begonias in combination with trailing plants.                   
                                                                                
* When trimming grass with a power tool using rapidly spinning                  
monofilament line, be careful around young trees and shrubs.                    
Tender bark can easily be damaged, opening the tree to insect and               
disease problems.                                                               
                                                                                
* House plants may be kept in good condition for several weeks                  
while one is on vacation by using clear plastic bags as miniature               
greenhouses. Simply soak the pot thoroughly, allow to drain, then               
place the potted plant into a plastic bag. Tie the opening                      
tightly. By inserting two or more sticks in the soil before the                 
bag is put on, one may support the plastic-like tent and prevent                
it from resting on the plants. Plants, such as African violets,                 
that are apt to develop mildew should have a few air holes for                  
air circulation.                                                                
                                                                                
* When going on vacation, arrange for someone to mow your lawn                  
and harvest your garden.                                                        
                                                                                
* Spring flowering shrubs such as deutzia, weigela, vibrunum                    
and forsythia, should be pruned as soon as they complete bloom.                 
                                                                                
* Additional pruning may be required this month on fast-growing,                
narrow, leaf evergreens such as junipers and yews as well as                    
plants such as privet to maintain a desirable shape during the                  
growing season.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Many garden plants will appreciate a sidedressing of 5-10-10                  
at the rate of 1 lbs per 100 ft of row applied 4 to 6 weeks                     
after plants are established. Avoid sidedressing tomatoes,                      
eggplants and peppers until they have set their first fruit.                    
                                                                                
* Keep a close eye on the quality of your spring crops. Hot                     
weather causes lettuce to bolt and become bitter. Plant a warm                  
season crop as soon as the spring vegetables are removed.                       
                                                                                
* Drying grass clippings from your lawn before using them as                    
mulch keeps them from packing down, fermenting and smelling. If                 
you spray your lawn with weed killers, compost the clippings                    
before using them in the garden.                                                
                                                                                
* Rock gardens can be an interesting and challenging hobby for                  
the gardener.  A few perennials species that can be used success-               
fully are: Ajuga, Thrift, Sedum, Creeping Phlox, and Violas.                    
These can be planted in either spring or early fall, although                   
spring planting requires more attention to regular watering.                    
                                                                                
* Mid-to-late June is an excellent time to take softwood cuttings               
of shrubs to start new plants.  Some examples are spirea,                       
boxwood, and azalea.                                                            
                                                                                
* When you buy nursery stock that is container grown, check the                 
root ball and make sure its not bound too tightly.  As big mass                 
of circling roots will stay that way, even after it is in the                   
ground.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Large mesh wire has many uses in the garden: for a tomato                     
cage, as a compost bin, to hold down black plastic, to hold                     
mulches in place, or to use as a half-cylinder with plastic over                
it as a small greenhouse.                                                       
                                                                                
* If you don't have much landscaping space, consider using some                 
of the many available dwarf varieties.  These are plants that                   
have slow growth and stay small, so there is little pruning                     
maintenance.  There are numerous evergreens and flowering trees                 
and shrubs to choose from.                                                      
                                                                                
* When selecting a window box, it is best to use a wooden box.                  
Metal ones are more likely to overheat if sitting in the hot                    
summer sun.  Also the wooden boxes allow for drainage, whereas                  
the metal ones often do not. The color of the box also should be                
considered:  dark ones get warmer than light-colored boxes.                     
                                                                                
* Watch for insects now and keep to spray schedule on those                     
plants which need it throughout the summer.                                     
                                                                                
* Plant tropical water-lilies early in summer.                                  
                                                                                
* Rambling and climbing roses should be pruned immediately                      
after blooming.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Weed cultivation is important for a number of reasons:  it                    
conserves moisture, conserves nutrients in the soil, and helps                  
prevent the spread of disease and insects.                                      
                                                                                
* For hot summer months, mulch can be especially beneficial for                 
conserving water.  For the vegetable garden, leaves are a good                  
mulch material.  For ornamentals, pine needles or bark do the                   
best job.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Spread organic mulch in the garden once the soil has warmed and               
seedlings are about six inches tall.                                            
                                                                                
* Take care that newly planted materials receive a thorough                     
soaking each week.  Soak, do not sprinkle.  Mulch to conserve the               
moisture.  It is helpful to make a well for the water to collect                
in when mulching around trees.                                                  
                                                                                
* A sundial should be set on June 15th.  Place it so that the                   
shadow falls on 12:00 o'clock at exactly noon on this date.                     
                                                                                
* After your vegetable garden is well established, it is best to                
water it thoroughly once a week rather than a light watering                    
everyday.  That way, a deeper root system is encouraged which                   
will later help the plants tolerate dry weather.  Generally, an                 
application of one inch of water to the surface will wet soil to                
six or eight inches deep.                                                       
                                                                                
* A method of composting for limited space is to put all of the                 
compost materials (leaves, soil, weeds, kitchen garbage, and                    
manure) in a large polyethylene bag, moisten thoroughly, tie the                
top tightly and leave it out in the sun.  Kick the bag around                   
occasionally and let in fresh air every 2 weeks.  Before long you               
will have a convenient bag of well-rotten compost.                              
                                                                                
* Birds will generally not be scared away by scarecrows.  Try                   
instead tying pieces of glass, colored cloth, or tin to loose                   
strings so the wind can blow them and slash them together.                      
Random motion is the key to alarming the birds away from the                    
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If you plant your Easter lily outdoors, it may flower again in                
late August.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Many of the weeds which occur in lawns are indicator plants                   
which signal poor growing conditions for turf grass.  Ground ivy,               
chickweed and violets often sprout up in places too shady for                   
most turf grasses. Sorrel, daisies and dock indicate a change to                
an acidic condition due to poor aeration and drainage, and lack                 
of humus.  Wild mustard, morning glories and quack grass warn of                
crusty soil and possible hard pan development.  The presence of                 
moss tells of soil compaction, poor drainage or fertility, or                   
excessive shade.  Before you begin weed control, consider                       
correcting the factors favorable to the weeds.                                  
                                                                                
* Lawn clippings return valuable nutrients especially nitrogen to               
turf grass.  Rake up grass clippings only when the grass has                    
grown unusually tall between mowings.                                           
                                                                                
* June is a great time to clean out the greenhouse.  Discard dead               
or diseased plants and old potting soil.  Good sanitation is                    
necessary to control greenhouse pests.                                          
                                                                                
* Remove crusted mineral salts from clay pots by soaking pots in                
water for a few days.  Start with hot water and renew the hot                   
bath several times. Scrub off heavy salt buildup with steel wool                
and dish detergent. Sterilize pots before reuse by soaking them                 
for ten minutes in a solution of 9 parts water to 1 part bleach.                
To reduce salt buildup on clay pots, wipe them weekly with a                    
cloth soaked in white vinegar.                                                  
                                                                                
* Pinch off faded magnolia flowers to stimulate new growth and                  
thicken the crown.                                                              
                                                                                
* The best time to harvest most herbs is just before flowering,                 
when their leaves contain the maximum essential oils.  Cut herbs                
early on a sunny day.                                                           
                                                                                
* Strawberries picked early in the day keep best.  Do not wash or               
stem berries until ready to use.  Store berries in covered                      
containers in the refrigerator.                                                 
                                                                                
* Only the uppermost ear or two develops to maturity in sweet                   
corn.  Any undeveloped lower ears can be picked just after the                  
silk appears and used in stir-fry vegetables, salads, or pickled.               
                                                                                
* Broken branches and suckers of tomato plants will often root if               
stuck into loose, moist soil.                                                   
                                                                                
* A new edible green called 'Tyfon' has been developed by                       
crossing turnips with Chinese cabbage.  Tyfon is frost tolerant,                
quick growing and capable of generating a second cutting in 3-4                 
weeks.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Identify garden pests before you attempt to control them.  If                 
you decide to use a chemical control, read the label carefully to               
be sure the chemical is compatible with the plant.  Make sure you               
apply the proper amount at the proper time.  Consult with your                  
local extension agent if you have questions about pesticides.                   
                                                                                
* Protect yourself, your family, and your pets from contact with                
pesticides.  Wear protective clothing and spray only on calm                    
days.  Wash your hands and clothing thoroughly after using garden               
chemicals.                                                                      
                                                                                
* To protect the bees which pollinate many of our crop plants,                  
spray in the evening after bees have returned to their hives.                   
                                                                                
* Heavy rains encourage slug problems.                                          
                                                                                
* Japanese beetle traps are most effective in neighborhoods where               
most residents use them.  An isolated trap or two can actually                  
draw the insects to your yard.  Traps should be placed at least                 
25' from fruit trees and roses to lure the pests away from                      
treasured plants.                                                               
                                                                                
* The same effect is true with the use of milky spore (Bacillus                 
popilliae). If your neighbors also apply the soil treatment                     
it will be most effective.  Otherwise Japanese beetle larvae                    
hatching in other yards will reinfest your property.                            
                                                                                
* Complaints and inquiries about questionable gardening advertis-               
ements can be sent to The Garden Writers Association of America                 
(GWAA) Horticultural Advertising Ethics Committee.  Mr. Jack                    
Siebenthaler, Chairman of the Ethics Committee, can be contacted                
at P.O. Box 6524, Clearwater, FL  33518.                                        
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases June 1986                                                        
                                                                                
Tomato Problems Caused by Culture or Environment    60 lines                    
Pinching and Disbudding Flowers                     52 lines                    
Garden Construction on a Budget                     65 lines                    
Iris Care                                           69 lines                    
Plants Have Many Roles                              72 lines                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tomato Problems Caused by Culture or Environment                                
                                                                                
Bossom End Rot. If your tomatoes appear to be inedible because                  
of large, dark, leathery areas on the end of the fruit where the                
blossom was, the problem may be blossom end rot. This is a                      
physiological problem associated with a water/calcium imbalance                 
in the plant. It is not caused by a fungus. Fungicides, there-                  
fore, will not correct the problem, although they may protect                   
the fruit from secondary fungi.                                                 
                                                                                
Blossom end rot occurs when there are dramatic fluctuations in                  
the amount of moisture the plant can absorb. These fluctuations                 
may be caused by heavy rainfall, drought or root injury. A lack                 
of calcium in the soil increases the severity of the problem.                   
                                                                                
To prevent blossom end rot, make sure the soil has sufficient                   
calcium. A standard soil test will indicate whether sufficient                  
calcium is present. Next, make sure your tomatoes receive a                     
constant, but not excessive supply of water. Adding organic                     
matter to the soil prior to planting will help, as will a layer                 
of mulch placed around the tomatoes.                                            
                                                                                
Always practice shallow cultivation in order to avoid injuring                  
tomato roots. Avoid applications of high nitrogen fertili-                      
zer, which promotes rapid growth. Superphosphate fertilizers                    
like 4-12-4, 5-20-5, and others are much better and contain                     
calcium, which may reduce blossom end rot.                                      
                                                                                
If your tomatoes develop blossom end rot, don't be too discour-                 
aged. The condition should correct itself when moisture fluctau-                
tions cease. Tomatoes which have blossom end rot may be usable.                 
Simply cut out the affected area if it is not too large.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tomato Leaf Roll. Another tomato problem brought on by enviro-                  
nmental conditions is tomato leaf roll. The symptoms of this                    
nonparasitic disease usually begin with curling up of the                       
bottom leaflets. This curling may become so severe that the leaf                
margins touch or even overlap. Once the leaves are curled, they                 
will not unfold. Affected leaves will be firm and leathery.                     
                                                                                
Several conditions contribute to the development of tomato leaf                 
roll. Tomato plants that are severely pruned or have their root                 
system damaged by deep cultivation or moisture extremes are                     
likely to develop leaf roll. The condition is common following                  
heavy rains which keep the soil waterlogged. Some tomato varie-                 
ties are more susceptible to leaf roll than others.                             
                                                                                
Since tomato leaf roll is a nonparasitic disease, there is no                   
disease organism involved; therefore, pesticides will not prevent               
leaf roll of tomato plants. The problem can be avoided to a                     
great extent by planting tomatoes in well drained soil. However,                
the problem may develop during periods of heavy or prolonged                    
rain, regardless of soil condition.                                             
                                                                                
Tomato leaf roll does not normally affect the growth of the                     
plant. Tomato plants showing the condition should produce a                     
normal crop. Fruits may develop sunscald if the leaf roll is                    
severe and exposes them to full sunlight. Overall, tomato                       
leaf roll is nothing to worry about.                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
Pinching and Disbudding Flowers                                                 
                                                                                
The training of the annual flowers in your garden can be as                     
fascinating as the pruning of your shrubs. In fact, it may be                   
more rewarding because you will see the results of your effort                  
within a very short time.                                                       
                                                                                
One of the first training operations is to pinch back the main                  
stems of your plants to encourage bushy growth. This should be                  
done with annuals such as petunia, snapdragon and zinnia.                       
                                                                                
Pinch off an inch of the top of the stem when the young plants                  
are 4 to 5 inches tall. This will cause side branches to develop                
on the lower part of the stem. To obtain very dense, bushy                      
plants, pinch back a second time when the laterals attain a 4                   
or 5 inch length. The double pinching of annual flowers will                    
produce a compact plant with many blooms. This procedure will                   
give large numbers of flowers for arrangements in the home, or a                
mass of blooms in the flower bed or border.                                     
                                                                                
Another type of training which you might want to practice is                    
disbudding. Remove all buds as they develop except the one at                   
the top. When you allow only the top bud to grow, it receives                   
all the food from the leaves on that stem and becomes a large                   
fine flower. This is the way to produce superior specimens for                  
flower shows.                                                                   
                                                                                
Disbudding is easy. While flowering stems are developing look                   
for the buds that form in the angles of the leaves along the                    
side of the stem. When these become large enough to be seen                     
easily, remove them by bending them to the side and snapping                    
them off at the base. Inspect your plants every few days because                
these lateral buds grow very fast during the early summer.                      
                                                                                
Pinching and disbudding are especially useful practices for                     
raising large chrysanthemums. As a rule the plant should be                     
pinched only once, and only two or three stems allowed to grow                  
on each plant. Remove all other lateral branches as they develop.               
                                                                                
To secure long-stemmed, exhibition type chrysanthemums you                      
should tie the two or three stems of each plant to separate                     
stakes or vertical string supports. Be sure to watch for buds                   
along the side of stems and remove them as soon as possible.                    
                                                                                
Roses should also be disbudded. As the stems develop, remove all                
side buds when they become about a half inch long. You will have                
fewer roses on your bushes, but the ones you do have will be                    
large beautiful specimens.                                                      
                                                                                
Remove all faded flowers from annuals and roses as soon as they                 
die. This will cause plants to continue to bloom throughout                     
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Garden Construction on a Budget                                                 
                                                                                
Many gardeners feel caught in a classic approach/avoidance                      
conflict. On the approach side, there are many projects to make                 
the yard more attractive, easier to care for, and more useful                   
for entertaining friends or just relaxing. On the avoidance side,               
money is often tight, and projects cost money.                                  
                                                                                
Of course, staying home and building a patio is cheaper than a                  
family vacation. But if you can't afford either one this year,                  
you need to learn the fine art of scrounging.                                   
                                                                                
A primary requirement for good scrounging is an active imagina-                 
tion. You've got to see possibilities in things others have                     
thrown or might throw away; might give away if properly asked;                  
or, as a last resort, might sell cheaply.                                       
                                                                                
Among the most familiar recycled materials found in the home                    
garden are railroad ties, broken concrete, salvaged timbers,                    
scrap lumber, slab wood, and used brick. With more imagination,                 
old tires, wire cable spools, wooden crates and pallets can be                  
used effectively. Some materials can be obtained for the hauling                
and others for a small investment, while others are lucrative                   
businesses for someone. Each has merits and drawbacks to be                     
considered.                                                                     
                                                                                
Railroad ties, about 6 x 8 inches of rough timber 8 feet long,                  
are usually pressure treated with creasote. They can be toxic to                
plants unless weathered for several years. The condition of the                 
tie and the type of wood varies, as does the cost. Ties are                     
especially good for low walls, such as raised beds, steps and                   
curbing. Treated timber, about 4 x 4 inches and larger, generally               
can be found in better condition and with a greater choice of                   
sizes than railroad ties. However, prices are much higher.                      
                                                                                
Scrap lumber from construction projects, demolitions or similar                 
sources is usally free but may be difficult to work with due to                 
varying sizes, nails, and chemical treatment. Avoid wood treated                
with pentachlorophynol (Penta), a wood preservative, as it                      
remains quite toxic to plants for many years. Penta is no longer                
being used to treat new wood but you may find it on some recycled               
lumber.                                                                         
                                                                                
If you live near a timber area, slab wood (the bark and timber                  
left after cutting a round log into a square beam), can be had                  
for free or up to about $8 a pickup load. What you don't burn to                
heat your house, can be used to build raised beds, rustic sheds,                
fences, and other structures.                                                   
                                                                                
Broken concrete, in sizes approximately 4 inches thick by 12                    
inches wide by 24 inches long, can be stacked for garden walls.                 
Leave pockets for plants spaced along the wall. For patios, odd                 
shapes of concrete result in a flagstone appearance and lend                    
themselves well to interplanting. An acid stain will give                       
concrete a more stonelike appearance.                                           
                                                                                
Used bricks can be less expensive and more attractive than new                  
ones in a rustic garden setting. Beware of using brick from                     
the inner layers of thick brick walls or from buildings that                    
have burned. They may not be weather resistant and you may end                  
up with a "brick dust" patio.                                                   
                                                                                
As your scrounging experience grows, so will your imagination                   
and quick eye. There are even stories of one gardener who used                  
bed springs to trellis his cucumbers.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Iris Care                                                                       
                                                                                
Bearded iris in the perennial border should be divided and                      
replanted in midsummer. The best time is immediately after the                  
blooming season is completed. The operation may be delayed until                
fall, but summer is preferred by most growers. When clumps                      
are divided at this time, the new plants will become well                       
established before winter and be ready to produce a fine crop of                
flowers next spring.                                                            
                                                                                
The bearded iris has a fleshy rhizome or stem which grows along                 
the surface of the soil. New side buds are developed each year                  
until a large network of branched rhizomes is established. If                   
large blooms are desired, the plants should be divided and                      
replanted every three to five years, depending on the density of                
the clump.                                                                      
                                                                                
In preparing to replant bearded iris, cut the leaves back to                    
about six inches. Then, with a pointed shovel dig around all                    
sides of the plant and lift the entire clump out of the ground.                 
Wash away the soil. With a sharp knife cut off the short side                   
branches which have a cluster of leaves at the end. Discard the                 
old center portion of the clump.                                                
                                                                                
Inspect each rhizome for signs of insect feeding or decay. The                  
most serious insect pest of iris, the iris borer, are often                     
found at this time. Check the rhizome for the 1 1/4 inch long,                  
pinkish larvae with a row of black spots down the sides, and                    
check the soil for the inch-long borer pupae. Destroy any that                  
are found. Rhizomes infested with borers may also be infected                   
with bacterial soft rot. Remove diseased areas with a knife. If                 
extensive rot is present, discard the entire rhizome.                           
                                                                                
Replant the new divisions after cutting the roots back to about                 
two inches. Plant in well drained soil and cover about one inch                 
deep. In heavy or poorly drained soils the top of the rhizome                   
should be exposed to reduce the possibility of rot.                             
                                                                                
After the planting operation is completed, apply a side dressing                
of 5-10-5 fertilizer at the rate of about two pounds per 100                    
feet of row. Scratch the fertilizer into the top inch of soil and               
water thoroughly. Apply a very light mulch of sawdust or peat                   
moss to help conserve soil moisture. Do not use a heavy mulch                   
which may increase the possibility of rhizome rot. Additional                   
water may be needed every two weeks during periods of drought.                  
                                                                                
After the ground has frozen, apply additional mulch. This will                  
conserve moisture and help to prevent the alternate freezing and                
thawing of the soil that may push plants out of the ground.                     
                                                                                
Irises grown from divisions should bloom the next spring after                  
planting. For a quick flower display, plant three individual                    
rhizomes 8 to 10 inches apart. But remember, the more closely                   
together iris rhizomes are planted, the sooner they will need to                
be divided.                                                                     
                                                                                
The same planting procedure is suggested for dwarf and interme-                 
diate bearded irises. Try some of these shorter types to add new                
interest to the garden. Dwarf varieties bloom in early spring,                  
followed by the intermediate and then the tall types. Some of                   
the intermediate varieities produce a second crop of flowers in                 
the fall.                                                                       
                                                                                
You might also consider planting some of the crested irises.                    
This is a dwarf type which is related to the bearded iris. The                  
plants grow to a height of six to nine inches, and are ideal for                
the rock garden or low border. This type received its name from                 
the crest of tissue along the falls (flower petals oriented                     
downward) in place of the beard.                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Plants Have Many Roles                                                          
                                                                                
Plants do a lot for people...they clean the atmosphere, modify                  
climate, abate noise, inhibit glare and control erosion. In                     
addition, many are lovely to the eye and tasty to eat.                          
                                                                                
Plants clean and purify existing air as well as manufacture                     
oxygen. Each person requires 30 to 60 pounds of clean air to                    
breathe each day. Ornamental plants provide clean air in four                   
ways: First, their "manufactured" air created through photosyn-                 
thesis dilutes polluted air and increases the ratio of "clean                   
to dirty" air.                                                                  
      Second, moisture that plants give off traps airborne                      
particles and acts as a filter for some pollutants. A single,                   
mature apple tree gives off 300 gallons of water per day.                       
      Third, hairy leaves and stems of many plants trap airborne                
particles and hold them until they are washed to the ground by                  
rain. In one large city, the dust count on the down-wind side of                
a heavily planted area measured 75 percent lower than a similar                 
count on the up-wind side.                                                      
      Fourth, trees can slow the air movement sufficiently for                  
heavier dust particles and pollutants to settle.                                
      Additionally, Fumes and odors can be masked by plants with                
particularly fragrant blooms or foliage.                                        
                                                                                
By modifying the intensity of sunlight and by wind and humidity                 
control, plants can have a significant impact on the temperature                
around the home. The shady area under trees is cooler because of                
both an increase in moisture and a decrease in direct solar                     
radiation.                                                                      
                                                                                
Trees not only give off moisture, but the leaf canopy tends to                  
prevent moisture-laden air from moving away. This moist air is                  
more difficult to heat than dry air and can help reduce the                     
temperature near the tree.                                                      
                                                                                
Trees are also effective at shielding something from the sun's                  
radiation. Leaves, twigs and branches absorb part of the radia-                 
tion, transmit a smaller portion, and reflect the rest.                         
                                                                                
There are several more ways plants can modify the climate. One                  
important way is to use trees that are deciduous (those which                   
lose their leaves in the winter) in landscaping, to reduce both                 
heating and cooling bills. Trees planted so that they reflect the               
sun away from the house and shade it during the summer help keep                
the house cool. In the winter, when they have lost their leaves,                
the sun is able to reach the house and warm it.                                 
                                                                                
Noise can be reduced with properly placed ornamental plantings.                 
Trees, shrubs, vines and turf absorb noises. Plant parts break                  
up sound waves, changing their direction and reducing their                     
intensity. Densely growing plants are best for sound control but                
the width of the planting is critical. To effectively screen                    
highway noises, plantings would have to be 25 to 35 feet thick.                 
Plant sounds, such as rustling leaves, help conceal or disguise                 
offensive noises.                                                               
                                                                                
Glare from car headlights can be annoying. Control of such glare                
can be achieved by placing buffer plantings between the light                   
source and the room. Place them close to the house to be most                   
effective.                                                                      
                                                                                
A secondary source of glare, such as reflected sunlight from                    
pavements, can be reduced by plants too. Plants, even in tubs or                
containers, can be used to visually "break up" or soften a                      
reflective surface. The light is reflected to the plant, which                  
softens it by diffraction before it reaches the viewers' eyes.                  
                                                                                
Finally, erosion control is an important role for plants. Trees,                
shrubs, vines, ground covers and grasses help prevent serious                   
erosion by intercepting and breaking the impact of raindrops and                
by holding the soil in place with their roots.                                  
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
June 1986 The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                    
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Dioecious Landscape Trees                          14 lines                     
Yam or Sweet Potato?                               32 lines                     
Choosing a Garden Sprayer                          79 lines                     
Perking Up Early Vegetables in an Organic Garden   24 lines                     
Petunia Groupings                                  15 lines                     
Lady's Mantle - Perennial Border Plant             14 lines                     
Japanese Clethra                                   26 lines                     
Chinese Scholar Tree                               12 lines                     
Why Radishes Go to Seed                             9 lines                     
Lath House Construction                            38 lines                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
Which trees are separated by sexes?  Do I always want both male                 
and female ornamentals in my yard?                                              
                                                                                
Persimmon, holly, ash, most maples, box elder, yew, cottonwood,                 
ginkgo, juniper, and some others are dioecious; that is, they                   
have male and female flowers on different plants. In the land-                  
scape, it is important to plant both sexes in order to produce                  
fruit or ornamental berries on persimmon and holly. Most others                 
are attractive in either sex with the exceptions of cottonwood                  
and ginkgo. Female cottonwoods produce fluffy "cotton" tufted                   
seeds. Many homeowners find this  fiber a nuisance and look for                 
male trees sold as "cottonless cottonwoods." Also avoid female                  
ginkgos which produce large, malodorous, fleshy, naked seeds                    
which resemble plum-shaped fruit. You would not want these                      
in your yard. Luckily, male clones are sold at most nurseries.                  
Before purchasing ginkgos, make sure the nursery guarantees only                
male plants.                                                                    
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
What is the difference between yams and sweet potatoes?                         
                                                                                
Sweet potatoes are not true yams--they belong to the morning                    
glory family (Convolvulaceae), while true yams belong to the                    
Dioscoreaceae family which grow only in the tropics. The true                   
yam is rarely available anywhere in the U.S. even though some say               
a few may be found in the extreme southern part of the United                   
States.                                                                         
                                                                                
The term "yam" is used here as a trade name that refers to the                  
moist flesh type of sweet potato. The department of Agriculture                 
designates sweet potatoes as 'dry flesh' or as 'moist flesh'                    
according to the sensation experienced in the mouth during the                  
eating of cooked sweet potatoes. (The terms do not refer to the                 
actual moisture content of the potato.)                                         
                                                                                
Yam seems to sound better on restaurant menus and yams with ham                 
goes better in supermarket advertising especially around the                    
holidays. But chances are very good that the yams you eat are                   
really sweet potatoes.                                                          
                                                                                
Plant traditional vining type sweet potatoes in raised ridges, in               
light, deep, loose soils. Ridges permit fast growth of smooth,                  
properly shaped roots and make digging easier. Set plants when                  
danger of killing frost has passed. Leave 6 to 8 inches between                 
them and 3 feet between rows. Some varieties require only a foot                
of row space because they are the new "vineless" type.                          
                                                                                
Harvest before frost--handle roots carefully to prevent cuts,                   
bruises and broken roots. Use sweet potatoes soon after harvest.                
Either cook the potatoes and freeze them, or cure the roots                     
thoroughly at 75 to 80 F. and store in a well-ventilated location               
at 50 to 60 F.                                                                  
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
What should I look for in choosing a garden sprayer or duster?                  
                                                                                
Before choosing a sprayer, consider how it will be used. The size               
of your yard and the type of spraying jobs to be done will help                 
you determine which sprayer is best for your needs. Choose a                    
sprayer that applies the spray with the right pressure, in the                  
right amount and pattern, and right on target. This will insure                 
complete converage of plants without waste.                                     
                                                                                
One of the most popular tools for applying pesticides is the                    
compressed-air sprayer. Highly versatile, it is ideal for almost                
any yard and garden spraying. You can also use it to control                    
crawling insects in and around your home. Compressed air sprayers               
are available in capacities from one to five gallons. In select-                
ing the sprayer that is the right size for you, remember that 1                 
gallon of water weighs 8 pounds. Therefore, a 5 gallon sprayer                  
weighs 40 pounds. Can you carry it?                                             
                                                                                
Compressed air sprayers give you control over the spray in these                
five important ways:                                                            
1. You mix the spray concentrate exactly as recommended for                     
best results.                                                                   
2. You control the pressure--high for a penetrating mist on                     
leafy plants; low for a coarse non-drift spray, ideal for                       
lawn weeds.                                                                     
3. The on-off control is instant, so you spray just to the                      
point of run-off without drenching or waste.                                    
4. With a long hose and extension, you can easily spray on                      
target to cover the entire plant and reach under leaves                         
where insects settle and some plant diseases begin.                             
5. You control the spray pattern--mist or coarse, close-up                      
or long range. Adjustable nozzle allows you to effectively                      
control different types of problems.                                            
                                                                                
Gardeners find added convenience in cordless electric sprayers.                 
With virtually the same performance as a compressed air sprayer,                
the cordless electric sprayer has an adjustable, nozzle, spray                  
extension and instant on-off control. Its lightweight and compact               
design make it easy to use and carry anywhere. A self-contained                 
battery supplies power for up to 45 minutes on an overnight                     
charge, more than enough for most lawn and garden spraying jobs.                
                                                                                
If trees need protection, a slide-type trombone sprayer sprays at               
high pressure to reach trees as high as 25 feet. The nozzle also                
adjusts to a fine spray good for low growing plants such as                     
flowers, vegetables, and shrubs. The sprayer draws the spray                    
material from a separate container such as a bucket.                            
                                                                                
For those with small gardens or patio plants, a hand sprayer with               
a one or two quart container is convenient and effective. These                 
sprayers develop pressure high enough to break up the spray                     
material into fine droplets. This is essential for enveloping the               
entire plant. Make sure the nozzle is adjustable, and the spray                 
can be directed under the leaves for complete coverage.                         
                                                                                
If you have a really large yard or garden, you might appreciate                 
the ease and big capacity (10 to 50 gallons) of a power sprayer.                
With power supplied by either a gas engine or electric moter, the               
power sprayer's high pressure assures extra range as well as                    
thorough coverage. Models are available that attach to lawn                     
tractors. Special accessories are also available further increas-               
ing this sprayer's convenience and versatility.                                 
                                                                                
The hose-end sprayer is a bottle with hose attachments which                    
holds liquid pesticides. The pesticide is mixed with water in a                 
certain ratio as the water flows out of the garden hose. These                  
devices are inexpensive and serve the purpose quite adequately;                 
however, it may take some figuring to get the appropriate ratio                 
of pesticide to water. An adjustable nozzle is a good feature. An               
antisiphon device should be part of a hose-end sprayer because if               
there is drop in your water pressure, the chemicals can be sucked               
up into your water system. The extra price you may have to pay                  
for this safety feature will be well worth the peace of mind.                   
                                                                                
A duster is a handy applicator for homeowners who prefer using                  
dust formulations to protect their plants and flowers. Be sure to               
choose a duster that has a long extension and adjustable nozzle.                
This will allow you to put the dust right where it is needed,                   
especially under leaves. (Adapted from article by extension                     
agents Michael L. Henry and Richard A. Nunnally)                                
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
I plant radishes every year. Except for the first harvest in                    
spring, I seldom get any more with good roots. What am I doing                  
wrong?                                                                          
                                                                                
You are doing nothing wrong for your radishes. High tempertures                 
and long days tend to stimulate vegetative growth and seed stalk                
development at the expense of root development. The best roots                  
are formed under moderate to cool temperatures. Therefore, avoid                
late spring and summer plantings of this cool season crop.                      
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
I am trying to produce an organic garden this year. However, the                
vegetables in my neighbor's garden look better. Is there any way                
I can perk up my crops?                                                         
                                                                                
Organic gardeners may notice that in early spring their crops                   
may not be as green or growing as well as their neighbors' who                  
are using synthetic granular or liquid fertilizers. This is                     
mainly due to the fact most organic sources of nitrogen are being               
released very slowly because the microorganisms that are respons-               
ible for this process are not very lively under cool soil                       
conditions. Increasing soil temperatures by using raised beds or                
black plastic will help; but since your crops are already                       
planted, this is not a solution applicable to this growing                      
season.                                                                         
                                                                                
What you may want to do now is add a few teaspoons of a soluable                
nitrogen source about one or two inches from the base of each                   
plant. If you do not want to give your plants a dose of synthetic               
fertilizer, here are a few fast-acting organic sources to use:                  
dried blood, fish emulsion, manure tea. It is easiest to use                    
liquid sources of nitrogen. If applying dry fertilizer, make                    
small slits or poke holes into the soil about 2-3 inches deep.                  
When making holes for fertilizer, try not to cut or disturb the                 
plant roots.                                                                    
                                                                                
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I read about single, double, multiflora and grandiflora petunias                
... what does it all mean?                                                      
                                                                                
Seed breeders use these terms to help lump similar varieties of                 
petunias into groups. Most petunias have "single" blossoms. This                
means they have only one layer of petals. "Double" blossoms have                
two or more layers of petals. Some fancy double varieties have                  
waved and frilled petal margins and resemble powder puffs.                      
                                                                                
Multiflora petunias have many medium sized blossoms. These                      
varieties withstand heat and humidity well. You can buy double or               
single multifloras.                                                             
                                                                                
Grandiflora petunias have large, rather ornate blossoms but not                 
as many as the multifloras. Varieties come in single or double                  
blossom forms and in compact or spreading varieties.                            
                                                                                
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What is a good plant to use as a border for a perennial bed in                  
the mountainous region of Virginia?                                             
                                                                                
One of the prettiest plants for edging borders is Lady's mantle,                
Alchemilla vulgaris. A perennial clump-forming herb. Lady's                     
mantle grows to 8 inches in height. It has soft gray-green leaves               
which appear early in spring and persist until late autumn.                     
In summer, it bears clusters of tiny greenish-yellow flowers on                 
10-inch forked stems.                                                           
                                                                                
A. vulgaris is easy to grow in a cool, moist climate. Plants seed               
very freely; fading flower heads should be removed promptly to                  
limit its spread. Alpine alchemilla (A. alpina), a smaller                      
species, has deeply serrated, silvery foliage, and forms dense                  
mats rather than clumps.                                                        
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
Is there a tall shrub with fragrant flowers and showy bark that                 
can grow in a shady spot in my landscape?                                       
                                                                                
Shrubs or trees with ornamental bark as well as flowers are                     
certainly not as common as the discriminating gardener would                    
like. One suggestion is Japanese tree clethra (Clethra barbinerv-               
is).                                                                            
                                                                                
Like its popular but much smaller American relative, summersweet                
or sweet pepperbush (C. alnifolia), this 15-20 foot shrub or                    
small tree produces an abundance of long-lasting 4-6 inch racemes               
of anise-scented white flowers in summer. These are unique being                
carried horizontally instead of upright. A more important feature               
which makes C. barbinervis attractive in all seasons is its                     
smooth, rich brown bark.                                                        
                                                                                
Japanese clethra withstands considerable shade and is pest-free                 
if not deprived of moisture. Ideal for the border or corner of a                
foundation planting, it deserves to be used more widely.                        
                                                                                
Cinnamon clethra (C. acuminata) is another American clethra. It                 
would be a useful tall shrub or small tree for landscapes in the                
higher elavations of Virginia if the soil is gravelly. It also                  
has fragrant, white flowers and ornamental bark. The bark is                    
shiny cinnamon brown. Since cinnamon clethra is a native to the                 
Southeast, it would work especially well in a naturalist landsca-               
pe.                                                                             
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
While in Washington, D.C. last fall, I noticed some interesting                 
street trees with fruit that looked like a string of green jelly                
beans. Could you tell me more about this odd tree?                              
                                                                                
Chinese scholar tree (Sophora japonica), also called Japanese                   
pagoda tree (although it is native to China and Korea) is a                     
versatile and handsome summer-flowering tree. This temperate                    
zone member of the pea family, hardy to -20 degrees F, rivals its               
many tropical relatives in floral beauty. In addition, it thrives               
in hot, dry, infertile situations making it an exceptionally good               
city tree Fine specimens can be seen on the steets of Washington.               
                                                                                
S. japonica grows to 40-60 feet with a round top. An unusual                    
feature is the shiny green color of young branches. Glossy,                     
locust-like, ferny foliage gives open shade that does not deter                 
lawn grass planted beneath it. Large (15"), creamy flower                       
clusters are showy from July into August Pale green seed pods                   
persist into winter.                                                            
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
I've been considering adding a lath house to my home grounds. Do                
you think a homeowner can actually get much use out of these                    
wooden structures?                                                              
                                                                                
The lath house is once again becoming a feature of fine gardens.                
But it is appearing in new forms, and is often multi-functional.                
Originally a simple shelter for summering indoor plants, it now                 
may be an elaborate "outdoor living" structure, a combination                   
conservatory and recreation center.                                             
                                                                                
On smaller properties, a lath house adjoining the patio or                      
attached to the home, garage, greenhouse, wall, or fence, is an                 
esthetically pleasing as well as space-saving solution. "Half-                  
and-half" designs, with part lath and part solid roof, or roofed                
with alternating wide and narrow lath, are another new approach.                
                                                                                
Then there is a Southern idea, now increasingly seen in more                    
Northward: the lath house that becomes a greenhouse in winter.                  
Usually this structure is attached to the home, so an open door                 
or window can supply at least enough heat for cool-growing                      
plants. Polyethylene sheeting, or sash covered on both sides with               
plastic, is tacked on in the fall.                                              
                                                                                
Some tips on design and construction of a lath house:                           
   1) standard 1-1/2 to 2 inch lath, spaced a lath width apart,                 
gives ample shading for many plants, with bamboo or reed shades                 
or vines to provide more shade if needed;                                       
   2) a concrete foundation is best for permanence in large                     
structures; plus a cement, stone, or gravel floor that can be                   
damped down for humidity-loving plants;                                         
   3) quite a few woods will serve for corner posts, studs and                  
beams when treated with wood preservative. Use 2 x 4's or larger                
for joists if you plan to hang plants. Roof beams can be steamed                
into curved shapes for a contemporary design.                                   
   4) a roof overhang will provide midday shade for a foundation                
planting.                                                                       
   5) a "sun wall" can be created using concrete blocks; ornamen-               
tal blocks such as those cast with a central open cloverleaf                    
design store heat from the day and are decorative as well.                      
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Herbaceous plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Remove foliage from spring bulbs after it turns yellow and                    
begins to dry. Set out bedding plants in space previously                       
occupied by foliage, using care not to damage bulbs.                            
                                                                                
* Plant annual flowers in tubs or large crocks for the porch or                 
terrace. Be sure there are holes in the bottom to provide good                  
drainage.                                                                       
                                                                                
* For hanging baskets in a cool shady location, select trailing                 
tuberous begonias, fuchsias, ferns, English ivy, impatiens or                   
fiberous rooted begonias in combination with trailing plants.                   
                                                                                
* Plant tropical water-lilies early in summer.                                  
                                                                                
* Yellow flowered perennials which abound this month include:St.                
John's Wort (Hypericum); Evening Primrose (Oenothera); yellow                   
loostrife (Lysimachia punctata).                                                
                                                                                
* Remove old flower heads from bedding plants to prolong the                    
period of bloom.                                                                
                                                                                
* Divide spring and early summer flowering perennials when they                 
have completed bloom. Instead of severing the clump in half, try                
jiggling the roots apart with two sharp spading forks. This takes               
more time, but considerably less root area is lost during                       
division.                                                                       
                                                                                
Woody ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* To get faster growth from your trees and shrubs, mulch is                     
better than grass or ground covers. In experiments across the                   
country, researchers have shown that a variety of trees and                     
shrubs including dogwood, forsythia, Burford holly, Japanese                    
black pine and cottonwood had growth reduced significantly by                   
both ground covers and grasses.                                                 
                                                                                
* Rambling roses should be pruned immediately after blooming.                   
                                                                                
* Shade trees may still be pruned if they have dead or damaged                  
branches which should be removed.                                               
                                                                                
* Additional pruning may be required this month on fast-growing,                
narrow, leaf evergreens such as junipers and yews as well as                    
plants such as privet to maintain a desirable shape during the                  
growing season.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Watch for and control blackspot and powdery mildew on rose                    
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Take care that newly planted materials receive a thorough                     
soaking each week.  Soak, do not sprinkle.  Mulch to conserve the               
moisture.  It is helpful to make a well for the water to collect                
in when mulching around trees.                                                  
                                                                                
* When it is necessary to transplant small to large woody plants                
in hot weather, cover them with a sheet after they are planted                  
and dampen the sheet two or three times a day with the hose, and                
they will suffer less setback.                                                  
                                                                                
* Plants may wilt from a lack of oxygen rather than a lack of                   
water. When the soil is compacted, the plant's tender feeder                    
roots and root hairs suffocate. The problem is compounded when                  
the well-meaning gardener assumes that the wilting is a sign of                 
water stress and immediately irrigates. Well-aerated soil,                      
enriched with organic matter, allows both air and water to                      
circulate freely about the root system for a vigorous plant.                    
                                                                                
* When you buy nursery stock that is container grown, check the                 
root ball and make sure its not bound too tightly.  As big mass                 
of circling roots will stay that way, even after it is in the                   
ground.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Pinch off faded magnolia flowers to stimulate new growth and                  
thicken the crown.                                                              
                                                                                
* Lacebugs feed on azaleas, pyrcantha and other woody plants                    
causing a gray, blanched or stippled appearance on the upper                    
surface of the leaves.                                                          
                                                                                
* Summer plantings of shrubs is practical if you use container                  
grown plants. Water frequently.                                                 
                                                                                
* Mid-to-late June is an excellent time to take softwood cuttings               
of shrubs to start new plants.  Some examples are spirea,                       
boxwood, and azalea.                                                            
                                                                                
* Spring flowering shrubs such as deutzia, weigela, vibrunum and                
forsythia, should be pruned as soon as they complete bloom.                     
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* If you don't have much landscaping space, consider using some                 
of the many available dwarf varieties.  These are plants that                   
have slow growth and stay small, so there is little pruning                     
maintenance.  There are numerous evergreens and flowering trees                 
and shrubs to choose from.                                                      
                                                                                
* Rock gardens can be an interesting and challenging hobby for                  
the gardener.  A few perennials species that can be used success-               
fully are: ajuga, thrift, sedum, creeping phlox, and violas.                    
These can be planted in either spring or early fall, although                   
spring planting requires more attention to regular watering.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Many of the weeds which occur in lawns are indicator plants                   
which signal poor growing conditions for turf grass.  Ground ivy,               
chickweed and violets often sprout up in places too shady for                   
most turf grasses. Sorrel, daisies and dock indicate a change to                
an acidic condition due to poor aeration and drainage, and lack                 
of humus.  Wild mustard, morning glories and quack grass warn of                
crusty soil and possible hard pan development.  The presence of                 
moss tells of soil compaction, poor drainage or fertility, or                   
excessive shade.  Before you begin weed control, consider                       
correcting the factors favorable to the weeds.                                  
                                                                                
* When going on vacation, arrange for someone to mow your lawn                  
and harvest your garden.                                                        
                                                                                
* When trimming grass with a power tool using rapidly spinning                  
monofilament line, be careful around young trees and shrubs.                    
Tender bark can easily be damaged, opening the tree to insect and               
disease problems.                                                               
                                                                                
* Lawn clippings return valuable nutrients especially nitrogen to               
turf grass.  Rake up grass clippings only when the grass has                    
grown unusually tall between mowings.                                           
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* After your vegetable garden is well established, it is best to                
water it thoroughly once a week rather than a light watering                    
everyday.  That way, a deeper root system is encouraged which                   
will later help the plants tolerate dry weather.  Generally, an                 
application of one inch of water to the surface will wet soil to                
six or eight inches deep.                                                       
                                                                                
* According to tests conducted by VA Tech Department of Human                   
Nutrition and Foods, microwave-blanched vegetables have less                    
flavor and poorer color and texture than vegetables blanched with               
hot water or steam.                                                             
                                                                                
* Set young melons and cantaloupes on top of tin cans--they'll                  
ripen faster and sweeter.                                                       
                                                                                
* Some Virginia soils are magnesium deficient--especially those                 
on which high calcium lime rather than lime containing magnesium                
(dolomite) are used. "Green" your peppers by giving them a                      
magnesium boost with epsom salts. This will also aid in fruit                   
production. Dilute one tablespoon of epsom salts in about a quart               
of water. Spray the solution on leaves and blossoms using a clean               
household spray bottle.                                                         
                                                                                
* The time of day can make a difference in the taste and texture                
of your vegetables. For sweetness, pick peas and corn late in the               
day. That's when they contain the most sugar, especially if the                 
day was cool and sunny. Other vegetables, such as lettuce and                   
cucumbers, are crisper and tastier if you harvest them early in                 
the morning before the day's heat has a chance to wilt and                      
shrivel them.                                                                   
                                                                                
* A new edible green called 'Tyfon' has been developed by                       
crossing turnips with Chinese cabbage.  Tyfon is frost tolerant,                
quick growing and capable of generating a second cutting in 3-4                 
weeks.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Broken branches and suckers of tomato plants will often root if               
stuck into loose, moist soil.                                                   
                                                                                
* As soon as the last cutting of asparagus is made, remove all                  
the weeds from the bed and fertilize with a 10-10-10 formula at                 
the rate of 3 pounds per 50 foot row.                                           
                                                                                
* Stop cutting asparagus in mid or late June when the spears                    
become thin. Allow the tops to grow during the summer to store                  
food in the roots for the crop next spring.                                     
                                                                                
* Mulch the vegetable garden when your seedlings are about six                  
inches tall. This will conserve moisture and discourage weeds.                  
                                                                                
* Many garden plants will appreciate a sidedressing of 5-10-10 at               
the rate of 1 lbs per 100 ft of row applied 4 to 6 weeks after                  
plants are established. Avoid sidedressing tomatoes, eggplants                  
and peppers until they have set their first fruit.                              
                                                                                
* For very efficient, steady feeding of vegetables sink a large                 
can or bucket with many holes in its sides into the soil and fill               
it about 2/3 full of rotted manure or compost; rain or occasional               
watering will keep a rich supply of nutrients seeping out to feed               
plants in a circle several feet wide.                                           
                                                                                
* Corn earworm may be controlled by use of mineral oil. A few                   
drops on the silk at the time of first pink blush, followed by                  
daily applications for heavy infestations will stop them. An                    
added bonus is the ease with which the silks may be removed when                
shucking the ears. However, overuse of mineral oil will adversely               
affect pollination--the silk end of the ear will not completely                 
fill out.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Keep a close eye on the quality of your spring crops. Hot                     
weather causes lettuce to bolt and become bitter. Plant a warm                  
season crop as soon as the spring vegetables are removed.                       
                                                                                
* If you are using transplants for late-season planting of                      
tomatoes, it is possible that the plants have reached a physio-                 
logical stage of growth in which some flowers may be forming or                 
even open at transplanting time. This can occur both in homegrown               
and purchased transplants. One problem with setting plants with                 
flowers or even small fruit is that the plants will tend to                     
mature one or more small fruit at the expense of desired vegeta-                
tive growth. Thus, the plants remain fairly small and their yield               
is low. If time and labor are available, removal of                             
flowers and fruit should be done soon after transplanting.                      
                                                                                
* For bigger and better Brussels sprouts, pinch out the top of                  
the plant when the sprouts at the bottom are full grown. The                    
smaller, upper sprouts are thus encouraged to grow much larger                  
than they otherwise would.                                                      
                                                                                
* Continue plantings of warm season crops such as beans, squash                 
and tomatoes. Toward the end of the month, start seeds of Chinese               
cabbage and cauliflower for fall harvest.                                       
                                                                                
* Only the uppermost ear or two develops to maturity in sweet                   
corn.  Any undeveloped lower ears can be picked just after the                  
silk appears and used in stir-fry vegetables, salads, or pickled.               
                                                                                
Fruit                                                                           
                                                                                
* Strawberries picked early in the day keep best.  Do not wash or               
stem berries until ready to use.  Store berries in covered                      
containers in the refrigerator.                                                 
                                                                                
Indoor plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* If in clay pots, plunge house plant pots to the rim in a                      
partially shaded flower bed or border for the summer. If in                     
glazed or plastic containers, remove the pot.                                   
                                                                                
* To prevent overwatering of plants in containers without drain                 
holes, stick two or three plastic straws vertically down into the               
layer of gravel or rocks at the bottom of the pot before                        
planting. Then cut them off just above the soil surface after                   
planting. This will allow evaporation of excess moisture in the                 
drainage layer.                                                                 
                                                                                
* If you plant your Easter lily outdoors, it may flower again in                
late August.                                                                    
                                                                                
* To avoid soaking the soil when giving potted plants a shower                  
bath, slit an aluminum foil pie plate from the rim to the center,               
turn under the cut edges, and slip it around the plant stem so it               
covers the soil and makes the water run off.                                    
                                                                                
* House plants may be kept in good condition for several weeks                  
while one is on vacation by using clear plastic bags as miniature               
greenhouses. Simply soak the pot thoroughly, allow to drain, then               
place the potted plant into a plastic bag. Tie the opening                      
tightly. By inserting two or more sticks in the soil before the                 
bag is put on, one may support the plastic-like tent and prevent                
it from resting on the plants. Plants, such as African violets,                 
that are apt to develop mildew should have a few air holes for                  
air circulation.                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tools and equipment (includes container)                                        
                                                                                
* Birds will generally not be scared away by scarecrows. Instead                
try tying pieces of glass, colored cloth, or tin to loose strings               
so the wind can blow them and slash them together.  Random motion               
is the key to alarming the birds away from the garden.                          
                                                                                
* Do not allow children to ride or drive riding lawn mowers. They               
are more dangerous than they appear. Always disengage the mower                 
blades and set the brake before getting off for any reason.                     
                                                                                
* A method of composting for limited space is to put all of the                 
compost materials (leaves, soil, weeds, kitchen garbage, and                    
manure) in a large polyethylene bag, moisten thoroughly, tie the                
top tightly and leave it out in the sun.  Kick the bag around                   
occasionally and let in fresh air every two weeks.  Before long                 
you will have a convenient bag of well-rotted compost.                          
                                                                                
* Before pouring gasoline into the fuel tank of your lawn mower,                
garden tillers or other equipment, be sure to turn off engine and               
allow to cool five minutes.                                                     
                                                                                
* A sundial should be set on June 15th.  Place it so that the                   
shadow falls on 12:00 o'clock at exactly noon on this date.                     
                                                                                
* A plastic mesh bag filled with marbles holds flower arrange-                  
ments beautifully--set it in the container and cover it with                    
water and the marbles will grip flower stems firmly without                     
injuring them.                                                                  
                                                                                
* When selecting a window box, it is best to use a wooden box.                  
Metal ones are more likely to overheat if sitting in the hot                    
summer sun.  Also the wooden boxes allow for drainage, whereas                  
the metal ones often do not. The color of the box also should be                
considered:  dark ones get warmer than light-colored boxes.                     
                                                                                
* Large mesh wire has many uses in the garden such as a tomato                  
cage, a compost bin, to hold down black plastic, to hold mulches                
in place, or to use as a half-cylinder with plastic over it as a                
small greenhouse.                                                               
                                                                                
* Japanese beetle traps are effective in neighborhoods where most               
residents use them.  An isolated trap or two can actually draw                  
the insects to your yard.  Traps should be placed at least 25                   
feet from fruit trees and roses to lure the pests away from                     
treasured plants.                                                               
                                                                                
* Heavy rains encourage slug problems.                                          
                                                                                
* A mailbox mounted on a post in the garden can hold ties,                      
labels, small tools and other necessities that we so often forget               
to bring with us when we go out to the garden.                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Remove crusted mineral salts from clay pots by soaking pots in                
water for a few days.  Start with hot water and renew the hot                   
bath several times. Scrub off heavy salt buildup with steel wool                
and dish detergent. Sterilize pots before reuse by soaking them                 
for ten minutes in a solution of 9 parts water to 1 part bleach.                
To reduce salt buildup on clay pots, wipe them weekly with a                    
cloth soaked in white vinegar.                                                  
                                                                                
* June is a great time to clean out the greenhouse.  Discard dead               
or diseased plants and old potting soil.  Good sanitation is                    
necessary to control greenhouse pests.                                          
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Spread organic mulch in the garden once the soil has warmed and               
seedlings are about six inches tall.                                            
                                                                                
* For hot summer months, mulch can be especially beneficial for                 
conserving water.  For the vegetable garden, leaves are a good                  
mulch material.  For ornamentals, pine needles or bark do the                   
best job.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Weed cultivation is important for a number of reasons.  It                    
conserves moisture and nutrients in the soil, while helping to                  
prevent the spread of disease and insects.                                      
                                                                                
* To avoid back strain and assorted muscle pains, try the                       
following suggestions while doing lawn work. When weeding, try to               
kneel keeping your chin close to your chest, rather than bending                
on all fours with your back parallel to the ground. When mowing                 
or hoeing make sure the handle is long enough so you can work                   
without doubling over. Lift heavy objects by bending at the                     
knees, not the back, and always move on to another job before                   
your muscles begin to protest at the one you are doing.                         
                                                                                
* The insect problem on your terrace after dusk may be reduced by               
using red or yellow light bulbs. Insects don't see these colors                 
as well as others, so they're not as attracted to the light                     
emitted.                                                                        
                                                                                
* The use of milky spore (Bacillus popilliae) is only effective                 
if your neighbors also apply the soil treatment.  Otherwise                     
Japanese beetle larvae hatching in other yards will reinfest your               
property.                                                                       
                                                                                
* To protect the bees which pollinate many of our crop plants,                  
spray in the evening after bees have returned to their hives.                   
                                                                                
* Protect yourself, your family, and your pets from contact with                
pesticides.  Wear protective clothing and spray only on calm                    
days.  Wash your hands and clothing thoroughly after using garden               
chemicals.                                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Identify garden pests before you attempt to control them.  If                 
you decide to use a chemical control, read the label carefully to               
be sure the chemical is recommended for use on that plant.  Make                
sure you apply the proper amount at the proper time.  Consult                   
with your local extension agent if you have questions about                     
pesticides.                                                                     
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* The best time to harvest most herbs is just before flowering,                 
when their leaves contain the maximum essential oils.  Cut herbs                
early on a sunny day.                                                           
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
Press Releases June 1987                                                        
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, working with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The               
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent                  
use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other                         
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Portulaca                                            53 lines                   
Prolong the Life of Cut Flowers                      67 lines                   
Viburnums for Year Round Interest                    88 lines                   
Shade Plants                                         45 lines                   
Siberian Iris                                        41 lines                   
Spider Mites                                         62 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Portulaca                                                                      
                                                                                
Moss Rose or Portulaca grandiflora, is a dependable garden annual               
that has endeared itself to generations of gardeners. It provides               
nonstop color in the summer garden but demands very little care.                
It is heat and drought resistant and is almost pest and disease                 
free.                                                                           
                                                                                
Overall the plant appears as a small mound 4 to 6 inches high                   
with a spread of up to 2 feet. The fleshy leaves are a pale olive               
green and are arranged alternately on the stem. At first glance                 
the leaves seem to be needle-shaped but closer examination                      
reveals a spoon-shape to the leaves. Because they are thick and                 
fleshy, the leaves have the ability to store water and so are                   
able to withstand drought.                                                      
                                                                                
Depending on the variety, the flowers are either singles, semi-                 
doubles or doubles. The singles look like delicate cups made up                 
of 5 petals. The semi-doubles and the doubles have the appearance               
of miniature roses (hence the name "Moss Rose"). The flower                     
colors range from soft shades of cream, lavender and white to                   
vivid yellow, orange, red, and pink. Although seed packets                      
usually contain mixed colors, some individual shades have been                  
isolated and are now available. The flowers traditionally close                 
on cloudy days and in the evenings. Recently hybridizers have                   
developed new varieties which remain open all day long, among                   
these is 'Afternoon Delight' and 'Cloudbeater.'                                 
                                                                                
Because the seeds are very small, they are difficult to handle                  
individually, but by mixing them with an equal part of dry sand,                
portulaca seeds are easy to sow. Since mature plants shouldn't be               
moved it is best to sow the seeds where you want the flowers. Sow               
in the early spring after all danger of frost has passed.                       
Broadcast the seeds over the area, press seeds into the soil,                   
water lightly, and allow 10-15 days for germination. Thin the                   
seedlings as overcrowding will severly stunt the plants.                        
                                                                                
The most important factors in selecting a garden location for                   
portulaca are sun and soil drainage. Be sure to choose an area                  
that receives full sun. Because this annual prefers drought, the                
soil of this sunny spot should have good drainage. Nothing else                 
really matters as portulaca needs no fertilization. There are                   
virtually no problems with pests and once established, portulaca                
tends to take care of itself during the course of the summer.                   
                                                                                
Portulaca is ideal for container gardening because it is small in               
size and has a shallow root system. Its preference for drought                  
conditions and high temperatures will help it withstand long                    
periods of neglect but in containers it still requires watering                 
every few days. For apartment dwellers, portulaca can provide                   
worry-free gardening on sunny balconies. Even if the gardener is                
away on weekends, portulaca will bide its time and continue to                  
produce vivid flowers.Prolong the Life of Cut Flowers                          
                                                                                
You can prolong the life of cut flowers by giving them special                  
attention when they are picked. A little extra care at that time                
will cause them to last longer in arrangements, or be more                      
attractive throughout a flower show.                                            
                                                                                
Cut flowers early in the morning or late in the evening when they               
are holding their maximum amount of water. If picked during                     
midday when stressed and wilting from lack of water, the flowers                
may not fully recover and need to be discarded. They should be                  
cut several hours before they are to be used to allow time for                  
conditioning.                                                                   
                                                                                
Regardless of what you may have read or heard, there seems to be                
no real preference for morning or evening as the best time for                  
cutting. Flowers and foliage may be somewhat more turgid in the                 
morning, especially if the soil in the garden is somewhat dry.                  
They will have a slightly higher supply of reserve foods in late                
evening, but may be less crisp because of water loss during sunny               
hot weather.                                                                    
                                                                                
Most flowers should be cut before they open fully. They will                    
retain their attractive form longer than if cut when mature.                    
Flowers which open rapidly like roses and poppies should be cut                 
when the buds show color.                                                       
                                                                                
Use a sharp knife or pruning shears when cutting flowers. Do not                
use household shears which will mash the stem and slow the                      
absorbtion of water by the flower. Make a clean slanting cut. A                 
square cut may allow the stem to rest flat on the bottom of the                 
container and reduce water uptake.                                              
                                                                                
Strip off any lower leaves which will not be needed in the flower               
arrangement. Immerse the stems in warm water at about 110                       
degrees. Flowers with shiny or leathery foliage, such as the                    
peony and rose, may be immersed up to the flower. Do not immerse                
leaves which have a soft or fuzzy surface. Flowers with soft                    
pulpy stems like tulips should be immersed in only two or three                 
inches of warm water as the stems soften quickly.                               
                                                                                
Flowers like poppy and poinsettia will bleed a milky sap when                   
cut. This may be prevented by plunging the stem into ice water as               
soon as it is cut, or putting the base of the stem in boiling                   
water for 30 seconds, or by searing the cut end with a flame.                   
Then place the stems in warm water for hardening as suggested                   
above.                                                                          
                                                                                
To ensure long life for your flower arrangement or display,                     
harden the flowers by covering the blooms with wax paper or loose               
plastic bags to reduce transpiration. Store the arrangement in a                
cool dark place out of drafts for 2 or 3 hours then unwrap and                  
display. Avoid conditions which will increase transpiration or                  
wilting. Do not place flowers in direct sun or drafts, or near                  
hot radiators or electric lights.                                               
                                                                                
The use of flower preservatives in the water will extend the life               
of cut flowers. These materials contain sugars to provide                       
nutrients, acids to prevent bacterial growth, and a fungicide to                
reduce the possibility of disease. The addition of aspirin or                   
alum to the water will not help, and the use of salt may be                     
harmful.                                                                        
                                                                                
Mashing woody stems will not increase water intake but may make                 
it easier to insert such stems on a pinpoint. Square cut stems of               
herbaceous materials may be easier to hold on a pinpoint than                   
those with a long slanting cut.                                                 
Viburnums for Year Round Interest                                              
                                                                                
The next time additions are in order for the home landscape                     
consider the benefits provided by viburnums. These plants are                   
dependable and have interesting ornamental value for all seasons                
of the year. The special characteristics of many viburnums                      
include fragrant white flowers in the spring, glossy green leaves               
during the summer, attractive autumn foliage and bright-colored                 
fruits in late summer and fall.                                                 
                                                                                
Viburnums are sturdy shrubs, which are easy to grow and most                    
varieties are hardy in all parts of Virginia. Many viburnums are                
virtually pest free, though some of the snowball viburnums are                  
occasionally attacked by aphids.                                                
                                                                                
Viburnums can be used as specimen shrubs, or in border plantings.               
Be sure to select an appropriate size for the location. Because                 
of the many varieties of viburnums available ranging from very                  
large to small, choose only those that fit space limitations. A                 
large viburnum shrub, constantly pruned to fit a small space will               
never provide the expected effect. If properly located, the shrub               
should need only moderate pruning to retain a desirable form.                   
Viburnums can also be used to attract wildlife such as birds and                
small mammals because of the abundance of fruit produced on each                
bush.                                                                           
                                                                                
Provide a well drained, fertile soil for viburnums. A mulch of                  
wood chips or other organic material extending several feet from                
the base will conserve soil moisture and help suppress weed                     
growth. On good soils, viburnums will make sufficient growth                    
without fertilizer. If the growth is somewhat weak, or the                      
foliage is light green, apply one cupful of 5-10-5 fertilizer                   
around each medium size shrub. Use half this amount on small                    
shrubs, and twice as much on large shrubs. Remember, use                        
fertilizer only on weak growing shrubs planted on infertile                     
soils. Consider some of the following species for planting in the               
home landscape.                                                                 
                                                                                
The Doublefile viburnum (V. plicatum tomentosum) is truly the                   
most spectacular of the viburnum family. In mid May, large white                
non-fragrant flowers are produced in flat clusters, along                       
horizontal branches somewhat like a dogwood. It grows eight feet                
tall with a slightly larger spread. In the fall the foliage                     
changes to a bright red and is accompanied by attractive red                    
fruit which gradually turn black. The dwarf doublefile cultivars,               
'Mariesii' and 'Shasta,' which grow to about six feet, can give                 
an effect equal to the larger species.                                          
                                                                                
The Korean Spice viburnum (V. carlesii) is a favorite because of                
its fragrant spring flowers. The white flowers emerge in late                   
April to early May followed by red to black fruit from August to                
September. This dense shrub is usually rounded with stiff,                      
upright spreading branches. It normally reaches a height of four                
to five feet with an equal to greater spread.                                   
The Wright virbunum (V. wrightii) is a medium size plant about                  
eight feet tall. It has attractive flowers in the spring and an                 
abundant crop of bright red berries from August until October.                  
During October and November, the foliage turns crimson.                         
                                                                                
The Witherod viburnum (V. cassinoides) reaches a height of six                  
feet. This shrub produces an abundance of blooms in late June to                
early July followed by fruits which gradually change color from                 
green to pink, then red to blue before becoming black in                        
September. This characteristic makes witherod viburnum a good                   
selection for high visibility gardens.                                          
                                                                                
The Tea viburnum (V. setigerum) is unusual because of its bright                
orange-colored fruits. It grows to a height of ten to twelve feet               
and has attractive white flowers in flat clusters in late May.                  
Though the fruit is outstanding, the plant does tend to become                  
leggy, and is best combined with other plants in the shrub border               
to hide bare bottom branches.                                                   
                                                                                
A large tree-like viburnum to use as a specimen or in a mass                    
planting is the Black haw (V. prunifolium). It grows fifteen feet               
tall and has attractive white flower clusters in mid May. In the                
fall shiny red leaves contrast with blue-black fruit.                           
                                                                                
Low growing forms of viburnum are now available. The compact                    
European Cranberry bush (V. opulus 'Compactum') grows only five                 
feet tall, with good flower and fruit production even when young.               
A dwarf cultivar, (V. opulus 'Nanum'), seldom exceeds two feet                  
and does not produce flowers or fruit. These low species are                    
useful as hedge plants.                                                         
                                                                                
There are many more varieties of viburnum. Visit a nursery or                   
arboretum to find out about the viburnums that will perform well                
in your area.                                                                   
                                                                                
Shade Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
On the coldest days of winter our memories of gardening center on               
the sunniest spots. But as summer approaches we become interested               
in a shady garden for July and August. Fortunately, there are a                 
number of plants that will not merely tolerate, but actually                    
welcome, the cool dampness of a shady location.                                 
                                                                                
Coleus does well in a semi-shady location. The foliage of these                 
popular plants can brighten the darker corners of your landscape                
with color. Easy-to-grow coleus can be started from cuttings or                 
seed, so they make an excellent plant to share with friends.                    
                                                                                
Another colorful foliage plant for shady locations is the                       
caladium. Caladiums have very few pests and grow well in rich                   
soil in semi-shade.  Grown from bulbs, these plants are expensive               
but can add a variety of color to an otherwise uninteresting                    
area. The variegated foliage may be crimson, scarlet, rose,                     
yellow, white, or green. Wide variety makes them worth the                      
investment for the right location.                                              
                                                                                
The best of the flowering annual shade lovers are the fibrous                   
rooted begonias and impatiens. The selection of both of these                   
plants has increased in recent years. Many of the most successful               
new hybrids have uniform growth habits such as flower size and                  
plant height but have been bred in a wide range of colors so that               
you can select or blend colors to suit a particular theme.                      
                                                                                
Additional plants for areas of partial shade are:                               
                                                                                
Perennials: Tuberous Begonias (if bulbs are dug each year),                     
Lobelia cardinalis, Primula (evening primrose)                                  
                                                                                
Biennials: Myosotis (forget-me-nots), Digitalis (foxglove),                     
Bellis (English daisy), Dianthus (sweet william)                                
                                                                                
Annuals: Malcomia (Virginian stock), Eschscholzia (California                   
poppy), Lobularia (sweet alyssum), Nicotiana ( flowering                        
tobacco), Viola (pansy), Vinca (periwinkle), Torenia, Balsam,                   
Godetia, Mimulus (monkey flower), Nemophila, Wax Begonia                        
                                                                                
Many of these shade plants have the added benefit of doing as                   
well in containers as in the ground; so if you don't have a place               
for a shade garden, try a few plants in pots on the patio or even               
in a window box on the northeast side of the house.                             
                                                                                
Siberian Iris                                                                  
                                                                                
Siberian or Beardless iris are among the easiest iris to grow.                  
They have graceful foliage and dainty flowers, and bloom for                    
about three to five weeks after the tall bearded irises in early                
to mid-summer. The blooms range in size from miniature to five                  
inches in diameter on standard varieties. The leaves have a                     
grass-like appearance and stay attractive all summer. Height                    
varies from 20 to 48 inches with the average in the 30 to 36 inch               
range. The seed pods are also attractive and useful in dried                    
flower arrangements.                                                            
                                                                                
The color range of Siberian irises includes many shades of white,               
blue, violet, rose, yellow and bicolors. Among the recommended                  
varieties of Siberian iris are Snow Crest, Blue Brilliant,                      
Caesar's Brother, and Eric the Red.                                             
                                                                                
The Siberian iris has excellent value as a landscape plant.                     
Virtually pest and disease free, they can be important as                       
specimen plants as well as in massed plantings. Very tolerant of                
cold temperatures, Siberian irises can be grown in all parts of                 
Virginia. These plants thrive in well-moistened areas and achieve               
their full height and good stem characteristics when grown in                   
high moisture areas like those found near ponds. They prefer                    
fertile soil that is adequately moist yet well drained.                         
Fertilization should take place in early spring and after                       
flowering. These iris have also been found to tolerate lime and                 
heavy clay soils.                                                               
                                                                                
Siberian iris flowers are ideal for arranging because they are so               
long lasting. Thriving in sun or shade, the plants are easily                   
propagated by root division, either in early spring or in early                 
fall. When dividing large clumps, separate them into groups of                  
five or more leafing rhizomes or fans. Recent experience shows                  
that the plants can be successfully transplanted in the spring                  
and also after blooming season if adequate moisture is given                    
until they are established. Before planting the divisions, make                 
sure that the holes in which you will be putting them are large                 
enough to spread out the fibrous roots for proper establishment.                
Adequate moisture is the key to growing Siberian irises well,                   
whether in the field, garden or container.                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Spider Mites                                                                   
                                                                                
Spider mites are not insects; they are closely related to                       
spiders, harvestmen (daddy longlegs), and ticks. Unlike insects                 
which have six legs and three body parts, spider mites have eight               
legs and a one-piece body. They also lack wings, antennae, and                  
compound eyes. Individual spider mites are almost microscopic,                  
yet when they occur in large numbers, they can cause serious                    
damage. Dozens of species attack shade trees, shrubs, and                       
herbaceous plants.                                                              
                                                                                
The two-spotted mite overwinters as an adult in the soil; the                   
honeylocust mite overwinters as an adult in the bark crevices on                
the trunk and branches. Most other common species on trees and                  
shrubs overwinter as tiny round eggs on leaves or bark. These                   
eggs hatch in March or April. First-stage larvae have only six                  
legs, but after molting, they become eight-legged nymphs. Both                  
larvae and nymphs resemble the adults. Development time from egg                
to adult varies from 5 to 21 days depending on the species of                   
mite and the weather. Many generations occur each year. Under                   
optimal conditions, populations can build up very rapidly.                      
                                                                                
Spider mites on conifers and broadleaved evergreens are cool                    
weather pests. They feed heavily and reproduce quickly in spring                
and fall. Activity is low during the hot part of summer, although               
damage is often at a maximum and becomes easier to see when other               
plants are green and growing normally. Spider mites on                          
honeylocust, linden, elm, willow, and oak are destructive in the                
summer. The two-spotted mite thrives whenever conditions are                    
favorable for plant growth.                                                     
                                                                                
Spider mites lack chewing or piercing sucking mouthparts. Instead               
they have a pair of needle-like structures called stylets which                 
are used to rupture leaf cells. A feeding spider mite pushes its                
mouth into the torn tissue and draws up cell sap. Small patches                 
of cells are killed, resulting in a stippling or fine flecking on               
the upper surface of leaves. On heavily infested plants, the                    
foliage appears bronzed, bleached, yellow, or grey. Untreated,                  
such plants lose vigor, become progressively weaker, and may                    
eventually die.                                                                 
                                                                                
Spider mite damage to foliage is similar on all host plants: fine               
stippling which progresses to an overall bronzing of the leaves.                
With a hand lens, egg shells and cast skins are usually visible                 
on the underside of damaged leaves. Mites can be observed by                    
shaking infested leaves over a white piece of paper. The mites                  
are about the size of the period at the end of this sentence.                   
                                                                                
Spruce Mites are found only on conifers, hemlock, arborvitae,                   
spruce, fir, juniper, and occasionally pine. A fine webbing which               
collects dust and dirt is produced on the foliage where they                    
feed. Infested plants lose their color and the foliage becomes                  
thin, because severly damaged needles drop prematurely.                         
                                                                                
Most insecticides are not effective on mites and some result in                 
increased mite damage by killing their natural enemies. Use a                   
recommended miticide as listed in Virginia Tech's Pest Control                  
Recommendations, call your local county or city Extension Agent.                
Always read the label before applying any pesticide.                            
                                                                                
(Information provided by Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab,                
adapted from Insect Identification Laboratory Factsheet Number 5,               
by Daniel J. Hilburn, Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech.)                 
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
June 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Horticulture Extension               
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home                  
Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                       
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                        
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Fertilizing Asparagus                     7 lines                               
Hypericum                                23 lines                               
Cabbage Head Splitting                   12 lines                               
Onion Seed Stalks                        17 lines                               
Bush Cherries                            22 lines                               
Poor Set on Peppers                      13 lines                               
Mixed Annual Containers                  35 lines                               
Scabiosa                                 21 lines                               
Liriope Hardiness                         8 lines                               
Yellowwood                               13 lines                               
Climbing Annual Vines                    44 lines                               
Kousa Dogwood                            24 lines                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Should I fertilize my asparagus?                                                
                                                                                
Work compost or other organic material into the soil and apply a                
complete fertilizer mixture such as 5-10-20 (1 pound per 10 feet                
of row) before planting asparagus. At the end of the cutting                    
season (around July 15) each year, apply an equal amount of a                   
complete fertilizer mixture.                                                    
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
I need a shrub or ground cover for summer color that can                        
withstand poor soil and requires little maintenance. What can you               
recommend?                                                                      
                                                                                
For summer color many of us turn to the old standbys such as                    
crape myrtle or Rose of Sharon to provide interest in the shrub                 
border. You can add to the summer blooming period by using                      
hypericum in your landscape. To effectively describe this plant                 
the best word to use is "carefree."                                             
                                                                                
Hypericum is a low growing, semi-evergreen plant which ranges                   
from 1 to 4 feet in height and spread, depending on the variety.                
It blooms prolifically from June through October producing bright               
yellow blooms at the end of each new shoot. This shrub is at its                
best in full sun and well drained soil, but tends to be tolerant                
of a variety of conditions. Noted for its tolerance of city                     
conditions, it also withstands dry, rocky soils, variable pH, and               
partial shade.                                                                  
Hypericum has no major disease or insect problems and rarely                    
requires pruning. It is best used in front of tall shrubs but can               
also be effective in groupings or in mass. It can be bought in                  
containers and transplanted in spring or summer, if watered well                
for root establishment.                                                         
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
Why do cabbage heads split?                                                     
                                                                                
Cabbage heads split because of pressure from too much water                     
entering the head through the root system after the heads become                
solid. As the heads near full size and become moderately firm,                  
reducing the inflow of water will be critical, particularly if                  
the are frequent rains. There are several ways that this can be                 
accomplished. One idea is to cut the roots on one side with a                   
shovel thereby reducing the number of roots and water intake by                 
one half. A second option is to twist the head of the cabbage 90                
degrees also removing roots and lowering water uptake. Another                  
methos is simply to pull up on each plant enough to break a few                 
of the roots.                                                                   
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
Why do some onion plants form seed stalks and others not?                       
                                                                                
Onions are biennials so they grow vegetative by the first year                  
and produce seed the second year. Onion plants grown from seeds                 
sown in the late winter or early spring rarely form seed stalks                 
unless they are severly chilled by heavy frosts or freezing                     
temperatures.                                                                   
                                                                                
Onion plants grown from sets generally form seed stalks only when               
individual sets are larger than 3/4 inch in diameter when                       
planted. The reason for this is that onion sets are small onion                 
bulbs that have been harvested and cured before they reach full                 
size. Sets are produced by sowing seeds of the desired cultivar                 
very thickly in early summer - about 12 to 15 seeds per inch of                 
row, in rows of 12 to 15 inches apart. These are allowed to                     
mature and are stored for sales and planting the next spring.                   
Since the bulbs are in the second season of growth the larger                   
ones respond as mature biennials and flower.                                    
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
Is the bush cherry that I see advertised in catalogs a true                     
cherry? Will It give me fruit like a Bing cherry?                               
                                                                                
Although not a true cherry, the ornamental bush cherry (Prunus                  
tomentosa) is a useful plant which can provide fruit as well as                 
color in your garden. Bush cherries can be a problem solver for                 
the homeowner who wishes to have flowers and fruit but has little               
space. These plants occupy less space than many fruit trees while               
producing a large amount of fruit.                                              
                                                                                
Although the fruit do not compare to true cherries, the juicy,                  
red fruits are borne thickly along the branches requiring no                    
ladder, just a long arm since. Reaching a height of 4-6 feet,                   
these plants can be pruned into a hedge to form a fruiting screen               
for food and privacy. The tart and tangy cherries are best used                 
in canning and baking. These shrubs also serve to attract birds                 
to the yard if a plant to feed wildlife is desired.                             
                                                                                
As a landscape specimen, bush cherries provide a pleasing show of               
fragrant, snow white blossoms in early spring. Planted in full                  
sun and well drained soil. Once these plants become established                 
they should begin to produce fruit in as little as three years                  
and continue for 15-20 years.                                                   
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
What causes poor fruit set in sweet peppers?                                    
                                                                                
Pepper plants, especially cultivars of the large fruited,                       
California Wonder type, such as 'Lady Bell' and 'Jupiter'                       
occasionally fail to set early fruits. One reason for poor                      
fruiting is that the plants may have been too old and root bound                
before planting. Another possibility is the plants became too                   
cold during the holding period before planting. The pepper plants               
may also have become too dry sometime before planting, or were                  
severly chilled following planting. Too much nitrogen in                        
proportion to phosphorus and potassium in the soil also can cause               
excessive vegetative growth and result in poor fruit set. Once                  
the peppers are allowed to adjust to a favorable environment they               
should perform well.                                                            
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
Could you give some tips on making a mixed container of annuals?                
I love the effect they make.                                                    
                                                                                
Many gardeners are very successful with mixed containers, using                 
several varieties of flowers and foliages in pleasing                           
combinations of color and texture. Almost any type of plant can                 
be combined with a few guidelines.                                              
                                                                                
Design the container plantings for shade or for sun, combining                  
only those flowers which do well together. Semperflorens bronze-                
leaved begonia or any of the green-leaved begonias or medium-                   
flowered tuberous begonias, impatiens, salvia and browallia all                 
work well in containers for shade. For a sunny location, the                    
choice is almost unlimited.                                                     
                                                                                
Include plants for height (e.g. Shasta daisies or geraniums),                   
plants for spread (e.g. petunias,) and plants to grow down over                 
the edges of the containers. Trailing foliage plants are useful                 
here as well as those that flower such as hanging fuchsias and                  
verbena.                                                                        
                                                                                
Plant too much rather than too little. Err on the side of extra                 
plants for a lush, full effect. But to compensate for extra                     
plants fertilize and water properly. Apply a slow release                       
fertilizer for summer-long feeding. Water abundantly throughout                 
the summer.                                                                     
                                                                                
Here are a couple of ideas for container planting combinations                  
that work well.                                                                 
                                                                                
Pink and white full sun container: pink Begonia, white Nicotiana,               
rose-pink Geranium, white Petunias, white Snapdragon, white                     
Dimorphoteca, pink Vinca.                                                       
                                                                                
Blue and pink shade container: pink Impatiens, pink Begonia,                    
violet Impatiens, Browallia, Dusty Miller, and Alyssum.                         
                                                                                
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What is a Mourning Bride or a Pincushion Flower?                                
                                                                                
Both are common names for an admirable all purpose annual flower,               
Scabiosa atropurpureus. However, pincushion is the more apt name,               
as it describes blossom size and appearance. Interpreted                        
literally, the botanical name means a dark purple plant that                    
cures the itch, a totally incorrect description.                                
                                                                                
Pincushion grows rapidly from large, sure-sprouting seeds. Plants               
are rather open and floppy because of the long stems. Try growing               
2 or 3 plants inside a 2 ft. high cylinder of chicken wire, 8 to                
9 inches in diameter. After a while the wire will be virtually                  
invisible.                                                                      
                                                                                
Seeds can be sown early out-of-doors; young plants are frost                    
hardy. Pincushion flowers will withstand quite a bit of heat if                 
spent blossoms are removed and the plants are watered frequently.               
                                                                                
Seed breeders have selected a wide range of pastel pink, rose,                  
lavender and orchid colors while retaining the deep wine and                    
purple shades. Few other flowers can match pincushion for                       
production of long stemmed, long lasting cut flowers.                           
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
Can I grow Liriope or lily grass here in southwest Virginia? The                
information I've read says it's only hardy from Zone 7 south.                   
                                                                                
The lilyturfs, those grass-like, Oriental evergreen groundcover                 
and edging plants of the genera Liriope and Ophiopogon have long                
been considered plants for the South and the Pacific Coast.                     
However many of them today are grown successfully where tempera-                
tures go as low as -20 degrees. Give it a try! They may be                      
damaged in especially cold winters but should recover.                          
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
I'm looking for an unusual carefree tree. My neighbors all have                 
the large maples, oaks, etc. I would like something smaller. Have               
any ideas?                                                                      
                                                                                
A good choice for your needs may be the American Yellowwood,                    
(Cladrastis lutea). Yellowwood is a native tree of the southeast                
considered by many to be the foremost American flowering tree.                  
Its fragrant white blooms occur in 8 to 14 inch panicles in June.               
The tree is also noted for its attractive bright green leaves and               
smooth beech-like bark. Another asset of this species is the low                
incidence of disease and insect problems,including gypsy moths.                 
The tree should be placed in full sun and well drained soil. It                 
is of medium size and spread (average 40 feet in heaight and 45                 
feet in spread), making it an ideal tree for smaller properties.                
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
I recently moved into a ground floor apartment which has a                      
beautiful back patio surrounded by a wooden wall. I may only be                 
here a year or so and would like to enhance these walls and the                 
narrow planting beds without spending a lot of money on plants                  
which I'll just have to leave when I move out. What kind of                     
suggestions can you give me?                                                    
                                                                                
To give quick color and brighten your walls consider planting                   
several different kinds of annuals vines along with other long                  
blooming annuals such as marigolds. A good choice for easy                      
blooming along the walls is the scarlet runner bean which can be                
planted successively during the growing season for continuous                   
bloom. It is excellent for attracting hummingbirds.                             
                                                                                
Another easy to grow and inexpensive blooming vine is the morning               
glory which now comes in many new and exciting varieties that                   
make it a choice plant for quick color. Though native varieties                 
are known to be a garden pest, new cultivars are not rampant self               
seeders and can be grown safely without fear of invasion. These                 
varieties include 'Heavenly Blue,' 'Scarlet O'Hara' and 'Pearly                 
Gates.'                                                                         
                                                                                
A little known but potentially popular vine to try is Cobaea or                 
Cathedral Bells. This perennial, which is usually treated as an                 
annual, climbs to height of 10-20 feet and comes in shades of                   
deep blue and white.                                                            
                                                                                
An unusual vine that may quickly become your favorite is the                    
Black-eyed susan vine (Thunbergia alata). This vine has                         
characteristic yellow blooms with a black eye making it a unique                
addition to your blooming wall. It is a good choice for low                     
walls, growing to height of four feet.                                          
                                                                                
If you plan to provide evening entertainment, you may wish to                   
plant the Moon Vine which blooms from dusk to dawn. The fragrant                
white blooms of this vine will captivate your guests as well as                 
brighten any gloomy corner of your patio.                                       
                                                                                
Any of these selections are easily affordable when purchased as                 
seeds and sown where they are to grow. As a precaution you should               
check with your neighbors before planting the larger spreading                  
vines along common fences. They may not be as enthusiastic about                
having vining plants as you are, on the other hand, who would                   
complain about free flowers? If you suspect a problem stick to                  
varieties which grow no larger than your fence.                                 
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
I love dogwoods. Is there any way I can extend the blooming                     
season of these plants?                                                         
                                                                                
If you miss the effect of the flowering dogwood after its blooms                
are gone, you can extend the spring dogwood season by using Kousa               
dogwood, (Cornus kousa), in addition to the native varieties.                   
Kousa dogwood is a native  of Japan and Korea which blooms two to               
three weeks after our American varieties have ceased. The                       
pointed, creamy white bracts occur in June and can last up to six               
weeks or longer. The tree develops a beautiful exfoliating bark                 
which provides unusual winter interest. It has an effective red                 
to purple fall foliage as well as pinkish red drupes from August                
through October. The branching pattern is horizontal which is                   
distinctive to the dogwood family.                                              
                                                                                
Kousa dogwood has no serious disease or insect problems.  Kousa                 
prefers a sunny, well drained, organically amended soil while                   
native dogwoods grow in a variety of situations. Kousa dogwoods                 
are slower growing than natives but more drought resistant.                     
                                                                                
When planted at the corner of a house the Kousa, with its                       
horizontal branching habit, will break up the dominant vertical                 
lines of the house. The tree will slowly reach a height of 20                   
feet with an equal spread. Purchase young specimens either in a                 
container or balled and burlapped.                                              
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
March Notes                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plant roses and bare-root shrubs while they are still dormant,                
about 4 weeks before the average date of the last frost.                        
                                                                                
* Buy some new perennials for your flower border. Spring is                     
a good time to renew and add variety to your landscape. Visit                   
a local garden center or secure catalogs from your favorite                     
nursery.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Cannas for early flowering may be started in boxes or large                   
pots in a warm cellar or enclosed porch. Cut the rhizomes into                  
pieces of convenient size and plant in a soil mixture containing                
adequate sand for good drainage. The developing plants are tender               
to cold and may be set in the garden about a week after the                     
average date of the last frost in your area.                                    
                                                                                
* Complete the pruning of shrubs, ornamental trees and fruit                    
trees before growth starts, except for spring flowering shrubs.                 
Prune those which bloom in spring as soon as they finish flower-                
ing.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Repot houseplants that have grown too large for their con-                    
tainers. Cut back leggy plants to encourage compact growth. Root                
the cuttings in moist media to increase your supply of plants.                  
                                                                                
* Don't plow your garden when the soil is wet. It will form                     
clods which are difficult to break up and interfere with cultiva-               
tion during the summer.                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't rush to remove mulch from perennials and strawberries.                  
Leave it over your plants to protect them from later cold spells.               
When plants start to grow, the mulch must be removed to allow                   
leaves to develop in the light. If leaves develop under the                     
mulch, they will become etiolated and yellow from lack of                       
chlorophyll, and may be burned and die when they are exposed to                 
the sun.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Shrubs and trees in the home landscape break up sound waves                   
and reduce the nerve-shattering noise of modern society. Plant                  
some new shrubs and trees this spring to improve the beauty                     
and ambience of your home.                                                      
                                                                                
* Apply a liberal side dressing of 5-10-5 fertilizer on your                    
asparagus bed and around your rhubarb plants. Use about 4                       
lbs. per 100 sq. ft. and scratch it into the top 2 inches of                    
soil. Renew the organic mulch to a depth of about 1 inch to help                
conserve soil moisture during the summer.                                       
                                                                                
* Unsterilized soil may contain organisms that cause damping off,               
a disease that can make young seedlings wither and die suddenly.                
Use a sterilized potting mix in clean pots or flats.                            
                                                                                
* Prune evergreen shrubs before growth starts.                                  
                                                                                
* Boxwood should be pruned by thinning out the top half of the                  
plant and cutting back the branches to retain desired height.                   
                                                                                
* Trees and shrubs which are making weak growth should be                       
fertilized to stimulate more attractive development. About a                    
month before your average last frost apply approximately 1 cup of               
5-10-5 to shrubs 4-8 feet tall. Use more or less with different                 
sized plants. On trees, apply 2 lbs. of 5-10-5 for each inch                    
diameter measured at 3 feet above the ground. Apply uniformly                   
over root zone and water in thoroughly.                                         
                                                                                
* Seed root crops such as carrots, beets, radish and parsnips                   
in your garden.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Start transplants indoors of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant.                 
                                                                                
* Use crabgrass killer before forsythia blooms fade.                            
                                                                                
* When spring-flowering bulbs complete their flowering cycle,                   
fertilize with a little super phosphate or bonemeal to ensure                   
quality blooms next year. Remove the bulb foliage only after                    
it dies naturally.                                                              
                                                                                
* Many annual flowers are very frost hardy when plants are small                
including alyssum, California poppy, candytuft,larkspur, pansy &                
viola, phlox, pinks, Shirley poppy, snapdragon, stock, and sweet                
pea. Seeds can be sown as soon as the soil has thawed.                          
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant perennials such as ajuga, Shasta daisies,               
daylilies, liriope, and oxalis. Rework beds before planting,                    
adding organic matter and fertilizer.                                           
                                                                                
* Greenhouse-grown plants, even hardy kinds, should be acclimati-               
zed before transplanting to the garden in the early spring to                   
minimize the chance of frost injury.                                            
                                                                                
* Spring applications of pesticides should be made on peaches,                  
apples, and pears. Correct timing for spraying depends on the                   
stage of development of flowers. Request a spray schedule from                  
your local agent.                                                               
                                                                                
* Cover old stumps with soil to hasten decay.                                   
                                                                                
* Do not add lime to area for potatoes. The lower pH helps                      
control scab.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Mulches can change soil temperature. Black plastic warms the                  
soil and should be applied before planting. Organic materials                   
delay the sun's penetration thereby keeping the soil cooler. App-               
ly organic mulches after plants are 3-4 inches tall and soil is                 
warm.                                                                           
                                                                                
* A child's first garden should include sunflowers from seeds.                  
The large seeds sprout quickly and dependably and the strong                    
seedlings can push their way through crusted soil. If you are                   
shooting for record sunflowers, your plants will need to top 20                 
feet in height with seed head diameters of 2 feet to be in the                  
running.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Propagate deciduous shrubs such as forsythia and winter jasmine               
now by ground layering.                                                         
                                                                                
* Wait until the weather warms to start putting houseplants                     
outside.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Don't plant more flowers and vegetables than you can maintain.                
Instead, take time to enjoy the spring bulbs and other flowers.                 
                                                                                
* If you haven't done it already, check stored tools and outdoor                
furniture for signs of rust. Remove any surface rust with steel                 
wool and paint with rust-inhibitive paint.                                      
                                                                                
* Rejuvenate your liriope by using a lawn mower to cut back the                 
old foliage to a height of 2 to 3 inches. Avoid mowing too                      
closely and thereby damaging the crown of the plant, as that is                 
where the new growth emerges.                                                   
                                                                                
* Check the average date of the last frost in your area before                  
beginning spring gardening chores. Your county extension agent                  
can give you this information.                                                  
                                                                                
* When buying transplants of flowers and vegetables, choose those               
plants with a compact, bushy form and bright green leaves. Young,               
healthy plants with no flowers or flower buds will adapt more                   
easily and overcome the shock of planting much faster.                          
                                                                                
* Parsley is extremely rich in vitamins A and C. Start some seeds               
indoors now for later transplanting to a sunny corner of the                    
vegetable garden.                                                               
                                                                                
* Houseplants can be watered more frequently with the onset of                  
spring and new growth.                                                          
                                                                                
* Seeds of some annuals such as verbenas, snapdragons and                       
petunias that take 70 to 90 days to bloom should be started                     
indoors in early spring.                                                        
                                                                                
* Variegated plants can help add the illusion of light to a                     
dark area. Shade-loving groundcovers such as variegated liriope,                
ivies, euonymus, and hosta can be very effective for this.                      
                                                                                
* This is the time to start resurrecting the lily pool. Drain and               
clean the pool before growth begins. Plant new hardy water                      
lilies early.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Apply a pre-emergence herbicide before lawn weeds get started.                
These types of chemicals work by preventing the seed from                       
germinating. Therefore, it is important that the herbicides be                  
applied in early spring, before growth of the weed seedlings.                   
Check with your local extension agent for specific recommen-                    
dations.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Don't overexert those underworked winter muscles as you begin                 
your spring gardening. Bend at the knees and lift with your                     
legs, not your back.                                                            
                                                                                
* Hedges can receive their first pruning this month. As you                     
prune, be sure to leave the base of the plant wider than the top.               
This allows sunlight to get to the bottom of the plant, creating                
a full, dense hedge.                                                            
                                                                                
* You may wish to try some new, unusual vegetables in your garden               
this year. A few that can grow successfully in this area are bok                
choy, Jerusalem artichoke, kohlrabi, leeks and horseradish. For                 
planting and harvesting tips, call your extension agent.                        
                                                                                
* Towards the end of the month, plant onion sets, potatoes, peas,               
radishes, asparagus, carrots, turnips, leaf lettuce and other                   
cold-hardy vegetables.                                                          
                                                                                
* Turn the compost pile and add manure.                                         
                                                                                
* Garden magazines are a convenient source for gathering new                    
information. The cost is low, the information up-to-date, and                   
they're delivered to your door.                                                 
                                                                                
* If weeds occur in bulb beds do not remove them by cultivation,                
but pull them by hand so that the bulbs and roots will not be                   
disturbed.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Pick a permanent spot for herbs in the garden. Many of them                   
will come up year after year.                                                   
                                                                                
* When a blanket of snow insulates the lawn, temperatures at                    
ground level may rise to above freezing. Snow mold fungi which                  
appears as a white cottony growth on grass blades thrives at                    
temperatures between 32 and 65 F. To reduce possible snow mold                  
damage, remove heavy snow accumulations in shady areas. If you                  
cannot physically remove the snow, spread ashes or dry peat moss                
on the snow. The dark colored material will absorb solar radiati-               
on and melt the snow faster.                                                    
                                                                                
* Take care to keep off soft and soggy lawns. Lime spreaders,                   
wheelbarrows and other equipment will leave compaction marks.                   
Seed new lawns and do repairs after the land has drained.                       
                                                                                
* Do not spade clay soil when wet. Hard clods will form and                     
interfere with plant emergence and growth.                                      
                                                                                
* Trees which bleed such as birch and maple should not be pruned                
until after their leaves are fully developed.                                   
                                                                                
* Hostas, liriope, daylilies, dicentra, Shasta daisies and coral                
bells are some perennials which can be divided before growth                    
starts.                                                                         
                                                                                
* To extend the asparagus harvest, remove the mulch from only                   
half the bed at first. The sunlight will encourage these plants                 
to sprout more quickly. In 2 or 3 weeks when shoots appear in the               
mulched half, carefully remove the remaining mulch.                             
                                                                                
* When sowing seeds for transplants, leave about 1/4" of space                  
between seeds to allow them to grow adequately and to discourage                
damping-off fungus.                                                             
                                                                                
* The flavor and quality of the new white and yellow varieties of               
beets are similar to the traditional red cultivars.                             
                                                                                
* The Waterlily Society has been formed by a group of                           
aquatic plant lovers. For further information, write them at                    
Box 104, Lilypons, MD 21717.                                                    
                                                                                
* Topiary is the art of clipping and trimming a plant into                      
unusual designs. Forms for indoor typiary can be purchased or                   
shaped by hand from galvanized wire. One media mix for topiary                  
forms is 1 part peatmoss to 1 part potting soil surrounded by                   
sheet moss. Plants such as English ivy and creeping thyme work                  
well for this use.                                                              
                                                                                
* Crabapples, valued for their beautiful spring blossoms and                    
attractive fruit, are members of the rose family. Along with many               
of their relatives, many crabapples are susceptible to diseases                 
such as scab, cedar-apple rust, powdery mildew, and fire blight.                
All of these diseases shorten the life span of the trees and                    
diminish their ornamental qualities. You will want to plant                     
disease-resistant cultivars of crabapple such as 'Ames White',                  
'Autumn Glory', 'Baskatong', 'Beauty', 'Coral Cascade', 'Evelyn',               
'Harvest Gold', 'Molten Lava', 'Red Snow', 'Robinson', 'Tina',                  
or 'Wies'.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Boxwood may be moved now; do not plant them deeper than they                  
were previously planted. Trim and fertilize established boxwood                 
before new growth starts, but do not cultivate under boxwood                    
since their roots are shallow and may be damaged.                               
                                                                                
* After pussywillow catkins have passed their prime, prune the                  
plants drastically to encourage long branches and large catkins                 
for next year.                                                                  
                                                                                
* If your outdoor space is limited, consider gardening without a                
garden. Tomatoes, peppers, lettuce and many other vegetables do                 
well when grown in containers. Barrels, window boxes, cut off                   
milk jugs, almost anything providing good drainage will do as                   
long as it is deep enough to support the plant. Minimum depths                  
for some container-grown vegetables:                                            
 4"-lettuce, radishes, beets, low growing herbs                                 
 6"-chard, turnips, short-rooted carrots                                        
 8"-eggplant, peppers, bush cucumbers                                           
10"-cauliflower, broccoli                                                       
12"-tomatoes, long-rooted carrots                                               
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
March 1986 Press Releases                                                       
                                                                                
Strawberries                    70 lines                                        
Dahlia Culture                  66 lines                                        
Herb Gardening                  54 lines                                        
Grow Your Own Figs              67 lines                                        
Container Gardening             54 lines                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Strawberries                                                                    
                                                                                
Delicious strawberries can be grown in the home garden. Strawber-               
ries will produce more fruit in a small space than almost any                   
other berry crop. Twenty-five plants are enough for a row                       
approximately 40 feet long. They should produce 25 or more quarts               
of berries next spring if planted this year.                                    
                                                                                
Select several varieties to give early, midseason and late                      
harvest. Earlidawn is one of the best very early varieties as                   
its blossoms are somewhat tolerant to cold. Catskill and Pocahon-               
tas are fine for midseason. Surecrop and Redchief will supply                   
large crops of late fruit. Marlate is popular since it bears a                  
week or more after the other late varieties. Everbearing varieti-               
es produce fewer berries which are generally of lower quality,                  
but new varieties are beginning to show promise.                                
                                                                                
You will find strawberries are an easy crop to raise on fertile,                
well drained soil with a pH between 5.7 and 6.5. Fertilization                  
is seldom necessary on good soils supplied with organic matter.                 
Where a soil analysis indicates the need, about 1 lb. per 100' of               
row of a complete fertilizer, such as 10-10-10 or 10-6-4,                       
should be cultivated into the soil before planting.                             
                                                                                
Strawberries should be planted in the spring 3 or 4 weeks                       
before the average date of the last frost in your locality. Set                 
the plants from 12 to 24" apart, in rows 3 to 3 1/2 feet apart.                 
Set each plant so that the base of the central bud is at the                    
soil level. If set too low, soil may wash over the crown during                 
a rainstorm and smother the plant. If set too high, the top part                
of the roots will be exposed and the plant will make poor growth.               
Spread the roots out and firm the soil about them to eliminate                  
air pockets in the soil.                                                        
                                                                                
Pick off any flowers which develop during the first summer. The                 
plants need to use all of the food produced for the formation                   
of runners which will produce fruit next year. Even if you left                 
the flowers and secured a few berries this year, they would be                  
small and of poor quality.                                                      
                                                                                
Within a few weeks after planting, your strawberry plants will                  
start to develop runners. If allowed to grow without interference               
they will form a matted row about two feet wide. If you choose to               
allow your plants to grow in a matted row, begin with a wide                    
spacing -- 24" between plants.                                                  
                                                                                
Alternatively, you may wish to try the  hill system or the spaced               
row system of training. In the hill system of training, plants                  
are spaced 12" apart in the row but runners are removed as soon                 
as they start developing. Larger crowns with extra large berries                
develop with this system. Many homeowners prefer the hill system                
as plantings are easier to cultivate. When using the spaced row                 
system, plants are set 18 to 24 " apart. Runners are set 6 to 12"               
apart until the desired stand is established. All late forming                  
runners are removed as they appear. Spaced rows produce large,                  
uniform plants.                                                                 
                                                                                
Keep weeds and grass pulled from your strawberry bed. Perform                   
this job regularly, at least ever two weeks in new beds. Cultiva-               
tion must be shallow to prevent root injury. A light mulch (1-2")               
of straw, wood chips, or pine needles will help conserve soil                   
moisture and suppress weeds.                                                    
                                                                                
Your strawberries must continue to grow vigorously during the                   
summer and fall to develop large crowns with flower buds for the                
crop next summer. Apply water during dry periods. If the foliage                
becomes somewhat light green in late summer, broadcast 1 lb. of                 
10-10-10 per 100' row in late August or early September. Brush                  
the fertilizer off the plants to avoid foliage injury.                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Dahlia Culture                                                                  
                                                                                
The dahlia is an ideal flower for the home garden. It grows                     
vigorously and produces an abundance of beautiful flowers. The                  
blooms are excellent for arrangements, and for exhibition                       
purposes.                                                                       
                                                                                
Dahlias are now available in many sizes and shapes. Try some                    
of the new and attractive forms which have a wide range of                      
colors. Get catalogs from seedsmen who handle this plant, or                    
check with your local florist or garden center to be sure they                  
plan to have some of the new varieties this year.                               
                                                                                
Single dahlias look like large daisies with eight white or                      
colored petals. Collarette varieties are similar to the singles,                
but have an extra row of short petals around the center disc of                 
the flower. Orchid-flowered dahlias have very graceful form with                
eight petals curled into attractive pointed tubes.                              
                                                                                
New colors and forms are available in the double varieties. The                 
large decorative types have flowers which are eight to 12 inches                
across. Ball dahlias have compact round flowers from four                       
to six inches in diameter. Pompon types resemble small ball                     
dahlias, two inches or less in diameter. The cactus varieties                   
are very attractive and are particularly useful in flower                       
arrangements.                                                                   
                                                                                
Dahlias can be propagated by seed but plants from seed frequently               
do not come true to variety. Seeds which are produced in large                  
quantities by the single-flowered varieties are usually sold as                 
annual mixtures. Double-flowered varieties rarely produce                       
reliable seed. Tuberous root divisions give the showiest blooms.                
                                                                                
Dahlias grow best in a deep, fertile, well-drained soil in a                    
sunny location. Tubers should be spaced three or four feet apart                
if large exhibition flowers are desired. For small flowers in                   
beds or for cutting, plants may be about two feet apart. The                    
cluster of tuberous roots may be separated and planted at about                 
the time of the last killing frost. Root divisions should be                    
placed on their side about five inches deep. Cover with about two               
inches of soil and fill the remainder of the hole as the shoots                 
develop.                                                                        
                                                                                
For large blooms, allow only one stalk per root to develop.                     
Remove all small weak sprouts. When the shoot is about six inches               
tall, pinch back to about the third set of leaves to promote                    
branching. Only four main branches should be allowed to develop                 
on large flowering varieties. As the stems grow they should be                  
tied to a stake to prevent breakage. Disbudding may be practiced                
to secure large blooms for exhibition purposes.                                 
                                                                                
Seeds of the small varieties are sown early indoors in a light-w-               
eight medium. They will germinate in 10 to 15 days at 70 degrees                
F. Transplant young plants into individual pots after the third                 
true leaf develops. Plant in the garden after danger of frost has               
past.                                                                           
                                                                                
Adequate moisture must be provided to promote vigorous growth                   
and flower production in dahlias. A mulch of 1 or 2 inches of                   
peat moss or sawdust will help conserve soil moisture during dry                
periods. Eliminate all weeds which would compete with the plants.               
Fertilize at planting time with 1/2 cup per plant of a 5-10-5 or                
10-10-10 fertilizer dug into the soil. Faded flowers should be                  
removed to encourage continuous blooming. Gardeners should be on                
the lookout for damage by Japanese beetles; treat if necessary.                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Herb Gardening                                                                  
                                                                                
Herbs may be grown in the home garden to provide seasoning for                  
food, flavoring for cool drinks, and scents and decorations for                 
the home. Plants are quite free from damage by diseases and                     
insects. A few short rows in the vegetable or flower garden will                
provide an adequate supply for the average family.                              
                                                                                
A well-drained, fertile soil with pH 6.0 to 7.0 is best for                     
herbs. Apply two pounds of 10-10-10 or four pounds of 5-10-5                    
fertilizer per 100 square feet, and disc or rototill into the                   
soil when the garden is prepared for planting.                                  
                                                                                
For small seeded herbs, sow seeds directly into peat pots filled                
with seed-starting media about six weeks before the last frost                  
date. Large seeded varieties may also be started by this method,                
or sow seed directly into the garden about one week before the                  
average date of the last frost in your area. Sow the seeds thinly               
in a shallow furrow and cover with soil equal to about four times               
their largest diameter.                                                         
                                                                                
Control weeds during the growing season to eliminate their use                  
of water and nutrients which are needed by your herbs. A one inch               
mulch of shredded leaves or other loose organic material will                   
conserve soil moisture and help control annual weeds. Irrigation                
may be necessary for young plants during periods of drought.                    
                                                                                
Parsley and chives should probably be the first choices for the                 
herb garden. Short rows of each will produce an ample supply for                
culinary use during the summer. Plants of these two herbs can                   
also be grown in pots to provide succulent green sprigs through-                
out the year.                                                                   
                                                                                
Spearmint is an easily grown perennial which spreads by rhizomes                
underground. Mint seeds are very small and often have low                       
germination rates. It would be easier to acquire a start of                     
spearmint from a friend with an herb garden. Use caution in                     
where you plant any mint as they tend to be very invasive. Some                 
people prefer to grow them in containers that have been buried                  
partially in the ground.                                                        
                                                                                
Sage and thyme are perennials which will give repeated crops of                 
leaves for seasoning meats, dressing and soups. Fennel is                       
possibly more like a vegetable than an herb. Its bulb-like base                 
is used raw or cooked as a salad. Basil and borage planted for                  
their aromatic leaves may be included as attractive plants in                   
a flower border. Leaves of the nasturtiums give a peppery                       
flavor to a cold meat sandwich. All these herbs are easily                      
started from seed.                                                              
                                                                                
Many other types of herbs are available for gardeners who wish                  
to grow them. Consult your favorite garden catalog for descripti-               
ons and sources of seeds.                                                       
                                                                                
Grow Your Own Figs                                                              
                                                                                
The fig was one of the most important fruits for people of early                
civilizations which developed around the Mediterranean Sea. It                  
seems to have been introduced into Greece at lease eight centur-                
ies B.C. The fig is mentioned in numerous places in the Bible,                  
and was eulogized by many early Greek writers. At one period, the               
fruit was so highly prized in Greece, that its export was                       
forbidden by law.                                                               
                                                                                
Fig shrubs or trees grow to a height of 12 to 30 feet. A member                 
of the mulberry family, it is closely related to the common                     
indoor plant, the rubber plant. Figs are useful as ornamental and               
fruit bearing plants for the home garden. They can be planted                   
in protected locations in eastern Virginia and only the hardiest                
varieties should be used.In the areas where low temperatures                    
occur in winter, soil may be mounded up around the plants to a                  
height of 18 inches. If the top is killed back by cold, new                     
shoots will develop from the protected basal portion of the trunk               
and branches.                                                                   
                                                                                
There is considerable variation in hardiness of the common fig.                 
Some varieties are only slightly more resistant to cold than                    
orange trees. Mature trees of a few varieties will survive                      
winters in which the temperature may occasionally drop to nearly                
zero. Celeste is a popular variety. Its fruit is medium to                      
small sized, firm, juicy, sweet, and of excellent quality. Brown                
Turkey, although less vigorous than Celeste, is also an acceptab-               
le variety for home gardeners in eastern Virginia. The fruit is                 
medium to large and of good quality, though fruit is subject to                 
cracking in wet weather.                                                        
                                                                                
The fig tree is somewhat unusual in that it normally produces                   
two crops each year. The first crop is borne near the end of                    
branches which grew during the previous summer. The second crop                 
develops on new shoots of the current seasons growth.                           
                                                                                
Young trees one or two years old, and 18 to 36 inches tall,                     
should be selected for planting. Set the trees in early spring                  
about one month befor the average date of the last frost in your                
area.                                                                           
                                                                                
Figs grow best on a relatively heavy soil. Grass and weeds should               
be controlled for a distance of several feet around the trunk by                
cultivation or the use of mulch.Fertilizer or manure should be                  
used very sparingly around figs. If too much nitrogen is used,                  
the shoots will be more tender to the cold, and the fruits more                 
susceptible to splitting and souring.                                           
                                                                                
Figs should be harvested when they become soft, just before full                
ripeness. Firm, immature fruits do not develop their normal                     
flavor. Over-ripe figs may develop a sour odor because of                       
the fermentation of the juice.                                                  
                                                                                
Figs are more difficult to harvest than most other fruits.                      
Cotton gloves should be worn to protect hands from the irritating               
latex which exudues from the fruit and branching during the                     
picking operation. Figs require a rather strong twisting motion                 
to lossen the fruit from the stem.                                              
                                                                                
Figs may be eaten fresh, canned, or dried. The fruit is a                       
popular delicacy which may be used in salads, cakes or candies.                 
From a nutritional point of view, the fig is a beneficial                       
fruit because it contains useful quantities of protein, carbohyd-               
rates, calcium, phosphorus, and iron. It also supplies vitamins                 
A, B, and C.                                                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Container Gardening                                                             
                                                                                
Even without a lot of land, home vegetable gardeners can produce                
a bountiful crop by container gardening. A window sill, patio,                  
balcony or doorstep can provide sufficient space for a productive               
container garden.                                                               
                                                                                
Almost any container can be used for plants as long as: 1) it is                
big enough to support the plants when they are fully grown; 2)                  
it will hold the potting media; and 3) it provides adequate                     
drainage. Examples are barrels, flower pots, cut off milk and                   
bleach jugs, recycled plastic coolers, window boxes and hanging                 
baskets.                                                                        
                                                                                
Containers should not be made of wood treated with creosote or                  
pentachlorophenol wood preservatives which may be toxic to plants               
and harmful to the gardener. Containers should have holes in                    
the bottom for drainage and be supported above the ground so that               
the plant roots do not stand in water. Most plants need containe-               
rs at least six inches deep.                                                    
                                                                                
A lightweight potting mix should be used in the containers. Most                
garden soil cannot be used because it is too heavy. The particles               
in garden soil are very small and become compacted in the contai-               
ner when it is watered. Media used in containers must be porous                 
because roots require both air and water.                                       
                                                                                
A packaged potting soil available at local garden centers                       
containing equlal parts of peat moss and perlite or vermiculite                 
is good to use because it is lightweight and sterile. Or gar-                   
deners can mix their own using this formula: for one bushel of                  
media, mix together half a bushel of #2 size vermiculite or                     
perlite; half a bushel of peat moss; five tablespoons ground                    
limestone; two tablespoons superphosphate; and eight tablespoons                
5-10-5 or 6-12-6 fertilizer.                                                    
                                                                                
Try dwarf and miniature varieties of vegetables in containers.                  
Or grow vegetables that occupy little space, such as carrots and                
radishes, and crops that continue to bear over a period of time,                
such as tomatoes and peppers.                                                   
                                                                                
The amount of sunlight that the garden spot receives may deter-                 
mine what crops can be grown. Generally root and leaf crops can                 
tolerate partial shade; but vegetables grown for their fruits,                  
such as tomatoes and peppers, need at least five hours of full                  
sunlight a day.                                                                 
                                                                                
Vegetables grown in containers can be attacked by the various                   
types of insects and diseases that are common to any vegetable                  
garden. Plants should be inspected periodically for the presence                
of foilage and fruit-feeding insects as well as the occurrence                  
of diseases. Plants grown in containers need the same care as                   
those in a garden and give the gardener a lot of the same                       
satisfactions.                                                                  
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
The Virginia Gardener Question Box March 1986                                   
                                                                                
Blueberry culture                               50 lines                        
'Bleeding' of grape vines                       14 lines                        
Repotting houseplants                           34 lines                        
Using manure in the garden                      28 lines                        
Black raspberry renovation                      45 lines                        
Bleeding heart                                  30 lines                        
Rhubarb culture                                 79 lines                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I enjoyed picking blueberries at a farm in the country. What                    
would I need to do to grow my own?                                              
                                                                                
Many home gardeners have been successful with blueberry plantings               
in Virginia. Although they may be grown in any area where native                
blueberries, azaleas, mountain laurel, or rhododendrons do well,                
they have a better flavor when grown where nights are cool during               
the ripening season.                                                            
                                                                                
Set blueberry plants in early spring, about 3 or 4 weeks before                 
the average date of the last frost. Plants are usually placed                   
every 4' in rows 6' apart. Blueberries should be planted where                  
they have full sunlight most of the day, and far enough from the                
roots of trees to avoid competition for moisture and nutrients.                 
The plants are shallow-rooted and must either be irrigated or                   
heavily mulched. Adequate drainage must be provided, because                    
blueberry bushes cannot tolerate wet feet.                                      
                                                                                
Blueberries grow best is porous, moist, sandy soils high in                     
organic matter with a pH range of 4.0 to 5.2. Have a soil test                  
made. If your soil is not acidic enough for blueberries, work                   
materials such as peat moss, oak leaves, pine needles, or sulfur                
into the area where the plants are to be set. This should be done               
6 months to a year before planting. Once the proper acidity is                  
established, it must be maintained through the annual use                       
of an acid fertilizer.                                                          
                                                                                
Blueberries are very exacting in soil and moisture requirements,                
but require little protection from insect and disease pests.                    
Birds are by far the greatest pest in the blueberry planting.                   
Covering the bushes with wire cages, fish or plastic netting, or                
tobacco cloth, is perhaps the best method of bird control.                      
Aluminum pie tins suspended by a string or wire above the bushes                
have been used successfully to keep the birds away.                             
                                                                                
Cross pollination is necessary for a good crop of blueberries. To               
provide for adequate cross pollination, two or more varieties of                
blueberries should be planted. The following varieties suggested                
for planting in home gardens in Virginia ripen over a 6 to 8 week               
period, beginning in early June and continuing through July. All                
are vigorous and productive under good growing conditions, and                  
produce berries of large size and good quality: Earliblue (not                  
recommended for planting in western Virginia), Ivanhoe, Blueray,                
Bluecrop, Jersey, Berkeley, Herbert and Coville.                                
                                                                                
The VCES publication 426-840 discusses the culture of small fruit               
crops in detail. You may request this bulletin by contacting your               
local extension agent.                                                          
                                                                                
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When I was pruning my grape vines, a strange thing happened. A                  
clear fluid began oozing out of the cuts. Is this harmful to                    
the plant?                                                                      
                                                                                
"Bleeding" of grape vines is normal if you prune vines after they               
have started growing. Pruning during dormancy does not usually                  
cause bleeding, but it can occur if a couple of warm days come                  
along right after pruning. Bleeding is not harmful to your vines,               
so don't worry about it.                                                        
                                                                                
If you want good size and quality fruit, you must prune your                    
vines annually. The best time to prune is while the vines are                   
dormant. Avoid heavy pruning in the middle of the summer as it                  
weakens the vines and encourages late growth that may not survive               
the winter.                                                                     
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
When should I repot my houseplants and how should I go about it?                
                                                                                
Foliage plants require repotting when their roots have filled                   
their pot and are growing out the bottom. Spring is the best                    
time to transplant as the weather is ideal to help the plant                    
recover from transplant stress. The pot selected for repotting                  
should be no more than two inches larger in diameter than the pot               
the plant is currently growing in, as an oversized pot will cause               
water logging of the soil and actually stunt growth. The pot                    
should have at least one drainage hole.                                         
                                                                                
Most plants are removed easily from their pot by holding the                    
container upside down and knocking the edge against any solid                   
object. Hold your hand over the soil, placing the plant between                 
the fore and middle fingers. Never try to pull the plant out of                 
the pot by its stem. If the plant has become root bound, it will                
be necessary to cut and unwind any roots that circle the pot                    
base, otherwise these roots will never develop normally. If the                 
old soil surface has accumulated a salty crust, the top inch                    
should be carefully removed.                                                    
                                                                                
Potting media used should be coarse enough to allow good drainage               
yet have good water retention capabilities. Media should be                     
moistened before you begin repotting as many potting soil mixes                 
contain peat moss which sheds moisture for a time before it                     
absorbs water. Begin repotting by placing a small amount of fresh               
media in the bottom of the pot. Set the rootball in the middle of               
the new soil. Fill soil around the sides between the rootball and               
pot. Do not add soil above the original level on the rootball,                  
unless the roots are exposed, or it has been necessary to remove                
some of the surface soil. Firm or settle the soil by tapping the                
pot against a table top and gently press the soil with your                     
fingers. Do not pack the soil. Make sure you leave space between                
the soil level and the top of the pot to allow for watering.                    
                                                                                
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Does all manure work in the garden? Aren't some strong enough to                
burn the plants? What about dog and cat droppings and the stuff                 
they sell packaged at the garden center?                                        
                                                                                
All manure is not alike. Manure from horses, cattle, pigs,                      
sheep and even pets has different properties. Before using any                  
type of manure, it is best to know the type and check with your                 
extension agent to find out if, how, when and how much to apply.                
                                                                                
Fresh sheep, rabbit and poultry manure have a very high nitrogen                
content, and so must be well rotted before using on a garden.                   
This means storing or composting the manure a year or so before                 
using it on a garden. Horse and cattle manure can be composted,                 
or applied to the garden in the fall to give it some time to                    
break down. Some garden centers offer sterilized bags of manure,                
but this form of fertilizer can become quite expensive if you are               
amending a large garden.                                                        
                                                                                
Roundworm, an intestinal parasite of pigs, is found in some                     
swine manure. Because of this parasite, some people neglect                     
using swine manure, but humans have rarely been infected with                   
roundworms traced to the use of pig manure in their gardens.                    
Simple hygiene--cleansing of hands after working in the garden                  
and washing of harvested crops--should eliminate any problems.                  
                                                                                
Dog and cat manure should be avoided because it could contain                   
parasite eggs and/or larvae which can infect man. Dogs may                      
harbor roundworms, while cats can be host to toxoplasmosis, a                   
protozoan parasite. (Information provided by Dr. Jorden Hansen,                 
Assistant Professor, Pathobiology & Public Practice)                            
                                                                                
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I recently bought a small farm that has a neglected patch of                    
black raspberries. I need information on when and how it would be               
best to trim and thin out these plants as they are very overgrown               
and thick.                                                                      
                                                                                
Before attempting to renovate your black raspberry patch,                       
consider two things. First, determine if it is a wild or cultiva-               
ted stand. A wild stand will not be worth putting much effort                   
into as newer, more productive varieties are available. Second,                 
be aware that black raspberries are more prone to virus diseases                
and should not be left near to where one anticipates planting                   
red raspberries. If your plot is a cultivated planting and you                  
choose to keep it, the chance of revitalizing it should be good                 
if proper pruining is done (assuming that other environmental                   
conditions such as plenty of sunlight and adequate moisture are                 
present for the plants.)                                                        
                                                                                
Start the renovation of cultivated black raspberry plants late                  
this winter with a dormant pruning to thin out and cut back                     
excess growth. Delay dormant pruning for bramble fruits until the               
danger of severe cold is passed in the winter, but before the                   
buds begin to swell for the new spring growth.                                  
                                                                                
In dormant pruning, remove all the dead, weak, and severely                     
damaged canes; in addition, eliminate crowded conditions. Cut out               
any dead canes since bramble fruits have biennial cane growth;                  
that is, they fruit on two year old canes which then die. Thin                  
each plant so that only four or five of the best year-old                       
canes remain per clump. Then, cut the side branches of the black                
raspberry canes so that they are only nine to tweleve inches                    
long. Since the new raspberry canes produced this year will be                  
the ones that fruit next year, you will want to save young, thick               
fruiting canes that are a half-inch or more in diameter.                        
                                                                                
In addition to the dormant pruning of the black raspberry plants,               
you should prune the young black raspberry shoots when they are                 
about two feet high next summer. For black raspberries, this                    
pruning operation, referred to as summer-topping, consists                      
of removing the top three or four inches of the new shoots.                     
Topping keeps the canes from growing too tall. To prevent the                   
possible spread of disease, canes should not be topped when they                
are wet or when rain is forecast that day.                                      
                                                                                
Since your black raspberry planting has been neglected for a                    
while, it would be advisable to take a soil test from the area                  
to see if there are any particular nutrient needs or a need for                 
lime. Normally, on fertile soils or where a good mulch is                       
maintained, bramble fruits do not need a regular fertilizer                     
program. If growth has been poor, the addition of one half to one               
pound of nitrate of soda to each 100 feet of row when growth                    
begins in the spring will be beneficial. (Adapted from an article               
by John Arbogast, Roanoke City Extension Agent.)                                
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
As a Valentine's Day gift, a friend ordered me a live plant                     
called bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis.) What should I                     
do when this arrives?                                                           
                                                                                
The flowers of the plant Dicentra spectabilis, the common or                    
garden bleeding heart, resemble tiny living valentines; pink                    
heart-shaped flowers appear on curved racemes. The plant does not               
ordinarily flower on February 14th, but could be made to do so                  
under controlled conditions. Ordinarily, it flowers in April                    
through early June, depending upon the part of the state in which               
you live.                                                                       
                                                                                
Early spring planting gives the best results for bleeding heart.                
Ordinarily, nurseries wait to ship planting stock until it is the               
correct planting time in your zone. Should your plant arrive                    
before the soil is workable, it may be stored for a week or two                 
in the refrigerator. Keep the plant in the original shipping                    
wrapper so it will not dry out.                                                 
                                                                                
The soil for dicentra should be rich in humus, and possess                      
excellent drainage in order for the plant to thrive and grow                    
healthy. Once planted, it thrives best when left alone in an                    
undisturbed environment.                                                        
                                                                                
Partial shade provides the best conditions for bleeding heart,                  
whether in the garden border or slipped in among shrubs so that                 
it is protected, but not crowded by the surrounding vegetation.                 
The foliage of garden bleeding heart is a rich green and its                    
texture is fine enough to add interest to the flower border and                 
provide contrast with the neighboring plants. Plants can grow                   
to a height of three feet, but two feet is more common. As the                  
summer progresses, the foliage is prone to die-back.                            
                                                                                
There is a variety known as D. spectabilis `Alba,' which is                     
white bleeding heart. Usually this plant is not as sturdy or                    
reliable as the species and more difficult to locate.                           
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
How do I establish a bed of rhubarb?                                            
                                                                                
Rhubarb, or pie plant, is one of the least finicky, most hardy,                 
longest living garden perennials. It does require a period of                   
dormancy and therefore, depending upon the cultivar, may not do                 
well in hotter parts of the state.                                              
                                                                                
As with all perennials, there are two ways to get rootstock:                    
from your neighbors and friends, or from a nursery grower. If you               
have a friend who plans to separate a rhubarb plant in the                      
spring, show up on the day with a sharp spade. Dig carefully to                 
expose the root system. Using the spade, cut straight down                      
through the roots so that each section you separate from the main               
crown has at least one strong bud. Two or three clumps of roots                 
should be ample for most families. (Ten pounds of stalks is the                 
average consumption per person per season.)                                     
                                                                                
Alternatively, obtain roots through a nursery grower in very                    
early spring. If a choice of rhubarb root stocks is offered,                    
choose the newer, all-red varieties.                                            
                                                                                
You may want to test the pH of your soil before planting the                    
roots. Rhubarb will do well in a pH range between 5.5 and 7.0.                  
The ideal way to prepare the soil is to dig holes three feet to                 
four feet on center, each hole being two feet deep and two feet                 
across. Discard the subsoil. Line the bottom of each hole with                  
six to eight inches of well-rotted cow manure, and then fill the                
holes with a mixture of equal parts compost and topsoil. One                    
pound of 5-10-20 per 100 feet of row before plants are set is                   
recommended for this heavy feeder. Set the roots, one per hole,                 
so that the tops of the roots lie two inches below the surface.                 
Roots should be planted as soon as the soil is workable in the                  
spring.                                                                         
                                                                                
Since the plant is long-lived, be sure to situate it where it                   
will remain undisturbed for years. Every five years or so, each                 
clump of roots should be dug up and separated; in this way you                  
will be assured of thick, tender stalks. Plants left alone too                  
long will lose their vitality and produce only thin stalks.                     
                                                                                
Many gardeners mulch their rhubarb plants with decomposed cow                   
manure in the fall. In the spring they remove the mulch, fertili-               
ze, and then replace it to encourage thick, juicy stalks every                  
spring. Seedstalks should be cut if you ever see them forming, as               
they sap energy from the roots. It is preferable to obtain roots                
rather than start rhubarb from seeds; frequently, seeds are not                 
true to variety and take a long time to become established.                     
                                                                                
Because rhubarb stalks, like asparagus, are the result of                       
nutrients stored in the roots, it is important not to harvest the               
first year and harvest lightly the second year. Harvest from                    
early spring until June. Always grasp the base of each stalk and                
pull sharply. Don't cut stalks with a knife as large stubs left                 
by cutting may become diseased and cause the rhizomes to which                  
they are attached to rot. Beginning in the third year, harvest                  
only for about eight weeks.                                                     
                                                                                
Immediately after pulling stalks, cut the leaves from the                       
petiole; the stalks will retain their moisture much longer. While               
the stalks have been used as a fruit, the leaves are not used                   
because of their poisonous concentration of oxalic acid. Ingesti-               
on can cause gastroenteritis; damage can result from the formati-               
on of calcium oxalate in the victim's kidneys.                                  
                                                                                
Even though this plant is very pest resistant, you should watch                 
for Japanese beetle and rhubarb curculio infestation. Crown rot                 
might be another problem. Rot forms at the base of the leaf                     
stalks, and wilting progresses from stalk base to stalk base                    
until the plant dies. There is no remedy. Dig up the plant                      
carefully to remove the infected roots and as much of the                       
infected soil as possible. Burn or dispose of what you dig up; do               
not compost it.                                                                 
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
March 1987 Monthly Notes                                                        
                                                                                
Herbaceous plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Hostas, liriope, daylilies, dicentra, Shasta daisies and coral                
bells are some perennials which can be divided before growth                    
starts.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If weeds occur in bulb beds do not remove them by cultivation,                
but pull them by hand so that the bulbs and roots will not be                   
disturbed.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Cannas for early flowering may be started in boxes or large                   
pots in a warm cellar or enclosed porch. Cut the rhizomes into                  
pieces of convenient size and plant in a soil mixture containing                
adequate sand for good drainage. The developing plants are tender               
to cold and may be set in the garden about a week after the                     
average date of the last frost in your area.                                    
                                                                                
* Buy some new perennials for your flower border. Spring is a                   
good time to renew and add variety to your landscape. Visit a                   
local garden center or secure catalogs from your favorite                       
nursery.                                                                        
                                                                                
 * The Waterlily Society has been formed by a group of                          
aquatic plant lovers. For further information, write them at                    
Box 104, Lilypons, MD 21717.                                                    
                                                                                
* Rejuvenate your liriope by using a lawn mower to cut back the                 
old foliage to a height of 2 to 3 inches. Avoid mowing too                      
closely and thereby damaging the crown of the plant, as that is                 
where the new growth emerges.                                                   
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant summer and fall blooming perennials                     
(astilbe, aster, bleeding heart, coral bells, daylilies, phlox,                 
shasta daisies). Perennials perform best in well-drained soil                   
with plenty of humus. Astilbe, hosta, and bleeding heart will                   
bloom in the shade.                                                             
                                                                                
* Some annuals such as verbenas, snapdragons and petunias that                  
take 70 to 90 days to bloom, and should be started indoors in                   
early spring or purchased as green house grown transplants.                     
                                                                                
Woody ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Hedges can receive their first pruning this month. As you                     
prune, be sure to leave the base of the plant wider than the top.               
This allows sunlight to get to the bottom of the plant, creating                
a full, dense hedge.                                                            
                                                                                
* Crabapples, valued for their beautiful spring blossoms and                    
attractive fruit, are members of the rose family. Along with many               
of their relatives, many crabapples are susceptible to diseases                 
such as scab, cedar-apple rust, powdery mildew, and fire blight.                
All of these diseases shorten the life span of the trees and                    
diminish their ornamental qualities. Plant disease-resistant                    
cultivars of crabapple such as 'Ames White', 'Autumn Glory',                    
'Baskatong', 'Beauty', 'Coral Cascade', 'Evelyn', 'Harvest Gold',               
'Molten Lava', 'Red Snow', 'Robinson', 'Tina', or 'Wies'.                       
                                                                                
* Plant roses and bare-root shrubs while they are still dormant,                
about 4 weeks before the average date of the last frost.                        
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant perennials such as ajuga, Shasta daisies,               
daylilies, liriope, and oxalis. Rework beds before planting,                    
adding organic matter and fertilizer.                                           
                                                                                
* Trees and shrubs which are making weak growth should be                       
fertilized to stimulate more attractive development. About a                    
month before your average last frost apply approximately 1 cup of               
5-10-5 to shrubs 4-8 feet tall. Use more or less with different                 
sized plants. On trees, apply 2 lbs. of 5-10-5 for each inch                    
diameter measured at 3 feet above the ground. Apply uniformly                   
over root zone and water in thoroughly.                                         
                                                                                
* Dogwoods and magnolias should only be moved in early spring.                  
Always move magnolias with a ball of dirt.                                      
                                                                                
* This is the time to start resurrecting the lily pool. Drain and               
clean the pool before growth begins. Plant new hardy water lilies               
early.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Plant new rose bushes in properly dug beds. Fertilize estab-                  
lished roses after pruning. It is wise to have your soil tested                 
about every two years. If black spot or powdery mildew have been                
a problem, start applications of a recommended fungicide. Contact               
your local agent for current recommendations. When pruning or                   
cutting roses, cut all flower stems 1/4 inch above a complete (5                
leaflet) leaf leaving two complete leaves below the cut bud.                    
Always cut on a slant. Disbud hybrid tea roses when the buds                    
first form to prevent leaving a scar.                                           
                                                                                
* Prune evergreen shrubs before growth starts.                                  
                                                                                
* Trees which bleed such as birch and maple should not be pruned                
until after their leaves are fully developed.                                   
                                                                                
* Complete the pruning of shrubs, ornamental trees before growth                
starts, except for spring flowering shrubs. Prune those which                   
bloom in spring as soon as they finish flowering.                               
                                                                                
* Propagate deciduous shrubs such as forsythia and winter jasmine               
now by ground layering.                                                         
                                                                                
* Boxwood should be pruned by thinning out the outer foliage of                 
the plant and cutting back the branches to retain desired height.               
                                                                                
* When spring-flowering bulbs complete their flowering cycle,                   
fertilize with a little super phosphate or bonemeal to ensure                   
quality blooms next year. Remove the bulb foliage only after it                 
dies naturally.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Boxwood may be moved now; do not plant them deeper than they                  
were previously planted. Trim and fertilize established boxwood                 
before new growth starts, but do not cultivate under boxwood                    
since their roots are shallow and may be damaged.                               
                                                                                
* Prune spring flowering shrubs right after flowering is com-                   
plete.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Many annual flowers are very frost hardy when plants are small                
including alyssum, California poppy, candytuft,larkspur, pansy &                
viola, phlox, pinks, Shirley poppy, snapdragon, stock, and sweet                
pea. Seeds can be sown as soon as the soil has thawed.                          
                                                                                
 * After pussywillow catkins have passed their prime, prune the                 
plants drastically to encourage long branches and large catkins                 
for next year.                                                                  
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* Variegated plants can help add the illusion of light to a dark                
area. Shade-loving groundcovers such as variegated liriope,                     
ivies, euonymus, and hosta can be very effective for this.                      
                                                                                
* Get your landscape design or redesign on paper. It's easier to                
erase it from a plan than to move it with a shovel.                             
                                                                                
* Shrubs and trees in the home landscape break up sound waves and               
reduce the nerve-shattering noise of modern society. Plant some                 
new shrubs and trees this spring to improve the beauty and                      
ambience of your home.                                                          
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
 * Take care to keep off soft and soggy lawns. Lime spreaders,                  
wheelbarrows and other equipment will leave compaction marks.                   
Seed new lawns and do repairs after the land has drained.                       
                                                                                
* When a blanket of snow insulates the lawn, temperatures at                    
ground level may rise to above freezing. Snow mold fungi which                  
appears as a white cottony growth on grass blades thrives at                    
temperatures between 32 and 65 F. To reduce possible snow mold                  
damage, remove heavy snow accumulations in shady areas. If you                  
cannot physically remove the snow, spread ashes or dry peat moss                
on the snow. The dark colored material will absorb solar radiati-               
on and melt the snow faster.                                                    
                                                                                
* Apply a pre-emergence herbicide before lawn weeds get started.                
These types of chemicals work by preventing the seed from                       
germinating. Therefore, it is important that the herbicides be                  
applied in early spring, before growth of the weed seedlings.                   
Check with your local extension agent for specific recommen-                    
dations.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Use crabgrass killer before forsythia blooms fade.                            
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* When buying transplants, choose those plants with a compact,                  
bushy form and bright green leaves. Young, healthy plants with no               
flowers or flower buds will adapt more easily and overcome the                  
shock of planting much faster.                                                  
                                                                                
* Remember, hardy vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli, lettuce                 
and Brussels sprouts can be transplanted two weeks prior to the                 
average date of the last frost and warm season crops such as                    
tomatoes, eggplant, pepper, muskmelon and watermelon should not                 
be planted until all danger of frost is past.                                   
                                                                                
* Start transplants indoors of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant.                 
                                                                                
* If your outdoor space is limited, consider gardening without a                
garden. Tomatoes, peppers, lettuce and many other vegetables do                 
well when grown in containers. Barrels, window boxes, cut off                   
milk jugs, almost anything providing good drainage will do as                   
long as it is deep enough to support the plant. Minimum depths                  
for some container-grown vegetables:                                            
 4"-lettuce, radishes, beets, low growing herbs                                 
 6"-chard, turnips, short-rooted carrots                                        
 8"-eggplant, peppers, bush cucumbers                                           
10"-cauliflower, broccoli                                                       
12"-tomatoes, long-rooted carrots                                               
                                                                                
* Seed root crops such as carrots, beets, radish and parsnips in                
your garden.                                                                    
                                                                                
* The flavor and quality of the new white and yellow varieties of               
beets are similar to the traditional red cultivars.                             
                                                                                
* When sowing seeds for transplants, leave about 1/4" of space                  
between seeds to allow them to grow adequately and to discourage                
damping-off fungus.                                                             
                                                                                
* To extend the asparagus harvest, remove the mulch from only                   
half the bed at first. The sunlight will encourage these plants                 
to sprout more quickly. In 2 or 3 weeks when shoots appear in the               
mulched half, carefully remove the remaining mulch.                             
                                                                                
* Don't plow your garden when the soil is wet. It will form clods               
which are difficult to break up and interfere with cultivation                  
during the summer.                                                              
                                                                                
* Do not add lime to area for potatoes. The lower pH helps                      
control scab.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Unsterilized soil may contain organisms that cause damping off,               
a disease that can make young seedlings wither and die suddenly.                
Use a sterilized potting mix in clean pots or flats.                            
                                                                                
* Towards the end of the month, plant onion sets, potatoes, peas,               
radishes, asparagus, carrots, turnips, leaf lettuce and other                   
cold-hardy vegetables.                                                          
                                                                                
* Jerusalem artichokes and horseradish are very persistent                      
perennials and may become weeds in your garden.                                 
                                                                                
* You may wish to try some new, unusual vegetables in your garden               
this year. A few that can grow successfully in this area are bok                
choy, Jerusalem artichoke, kohlrabi, leeks and horseradish. For                 
planting and harvesting tips, call your extension agent.                        
                                                                                
* Greenhouse-grown plants, even hardy kinds, should be acclimati-               
zed before transplanting to the garden in the early spring to                   
minimize the chance of frost injury.                                            
                                                                                
* Cloches for tall individual vegetables can be easily improvised               
by wrapping plastic around tomato cages and securing with tape.                 
Leave tops open during the day for ventilation and closed at                    
night by laying a board over the top. Another way would be to                   
place 3 or 4 stakes around each plant to form a frame and drop a                
large plastic bag over them.                                                    
                                                                                
* Apply a liberal side dressing of 5-10-5 fertilizer on your                    
asparagus bed and around your rhubarb plants. Use about 4                       
lbs. per 100 sq. ft. and scratch it into the top 2 inches of                    
soil. Renew the organic mulch to a depth of about 1 inch to help                
conserve soil moisture during the summer.                                       
                                                                                
* A plentiful supply of tomatoes can be obtained from 2-3 plants                
per family member. Additional plants can be planted if you plan                 
to can or make juice.                                                           
                                                                                
* Buy a notebook and use it to keep all your gardening informa-                 
tion. List what you plant in the garden. Include the name of seed               
companies, plant name, variety, planting date, and harvest date.                
During the growing season keep notes on how well the plant does.                
If the variety is susceptible to disease, record what was used to               
treat any problems. All this information will be helpful in                     
planning future gardens.                                                        
                                                                                
* Parsley is rich in vitamins A and C. Start some seeds indoors                 
now for later transplanting to a sunny corner of the vegetable                  
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Plan your vegetable garden on a sheet of paper to utilize the                 
space most efficiently. Remember to rotate the vegetables in the                
garden to reduce insect and disease problems.                                   
                                                                                
* One way to avoid the danger of unusually cold nights is to set                
water-filled plastic jugs around each seedling. Warmed by the                   
sun, these will radiate heat all night, preventing cold damage.                 
Fruits/Nuts                                                                     
                                                                                
* Don't rush to remove mulch from strawberries. Leave it over                   
your plants to protect them from later cold spells. When plants                 
start to grow, the mulch must be removed to allow leaves to                     
develop in the light. If leaves develop under the mulch, they                   
will become etiolated and yellow from lack of chlorophyll, and                  
may be burned and die when they are exposed to the sun.                         
                                                                                
* Spring applications of pesticides should be made on peaches,                  
apples, and pears. Correct timing for spraying depends on the                   
stage of development of flowers. Request a spray schedule from                  
your local agent.                                                               
                                                                                
* Weed control is one of the most time-consuming, yet most impor-               
tant, practices in any fruit planting. Young strawberries,                      
raspberries, blueberries, grapes, and tree fruits all suffer if                 
weed growth is uncontrolled. Peach trees, of all the fruit trees,               
suffer the most from weed competition. Mulching helps control                   
weeds.                                                                          
                                                                                
Indoor plants                                                                   
* Topiary is the art of clipping and trimming a plant into                      
unusual designs. Forms for indoor typiary can be purchased or                   
shaped by hand from galvanized wire. One media mix for topiary                  
forms is 1 part peatmoss to 1 part potting soil surrounded by                   
sheet moss. Plants such as English ivy and creeping thyme work                  
well for this use.                                                              
                                                                                
* Wait until the weather warms to start putting houseplants                     
outside.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Repot houseplants that have grown too large for their con-                    
tainers. Cut back leggy plants to encourage compact growth. Root                
the cuttings in moist media to increase your supply of plants.                  
                                                                                
* Houseplants can be watered more frequently with the onset of                  
spring and new growth.                                                          
                                                                                
* Start fertilizing houseplants now for good growth. Any which                  
are rootbound should be repotted.                                               
                                                                                
Tools and equipment (includes container)                                        
                                                                                
* If you haven't done it already, check stored tools and outdoor                
furniture for signs of rust. Remove any surface rust with steel                 
wool and paint with rust-inhibitive paint.                                      
                                                                                
* If your tiller turns over slugglishly in spring, before trying                
to start it, move it to a sunny location and cover it with a                    
black plastic garbage bag for a half hour. A few minutes of solar               
heating will warmup the fluids and make starting easier.                        
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Check the average date of the last frost in your area before                  
beginning spring gardening chores. Your county extension agent                  
can give you this information.                                                  
                                                                                
* A child's first garden should include sunflowers from seeds.                  
The large seeds sprout quickly and dependably and the strong                    
seedlings can push their way through crusted soil. If you are                   
shooting for record sunflowers, your plants will need to top 20                 
feet in height with seed head diameters of 2 feet to be in the                  
running.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Mulches can change soil temperature. Black plastic warms the                  
soil and should be applied before planting. Organic materials                   
delay the sun's penetration thereby keeping the soil cooler. App-               
ly organic mulches after plants are 3-4 inches tall and soil is                 
warm.                                                                           
                                                                                
* The Virginia gardener magazines are a convenient source for                   
gathering new information. The cost is low, the information                     
up-to-date, and it's delivered to your door.                                    
                                                                                
* Cover old stumps with soil to hasten decay.                                   
                                                                                
* Turn the compost pile and add manure.                                         
                                                                                
* Don't overexert those underworked winter muscles as you begin                 
your spring gardening. Bend at the knees and lift with your legs,               
not your back.                                                                  
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* Pick a permanent spot for herbs in the garden. Many of them                   
will come up year after year.                                                   
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases March 1987                                                       
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                  
culture, with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The                       
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent                  
use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other                         
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Pruning Roses                          68 lines                                 
Lettuce                                55 lines                                 
Raising Jumbo Vegetables               41 lines                                 
Houseplant Fertilizers                 57 lines                                 
Choose Disease Resistant Vegetables    63 lines                                 
White Pine Weevil                      82 linesPruning Roses                   
                                                                                
If roses are not pruned for a number of years, plants deteriorate               
in appearance and often develop more than the usual disease and                 
insect problems, while the flowers become smaller and smaller.                  
                                                                                
Hybrid Tea, Grandiflora and Floribunda roses require annual                     
pruning in the spring after winter protection has been removed.                 
As a guideline, follow the old saying that roses are pruned when                
the forsythia blooms. If rosebushes are pruned too early, injury                
from repeated frost may make a second pruning necessary.                        
                                                                                
For small pruning jobs, the only tools necessary are sharp hand                 
pruning shears and gloves. If the rose collection is large, a                   
small saw with pointed blade and loppers will help. Loppers are                 
used to reach in and cut out large dead canes.                                  
                                                                                
Prune to remove branches that are dead, damaged, diseased, thin,                
weak or growing inward, and branches that cross or interfere with               
other branches. Proper pruning encourages new growth from the                   
base making the plant healthy and attractive and resulting in                   
large blossoms.                                                                 
                                                                                
Remove all dead and diseased wood by cutting at least one inch                  
below the damaged area. Remove all weak shoots. If two branches                 
rub or are close enough that they will do so soon, remove one. On               
old, heavy bushes, cut out one or two of the oldest canes each                  
year. Cut back the remaining canes. The height to which a rose                  
should be cut back will vary depending upon the normal habit of                 
the particular cultivar. The average pruning height for Floribun-               
das and Hybrid Teas is between twelve and eighteen inches, but                  
taller growing Hybrids and most Grandifloras may be left at two                 
feet. Make cuts at a 45 degree angle above a strong outer bud.                  
Aim the cut upward from the inner side of the bush to push growth               
outward and promote healthy shoots and quality flowers.                         
                                                                                
Other types of roses with special considerations in their pruning               
are:                                                                            
                                                                                
The Standard or Tree rose is a Hybrid Tea, Grandiflora, or                      
Floribunda budded at the top of a tall trunk. Prune tree roses as               
you do Hybrid Teas, cutting the branches to within six to ten                   
inches of the base of the crown in order to encourage rounded,                  
compact, vigorous new growth.                                                   
                                                                                
Miniature roses are six to twelve inches high, with tiny blooms                 
and foliage. Miniature roses do not need special pruning. Just                  
cut out dead growth and remove the hips.                                        
                                                                                
Old-fashioned Rambler roses have clusters of flowers, each                      
usually less than two inches across. They often produce pliable                 
canes ten to fifteen feet long in one season. Ramblers produce                  
best on year-old wood, so that this year's choice blooms come on                
last year's growth. Prune immediately after flowering. Remove                   
entirely some of the large old canes. Tie new canes to a support                
for the next year.                                                              
                                                                                
Climbing roses have large flowers, more than two inches across,                 
borne on wood that is two or more years old. Canes are larger and               
sturdier than those of Ramblers. Some flower just once in June,                 
but others, called ever-blooming climbers, flower more or less                  
continuously. This group should be pruned in autumn, any time                   
before cold weather sets in. First cut out dead and diseased                    
canes. After this, remove one or two of the oldest canes each                   
season at ground level to make room for new canes. The laterals,                
or side shoots, are shortened three to six inches after                         
flowering. If the plant is strong, keep five to eight main canes,               
which should be tied to the trellis, fence, wall, or other                      
support. If the plant is not strong, leave fewer canes.                         
                                                                                
Lettuce                                                                        
                                                                                
Lettuce is one of the easiest cool-season vegetable crops to                    
grow. Lettuce withstands light frost, however sunlight and high                 
summer temperatures usually cause bitter flavor and seed stalk                  
formation called bolting. Slow-bolting or heat-resistant                        
varieties are available and are recommended for extending the                   
lettuce-growing season. There are several types of lettuce                      
commonly grown in gardens.                                                      
                                                                                
Crisphead, also known as Iceberg, is the lettuce most widely                    
available in the grocery store. It has a tightly compacted head                 
with crisp, light green leaves. Many gardeners find this type                   
difficult to grow because it requires a long season and some of                 
the most advertised varieties are not heat-resistant and tend to                
go to seed as soon as temperatures go up. Select a slow-bolting                 
variety and start seed indoors in late winter or late summer for                
best results. Transplant in early spring or fall to take                        
advantage of cool weather and mulch well to keep soil temperatur-               
es from fluctuating and to retain moisture. An organic mulch is                 
more suitable than black plastic after soil warms up since                      
organic mulch will cool the soil and black plastic warms the                    
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
Butterhead or Bibb is a loose-heading lettuce with dark green                   
leaves that are somewhat thicker than those of Iceberg lettuce.                 
Butterheads develop a light yellow, buttery appearance and are                  
very attractive in salads. A miniature variety of butterhead,                   
'Tom Thumb,' is very easy to grow, requiring a short growing                    
time; one head of this lettuce is about right for one or two                    
servings. It may be started indoors for a longer season. Bibb                   
lettuce will develop bitterness readily if temperatures get too                 
high.                                                                           
                                                                                
Romaine, or Cos, is less commonly grown by gardeners, but is a                  
very nutritious lettuce that deserves attention. It too, is                     
relatively easy to grow, forming upright heads with rather wavy,                
attractive leaves. It is particularly heat tolerant and does well               
in the warmer parts of the state.                                               
                                                                                
Most gardeners who grow lettuce raise the leaf type, with either                
green or reddish leaves. This type is a fast-growing, long                      
lasting lettuce good for salads, sandwiches, and in wilted                      
lettuce salads. Sow leaf varieties 10-20 seeds per foot, in rows                
8-12" apart. Thin individual plants 4-8" apart, depending on                    
variety. Leaf lettuce also grows successfully in a wide bed                     
arrangement; seedlings are thinned to 4-8" on all sides. Cos and                
head types should be sown or transplanted 12-18" apart. If in                   
rows, allow 30" between rows.                                                   
                                                                                
Cultivate lettuce carefully as it is shallow-rooted. Use                        
frequent, light waterings to encourage rapid growth, but do not                 
overwater, as this may cause disease of roots or leaves. Overhead               
watering should always be done in the morning to give plants time               
to dry. Mulches are helpful in maintaining soil moisture and                    
keeping leaves off the ground. Mulching also keeps soil off the                 
leaves, reducing chances of disease from soil-borne organisms.                  
                                                                                
Lettuce planted in very early spring should be planted in full                  
sun where the soil will be warm enough for rapid growth. For                    
lettuces later in the season, plant so that crops such as sweet                 
corn, staked tomatoes, pole beans or deciduous trees will shade                 
the plants during the hottest part of the day when temperatures                 
are over 70 degrees. Inter-planting between rows or within the                  
row of later-maturing crops like tomatoes, broccoli, and Brussels               
sprouts, is a space-saving practice. Some lettuces, like 'Tom                   
Thumb' and leaf lettuces, are attractive in flower borders.                     
                                                                                
Raising Jumbo Vegetables                                                       
                                                                                
Every gardener at some time or other has the urge to grow a giant               
pumpkin, tomato, cucumber or other vegetable. If you'd like to                  
try it this year and perhaps get your accomplishment in the                     
"Guinness Book of World Records" here are some tips.                            
                                                                                
First, start with the right variety. Fruit size is controlled by                
genes, and no amount of intensive culture will produce a giant                  
fruit unless a cultivar with the proper genes is grown. 'Atlantic               
Giant' seed, for example, produced the world record 493.5 pound                 
pumpkin. Its vines can grow to 90 feet and the fruits gain up to                
15 pounds a day in summer. 'Giant Show King' white squash can                   
yield 300 pound fruits, 'Cobb Gem' watermelons go to 130 pounds,                
the 'Bushel Gourd' attains 100 pounds, and `Big Daddy' muskmelons               
reach 14 pounds. The world record 6.5 pound tomato grown in 1976                
in Wisconsin was a 'Delicious'. Many flower shows, county and                   
state fairs, now have classes for giant vegetables.                             
                                                                                
Large amounts of food, water, sun, and protection from pests,                   
diseases, wind and weeds, are essential. Use a site with full sun               
and well-drained soil, start seed indoors, and transplant the                   
seedlings as early as possible in the spring.                                   
                                                                                
Growing these record breakers takes extra effort. One prize                     
winner reports that he dug a 4 foot by 6 foot pit, 2 feet deep                  
and filled it with two-to-three-year-old cow manure, covering                   
this with fine topsoil with 10-10-10 fertilizer added to grow his               
pumpkin. Several dozen gallons of water were provided daily.                    
                                                                                
In June and July, he pruned away any fruit that set too early or                
too close to the root. In late July, one fruit was allowed to                   
set, about 15 feet away from the root. Through August, he                       
topdressed with manure tea or fertilizer, especially at the                     
"knees" of the vine, the knobby junctures where tendrils root                   
down into the soil. Finally, he provided 4 foot high windscreens                
of plywood and particle board.                                                  
                                                                                
If you grow a record-size vegetable, send photos, notarized                     
witness identification, and all pertinent background data to                    
Sterling Publishing Co. (2 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016) for                 
the "Guinness Book of World Records."                                           
                                                                                
House Plant Fertilizers                                                        
                                                                                
House plant fertilizers can be divided into two basic forms water               
soluble and slow release.                                                       
                                                                                
Soluble fertilizer is available as either a concentrated liquid                 
or soluble powder. It is mixed with water according to label                    
directions. It can be applied by hand with a watering can or can                
be proportioned during watering with a hose using a siphon                      
device.                                                                         
                                                                                
Liquid fertilizers may be applied on a regular weekly or bi-week-               
ly schedule throughout the growing season. Or they may be applied               
in a constant feed program in which a dilute solution is used at                
every watering. Because of the different formulations of fertili-               
zer available, it is important to follow the package recommenda-                
tions closely. If the dilution directions are followed, soluble                 
fertilizers will rarely injure or burn plants.                                  
                                                                                
Liquid fertilizer is taken up by the root system but most plants                
will also absorb nutrients quickly through their foliage. Foliage               
uptake is termed foliar feeding. Since liquid fertilizer enters                 
the plant in two ways, both through the leaves and through the                  
roots, it is fast acting. Do not foliar feed plants like African                
Violet that have hairy leaves as these plants may be injured by                 
wetting their leaves.                                                           
                                                                                
If you plan to use liquid fertilizer for house plants it is                     
economical to buy a concentrated brand. There are some liquid                   
fertilizers on the market that are premeasured and are applied                  
right from the bottle. While these predilluted types offer minor                
conveniences, you pay for water and the cost of shipping the                    
water.                                                                          
                                                                                
Slow release fertilizers offer indoor gardeners another excellent               
way to supply their plants with nutrients. Slow release                         
fertilizers are synthetic fertilizers especially prepared to                    
release nutrients over an extended period in amounts that match                 
the plant's need for nutrients. Slow release fertilizers can be                 
catagorized by the way in which the fertilizer is released. The                 
three major types of nutrient release are materials that dissolve               
slowly, materials from which the nitrogen is released by micro-                 
organisms and granular materials with membranes made of resin or                
sulfur.                                                                         
                                                                                
Slow release fertilizers are placed on the soil surface or                      
incorporated into the soil. Sometimes plants are sold with the                  
encapsulated fertilizer already applied. People have mistaken the               
swollen, jelly-like particles of some slow-release fertilizers                  
for insect eggs. The convenience of slow release fertilizers is                 
off set by their expense to many gardeners.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
Choosing Vegetables Varieties                                                  
                                                                                
The use of disease resistant varieties not only makes gardening                 
easier, it reduces expense and pollution. Although many spray                   
materials which are applied for controlling diseases of                         
vegetables are not toxic to people, it is better to avoid their                 
use if possible. Seed catalogs and Virginia Tech Extension                      
Publication 426-480 Recommended Varieties for Virginia, indicate                
which varieties are resistant to various diseases. Watch for                    
these when you order seed. In addition, watch for heat and cold                 
tolerant varieties which are valuable to extend the harvest of                  
cool season crops.                                                              
                                                                                
Plant breeders have accomplished minor miracles in developing                   
improved varieties. They have searched the world for plants which               
are resistant to some of the common vegetable diseases and used                 
these to develop new varieties which carry the desired                          
resistance, attractive appearance, and high quality desired for                 
the home garden.                                                                
                                                                                
When selecting snap bean varieties look for mosaic resistance.                  
'Topcrop' and 'Cherokee Wax' have this characteristic.                          
'Contender' is resistant to mosaic and also to powdery mildew.                  
                                                                                
'Green Comet' is probably the best broccoli for an early crop                   
because it tolerates the heat of early summer. 'Green Valiant' is               
good for a fall crop because it tolerates cold and will continue                
to grow after frost occurs.                                                     
                                                                                
Select cabbage resistant to yellows. 'Stonehead' is a good one                  
for an early crop. 'Market Prize' is good for a later crop and is               
also resistant to head splitting.                                               
                                                                                
For tender, mild cabbage, plant a savoy type such as 'King' which               
is heat resistant and 'Chieftain' which is an excellent keeper                  
and slow to burst.                                                              
                                                                                
Most sweet corn varieties are resistant to Southern leaf blight.                
Some of the best are 'Gold Crest,' 'Early Xtra Sweet,' 'Sugar                   
Daddy,' 'Illini Super Sweet' or 'Xtra Sweet' and 'Silver Queen.'                
                                                                                
The selection of disease resistant varieties of slicing cucumbers               
is very important. 'Gemini' is resistant to scab, mosaic,                       
anthracnose, leafspot and downy and powdery mildew. 'Dasher II'                 
is another good cucumber which is resistant to anthracnose,                     
leafspot and downy and powdery mildew.                                          
                                                                                
Plant 'Salad Bowl' for an excellent leaf lettuce which is                       
tolerant of heat. 'Imperial 44' is a good head type which also                  
tolerates heat.                                                                 
                                                                                
Sweet peppers are easy to grow if you plant 'Bell Boy' which is                 
resistant to mosaic and drouth. Other good varieties are Emerald                
Giant and Jupiter. Both are resistant to mosaic.                                
                                                                                
Tomatoes are a fine crop for the home garden if disease resistant               
varieties are selected. 'Small Fry' is an excellent small cherry                
type which is resistant to fusarium and verticillium wilt, and                  
nematodes. 'La Roma' is a fine mild paste type which is resistant               
to fusarium wilt. One of the best main crop red tomatoes is                     
'Celebrity.' It is resistant to fruit cracking and many diseases.               
'Sunray' is a mild yellow tomato which is resistant to fusarium                 
wilt and fruit cracking.                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
White Pine Weevil                                                               
                                                                                
The white pine weevil is most common on eastern white pine and                  
Norway spruce, but occasionally attacks Scots and other pines as                
well as white and other spruces. Trees less than 35-40 feet tall                
are most commonly infested. The white pine weevil is a serious                  
pest of forest plantations, Christmas trees, landscape trees, and               
occasionally nursery crops.                                                     
                                                                                
Evidence of damage first appears in late May or early June when                 
the new developing terminal leader and its whorl of lateral                     
shoots wilt and droop. Within 2 to 4 weeks the new growth and                   
occasionally the previous year's growth dies and turns brown.                   
Unless pruned out, the dead shoot remains for several years,                    
although a lower lateral branch gradually grows upward to take                  
its place.                                                                      
                                                                                
The first evidence of  attack is resinous bleeding in March and                 
early April on 8 to 10 inches of stem below the terminal bud of                 
the upright leader. Adult weevils chew tiny holes in the bark to                
feed and lay eggs. During May and June, white, C-shaped grubs                   
with brown heads can be found tunneling down the main terminal                  
shoot. Beginning in July, round exit holes about 1/8 inch in                    
diameter can be found on the stem below the brown, dead terminal.               
                                                                                
Only the upright terminal leader is killed by white pine weevils.               
The deformity of the stem and loss of one to two year's growth is               
especially critical in forest, nursery, and Christmas tree                      
production. Damaged terminals may not be so critical on landscape               
trees. A somewhat crooked trunk and asymmetrical form can be                    
aesthetically pleasing. White pines that are frequently weeviled                
over many years provide picturesque older trees in the landscape.               
To produce straight, fast-growing trees, white pines should be                  
protected annually from white pine weevil attacks.                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
One generation of white pine weevils occur each year. Adults                    
remain hidden and overwinter in the litter on the ground or other               
protected places after emerging from infested terminal shoots in                
July. When the weather warms in March they become active and fly                
to the upright leaders of the host plants. Adults feed for 7 to                 
10 days by chewing tiny holes in the bark. They then begin to                   
deposit eggs individually in their feeding punctures. Within                    
several days, the eggs hatch and tiny grubs begin feeding within                
the stem and tunneling down the shoot. During this time, terminal               
buds open and new shoots develop normally. As the grubs become                  
larger and tunnel more extensively, the new growth wilts, droops                
and by early July turns brown. By the end of June or early July,                
grubs enter the pupal stage and transform to adults which chew                  
their way out of the stem. Adults may fly about to some extent in               
summer and fall, but usually seek hiberation sites in the ground                
litter. They do little if any feeding until the following spring.               
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
The most effective protection against the white pine weevil is                  
the application of a residual insecticide to the bark of the                    
terminal upright shoot of each tree before buds open. Do not                    
treat lateral shoots or the entire plant. Apply treatments no                   
later than late March or early April in more western or higher                  
elevations of Virginia. Since it is not predictable if a                        
particular tree will be attacked, valuable specimen trees should                
be treated every year.                                                          
                                                                                
Reductions in weevil populations may be accomplished by cutting                 
and destroying infested terminal shoots in May and June. Stems                  
must be cut below where larvae are tunneling before adult weevils               
emerage and holes are seen in the bark. If not destroyed, adults                
will emerge from the cut shoots. This method is more effective if               
done over a large area where there is less likelihood of an                     
invasion of flying weevils the following spring from surrounding                
plantings of the hosts.                                                         
                                                                                
Consult the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service Control                      
Recommendations for insecticides and dosage rates.                              
                                                                                
(Article adapted from Insect ID LAb Fact Sheet #7, prepared by                  
John Weidhaas and Dan Hilburn.)                                                 
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
The Virginia Gardener Question Box March 1987                                   
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and J. T. Foley,                  
Horticulture Extension Technicians and Diane Relf, Extension                    
Specialist, Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box               
has been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper               
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Methods of Applying Fertilizer               52 lines                           
Misshapen Hedges                             14 lines                           
Nutrient Content of Organic Fertilizers      63 lines                           
Planting Hollyhock Seed                      16 lines                           
Hardening Transplants                        39 lines                           
Holding Seedlings Before Frost                8 lines                           
Soil Thermometers                            36 lines                           
Edging Plants                                43 lines                           
Nasturtiums                                  25 lines                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Is one method of applying fertilizer to the vegetable garden                    
better than another?                                                            
                                                                                
The different methods of applying fertilizer depend on the                      
formulation of the fertilizer and the needs of the crop.                        
                                                                                
Broadcasting is used over large garden areas or when time or                    
labor is limited. A recommended rate of fertilizer is spread over               
the growing area and left to filter into the soil or incorporated               
into the soil with a rototiller or spade.                                       
                                                                                
In banding, narrow bands of fertilizer are applied in furrows 2                 
to 3 inches from the garden seeds and 1 to 2 inches deeper than                 
the seeds or plants. Placement of the fertilizer band too close                 
to the seeds will burn the roots of the seedlings. The best                     
technique is to stretch a string where the seed row is to be                    
planted. With the corner of a hoe, dig a furrow 3 inches deep, 3                
inches to one side of, and parallel with the string. Spread the                 
fertilizer in the furrow and cover with soil. Repeat the banding                
operation on the other side of the string, then sow seeds                       
underneath the string.                                                          
                                                                                
For plants widely spaced, such as tomatoes, fertilizers can be                  
placed in bands 6 inches long for each plant or in a circle                     
around the plant. Place the bands 4 inches from the plant                       
base. If used in the hole itself, place the fertilizer at the                   
bottom of the hole, work it into the soil, place about 2 inches                 
of soil over the fertilized soil and then put the plant in the                  
hole.                                                                           
                                                                                
Starter solutions can be used as a way to satisfy the need for                  
phosphorus when setting out transplants of tomatoes, eggplant,                  
peppers or cabbage. Apply a water soluble fertilizer high in                    
phosphorus following directions on the label.                                   
                                                                                
Side dressing is the application of dry fertilizer after plants                 
are up and growing. Scatter fertilizer on both sides of the row 6               
to 8 inches from the plants. Rake it into the soil and water                    
thoroughly.                                                                     
                                                                                
Foliar feeding is used when insufficient fertilizer was used                    
before planting; a quick growth response is wanted;                             
micronutrients (such as iron or zinc) are locked into the soil;                 
or when the soil is too cold for the plants to extract or use                   
fertilizer applied to the soil. Water soluble fertilizers are                   
applied according to label directions. Foliar applied nutrients                 
are absorbed and used by the plant quite rapidly. Absorption                    
begins within minutes after application, and with most nutrients,               
it is completed within 1 to 2 days. Foliar nutrition can be a                   
supplement to soil nutrition at a critical time for the plant,                  
but not a substitute. At transplanting time, an application of                  
phosphorus spray will help plants become established in cold                    
soils.                                                                          
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
What can be done with a large, overgrown, bare-bottomed and                     
misshapen hedge?                                                                
                                                                                
If the hedge is made of deciduous plants (plants which drop their               
leaves in fall), rejuvenation is fairly simple. In spring, before               
leaves appear, prune to one foot below the desired height. Then                 
trim carefully for the next few years to give it the shape and                  
fullness desired. Occasionally hedge plants may have declined too               
much to recover from this treatment and replacing them may be                   
necessary.                                                                      
                                                                                
Rejuvenating evergreen hedges is more difficult. As a rule,                     
evergreens cannot stand the severe pruning described above.                     
Arborvitae and yew are exceptions. Other evergreen hedges may                   
have to be replaced.                                                            
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I would like to know the nutrient content of the following                      
organic fertilizers and how to use them in my garden: cottonseed                
meal, dried blood, fish emulsion, manure.                                       
                                                                                
Cottonseed meal is a by-product of cotton processing. As a                      
fertilizer it is slightly acid in reaction. Formulas vary                       
slightly, but generally contain 6 percent nitrogen, 3 percent                   
phosphorus, and 2 percent potash. Nutrients in cottonseed meal                  
are more readily available to plants in warm soils, and there is                
little danger of burn. Cottonseed meal is frequently used for                   
fertilizing acid loving plants such as azaleas, camellias, and                  
rhododendrons.                                                                  
                                                                                
Blood meal is dried, powdered blood collected from cattle                       
slaughter houses. It is a rich source of nitrogen (approximately                
12 percent). So rich, in fact, that it may do harm if used in                   
excess. The gardener must be careful not to exceed the recommend-               
ed amount suggested on the label. In addition to nitrogen, blood                
meal supplies some of the essential trace elements, including                   
iron.                                                                           
                                                                                
Fish emulsion is a partially decomposed blend of finely pulveriz-               
ed fish. No matter how little is used, the odor is intense, but                 
it dissipates within a day or two. Fish emulsion is high in                     
nitrogen and is a source of several trace elements. In late                     
spring, when garden plants have sprouted, an application of fish                
emulsion followed by a deep watering will boost the plants' early               
growth spurt. Contrary to popular belief, too strong a solution                 
of fish emulsion can cause plants to burn, particularly containe-               
rized plants.                                                                   
                                                                                
Manure is a complete fertilizer, but low in nutrients. Manures                  
vary in nutrient content according to the animal source and what                
the animal has been eating, but a fertilizer ratio of 1-1-1 is                  
typical. Manures are best used as soil conditioners instead of                  
nutrient suppliers. Commonly available manures include horse,                   
cow, pig, chicken, and sheep. The actual nutrient content varies                
widely with the highest concentration found when manures are                    
fresh. As manure is aged, leached, or composted, nutrient content               
is reduced.                                                                     
                                                                                
Even though fresh manures have the highest amount of nutrients,                 
most gardeners prefer to use composted forms of manure to ensure                
lower amounts of salts, thereby reducing the chance of burning                  
plants. Fresh manure should not be used where it will contact                   
tender plant roots. Typical rates of manure applications vary                   
from a moderate 70 pounds per 1000 square feet to as much as one                
ton per 1000 square feet if bedding or straw are mixed in.                      
                                                                                
In the following table showing the approximate nutrient content                 
of manures and suggested yearly rates of applicaton per 1000                    
square feet of garden area, rates given are for materials used                  
singly. If combinations of two or more materials are used, the                  
rate should be reduced accordingly.                                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
Manure type     %N      %P      %K       Pounds/1000sq.ft.                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
Cow            .55     .15     .50       232                                    
Chicken       1.10     .90     .50       125                                    
Hog            .55     .30     .45       255                                    
Horse          .65     .25     .50       210                                    
Sheep         1.00     .75     .40       140                                    
                                                                                
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When should I plant hollyhock seed? Can I expect any flowers this               
year? How tall will the plants grow?                                            
                                                                                
You don't have to wait until next year for blossoms of holly-                   
hocks. Old-fashioned perennial holly-hocks are slow to develop,                 
but modern annual varieties bloom reliably the same year from                   
seed sown in late spring.                                                       
                                                                                
Hollyhock seeds are quite large, easy to handle, and sprout                     
easily. Don't automatically plant them in the back of other                     
flowers because some of the newer hollyhocks grow only 2 feet                   
tall and could be hidden by background flowers. Other modern                    
annual hollyhocks reach 3 to 4 feet in height so read the seed                  
packet or catalog descriptions carefully. For variety, look for                 
new colors in nearly every hue on the pastel palette plus deep                  
wine shades. There's lime-tinged cream, apricot, peach and plum,                
pristine white, lemon yellow and lavender-brushed pink shades.                  
                                                                                
 -------                                                                        
                                                                                
I am starting vegetables and flowers indoors for transplants this               
year. What is the best way to harden them off and exactly what                  
purpose does it serve?                                                          
                                                                                
Hardening is the process of altering the quality of plant growth                
to withstand the change in environmental conditions which occur                 
when plants are transferred from a greenhouse or home to the                    
garden. A severe check in growth may occur if plants produced in                
sheltered conditions are planted outdoors without a transition                  
period. A change from a soft, succulent type of growth to a                     
firmer, harder type is desired. Hardening is more critical with                 
early crops when adverse climatic conditions can be expected than               
it is for crops planted later in the season.                                    
                                                                                
Hardening can be accomplished by gradually lowering temperatures                
and relative humidity and reducing water. This procedure results                
in an accumulation of carbohydrates and a thickening of cell                    
walls.                                                                          
                                                                                
The hardening process should be started at least 2 weeks before                 
planting in the garden. If possible, plants should be moved to a                
45 to 50 degree temperature indoors or outdoors in a shady                      
location. A coldframe is excellent for this purpose. When put                   
outdoors, plants should be shaded then gradually moved into                     
sunlight. Each day, gradually increase the length of ex-                        
posure. Don't put tender seedlings outdoors on windy days or when               
temperatures are below 45 degrees F. Reduce the frequency of                    
watering to slow growth but don't allow plants to wilt.                         
                                                                                
Even cold hardy plants will be hurt if exposed to freezing                      
temperatures before they are hardened. After proper hardening,                  
however, they can be planted outdoors and light frosts will not                 
damage them.                                                                    
                                                                                
The hardening process is intended to slow plant growth. If                      
carried to the extreme of actually stopping plant growth,                       
significant damage can be done to certain crops. For example,                   
cauliflower will make thumb size heads and fail to develop                      
further if hardened too severely. Cucumbers and melons will stop                
growth if hardened.                                                             
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
What can I do with seedlings ready for garden planting when a                   
late cold snap threatens to freeze them if I plant anyway?                      
                                                                                
When the weather won't cooperate at planting-out time, seedlings                
may be stored in a cellar, porch or outbuilding kept at 35 to 40                
degrees F. If there is no natural light, use two 40 watt fluores-               
cent tubes 12" above the plants, 14 hours a day. Most flowers and               
vegetables can be stored at optimum transplanting size for two                  
weeks.                                                                          
                                                                                
 -------                                                                        
                                                                                
Is a soil thermometer a good investment for a gardener?                         
                                                                                
At low temperatures, many seeds will not germinate, and the                     
biological life of the soil which supplies nutrients and                        
maintains growth factors for the roots is largerly inactive. High               
temperatures halt root growth and can even kill the roots. At                   
both extremes, a soil thermometer can be a good investment as a                 
tool for soil temperature management along with appropriate                     
mulches.                                                                        
                                                                                
In spring, checking the soil temperature at 4" to 6" depth in                   
early afternoon tells you when to sow seed. The optimum for                     
germination of cool weather crops is 60 to 70 degrees; for warm                 
weather crops it is 70 to 80 degrees. Lettuce, onions, and                      
spinach will germinate at soil temperatures as low as 35 degrees;               
beets, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots, parsley, peas, radishes,                  
Swiss chard, and turnips as low as 40 degrees; corn and tomatoes                
at 50 degrees; and beans, cucumbers, eggplant, melons, okra,                    
peppers, and squash at 60 degrees. Raising the soil temperature                 
even a few degrees above these minimums with a plastic mulch                    
will speed germination and growth.                                              
                                                                                
Black plastic mulch raises soil temperature 6 to 8 degrees, clear               
plastic can raise it 20 degrees or more. Too high a rise might                  
push seedling growth too much, so most gardeners use the black                  
plastic.                                                                        
                                                                                
A cooling organic mulch 2 to 4 inches thick should replace the                  
plastic mulch when the soil temperatures reach 75 degrees. Hay,                 
straw or grass clippings will lower soil temperature as much as                 
12 degrees, shredded leaves up to 18 degrees.                                   
                                                                                
Research with nursery, greenhouse and farm crops has shown that                 
soil temperature is often more important to growth than air                     
temperature. For vegetables the root-zone temperature is so                     
critical at certain seasons that manipulating the soil tempera-                 
ture can make a vegetable plot up to 20% more productive.                       
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
Could you please suggest some new or unusual edging plants for                  
beds and borders? I'd like something besides ageratum or zinnia.                
                                                                                
For edging beds, borders, walks and patios, some annuals are                    
standbys: ageratum, sweet alyssum, marigolds, petunias, lobelia,                
verbena, dianthus, lilliput zinnias. But in recent years quite a                
few of the more uncommon annuals have been used for edging, often               
with very pleasing effect.                                                      
                                                                                
Meadowfoam, (Limnanthes douglasii), grows to 6" to 10", and bears               
starry bright gold blooms, with white tips. Flowers are produced                
in great abundance in early spring on dense feathery-leaved                     
plants. Meadowfoam forms a fine carpet and will self-sow if the                 
ground is not disturbed in the fall. It does best on moist soil.                
                                                                                
Toad Flax, (Linaria maroccana), is really unusual. Blooming to                  
the very end of the season, it bears snapdragon-like white, pink,               
red or purple flowers on 8" plants. They are difficult to                       
transplant and should be sown in place. They perform best where                 
nights are cool.                                                                
                                                                                
Lychnis viscaria, 'Blue Angel' and 'Rose Angel' produce their                   
azure-blue or rose flowers profusely through the summer. The pink               
'Love' and magenta 'Maggie May' are also heavy flowering. These                 
hardy perennials should be started from seed in full sun.                       
                                                                                
The flowers of feverfew, (Matricaria eximea), resemble miniature                
cushion mums. They are produced lavishly on 6-10 inch mounded                   
plants. Feverfew blooms in shades of white and yellow. These                    
tender perennials should be grown in full sun. To attain the                    
longest flowering season they should be started indoors early in                
the season.                                                                     
                                                                                
Nierembergia 'Purple Robe' is dense and compact plant which grows               
6 inches tall. It bears violet-blue flowers that do not fade in                 
the heat. These grow up to 2 inches across and bloom constantly                 
through the fall provided you keep cutting the dead flowers off.                
Grow in full sun in rich, moist soil.                                           
                                                                                
For hot sun and dry soil, the California Bluebell, (Phacelia                    
campanualaria), is an ideal choice. This native of the California               
desert grows to 9 inches and bears pure gentian-blue bell flowers               
with prominent white anthers. Sow seeds of this annual where                    
plants are to grow in full sun.                                                 
                                                                                
____________                                                                    
                                                                                
Are nasturtiums easy to grow? I would like to try them in my                    
edible landscape plan.                                                          
                                                                                
Useful for bedding, containers, and fences, nasturtiums have                    
sweet fragrances, withstand drought, and are among the easiest of               
all annuals to grow. Nasturtiums require full sun and well                      
drained, infertile soil. Too much nitrogen results in lush                      
foliage and few flowers.                                                        
                                                                                
Seed can be started in peat pots in winter for very early bloom,                
and cuttings taken before frost will provide blooming plants                    
indoors all winter. They rate high as edible ornamentals; the                   
leaves, flowers and even seeds being valuable in the kitchen.                   
Nasturtium leaves are rich in vitamin C and iron, and both the                  
flowers and watercress-flavored leaves are excellent in salads.                 
Pickled nasturtium seeds are a fine substitute for capers.                      
                                                                                
There are nasturtium varieties for every purpose. Semi-double                   
flowered dwarf Jewel series is offered in separate gold, mahagony               
and scarlet colors, or in a mix that includes many shades of                    
cream, orange, and red. Similar in color range and size is the                  
bright single-flowered Whirlybird group. For hanging baskets,                   
beds, or wall-stump-fence coverings, the 24" Gleam varieties grow               
semi-trailing and have large semi-double blooms. The                            
old-fashioned climbers, which grow 6' to 8' long, have also been                
improved. All forms are available from major seedsmen.                          
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
May Notes                                                                       
                                                                                
* When you visit gardens and arboreta, take your camera and                     
note pad with you. Now is the time to plan for changes you will                 
make in your landscape to add spring glory.                                     
                                                                                
* Raised beds warm up faster in the spring, provide good drainag-               
e, help protect soil structure, and may be built at a height for                
working without bending. But they dry out faster so don't forget                
to water.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Don't be surprised if variegated hosta has green leaves when                  
grown in the sun. The best variegated color pattern is secured                  
on plants in a semi-shady location.                                             
                                                                                
* Grass clippings can be used as a mulch in flower beds and                     
vegetable gardens if allowed to dry well before use. Fresh, damp                
grass clippings will mat and may attract pests. Never use                       
clippings from a lawn that has been treated with a herbicide.                   
                                                                                
* Put your tools away at the end of the day; clean them and                     
hang them up, if possible. Keep the cutting edge sharp for easier               
use.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Don't spray on a windy day. Not only is pesticide wasted,                     
it may endanger other crops or you.                                             
                                                                                
* Recycle your kitchen scraps in a compost trench to avoid                      
attracting birds or animals to your compost pile. Dig the trench                
between garden rows, covering each addition with garden soil. The               
material will enrich your soil as it breaks down.                               
                                                                                
* Four to five layers of newspaper will serve as an effective                   
mulch in the garden. Cover with sawdust or soil to reduce the                   
white glare and prevent it from blowing away.                                   
                                                                                
* Frequent picking of cucumbers, summer squash, beans, peas,                    
lettuce, and greens while they are small and tender will improve                
the quality of the produce and increase the yield of each plant.                
                                                                                
* Trellis and stake downwind from the prevailing winds so plants                
will lean against the supports when the wind is blowing.                        
                                                                                
* Drive stakes when you plant tomatoes or cucumbers. If you                     
try to install stakes later, you may damage the plant roots. Tie                
the plants with a soft material such as stockings or worn bed                   
sheets which will not cut into the stems.                                       
                                                                                
* Sprinkle seeds evenly by putting them in a small shaker. A                    
set of caps for seed sprouting jars will let you choose one                     
with appropriate-sized holes for the seeds you use. The problem                 
of sowing fine seed too thickly can be reduced by mixing them                   
with sand.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Stay out of the garden when foilage is wet. Walking through                   
a wet garden spreads disease from one plant to another.                         
                                                                                
* Moles feed on white grubs and in their feeding ruin the                       
lawn. Moles can be eliminated by eliminating the grubs. Consult                 
your extension service for current recommendations.                             
                                                                                
* Newly set plants should be protected from cutworms with                       
collars.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Flea beetles can severely damage newly set plants. Protect                    
plants with carbaryl as soon as these small shiny, black, hopping               
insects are noted.                                                              
                                                                                
* Move your house plants outdoors when the night temperatures                   
stay above 60 degrees. Avoid sun burning the foliage by moving                  
the plants gradually from the relative darkness of the house                    
to their summer location. Start by putting them in a well-shaded                
location and progressing to increasingly lighted areas.                         
                                                                                
* After planting seed from this year's packets, store leftovers                 
in a tightly sealed jar in the refrigerator. Add a dessicant                    
such as a layer of tissues in which 2 tablespoons of powdered                   
milk have been wrapped to absorb excess moisture from the air.                  
                                                                                
* A fern that is exceptionally tolerant of the dry air of the                   
home is the mother fern (Asplenium bulbiferum) so-called because                
it produces plantlets on its fronds. It does well at 30% humidit-               
y. For homes with 50% humidity, button ferns (Pellaea rotundi-                  
folia) are an excellent choice.                                                 
                                                                                
* Amaranth is an excellent substitute for cooked spinach accordi-               
ng to USDA tests. It does best in midsummer heat and harvestable                
leaves are produced in just 30 days from sowing.                                
                                                                                
* When planting shrubs on a steep slope, be sure to mulch or                    
use an erosion control netting if grasses or ground covers are                  
not already present. Digging planting holes and watering the                    
new plants will result in erosion problems on bare soil.                        
                                                                                
* Don't overwater your lawn this summer. Too much water leaches                 
out nitrogen, encourages a number of weeds and brings on disease                
problems.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Gladiola bulbs may be planted now.                                            
                                                                                
* Set out marigolds, petunias, ageratums and fiberous begonias.                 
All are good border plants.                                                     
                                                                                
* Prune forsythia, lilacs and other spring flowering shrubs                     
immediately after bloom.                                                        
                                                                                
* Deep transplanting is good for tomatoes. Tomato plants can be                 
set so deep in the ground that only a little tuft of leaves shows               
above the surface, after removing all leaves that would be                      
under the soil. New roots will sprout along the stem. Don't try                 
deep transplanting with other vegetables or flowers.                            
                                                                                
* When planting large-seeded lima or butter bean seed in heavy                  
soils, it may help germination to plant the seed on edge, facili-               
tating the emergence of the large cotyledons or seed leaves. On                 
light sandy soil, this is of dubious value because such soil                    
offers little resistance to sprouts.                                            
                                                                                
* When thinning beans, watch for "Snake Heads", seedlings which                 
have lost one or both of their cotyledons and produce poor weak                 
sprouts and "Bald Heads", seedlings which have the growth point                 
damaged so severely that they can't develop. Both types of                      
seedlings will be weak and delayed in growth and should be                      
removed.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Plant ground cover under shade trees that don't allow enough                  
sunlight to sustain grass. Periwinkle, English ivy, and liriope                 
are a few ground cover plants that grow well in shade.                          
                                                                                
* Consider planting some ornamental gourds in the garden this                   
year. After harvest in the fall, wash and dry thoroughly and                    
paint with clear shellac. Place in a basket or bowl and you'll                  
have an attractive centerpiece for Thanksgiving.                                
                                                                                
* Poison ivy leaves vary in shape and grow in threes. It is                     
dangerous all year round as you can get an irritation from the                  
leaves, roots, berries, and even smoke from burning the vines.                  
Learn to know the leaves, so you may guard against it. If you                   
think you may have come in contact with it, wash immediately with               
soap and water and remove any clothes that may have the oil on                  
them. Prevention is the best medicine for this ailment.                         
                                                                                
* Water newly planted trees and shrubs unless there is considera-               
ble rainfall. Mulch to conserve moisture and control weeds.                     
                                                                                
* Pinch back annuals which need to be trained for bushiness when                
4 to 6 inches high. Some of these are zinnias, petunias and                     
salvia.                                                                         
                                                                                
* When you remodel the kitchen, save a section of the old cabinet               
and use for a potting bench. It provides a comfortable working                  
height and storage below for pots, media, tools, etc.                           
                                                                                
* Set petunia plants among the fading tulips to offset the                      
unsightly wilting leaves. You can tie leaves in gentle knots to                 
hide them, but don't cut the tulip leaves until they have dried                 
completely.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Introducing your children to gardening can be a rewarding                     
experience for the entire family. Give them a small plot of                     
their own with full sun, good soil and drainage. Geraniums and                  
begonias from pots are easy for little hands to handle and                      
marigolds, radishes, and favorite vegetables can be added. It's                 
a pleasant and productive way to spend time together.                           
                                                                                
* 35 of the 39 snakes found in Virginia are beneficial to the                   
farmer and gardener. They eat insects and rodents. Of particul-                 
ar value is the large black rat snake, which consumes mice, rats,               
and other small mammals.                                                        
                                                                                
* Avoid using peat moss as a mulch. It tends to form a tight mat,               
virtually impermeable to light rain once it becomes dry. It is                  
best mixed in with soil as a conditioner.                                       
                                                                                
* Impatiens is the most satisfactory annual for use in shade.                   
Begonia, coleus, ageratum, salvia, and vinca prefer light shade                 
(5 to 6 hours of sunlight).                                                     
                                                                                
* Remember, insecticides such as Malathion cannot be used as                    
preventatives, but are only effective if they come in contact                   
with the insect. Use all pesticides with caution. Always read and               
follow the directions on the label.                                             
                                                                                
* Houseplants in containers without drainage holes are poor                     
candidates for outside. A good rainstorm may drown and rot them.                
All plants perform better in containers with drainage holes.                    
                                                                                
* Vacation hint:  Sink houseplants, pots and all, in the soil in                
a shady area of the garden. Mulch to reduce the need for frequent               
watering.                                                                       
                                                                                
* If you are building a home on a wooded lot, save young,                       
vigorous trees. They will adapt to changes in their environment                 
better than older trees. Trees that once grew in shade and are                  
suddenly exposed to increased sunlight, wider temperature                       
fluctuations and drying winds may not survive.                                  
                                                                                
* Red and silver maples, willows, poplars and elms often clog                   
septic lines. Plant these species well away from waterlines and                 
sewers.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Lace bugs, tiny fly-like insects with lacy wings, weaken                      
rhododendrons, azaleas and mountain laurel by sucking out                       
cellular fluids. Since these insects prefer hot, dry conditions,                
plants grown in semishade are less susceptible.                                 
                                                                                
* Large plate glass windows are apparently invisible to birds.                  
Hang small mobile twists of reflective ribbon or hanging baskets                
in front of the glass to prevent crashes.                                       
                                                                                
* Most evergreens have many roots near the soil surface. Avoid                  
deep cultivation that might wound roots.                                        
                                                                                
* If an old tree shows signs of advanced rotting, remove it                     
before it becomes a safety hazard.                                              
                                                                                
* Algae and lichens are primitive plants which grow nearly                      
anywhere there is adequate moisture. Although they are often                    
found growing on tree trunks, algae and lichens generally do not                
harm trees; often they indicate stressful conditions such as soil               
compaction, poor drainage or insufficient fertilizer.                           
                                                                                
* Divide indoor plants when new growth starts in spring. Root                   
cuttings during spring and summer when the plant is actively                    
growing.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Watering with soaker hoses or drip irrigation will deter the                  
spread of black spot in roses.                                                  
                                                                                
* Where earwigs and sowbugs are a problem, try trapping them with               
rolled up newspapers which have been moistened with water. The                  
insects will hide in the papers by day. Gather up the traps and                 
dispose of them frequently.                                                     
                                                                                
* To better evaluate your gardening successes, keep weather                     
records along with garden records. The most important items to                  
report are daily minimum and maximum temperatures, precipitation                
and cloud cover, and frost occurrences.                                         
                                                                                
* A rain gauge can be constructed from a large can and a plastic                
straw. Mark the straw in inches and fractions. After removing the               
lid from the can, set it out to collect rainfall. After a                       
rain, insert the straw to the bottom of the can and put your                    
finger over the opening. Withdraw the straw and hold it up to the               
light to read the amount of rainfall.                                           
                                                                                
* In clay soils, improve drainage for trees by planting on the                  
"high side."  Build up the area around the rootball with good                   
draining soil. Alternately lay draintile from the bottom of the                 
planting hole to a ditch or gravel drain constructed below the                  
planting hole.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Thin peaches four to six inches apart for large, high quality                 
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Lawns maintained at the correct height resist disease and weed                
infestation. Kentucky blueglass and tall fescue should be kept                  
between 2-3" in height. Mow frequently removing one third of the                
blade at each cutting.                                                          
                                                                                
* Creeping red fescue may be used for turf in shady, drought                    
prone areas. Keep this grass at 2 - 2 1/2 inches in height.                     
                                                                                
* Plan vegetable gardens with nutrition in mind. Compare the                    
nutritional values of your crops with the amount of space                       
allotted them. For example, your family will get more vitamins                  
and minerals from a block of spinach than from an equal amount of               
lettuce.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Lettuce, tomatoes, beans and peas are self-pollinating annual                 
vegetables from which seed can be easily saved. Make sure the                   
plants are open-pollinated (not hybrids) or next year's plants                  
will not likely grow like the parent plants. Write the Virginia                 
Gardener or your extension agent to request publication 426-316                 
for seed saving tips.                                                           
                                                                                
* Toads eat cutworms and other insect pests. Give them a home in                
your garden by placing inverted clay flower pots in shady spots.                
Make sure to chip out a piece of the pot rim to give the toads an               
entrance to their home.                                                         
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
May 1986 Press Releases                                                         
                                                                                
Identifying Pests                                 66 lines                      
Flowering Tobacco                                 38 lines                      
Summer Blooming Perennials                        79 lines                      
Trellis for Efficiency                            54 lines                      
Protecting Shade Trees from Construction Damage   64 lines                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Identifying Pests                                                               
                                                                                
A variety of insects live in home vegetable gardens in the                      
state. Although some are beneficial, such as lady bug beetles,                  
and praying mantis, many cause damage and  frustration to the                   
gardeners  as they attempt to get rid of them.                                  
                                                                                
Chemical insect controls are most effective when the correct                    
insecticide is applied properly to the insect it was meant to                   
control. Gardeners need to be able to identify the insects. Here                
is a description of some of the most common garden pests to help                
in identification:                                                              
                                                                                
Aphids or plant lice are small, soft-bodied sucking insects                     
usually found in large numbers on the undersides of many vege-                  
table plant leaves. They vary from gray to green, brown, yellow                 
or black in color. As the aphid sucks the juices from the plant,                
curling, wilting or even stunting may occur.                                    
                                                                                
Striped and spotted cucumber beetles feed on cucumber, squash,                  
melon, and related plants. The beetles first attack more mature                 
plants. Beetles may carry bacterial wilt disease which often                    
causes the plant's death. Both beetles are yellow and under 1/2"                
in length; one has black stripes, the other black spots. Late in                
the season, beetles may be found inside blossoms.                               
                                                                                
The cutworm is a familiar sight; it rolls up into a "ball" when                 
disturbed. Its damage is most conspicuous when young plants are                 
cut off at the soil surface. Weedy gardens tend to add to cutworm               
problems. The caterpillars, the larvae of night flying moths,                   
vary in color-green to brown to black and generally are soft-                   
bodied, smooth and cylindrical.                                                 
                                                                                
Although the Mexican bean beetle resembles one of the helpful                   
lady beetles, it is not beneficial. These yellowish to copper                   
colored beetles with black spots can be found on beans along with               
their fuzzy yellow larvae. The primary symptom is skeletonization               
of the leaves; however, the insects will attack young pods and                  
stems if the leaves are tough or already have been destroyed.                   
                                                                                
Colorado potato beetles defoliate potatoes, eggplants and                       
tomatoes. The beetles feed first on tender foliage. After                       
mating, females lay masses of yellow eggs on the undersides of                  
leaves. The larvae are brick red in color and have a slug-like                  
appearance. They also feed on the leaves, often leaving nothing                 
but a bare stalk.                                                               
                                                                                
The tomato hornworm is a large green caterpillar with white                     
markings. The hornworm has a spike-like projection on one of the                
last abdominal segments, hence its name. The tomato hornworm                    
feeds on tomato leaves and green fruit, causing early defoliation               
and deformed fruit. Many times gardeners see a hornworm with a                  
number of white projections on its back. These are the cocoons of               
a small parasitic wasp that is part of the natural control                      
complex for caterpillars, such as the hornworms. Hornworms with                 
cocoons on them should be left in the garden. The insect is                     
already declining and the wasps which hatch can control other                   
caterpillars.                                                                   
                                                                                
Cabbage loopers often go unoticed because their coloring is                     
similar to that of their host plants. They feed on cabbage and                  
related crops, including broccoli, cauliflower and kale. These                  
green worms first feed on the outer leaves, but gradually work                  
their way to the inner parts of the plant. A person may have                    
been surprised to find one or two in the water after cooking a                  
head of broccoli.                                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
Flowering Tobacco                                                               
                                                                                
Plant breeders look for garden flowers that will stay in bloom                  
for several weeks despite summer heat and humidity. They have a                 
good prospect in the dwarf, day-blooming, fragrant nicotiana.                   
The old style tall flowering tobacco was treasured for its                      
evening frangrance but it didn't have a great deal else to                      
offer. Tall spikes of flowers remained closed until dusk and the                
colors were rather muddy. The spindly spikes could be wrecked by                
wind and rain.                                                                  
                                                                                
New dwarf nicotianas grow to a height of only 15 to 18 inches,                  
branch at the base to form multiple flower spikes and are day                   
blooming. Their delectable fragrance, is noticeable from several                
feet away on calm, humid days. If there are hummingbirds anywhere               
in the neighborhood, they'll be visiting the nicotiana.                         
                                                                                
So many of the tubular, starpointed blossoms are borne on each                  
plant that the breeders have had to select for a "self cleaning"                
habit. Spent blossoms of the new varieties are shaken off by the                
gentlest breeze.                                                                
                                                                                
Rain or shine, the color impact of nicotianas is extraoridinary;                
weather that fades, beats down, or blemishes other summer flowers               
fazes the new nicotianas little. Dwarf nicotianas bloom early and               
continue blooming all summer long. Rosy pink, deep rose, white                  
and crimson colors are available.                                               
                                                                                
Despite its tiny seeds, nicotiana is easy to grow from seed if                  
sown in warm soil in the garden. Make a short "nursery row",                    
water it thoroughly and top with a shallow layer of potting soil.               
Do not cover the seeds; they need light to sprout. Sprinkle                     
daily with a fine mist. If necessary, transplant the seedlings                  
while they are small; they recover quickly.                                     
                                                                                
Nicotianas prefer full sun but will tolerate light shade. Plant                 
them behind brightly colored low growing flowers, around trees                  
or shrubs, or in medium sized containers.                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Summer Blooming Perennials                                                      
                                                                                
Daylilies                                                                       
                                                                                
The bright orange daylily that blooms along roads and on rail                   
road banks is a showy summer perennial. Plant breeders have                     
"tamed" or "changed" the color, and your garden may have yellow,                
orange, maroon, or pinkish daylilies. Many nursery gardeners grow               
only daylilies. A single mature plant may have over 50 blossoms                 
and by choosing only four of the many varieities, you can have                  
blooms all summer.                                                              
                                                                                
Divide large daylily clumps as soon as they have finished                       
blooming. They like full sun or partial shade, but are content                  
with only four hours of sunlight a day. Some daylilies grown                    
only 2 feet tall; others show their flowers on 4 foot stems.                    
Select a variety whose height and color fit into your border                    
plan. Plant them in large clumps next to shrubbery or wherever                  
you need lots of green foliage. Daylilies grow in practically all               
types of soil, but bloom more if you mix organic matter or                      
compost into the soil when you plant them.                                      
                                                                                
Gaillardia                                                                      
                                                                                
Gaillardia, also known as blanketflower, has blooms of rich                     
yellow with red centers. The cut flowers keep well and can be                   
used for corsages.                                                              
                                                                                
Gaillardia is easily divided in the spring and thrives in any                   
soil except heavy clay. Since it blooms from June until after                   
killing frosts, it can be planted in front of iris for a nice                   
display. The many soft, hairy leaves tend to hide the iris after                
it has finished blooming. With a height of up to 3 feet, gaillar-               
dia can be planted in the middle of the flower border. A low-                   
growing form under 1' in height is now available.                               
                                                                                
Coreopsis                                                                       
                                                                                
Coreopsis is a popular yellow daisylike flower, sometimes called                
tickseed. Coreopsis blooms from June until frost. The leaves are                
narrow and light green, and the yellow flowers are from 2 to 3                  
inches across. The flowers are on long, graceful stems, making                  
them attractive for indoor use. Continual removal of the faded                  
flowers before seeds form assures a supply of coreopsis blooms                  
all summer.                                                                     
                                                                                
It is best to divide the old, crowded plants in early spring and                
to reset them about 3 feet apart. All coreopsis asks is plenty of               
sunlight and good soil.                                                         
                                                                                
Shasta Daisy                                                                    
                                                                                
Shasta daisy is a friendly neighbor for coreopsis. It, too, has                 
daisylike flowers and blooms freely, giving many blossoms that                  
fit into any summer flower arrangement. Shasta daisy is related                 
to fall mums; new varieties are double and look much like                       
chrysanthemums.                                                                 
                                                                                
Sun and good soil keep shasta daisies content. Divide crowded                   
plants in early spring and reset them near the middle of the                    
flower border since the plants grow to a height of about 2 feet.                
Bugs and diseases seldom bother shasta daisies.                                 
                                                                                
Phlox                                                                           
                                                                                
Phlox means flame in Greek. No doubt the bright red heads of                    
the standard variety are the reason for its name. Phlox is found                
in many perennial gardens, probably because the large clusters of               
showy flowers come in many colors, and cultivars vary in height                 
and time of bloom. A planting with colors graded from light                     
pink to dark red is most striking. The blooms can also be used                  
for cut flowers.                                                                
                                                                                
Phlox is best planted in groups in beds along driveways and paths               
and in front of shrubbery. They are hungry plants and need plenty               
of moisture and good rich soil. If set too close together, phlox                
may be attacked by mildew. Spray any mildewed plants with                       
fungicide. If necessary, divide phlox in September and reset the                
outer sections of the old plants.                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
Trellis for Efficiency                                                          
                                                                                
One of the surest ways to increase the efficiency of your garden                
space is by growing highly productive vining crops and maintaini-               
ng them on a trellis.                                                           
                                                                                
Some vines climb by spiraling around supports and twining around                
any object small enough to embrace. Others have short tendrils                  
that cling to supports and, if trained occasionally, will grow                  
up alongside a post or within a cage. Others are so heavy and                   
have so few tendrils that they need frequent training; if left                  
to their own devices, they would lie about on the ground.                       
                                                                                
The climbing habits of a vine determine the kind of support                     
needed. Climbers or twiners include pole or runner beans,                       
asparagus beans and most of the flowering vines. Clingers                       
include tall varieties of green peas, gourds, and sweet peas. The               
heavy vining vegetables are cantaloupe, pumpkin, squash and                     
watermelon.                                                                     
                                                                                
The simplest and least expensive support for twining vines is a                 
6 to 7 foot high frame. Provide top and bottom stringers of                     
heavy guage wire or crossbars of lumber. Lace strong twine                      
vertically and train the tendrils as soon as they are long                      
enough to twine around two or three times. Only occasional                      
training will be needed to assist wayward tendrils the rest of                  
the season.                                                                     
                                                                                
Clinging vines can get by with shorter supports, five to six feet               
in height. Disposable netting stretched over a vertical frame                   
works very well and requires less maintenance than chicken wire.                
                                                                                
Semi-permanent trellises with sturdy posts and crossbars or wire                
stringers placed every foot or so are needed for heavy fruited                  
vines. Any wood used on semi-permanent trellisses should be                     
construction grade salt-treated lumber. Gardeners with untreated                
lumber on hand can treat their wood with copper napthenate, a                   
preservative that is not toxic to plants.                                       
                                                                                
Although trellising may be more work initially than growing the                 
bush varieities, the advantages make it ultimately worthwhile.                  
The yield per square foot is much higher than that of bush                      
varieties, sometimes as much as double. Many vining varieties                   
yield up to 4 weeks longer than bush varieties eliminating the                  
need to replant for fall harvest. The produce is easier to                      
harvest, especially for someone who finds kneeling and stooping a               
challange.                                                                      
                                                                                
Since foliage dries out faster with the good air circulation                    
around a trellised crop, disease is less of a problem. When                     
spraying or dusting does become necessary, it is easier to                      
thoroughly cover both sides of the leaf. And as a final benefit,                
you don't have to watch where you put your feet as you make your                
way through the garden.                                                         
Protecting Shade Trees from Construction Damage                                 
                                                                                
Nearly everyone recognizes the value of trees in providing                      
shade, ornament, and protection to building sites, city streets,                
and roadsides. All too frequently, however, the trees that make                 
a site attractive are damaged or killed during construction work                
by carelessness or inadequate protection. Frequently, it is                     
possible to repair such damage or to restore a tree's health,                   
but it is always better and usually more econimcal to prevent                   
damage than to correct it. Before beginning actual construction,                
it is worthwhile to give careful thought to the protection of                   
trees on the site.                                                              
                                                                                
A basic way to lessen construction damage to trees is to reduce                 
traffic as much as possible around the construction site. Talk                  
this over with your contractor before construction begins.                      
Establish definite traffic patterns and fence off trees, if                     
necessary. Locate areas where soil and building materials are                   
stockpiled well away from the drip line of the trees you want to                
save.                                                                           
                                                                                
When you install temporary or permanent driveways or traffic                    
lanes, cut nearby tree roots cleanly. Cleanly cut roots will                    
heal better and new roots will develop. Sometimes it is necessary               
for traffic to pass temporarily near trees. In this case build a                
bridge to keep the weight of heavy vehicles off the soil. Place                 
railroad ties on the ground and place steel plates over the ties                
for a temporary equipment bridge.                                               
                                                                                
Cut-and-fill damage can injure trees just as much as compaction.                
The symptoms of the two problems are almost identical: early leaf               
drop in fall, twig die-back, and leaf dwarfing. In most cases,                  
injury and death occurs more rapidly from cut-and-fill damage.                  
Fill that covers the root system of a tree will smother it by                   
cutting off the air supply and, sometimes, the moisture that the                
tree must have to survive.                                                      
                                                                                
If you want to place fill dirt over existing root systems you                   
will need to install 4 to 6 inch standard agricultural field                    
drain tile in a pattern with 8 radials extending from 1 1/2 -2'                 
from the trunk to beyond the drip line. Cover the tile with 6 to                
8 inches of coarse 1/2 to 3 inch stone. Use creek gravel, not                   
crushed limestone which is commonly used for road work. Crushed                 
limestone can harm trees by raising the soil pH. The fill                       
soil should be porous as possible or amended with sand or                       
organic materials. Sandy soil permits much more natural drainage                
of air and water than clay, which packs more easily. Two or                     
three inches of sandy soil can be filled over a root system                     
without harming the tree, while 2 to 3 inches of clay soil                      
filled over a root system may kill the tree.                                    
                                                                                
Removing soil from underneath a tree canopy can seriously damage                
roots and may even impare the stability of the tree. If you need                
to lower the soil level near trees leave the largest possible                   
area at the original soil level. Build a retaining wall around                  
the undisturbed soil or gradually taper the soil level between                  
the different heights. Plant the exposed soil in grass or                       
groundcover to prevent erosion.                                                 
                                                                                
There are no shortcuts to tree protection. You may save time and                
avoid mistakes if you obtain competent assistance before you make               
plans for construction operations or before you treat trees that                
have suffered from widespread construction damage. Sometimes it                 
may be desirable to consult the extension service first.                        
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
May 1986 Virginia Gardener Question Box                                         
                                                                                
Care of Potted Geraniums                    22 lines                            
Hints for Novice Landscapers                20 lines                            
Fragrant Flowers                            19 lines                            
Avoid Soil Damage                           14 lines                            
Thinning Fruit in the Home Orchard          60 lines                            
Interplanting in the Vegetable Garden       44 lines                            
Reducing Water Needs in the Garden          38 lines                            
Trees to Avoid                              98 lines                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I have been given a potted azalea. How should I care for it? Can                
I plant it outdoors in summer?                                                  
                                                                                
Indoor azaleas require full sunlight to remain healthy. A night                 
temperature of 60 degrees will prolong bloom. Keep the soil                     
constantly moist. If the leaves should turn yellow, the soil is                 
not acid enough. Use an acid fertilizer sold especially for                     
azaleas. Do not use softened water as it may have too high                      
pH. When repotting, use a mixture high in acid peat moss.                       
                                                                                
Azaleas can be planted, pot and all, in a shady spot in the                     
garden during the summer months. Examine them frequently and keep               
them watered during dry periods. Greenhouse azaleas are not                     
hardy, and need to be brought indoors before freezing weather.                  
                                                                                
Azaleas need a cool rest treatment before they are forced into                  
bloom. Place the plants in a room with a temperature between                    
35-50 degrees F and filtered light. During this rest period,                    
flower buds will develop. Then place in a well lighted warm (65                 
F) room around January 1 and the plant will bloom. Unless you                   
have the proper growing conditions for the azalea, you should not               
attempt to carry the plants over.                                               
                                                                                
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Our family (two adults, two young children) has just moved into                 
our first home. We will be planting the yard ourselves to save                  
money. What hints do you have for novice landscapers?                           
                                                                                
A sucessful landscape should be able to age and mature with a                   
family. Don't plan a landscape whose use will remain static                     
because it will not function as a family's needs change. A plan                 
for a very young family calls for inexpensive plantings. There                  
should be open areas in which children and pets can play. As a                  
family reaches its middle years, more extensive and expensive                   
plantings can be put in. The children's play area can serve other               
functions; for example, a sand box area can be converted into a                 
lily pool. As the children grow up they require less play area                  
and less parental supervision; providing both a place and time                  
for more sophisticated landscaping. With the approach of retire-                
ment years, the landscape should become one of low maintenance.                 
Mature trees and shrubs will carry the landscape theme. High                    
labor areas such as flower beds should be minimized. Ramps and                  
walks may replace steps.                                                        
                                                                                
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What I enjoy best about a garden are the sweet scents. Please                   
give me some suggestions for fragrant flowers.                                  
                                                                                
Gardens appeal to several of our senses: touch and smell as well                
as sight. The following list contains flowers noted for their                   
pleasant fragance.                                                              
                                                                                
Fragrant annuals: Alyssum, Nicotiana (flowering tobacco),                       
Dianthus (pinks), Stock, Heliotrope, Petunias, Mignonette (herb),               
Phlox, Nasturtiums, Sweet peas.                                                 
                                                                                
Fragrant perennials: Southernwood, Lily-of-the-Valley, Dianthus                 
plumarius (Grass Pink), Dictamnus albus (Dittany or Gas Plant),                 
Galium odoratum (Sweet woodruff), Hesperis matronalis (Sweet                    
Rocket), Hosta plantaginea grandiflora (Funkia or Big Plantain                  
Lily), Heliotropium arborescens, Monarda didyma (Bee Balm),                     
Peony, Phlox paniculata (Phlox), Rose species, Valeriana officin-               
alis (Common Valerian), Viola cornuta (Tufted Pansy, Horned                     
violet), Viola odorata (Sweet Violet), Lavandula vera (True                     
Lavender).                                                                      
                                                                                
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When does cultivating or hoeing the garden damage the soil the                  
least?                                                                          
                                                                                
Cultivation is best done when the soil is somewhat moist, but not               
wet. Working wet soil will change the structure, especially in                  
heavy soils. When it is too dry, weeds are difficult to pull and                
hoeing is also harder. A day or two after a rain or irrigation is               
probably the best time to cultivate. If you have a choice,                      
remember that the work will be much more pleasant in the cool                   
temperatures of early morning or evening. On hot summer after-                  
noons, you are likely to fatigue more easily, get a sunburn, or                 
suffer from sun poisoning, sunstroke or worse. Wear protective                  
clothing if you must work when it's hot, and stop frequently for                
rest and refreshment.                                                           
                                                                                
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Is thinning of peaches, plums and apples recommended in a home                  
orchard? If so, how do I do it quickly? Is there a chemical I                   
can use?                                                                        
                                                                                
Quite frequently, peach and apple trees set more fruit than                     
they can mature to a desirable size. By thinning (removing excess               
fruit), this difficulty can be overcome. Thinning not only allows               
for an increase in size of the remaining fruit on the tree, but                 
also improves fruit color and quality, reduces limb breakage, and               
promotes general tree vigor. Thinning induces regular annual                    
bearing in certain apple varieties, such as Golden Delicious,                   
Yellow Transparent, and York Imperial, which otherwise have a                   
tendency to bear heavy crops every other year. Perhaps one of the               
greatest benefits from thinning fruits is that it permits more                  
thorough spraying or dusting for effective disease and insect                   
control.                                                                        
                                                                                
Peach thinning is a standard practice in commercial orchards.                   
Experimental results indicate that the sooner peach trees are                   
thinned after bloom, the earlier the ripening and the larger                    
the fruits at harvest. It is doubtful that final size of the                    
fruits of any variety will be greatly increased by thinning                     
if it is delayed much after the pits begin to harden. It is                     
generally recommended that peaches be spaced 6 to 8" apart.                     
When thinning by hand, grasp the stem or branch firmly between                  
your thumb and forefinger and pull the fruit off with a quick                   
motion of the second and third fingers.                                         
                                                                                
Many growers use the pole method of thinning peaches. A 4 or 5'                 
section of bamboo or other light wood is used. A piece of 3/4"                  
garden or spray hose about 15" long is forced tightly onto the                  
end of the pole, leaving some 8 to 10" of the hose extending                    
beyond the end of the pole. A snug fit is necessary so the hose                 
will remain in place while being used.                                          
                                                                                
Many modifications of this tool are used. One of the most                       
common is a 30" section of plastic pipe, 1" in diameter. Remove                 
peaches by striking the limbs about 18" from their tips with the                
flexible part of the hose, using sharp, firm blows. This dislodg-               
es any loosely attached fruits. With a little practice, you                     
should be able to remove individual fruits by this method.                      
                                                                                
Apples should be thinned as soon as possible after the fruit                    
has set. If full benefits are to be obtained, thinning should                   
be completed within 20 to 25 days after full bloom. In hand-thin-               
ning apples, use the same general technique used in hand-thinning               
peaches. A distance of 6 to 10" between fruits is recommended.                  
With varieties of Delicious apples, where greater size of                       
individual fruits is important, the greater spacing is preferred.               
The center apple of a cluster is usually the largest and the best               
apple to leave.                                                                 
                                                                                
Thinning plums is usually limited to the large Japanese varie-                  
ties. The primary concern here is to facilitate insect and                      
disease control. Plums are usually thinned by hand to about 4"                  
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
Chemical sprays are used by many commercial growers to thin                     
apples and peaches. If you wish to use them in your planting,                   
contact your local Extension Agent for recommendations.                         
                                                                                
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Twice now I have tried to cover a very visible slope in my yard                 
with groundcover plants; twice now I have failed, ending up with                
weeds. I need some pointers. These plants are expensive.                        
                                                                                
Selection of a ground cover will depend upon the area where it                  
will be used. Is it in sun, partially or deeply shaded?  Soil                   
conditions must be studied.  Some ground covers prefer a moist                  
soil, rich in organic matter while others will adapt to dry,                    
sandy situations.  Give consideration to color, texture, height                 
and habit as well, since some ground covers tend to grow rampant-               
ly.                                                                             
                                                                                
One problem that limits the use of ground covers is the cost of                 
installation since large numbers of small, individual plants are                
required. In addition, a well prepared planting bed is essential                
to the establishment of ground covers and can be costly and                     
time consuming.                                                                 
                                                                                
Significant maintenance is necessary for the first one to three                 
years or until the ground cover becomes established. They require               
cultivation to control weeds and other plant invaders; fertiliza-               
tion to encourage fast, vigorous growth to achieve good cover;                  
irrigation in times of dryness; and disease and pest control.                   
When these maintenance considerations are ignored, the progress                 
toward achieving a good ground cover planting is disappointing.                 
                                                                                
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Please explain  the word "interplanting" as used in gardening                   
magazines.                                                                      
                                                                                
Growing two or more types of vegetables in the same place at the                
same time is known as interplanting. Proper planning is essenti-                
al to obtain higher production and increased quality of the crops               
planted. This technique has been practiced for thousands of                     
years, but is just now gaining widespread support in this                       
country.                                                                        
                                                                                
To successfully plan an interplanted garden the following factors               
must be taken into account for each plant: the length of the                    
plant's growth period, its growth pattern (tall, short, below or                
above ground), possible negative effects on other plants (such as               
the allelopathic effects of sunflowers and Jerusalem artichokes                 
on nearby plants), preferred season, and light, nutrient and                    
moisture requirements.                                                          
                                                                                
Interplanting can be accomplished by alternating rows within a                  
bed (plant a row of peppers next to a row of onions), by mixing                 
plants within a row, or by distributing various species througho-               
ut the bed. For the beginner, alternating rows may be the easiest               
to manage at first.                                                             
                                                                                
Long season (slow maturing) and short season (quick maturing)                   
plants like carrots and radishes, respectively, can be planted at               
the same time. The radishes are harvested before they begin to                  
crowd the carrots. An example of combining growth patterns is                   
planting smaller plants close to larger plants, (radishes at the                
base of beans or broccoli). Shade tolerant species like lettuce,                
spinach, and celery may be planted in the shadow of taller crops.               
Heavy feeders, such as cabbage family crops, should be mixed with               
less gluttonous plants. Root, leaf, and soil-building crops                     
(legumes) may be mixed to take advantage of available nutrients.                
                                                                                
Interplanting can help keep insect and disease problems under                   
control. Pests are usually fairly crop-specific; that is, they                  
prefer vegetables of one type or family. Mixing families of                     
plants helps to break up large expanses of the pest-preferred                   
crop, helping to contain early pest damage within a small area,                 
thus giving the gardener a little more time to deal with the                    
problem. One disadvantage is that when it does come time to                     
spray for pests, it's harder to be sure that all plants are                     
protected.                                                                      
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I have sandy soil in my garden. What do I do to keep from                       
having to water so often?                                                       
                                                                                
Addition of organic matter is the first step in improving                       
the moisture conditions in your garden. The moisture-holding                    
capacity of sandy soils is improved by additions of organic                     
matter. Though most soil water in sandy soil is available to                    
plants, it drains so quickly that plants are unable to reach                    
water after even a few days following a rain. Humus in sandy                    
soil gives the water something to cling to until it is needed by                
plants.                                                                         
                                                                                
Mulching is a cultural practice which can significantly decrease                
the amount of water that must be added to the soil. A 6-8"                      
organic mulch can reduce water needs by as much as 1/2 by                       
smothering annual weeds (which take up and transpire moisture)                  
and by reducing evaporation of moisture directly from the soil.                 
Organic mulches themselves hold some water and increase the                     
humidity level around the plant. Black plastic mulch also                       
conserves moisture but may increase soil temperatures drama-                    
tically during the summer (to the detriment of some plants and                  
the benefit of others) if not covered by other mulch materials or               
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
Shading and the use of windbreaks are other moisture-conserving                 
techniques. Plants that wilt in very sunny areas can benefit                    
from partial shade during the afternoon in summer. Small plants,                
in particular, should be protected. Air moving across a plant                   
carries away the moisture on the leaf surfaces, causing more                    
water to be needed by the plant. In very windy areas the roots                  
often cannot keep up with leaf demands, and plants wilt. Tempor-                
ary or permanent windbreaks can help tremendously.                              
                                                                                
During those times when cultural practices simply aren't enough,                
when rainfall is sparse and the sun is hot, watering can benefit                
your garden with higher yields, or may save the garden altogether               
in severe drought years.                                                        
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Would it help my houseplants if I used the potting soil sold in                 
the stores? I've not had great luck with potted plants but I'd                  
hate to throw money away.                                                       
                                                                                
The potting soil or media in which a plant grows must be of good                
quality. It should be porous for root aeration and drainage but                 
also capable of water and nutrient retention. Most commercially                 
prepared mixes are termed artificial which means they contain no                
soil. High quality artificial mixes generally contain slow                      
release fertilizers which take care of a plant's nutritional                    
requirements for several months.                                                
                                                                                
Many commercial soil mixes are well formulated for plants grown                 
in containers. However there are also many cases in which the                   
potting soil is appropriate for pot plants, containing tii much                 
well decomposed organic material and very little drainage                       
material. If you have alot of plants and the space to do the                    
mixing you may save a few dollars and some headaches. If not,                   
you should purchase a small quanity of the potting soil to                      
determine its suitablity before making a large investment.                      
                                                                                
Most mixes contain a combination of organic matter, such as                     
peat moss or ground pine bark, and an inorganic material like,                  
washed sand, vermiculite or perlite. Materials commonly used for                
house plants are the peat-lite mixtures, consisting of peat moss                
and either vermiculite or perlite.                                              
                                                                                
The following materials will make two bushels of mix:                           
		1 bushel shredded peat moss                                                   
		2 bushels perlite or vermiculite                                              
		1/2 cup finely ground agricultural lime                                       
		1/3 cup 20% superphosphate                                                    
		1/2 cup 8-8-8 or similar analysis mixed fertilizer                            
		1 level teaspoon chelated iron                                                
                                                                                
Artificial mixtures are usually very low in trace or minor elem-                
ents, therefore, it is important to use a fertilizer that                       
contains these trace elements.                                                  
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
There are alot of weedy trees I would rather not plant. What                    
trees would you avoid in your yard?                                             
                                                                                
When selecting a tree to plant in your yard it is nice to know                  
exactly what you are getting. Many homeowners plant a sapling,                  
enjoy it for a few years, and then discover some serious disad-                 
vantages when the tree reaches an effective height.                             
                                                                                
Following is a list of trees which you should know something                    
about before you plant them in your yard:                                       
                                                                                
Acer negundo (Box Elder) This tree has weak wood, is short-                     
lived and is susceptible to box elder bugs.                                     
                                                                                
Acer saccharinum (Silver Maple) One of the worst trees available                
because of its brittle wood and tendency to become hollow and                   
hazardous. Its shallow surface roots can ruin sidewalks and                     
driveways, clog up septic systems, and prevent turfgrass growth.                
Also susceptible to insects.                                                    
                                                                                
Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven) A weed tree that sprouts                   
up everywhere and has a disagreeable odor. It is outlawed in                    
some cities.                                                                    
                                                                                
Albizia julibrissin (Mimosa) Susceptible to Mimosa Wilt (root-                  
fungus) and has weak, fast growth.                                              
                                                                                
Betula papyrifera (White Clump Birch) Authorities say it isn't                  
likely to do well where the mean July temperature is above 70                   
degrees F. It is pretty but short-lived.                                        
                                                                                
Betula pendula (European White Birch) This birch is susceptible                 
to insects and much environmental stress.                                       
                                                                                
Catalpa sp. All Catalpas have messy flowers and seed pods.                      
                                                                                
Ginkgo biloba (Gingko) Do not plant the female Ginkgo. It's                     
fruits have a very offensive odor.                                              
                                                                                
Juglans nigra (Black Walnut) The tree roots produce a toxin that                
is harmful to certain other plants and anthracnose will defoliate               
it during August and September. The wood is valuable though.                    
                                                                                
Laburnum anagyroides (Golden Chain Tree) This tree is subject to                
much environmental stress.                                                      
                                                                                
Malus species (Crabapple) Most varieties are defoliated by scab                 
diseases every year. The fruits can be messy.                                   
                                                                                
Melia azedarach (Chinaberry) This tree has weak wood, seeds                     
that are a pest and many suckers.                                               
                                                                                
Morus species (Mulberry) Mulberries have messy fruit.                           
                                                                                
Paulownia tomentosa (Empress Tree) Its pretty flowers become                    
thousands of seeds which sprout everywhere.                                     
                                                                                
Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) Leaves and seeds from this tree                
are messy; it has brittle wood and surface roots. Anthracnose, a                
late spring blight which occurs most years will attack it.                      
                                                                                
Populus species (Lombardy poplar, white or silver poplar, hybrid                
poplars, cottonwood) These trees have brittle wood and surface                  
root systems, but their main problem is that they are very                      
susceptible to canker diseases which disfigure and usually kill                 
them. Some also have messy flowers or send up suckers from their                
roots. The Lombardy poplar is very short-lived. Note that the                   
tulip poplar (or Yellow Poplar) is not a poplar, but rather a                   
magnolia. While it does have brittle wood, it is a pretty good                  
tree.                                                                           
                                                                                
Prunus serotina (Black Cherry) Has objectionable fruit; is                      
susceptible to insects and attracts many birds.                                 
                                                                                
Robinia pseudoacacia (Black Locust) It is good for fence posts                  
and firewood, but not for landscaping. It has brittle wood, is                  
susceptible to cankers, and leaf miners render it unattractive by               
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
Salix species (Willows) These trees have very brittle wood and                  
are susceptible to canker diseases. Their roots will clog sewer                 
and drain pipes. Some are attractive on large lots.                             
                                                                                
Sorbus species (Mountain Ash) Does best in cool climates. Subject               
to damage from sawflies, borers, scale, and fire blight.                        
                                                                                
Ulmus americana (American Elm) Until Dutch elm disease can be                   
controlled, this long time favorite should not be planted.                      
                                                                                
Ulmus pumila (Siberian Elm) Its brittle wood will result in                     
severe damage in ice storms, and its seeds and suckering habit                  
make it a pest. Also very short-lived. Note that the Chinese elm                
(Ulmus parvifolia) is often confused with the Siberian Elm, but                 
is far superior.                                                                
                                                                                
Fruit trees (and fruit trees that only flower) These are often                  
subject to Japanese beetle infestation. Fruit trees require a                   
genuine commitment; don't try to get into them halfway.                         
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly notes  for May 1987                                                     
                                                                                
Herbaceous plants                                                               
                                                                                
* To grow annuals in pots on the patio, use a light weight soil                 
mixture. Keep the plants well watered. Container grown plants dry               
out fast. Use liquid fertilizer every two weeks.                                
                                                                                
* Impatiens is the most satisfactory annual for use in shade.                   
Begonia, coleus, ageratum, salvia, and vinca prefer light shade                 
(5 to 6 hours of sunlight).                                                     
                                                                                
* Gladiolus bulbs may be planted now.                                           
                                                                                
* Set out marigolds, petunias, ageratums and fiberous begonias.                 
All are good border plants.                                                     
                                                                                
* Set petunia plants among the fading bulbs to offset the                       
unsightly wilting leaves. You can tie leaves in gentle knots to                 
hide them, but don't cut the leaves until they have dried                       
completely.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Remove crowded tulip bulbs and store in a dry, cool place over                
summer. Replant in autumn.                                                      
                                                                                
* Pinch back annuals which need to be trained for bushiness when                
4 to 6 inches high. Some of these are zinnias, petunias and                     
salvia.                                                                         
                                                                                
* In the past, begonias were recommended for areas of partial sun               
and full shade. Today "sunproof" varieties such as the Pizzazz,                 
Coco, Cocktail, and Calico Hybrid varieties do as well in full                  
sun as in shade. Take care to keep begonias planted in sunny,                   
moist locations.                                                                
                                                                                
Woody ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Prune out winter-kill on trees and shrubs by cutting back to                  
green wood once new growth begins.                                              
                                                                                
* Watering with soaker hoses or drip irrigation will deter the                  
spread of black spot in roses.                                                  
                                                                                
* Plant ground cover under shade trees that don't allow enough                  
sunlight to sustain grass. Periwinkle, English ivy, and liriope                 
are a few ground cover plants that grow well in shade.                          
                                                                                
* Red and silver maples, willows, poplars and elms often clog                   
septic lines. Plant these species well away from waterlines and                 
sewers.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If you are building a home on a wooded lot, save young,                       
vigorous trees. They will adapt to changes in their environment                 
better than older trees. Trees that once grew in shade and are                  
suddenly exposed to increased sunlight, wider temperature                       
fluctuations and drying winds may not survive.                                  
* In clay soils, improve drainage for trees by planting on the                  
high side. Build up the area around the rootball with good                      
draining soil. Alternately lay draintile from the bottom of the                 
planting hole to a ditch or gravel drain constructed below the                  
planting hole.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Water newly planted trees and shrubs the first year or two to                 
establish a good root system. They need at least one inch of                    
water each week. Soak deeply never water lightly. Mulch to                      
conserve moisture and control weeds.                                            
                                                                                
* If an old tree shows signs of advanced rotting, remove it                     
before it becomes a safety hazard.                                              
                                                                                
* Don't be surprised if variegated hosta has green leaves when                  
grown in the sun. The best variegated color pattern is secured on               
plants in a semi-shady location.                                                
                                                                                
* Mulch around newly planted trees and shrubs. This reduces                     
weeds, reduces fluctuations in soil temperature, retains mois-                  
ture, prevents lawn mower damage to the trunks, and looks neat                  
and orderly.                                                                    
                                                                                
* When planting shrubs on a steep slope, be sure to mulch or use                
an erosion control netting if grasses or ground covers are not                  
already present. Digging planting holes and watering the new                    
plants will result in erosion problems on bare soil.                            
                                                                                
* Poison ivy leaves vary in shape and grow in threes. It is                     
dangerous all year round as you can get an irritation from the                  
leaves, roots, berries, and even smoke from burning the vines.                  
Learn to know the leaves, so you may guard against it. If you                   
think you may have come in contact with it, wash immediately with               
soap and water and remove any clothes that may have the oil on                  
them. Prevention is the best medicine.                                          
                                                                                
* Most evergreens have many roots near the soil surface. Avoid                  
deep cultivation that might wound roots.                                        
                                                                                
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* Save some money on mulch materials by using 4 inches of wood                  
chips before spreading 2 inches of decorative shredded bark. Wood               
chips are less expensive than shredded bark and last longer too.                
Take care to keep deep mulch at least 6 inches away from the                    
trunks of trees and shrubs.                                                     
                                                                                
* Raised beds warm up faster in the spring, provide good                        
drainage, help protect soil structure, and may be built at a                    
height for working without bending. They also dry out faster so                 
don't forget to water.                                                          
                                                                                
* When you visit any formal gardens be sure to take your camera                 
and note pad with you. It is a good time to plan for changes you                
will make in your landscape.                                                    
                                                                                
* For maximum landscape interest in a small space, try vines.                   
They can disguise ugly walls and enliven fences. When trellised,                
they create shade and privacy while hiding undesirable views.Con-               
sider these annual vines which can be started indoors or sown                   
outside after the last frost date: morning glory and its relative               
cardinal climber (Ipomoea sp.); canary creeper (Tropaeolum sp.)                 
can be grown in mountainous areas. For edible ornamentals use                   
scarlet-runner beans and balsam pear or Chinese bitter melon                    
(Momordica sp.).                                                                
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Lawns maintained at the correct height resist disease and weed                
infestation. Kentucky blueglass and tall fescue should be kept                  
between 2-3" in height. Mow frequently removing one third of the                
blade at each cutting.                                                          
                                                                                
* Don't overwater your lawn this summer. Too much water leaches                 
out nitrogen, encourages a number of weeds and brings on disease                
problems.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Moles feed on white grubs and in their feeding ruin the                       
lawn. The number of mole can be reduced by eliminating the grubs.               
Consult your extension service for current recommendations.                     
                                                                                
* If your lawn is bluegrass/fescue, resist the urge to fertilize                
now. Fall is the time to fertilize these grasses. Fertilizing now               
will keep you behind the lawn mower all spring and increase the                 
injury to lawns from summer disease and drought.                                
                                                                                
* Grass clippings can be used as a mulch in flower beds and                     
vegetable gardens if allowed to dry well before use. Fresh, damp                
grass clippings will mat and may attract pests. Never use                       
clippings from a lawn that has been treated with a herbicide.                   
                                                                                
* Creeping red fescue may be used for turf in shady, drought                    
prone areas. Keep this grass at 2 - 2 1/2 inches in height.                     
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Imported cabbage worms are velvety, green worms which eat large               
holes in the leaves of plants in the cabbage family. They are                   
difficult to see, but the holes and green "frass" or excrement on               
the plants are evidence of there presence. Also look for the                    
familiar adult cabbage moth--white, with dark tipped wings.                     
Caterpillars may be hand picked or sprayed with Bacillus                        
thuringiensis, a natural, non-toxic preparation available by                    
various trade names.                                                            
                                                                                
* Slugs love cool, moist weather and succulent, leafy crops,                    
especially lettuce and cabbage. Debris in the garden provides                   
them with a place to hide and should be removed promptly. To see                
if your garden is under attack, put out a board or invert a                     
flower pot. The next morning, see if there are any slugs clinging               
to the underside of the pot or board. If so, begin removing them                
by hand every few days to decrease their populations.                           
                                                                                
* Newly set plants should be protected from cutworms with                       
collars.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Lettuce, tomatoes, beans and peas are self-pollinating annual                 
vegetables from which seed can be easily saved. Make sure the                   
plants are open-pollinated (not hybrids) or next year's plants                  
will not grow like the parent plants. Write the Virginia Gardener               
or your extension agent to request publication 426-316 for seed                 
saving tips.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Plan vegetable gardens with nutrition in mind. Compare the                    
nutritional values of your crops with the amount of space                       
allotted them. For example, your family will get more vitamins                  
and minerals from a block of spinach than from an equal amount of               
lettuce.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Consider planting some ornamental gourds in the garden this                   
year. After harvest in the fall, wash and dry thoroughly and                    
paint with clear shellac. Place in a basket or bowl and you'll                  
have an attractive centerpiece for Thanksgiving.                                
                                                                                
* When thinning beans, watch for poor weak sprouts. In particular               
look for seedlings which have lost one or both of their                         
cotyledons and those which have the growth point damaged so                     
severely that they can't develop. Both types of seedlings will be               
weak and delayed in growth and should be removed.                               
                                                                                
* Stay out of the garden when foilage is wet. Walking through a                 
wet garden spreads disease from one plant to another.                           
                                                                                
* When planting large-seeded lima or butter bean seed in heavy                  
soils, it may help germination to plant the seed on their narrow                
edge. This will facilitate the emergence of the large cotyledons                
or seed leaves. On light sandy soil, this is of less value                      
because such soil offers little resistance to sprouts.                          
                                                                                
* Deep transplanting is good for tomatoes. Tomato plants can be                 
set in the ground so just a little tuft of leaves shows above the               
surface. After removing all leaves that would be under the soil,                
set out the plants. New roots will sprout along the stem. Deep                  
transplanting does not work with other vegetables.                              
                                                                                
* Sprinkle seeds evenly by putting them in a small shaker. A set                
of caps for seed sprouting jars will let you choose one with                    
appropriate-sized holes for the seeds you use. The problem of                   
sowing fine seed too thickly can be reduced by mixing them with                 
sand.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Drive stakes when you plant tomatoes or cucumbers. If you try                 
to install stakes later, you may damage the plant roots. Tie the                
plants with a soft material such as stockings or worn bed sheets                
which will not cut into the stems.                                              
                                                                                
* Trellis and stake downwind from the prevailing winds so plants                
will lean against the supports when the wind is blowing.                        
                                                                                
* Amaranth is an excellent substitute for cooked spinach accordi-               
ng to USDA tests. It does best in midsummer heat and harvestable                
leaves are produced in just 30 days from sowing.                                
                                                                                
* Spinach leaf miners tunnel between the surfaces of the leaves                 
of beets, spinach, swiss chard, and lettuce and leave white                     
trails etched in the leaves. White grubs hatch from white eggs                  
which were laid on the underside of the leaf by a small fly. You                
may prevent the fly from laying eggs by keeping plants covered                  
with a cheesecloth tent or spun polyester row cover. If you                     
cannot cover your plants, consult your extension agent for                      
controls.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Look for the new red variety of okra which is both edible and                 
ornamental. Plants and fruit become deep red, giving color to                   
gardens. High yields, early maturity, and a short plant height                  
are other traits that should make the okra popular.                             
                                                                                
* Frequent picking of cucumbers, summer squash, beans, peas,                    
lettuce, and greens while they are small and tender will improve                
the quality of the produce and increase the yield of each plant.                
                                                                                
* After planting seed from this year's packets, store leftovers                 
in a tightly sealed jar in the refrigerator. Add a dessicant such               
as a layer of tissues in which 2 tablespoons of powdered milk                   
have been wrapped to absorb excess moisture from the air.                       
                                                                                
* Four to five layers of newspaper will serve as an effective                   
mulch in the garden. Cover with sawdust or soil to reduce the                   
white glare and prevent it from blowing away.                                   
                                                                                
* Flea beetles can severely damage newly set plants. Consult your               
extension agent for control methods as soon as these small shiny,               
black, hopping insects are noted.                                               
                                                                                
* When selecting green leafy vegetables, generally the darker                   
green the leaf, the higher the vitamin content. For example,                    
romaine and looseleaf lettuce contain more vitamin A and C, and                 
calcium than either crisphead or butterhead. Fresh spinach                      
contains large amounts of potassium, iron, and vitamin A.                       
                                                                                
* Don't use a weed-and-feed type fertilizer in the garden. Weed                 
killers don't know a vegetable from a weed. It may injure your                  
crop as well as contaminate it.                                                 
                                                                                
Fruits/Nuts                                                                     
                                                                                
* Thin peaches four to six inches apart for large, high quality                 
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
Indoor plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Divide indoor plants when new growth starts in spring. Root                   
cuttings during spring and summer when the plant is actively                    
growing.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Vacation hint:  Sink houseplants, pots and all, in the soil in                
a shady area of the garden. Mulch to reduce the need for frequent               
watering.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Houseplants in containers without drainage holes are poor                     
candidates for outside. A good rainstorm may drown and rot them.                
All plants perform better in containers with drainage holes.                    
                                                                                
* A fern that is exceptionally tolerant of the dry air of the                   
home is the mother fern (Asplenium bulbiferum) so-called because                
it produces plantlets on its fronds. It does well at 30%                        
humidity. For homes with 50% humidity, button ferns (Pellaea                    
rotundifolia) are an excellent choice.                                          
                                                                                
* Move your house plants outdoors when the night temperatures                   
stay above 60 degrees. Avoid sun burning the foliage by moving                  
the plants gradually from the relative darkness of the house to                 
their summer location. Start by putting them in a well-shaded                   
location and progressing to increasingly lighted areas.                         
                                                                                
Tools and equipment (includes container)                                        
                                                                                
* A rain gauge can be constructed from a large can and a plastic                
straw. Mark the straw in inches and fractions. After removing the               
lid from the can, set it out to collect rainfall. After a rain,                 
insert the straw to the bottom of the can and put your finger                   
over the opening. Withdraw the straw and hold it up to the light                
to read the amount of rainfall.                                                 
                                                                                
* Put your tools away at the end of the day; clean them and hang                
them up, if possible. Keep the cutting edge sharp for easier use.               
                                                                                
* When you remodel the kitchen, save a section of the old cabinet               
and use for a potting bench. It provides a comfortable working                  
height and storage below for pots, media, tools, etc.                           
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* Toads eat cutworms and other insect pests. Give them a home in                
your garden by placing inverted clay flower pots in shady spots.                
Make sure to chip out a piece of the pot rim to give the toads an               
entrance to their home.                                                         
                                                                                
* Recycle your kitchen scraps in a compost trench to avoid                      
attracting birds or animals to your compost pile. Dig the trench                
between garden rows, covering each addition with garden soil. The               
material will enrich your soil as it breaks down.                               
                                                                                
* To better evaluate your gardening successes, keep weather                     
records along with garden records. The most important items to                  
report are daily minimum and maximum temperatures, precipitation                
and cloud cover, and frost occurrences.                                         
                                                                                
* Where earwigs and sowbugs are a problem, try trapping them with               
rolled up newspapers which have been moistened with water. The                  
insects will hide in the papers by day. Gather up the traps and                 
dispose of them frequently.                                                     
                                                                                
 * Algae and lichens are primitive plants which grow nearly                     
anywhere there is adequate moisture. Although they are often                    
found growing on tree trunks, algae and lichens generally do not                
harm trees; often they indicate stressful conditions such as soil               
compaction, poor drainage or insufficient fertilizer.                           
                                                                                
* Don't spray on a windy day. Not only is pesticide wasted, it                  
may endanger other crops or you.                                                
                                                                                
* Large plate glass windows are apparently invisible to birds.                  
Hang small mobile twists of reflective ribbon or hanging baskets                
in front of the glass to prevent crashes.                                       
                                                                                
* Lace bugs, tiny fly-like insects with lacy wings, weaken                      
rhododendrons, azaleas and mountain laurel by sucking out                       
cellular fluids. Since these insects prefer hot, dry conditions,                
plants grown in semishade are less susceptible. Consult your                    
extension agent for control reccommendations.                                   
                                                                                
* Avoid using peat moss as a mulch. It tends to form a tight mat,               
virtually impermeable to light rain once it becomes dry. It is                  
best mixed in with soil as a conditioner.                                       
                                                                                
* 35 of the 39 snakes found in Virginia are beneficial to the                   
farmer and gardener. They eat insects and rodents. Of particular                
value is the large black rat snake, which consumes mice, rats,                  
and other small mammals.                                                        
                                                                                
* Introducing your children to gardening can be a rewarding                     
experience for the entire family. Give them a small plot of their               
own with full sun, good soil and drainage. Geraniums and begonias               
from pots are easy for little hands to handle and marigolds,                    
radishes, and favorite vegetables can be added. It's a pleasant                 
and productive way to spend time together.                                      
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
May 1987 Press Releases                                                         
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, working with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab and                
Mike Weaver, Coordinator of the Chemical, Drug and Pesticide                    
Unit. The Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed                  
for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other               
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
Calibrating Sprayers and Spray Patterns             84 lines                    
Starting New Plants From Stem Cuttings              78 lines                    
Selecting a Power Tiller                            61 lines                    
Miniature Gladiolus                                 49 lines                    
Pesticide Formulation                               66 lines                    
Galls                                               54 lines                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Calibrating Sprayers and Spray Patterns                                         
                                                                                
The usual approach homeowners use when applying a pesticide over                
a given area is to mix a tablespoon or two of a certain pesticide               
and apply it to a problem area. This is acceptable if the label                 
gives recommended rates in teaspoons or tablespoons per gallon.                 
But some pesticides, specifically herbicides and insecticides for               
lawns, do not give rates in tablespoons or teaspoons per                        
gallon. Instead, they give rates of application in teaspoons or                 
tablespoons per 100 or 500 square feet. Unfortunately the                       
homeowner all too often solves this problem by guessing how much                
to use. This can be dangerous; a high concentration of a                        
pesticide may be too toxic; too little will not control the                     
problem. It is irresponsible of the homeowner to apply chemicals                
at improper rates. It can be dangerous to himself, his neighbors,               
and the environment.                                                            
                                                                                
A better approach is to calibrate the sprayer. The calibration of               
a home sprayer is relatively easy. Once it has been done, it has                
been done for the life of the sprayer provided the nozzle remains               
unchanged, clean, and adequate pressure is used. It must be kept                
in mind that the rate at which the liquid is applied varies with                
the pressure and size of the opening in the nozzle. High pressure               
and a large opening in the nozzle permit more liquid to be                      
applied over a given area than low pressure and/or smaller size                 
nozzle. For calibrating a sprayer, the procedure is as follows:                 
                                                                                
   1) Fully pressurize the sprayer and determine delivery                       
time. This is done by spraying water for a set time (ie. 30                     
seconds) through the sprayer into a jar, and measuring the amount               
collected. Mark this delivery time on the sprayer for future use.               
                                                                                
   2) Spray an area with water, at normal working speed, for 30                 
seconds. Measure the area sprayed. This tells how much area can                 
be sprayed in 30 seconds and therefore the amount that is applied               
over that area. For example, assuming that it has been                          
established: 30 seconds of spraying delivers 1/2 cup and 30                     
seconds of spraying will cover 100 square feet; then, 1/2 cup                   
covers 100 sq ft or 5 cups spray (.5 x 10) covers 1,000 sq ft.If                
the label calls for 3 tablespoons of pesticide for 1000 square                  
feet, then, 3 tablespoons of pesticide must be mixed with 5 cups                
(1 qt and 1 cup or 40 oz) of water to achieve proper spray                      
coverage.                                                                       
                                                                                
   3) Calculate the area to be treated. Measure the area that is                
to be sprayed. Multiply length times width to determine the area                
of a rectangle. The area of a triangle is calculated by multiply-               
ing the base times the height and dividing by 2. Most areas can                 
be calculated by combining rectangles and triangles or subtracti-               
ng triangles from rectangles.                                                   
                                                                                
   4) If the area is large, divide it into sections equal to the                
size of the delivery area.                                                      
                                                                                
   5) Mix the exact amount of spray needed so there is no left                  
over.                                                                           
                                                                                
The spray pattern best used to cover an area of ground is one                   
which will give uniform coverage with little spray overlap. Over-               
lap can be a problem, causing certain areas to end up with an                   
extra dose of pesticide. The spray pattern used to apply the                    
pesticide should be continuous and uninterrupted. If a herbicide                
is being applied, the sprayer should not be slowed down or                      
stopped at each weed. If the herbicide has been mixed correctly                 
and the sprayer is properly calibrated, the continuous                          
uninterrupted flow of chemical will be sufficient for good pest                 
control.                                                                        
                                                                                
The spray pattern should be directed so that the applicator does                
not walk through it while spraying. The spray pattern should form               
an arc no more than 3-4 feet on either side of the operator. The                
sprayed area should have a small amount of overlap to insure                    
coverage. There can be a time when overlap may be beneficial. If                
good spray coverage is questionable such as when using hose end                 
sprayers, cut the application rate in half and apply the                        
pesticide first in an east-west pattern, then in a north-south                  
direction. Be sure to let the first application dry before                      
applying it a second time. This gives better coverage with                      
devices typically poor in their metering capabilities.                          
                                                                                
When the mixture on the label is in teaspoons or tablespoons per                
gallon and the plants are upright such as shade trees, fruit                    
trees, shrubs and vegetables, spray the leaves until run off                    
(pesticide solution drips from the leaves). Don't forget to spray               
the underside of leaves for good coverage.                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
Starting New Plants from Stem Cuttings                                         
                                                                                
Share cherished plant material with friends, relatives or                       
neighbors by making stem cuttings. Taking and rooting stem                      
cuttings is a simple process of plant propagation which can be                  
fun as well as a learning experience.                                           
                                                                                
Cuttings should be taken with a sharp knife or razor blade to                   
reduce injury to the plant. Remove flowers and flower buds from                 
cuttings to allow the cutting to use its energy and stored                      
carbohydrates for root and shoot formation. On woody plants, to                 
hasten rooting, increase the number of roots, or to obtain                      
uniform rooting, use a rooting hormone, preferably one containing               
a fungicide. Put some rooting hormone in a separate container for               
dipping cuttings.                                                               
                                                                                
Many different rooting media are effective for starting cuttings                
including coarse sand, vermiculite, and a mixture of peat and                   
perlite. For some plants potting soil and for some water will                   
allow satisfactory rooting. It is important to choose the correct               
rooting medium to get optimum rooting in the shortest time. In                  
general, the rooting medium should be sterile, low in fertility,                
drain well yet retain moisture to prevent wilting. Moisten the                  
medium before inserting cuttings, and keep it evenly moist while                
cuttings are rooting and forming new shoots. Place cuttings in                  
bright but indirect light.                                                      
                                                                                
Although other parts of the plant can be used for cuttings, by                  
far the largest number of plant species are propagated by stem                  
cuttings. Some can be taken at any time of the year, but stem                   
cuttings of many woody plants must be taken in late summer or                   
fall and others in the dormant season.                                          
                                                                                
Different parts of the stem can be used for cuttings:                           
                                                                                
Tip cuttings: Detach a 2-6 inch piece of stem, including the                    
terminal bud. Make the cut just below a node. Remove lower leaves               
that would touch or be below the medium. Dip the stem in rooting                
hormone if desired. Gently tap the end of the cutting to remove                 
excess hormone. Insert the cutting deeply enough into the media                 
to support itself. At least one node should be below the surface,               
as many plants will only root at the node.                                      
                                                                                
Medial cuttings: Make the first cut just above a node, and the                  
second cut just above a node 2-6 inch down the stem. Prepare and                
insert the cutting as you would a tip cutting. Be sure to                       
position right side up. Buds are always above leaves. These are                 
usually slower to root and grow into an attractive plant than tip               
cuttings.                                                                       
                                                                                
When a number of new plants are desired from a single stock plant               
a small portion of the stem may be used as a cutting. These small               
cuttings must put out roots and sprout new leaves from the buds                 
so growth is much slower than in tip or medial cuttings. These                  
types of cuttings include cane, single eye, double eye and heel.                
                                                                                
Cane cuttings: Cut cane-like stems from plants such as Chinese                  
evergreen and Dumbcane into sections containing one or two nodes.               
Dust ends with fungicide or activated charcoal. Allow to dry                    
several hours. Lay horizontally with about half of the cutting                  
below the media surface, eye or bud facing upward. Cane cuttings                
are usually potted when roots and new shoots appear. These                      
cutting are useful when many plants are desired from a single                   
parent. They are slow to produce sizable plants.                                
                                                                                
Single Eye: The eye refers to the node. This is used for plants                 
with alternate leaves. Cut the stem about 1/2 inch above and 1/2                
inch below a node. Place cutting horizontally or vertically in                  
the medium.                                                                     
                                                                                
Double Eye: This is used for plants with opposite leaves. Cut the               
stem about 1/2 inch above and 1/2 inch below the same node.                     
Insert the cutting vertically in the medium with the node just                  
touching the surface.                                                           
                                                                                
Heel cutting: This method is used with woody stems. Make a                      
shield-shaped cut about halfway through the stem around a leaf                  
and axial bud. Insert the shield horizontally into the medium.                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
Selecting a Power Tiller                                                       
                                                                                
The power rotary tiller is probably the power tool most commonly                
purchased by gardeners. Whether or not a gardener needs a rotary                
tiller depends on the size of the garden, the gardener's                        
capabilities, and the intended uses of the tiller. Most home                    
gardeners will find it more economical to rent a tiller or hire                 
someone for those occasional tilling needs. However, for those                  
who choose to buy, careful selection of the tiller should be                    
based on the nature of the work to be done, the quality of the                  
machine and ease of repair, as well as personal preference. The                 
tiller's engine powers rotating blades, or tines, which can make                
garden soil loose and fluffy, ready for planting. It can also                   
chop up plant debris and mix it into the soil. Incorporating                    
organic matter and manures into the garden is easily accomplished               
with a tiller, reducing the tendency to procrastinate this most                 
necessary chore.                                                                
                                                                                
The ability of the tiller to do these jobs effectively is a                     
function of its weight, strength, design, type of tines, and the                
type of soil. A heavy, powerful tiller is most effective on stony               
clay soils, while in a small garden or one with light soil, a                   
smaller tiller is more appropriate. Very lightweight tillers,                   
known as "soil blenders," are designed mainly for raised bed                    
gardening; however, they are not widely available and frequently                
must be mail-ordered.                                                           
                                                                                
Both front and rear tine rotary tillers are available. Rear-tined               
tillers are generally better able to self-propel on all but the                 
rockiest soils. Rear-tined tillers often have a number of                       
attachments available for a variety of uses, such as hilling                    
potatoes, making raised beds, even plowing snow! The price of a                 
rear-tined rototiller is considerably higher in most cases than                 
that of the front-tined type; consideration should be given to                  
the payback time necessary for such a large investment.                         
If gardening is simply a hobby, and the garden is small, a                      
front-tined tiller may be more suitable. Front-tined tillers are                
usually lighter in weight, but may require more strength to guide               
them through the soil. Operating this type of tiller is                         
comparable to handling a large floor polisher such as those used                
in schools and hospitals mainly, leverage is required for                       
control, but new gardeners are sometimes scared away from these                 
tillers because of the initial experience of having a tiller run                
away with them. The front-tined tiller may not make as straight a               
pass as the heavier rear-tined type, but it is much easier to                   
turn. Due to this increased maneuverability, the front-tined                    
tiller is easier to use in small gardens and in corner areas.                   
                                                                                
The purchase of a tiller is a major investment as garden tools                  
go. Features to look for include heavy cast iron, steel plate and               
tubing, heavy bearings, strong welds used in construction, and                  
easily operable controls. Ask to look at the operator's manual                  
and try to determine how simply a tune-up can be performed; you                 
may save yourself a great deal of trouble and money if you can                  
replace plugs and points yourself, particularly if you have no                  
pick-up truck on which to load the tiller. Also consider the                    
locations of service centers and parts dealers. Careful attention               
to your needs, abilities, and price range is important. Talk to                 
people who have the types of tillers you are interested in. If                  
possible, borrow or rent various types of machines and send for                 
information before you buy.                                                     
Miniature Gladiolus                                                            
                                                                                
When people think of gladiolus, their immediate image is of showy               
spikes five to six feet tall, towering over the other flowers in                
the garden. Although many enthusiasts strive for the largest                    
possible gladiolus, others scoff at them as flowers for funerals                
and cathedral weddings.                                                         
                                                                                
As landscapes are concentrated in smaller space around the house,               
these tall spikes tend to distract rather than add to the visual                
appeal. Actually, they are best suited to a cut flower garden or                
a few rows in the vegetable garden rather than the flower border.               
However, all gladiolus do not have to be eliminated from the list               
of bulbs that enhance perennial borders. A careful search of                    
catalogs will reveal a number of desirable miniature gladiolus.                 
                                                                                
The miniature gladiolus were first discovered in the rain forests               
of South Africa. The individual flowers were small and scattered                
along the stem, so they were not very impressive. As a result,                  
they were neglected until recent years, when their real potential               
became appreciated. Now, plant breeders have developed some                     
exquisite varieties in fresh, unusual colors.                                   
                                                                                
Miniature glads are easy to grow. All they need is fertile, well                
drained soil. They love the sun, so do not plant them near trees.               
Although they grow well even during a hot summer, more attractive               
flowers will be produced if adequate moisture is provided.                      
                                                                                
Plant the corms, which are sometimes erroneously referred to as                 
bulbs, four to five inches deep. No support will be needed for                  
these shorter spikes. They are very effective in groups of at                   
least six of a kind in the border or small flower garden.                       
                                                                                
The new varieties of miniature gladiolus have strong, wiry stems.               
They are also quite flexible, so arrangements can be casual and                 
graceful. The petals have good substance and are long-lasting                   
after being cut. The spikes open gradually from the base of the                 
stem, so each bloom may be attractive for about 10 days.                        
                                                                                
Among the miniature varieties, there are ruffled, hooded and                    
wide-open blossoms, as well as long, thin petals, which are among               
the daintiest of all. Some are solidly colored, while others have               
a contrasting center blotch or picotee edge. Some will produce                  
two short spikes.                                                               
                                                                                
A gladiolus mixture is a good way to become acquainted with these               
smaller blooming corms. Ensure a good selection by writing for                  
one of the gladiolus catalogs in which the varieties are listed                 
by color.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Pesticide Formulation                                                          
                                                                                
The formulation describes the physical state of a pesticide and                 
determines how it will be applied. Pesticides are rarely applied                
full strength. The chemical in the pesticide formulation that                   
actually kills the pest(s) is termed the active ingredient. The                 
added chemical(s), those which make the product easy and safe to                
formulate or apply, are termed the inert ingredients. The common                
pesticide formulations that follow are divided into two groups,                 
formulations that require mixing and formulations that are ready                
to use when purchased.                                                          
                                                                                
Formulations that require mixing:                                               
                                                                                
1. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC or E): The active ingredient is                
mixed with an oil base (often listed as petroleum derivatives)                  
forming an emulsion which is diluted with water for application.                
ECs are common in the home garden trade, being easy to mix and                  
use. They can cause a minor surface bronzing of light colored                   
fruit. They should be protected from freezing temperatures which                
can break down the emulsifier.                                                  
                                                                                
2. Flowables (F or L): A flowable, or liquid, can be mixed with                 
water to form a suspension in a spray tank.                                     
                                                                                
3. Wettable powders (WP or W): Wettable powder formulations are                 
made by combining the active ingredient with a fine powder. They                
look like dusts, but they are made to mix with water. These                     
formulations need continuous agitation to maintain a suspension                 
and are thus difficult for home gardeners to use. When mixing a                 
WP, first mix the measured quantity with a small amount of water,               
forming a slurry, (a paper cup with a popsicle stick makes a good               
disposable mixing container) then add it and the additional water               
to the spray tank. The spray tank must be frequently shaken to                  
maintain the suspension.                                                        
                                                                                
4. Soluble powders (SP): A soluble powder formulation is made                   
from an active ingredient in powder form that dissolves in water.               
                                                                                
Formulations that are ready to use as they are purchased.                       
                                                                                
1. Solutions (S): These formulations are premixed, ready to                     
use. They are often used in household pest products.                            
                                                                                
2. Aerosols (A): These are very low concentrate solutions,                      
usually applied as a fine spray or mist. They are generally sold                
in aerosol cans and are a very expensive source of pesticide.                   
                                                                                
3. Dusts (D): Dust formulations are made by adding the active                   
ingredients to a fine inert powder or talc. They are generally                  
used dry.                                                                       
                                                                                
4. Granules (G): Granular formulations are made by adding the                   
active ingredient to coarse particles (granules) of inert                       
material like fired clay particles.                                             
                                                                                
5. Baits (B): A bait formulation is made by adding the active                   
ingredient to an edible or attractive substance. Baits are often                
used to control slugs, snails, or small ground insects and                      
rodents.                                                                        
                                                                                
Gardeners often attempt to compare a spray with a dust. It should               
be noted that dusts are a type of formulation, but sprays are not               
a formulation, they are one means of applying several different                 
formulations such as wettable powders or emulsifiable                           
concentrates that are mixed with water.                                         
Galls                                                                          
                                                                                
Galls are abnormal growths of plant tissue induced by insects and               
other organisms. Gall-making parasites release growth-regulating                
chemicals as they feed, causing adjacent plant tissues to form a                
gall. The parasite then develops within the relative security of                
the gall. Several different groups of insects and one family of                 
mites have developed the ability to induce plant galls. In                      
addition, there are a few galls produced by nematodes, bacteria,                
fungi, and viruses.                                                             
                                                                                
Galls come in an endless variety of forms. Many are strikingly                  
colored or curiously shaped. Each gall-making species causes a                  
gall structurally different from all others. By noting the type                 
of host plant and the structure of the gall, one can identify the               
gall-making organism without actually seeing it.                                
                                                                                
The most important group of gall-producers are gall mites. Mites                
which cause galls are members of the family Eriophyidae. They are               
not insects. Many eriophyid mites live in buds or are free-living               
on the surface of leaves and do not produce galls. Some are                     
serious pests; the Rivet Rust Mite, Hemlock Rust Mite, and                      
Juniper Bud Mite are examples.                                                  
                                                                                
These mites are so small that the larger species are barely                     
visible with a 10X hand lens. Their bodies are carrot-shaped and                
ringed with transverse lines. They have four stubby legs rather                 
than eight as do other mites.                                                   
                                                                                
The following common galls are caused by gall mites:                            
                                                                                
Maple Bladder Galls are small globular growths on the upper                     
surface of maple leaves. Several tiny mites live within each                    
gall. The galls may be red or green, and they may occur singly or               
in clusters. Silver maple and red maple are the most susceptible                
hosts.                                                                          
                                                                                
Maple Spindle Galls occurs most frequently on sugar maple.                      
Slender, pointed growths stick out from the upper surface of the                
leaves. Similarly-shaped spindle galls are found on elm, cherry,                
and linden.                                                                     
                                                                                
Erineum Galls are dense, felt-like patches of plant hairs. On                   
maple, erineum galls are sometimes red, white on alder, beech,                  
and poplar they are buff-colored.                                               
                                                                                
Blister Galls are irregular blister-like swellings on leaves.                   
Walnut and butternut are especially susceptible hosts.                          
                                                                                
Leaf Roll Galls are often seen on pecan. Gall mites live within                 
the narrow infoldings of the leaf edges.                                        
                                                                                
(Information provided by Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab,                
adapted from Factsheet, No. 4, by Daniel Hilburn, Lab Specialist)               
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
May 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                    
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Horticulture Extension               
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home                  
Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                       
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                        
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
How to Care for Pruners                   11 lines                              
Getting Larger Flowers on Roses           11 lines                              
Protective Clothing and Pesticides        27 lines                              
Scented Geraniums Outside                 24 lines                              
Mexican Zinnias                           18 lines                              
Wisteria Won't Bloom                      21 lines                              
Verbenas as Groundcovers                  24 lines                              
Growing Delphiniums                       32 lines                              
Tools to Trim Hedges                      16 lines                              
Premature Cabbage Flowering               16 lines                              
Sweet Corn Pollination                    13 lines                              
Harvesting Beets                          10 lines                              
Rudbeckia                                 21 lines                              
Shape your Pine by Pinching               15 lines                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
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I just bought new pruners which were rather expensive.  I'd                     
like them to last a long time.  How should I care for them?                     
                                                                                
Clean and oil pruners regularly, including wiping an oily cloth                 
on the blades and other surfaces. Keep cutting edges sharp.                     
Several passes with a good oil stone will usually suffice. Wooden               
handles on loppers should be either painted, varnished, or                      
regularly treated with linseed oil. Use tools properly. Don't                   
twist or strain pruners or loppers. Keep the branch to be cut as                
deeply in the jaws and near the pivot as possible. Don't cut                    
wires with pruning tools.                                                       
                                                                                
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The flowers on my rose bush seem to be getting smaller every                    
year. Why?                                                                      
                                                                                
The more flowers and fruit a plant produces, the smaller they                   
become, as can be witnessed on an unpruned rose bush or fruit                   
tree. Pruning reduces the amount of wood and so diverts energy                  
into the production of larger, though possibly fewer, flowers                   
and/or fruit. Most flowering shrubs bloom either on the previous                
year's growth or on new growth so proper timing of pruning is                   
important to increase the production of wood that will bear                     
flowers.	                                                                       
                                                                                
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Should I wear protective clothing when I use pesticides?                        
                                                                                
Pesticides sold in the home garden trade generally do not require               
special protective clothing. However, anytime you handle                        
pesticides, you should wear a long sleeved shirt and long legged                
trousers, or a coverall type garment and shoes. If you desire                   
additional protection, wear unlined neoprene or rubber gloves, a                
wide-brimmed plastic hard hat that covers the back of the neck                  
and goggles or face shield to protect the eyes. Rubber gloves and               
goggles are particularly important when mixing or pouring                       
pesticides.                                                                     
                                                                                
Many professionally used and highly toxic chemicals require                     
special protective clothing. These chemicals will state clothing                
requirements on the label. Toxic commercial pesticides may                      
require neoprene boots, chemical cartridge respirators, face                    
masks, neoprene suits, or even gas masks. These more toxic                      
chemicals should not be used in a home garden setting.                          
                                                                                
After using any pesticide, wash your hands and arms thoroughly                  
with soap and water. Never eat, drink or smoke before washing                   
your hands. If you have been doing a lot of spraying or dusting,                
remove your clothes, take a shower, and put on clean clothes.                   
Clothing should be laundered separately from the family wash. The               
washer should be run empty with detergent after cleaning                        
pesticide contaminated clothing. If you get sprayed, change and                 
shower immediately. Use first aid procedures if necessary.                      
                                                                                
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Will scented geraniums grow in a windy sunny spot outside?                      
                                                                                
For hot windy spots, scented geraniums (Pelargonium species) are                
an excellent choice. They grow vigorously and thrive despite                    
baking sun and frequent high winds. Plants are easy to grow and                 
are rarely bothered by pests. Most of them tolerate considerable                
dryness but do require good drainage.                                           
                                                                                
Scented geraniums have numberous uses in flower gardens and                     
containers. The fast-growing tall types make fine temporary                     
hedges or screens. Cuttings taken in spring or fall root readily.               
Spring cuttings can increase the size of the planting, while fall               
cuttings can be used to overwinter these non-hardy perennials                   
indoors.                                                                        
                                                                                
The most robust scented geraniums, (up to 4 feet in a season)                   
such as the sweet scented Pelargonium graveolens and peppermint                 
scented P. tomentosum should be located in the center or at the                 
rear of the beds. Low growing species such as the coconut (P.                   
grossularioides), nutmeg (P.x fragrans), and apple (P.                          
odoratissimum) scented varieties work as borders in beds, where                 
their unique fragrance can be enjoyed close up. Popular                         
variegated forms of sweet scented geraniums, also make attractive               
bedding plants.                                                                 
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What conditions are best for Mexican Zinnias?                                   
                                                                                
Warm colored Mexican zinnias (Z. Haageana) thrive under a wide                  
range of garden conditions. They grow especially well in gravelly               
or sandy soils, and in sunny corners of the garden that receive                 
little care and attention.                                                      
                                                                                
The annual plants of Mexican zinnias are low growing, ranging                   
from 8 to 24 inches in height, and bush out to form flowering                   
mounds. The leaves are much narrower than those of standard                     
zinnias and lose less water to evaporation. This explains the                   
drought tolerance of Mexican zinnias.                                           
                                                                                
Mexican zinnias are patterned in shades of cream, yellow and gold               
marked with red, maroon and burgundy. Blossoms are small ( 2 to 2               
1/2 inches in diameter) but numerous. The long-stemmed blossoms                 
of Mexican zinnias make excellent cut flowers and will hold in                  
bouquets for 5 to 7 days.                                                       
                                                                                
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Why doesn't my wisteria bloom?                                                  
                                                                                
Youth could be the problem since seedling plants require several                
years to flower and sometimes fail to flower at all. Grafted                    
plants, the kind purchased at nurseries and garden centers,                     
should not have this problem.                                                   
                                                                                
Reluctance of wisteria to bloom abundantly is usually due to a                  
lack of one or more of the following cultural requirments: full                 
sun, good drainage, and light fertilization in the fall, not                    
spring. Another essential is annual pruning, which can be done by               
shortening new shoots to five buds in summer. If a grafted or                   
cutting-grown Chinese wisteria refuses to flower in three or four               
years after planting, or a Japanese wisteria is barren after                    
about seven years, prune it heavily and fertilize with                          
superphosphate. If this fails to produce blooms root-prune by                   
driving a spade into the soil 24 inches from the trunk around the               
plant. Gardeners in the northernmost states are often deprived of               
wisteria flowers because of winterkill of flowerbuds, however,                  
Virginia gardeners can expect flowers yearly after the vine                     
matures.                                                                        
                                                                                
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Could verbenas be used as a ground cover? I only see them used in               
hanging baskets.                                                                
                                                                                
Verbenas are one of the best low-growing flowering groundcovers                 
for filling in between shrubs and for converting containers into                
cascades of color in bright full sun. Quick growing and                         
early-flowering verbena plants will spread and knit together                    
without rambling all over adjacent flowers. Verbenas come in                    
straight shades of violet, red, pink, white, and mixed colors.                  
Most flowers have clear white eyes which enliven the effect. The                
blossoms are flat clusters about 3 inches wide. The dark green,                 
ribbed leaves are attractive but are upstaged by the vivid                      
blossoms.                                                                       
                                                                                
Verbena seeds need warmth to sprout. For the longest bloom period               
start seed indoors or buy transplants.  Verbenas are  moderately                
heat resistant; therefore, you should plant them as soon as                     
possible after frost danger is past.                                            
                                                                                
Few flowers surpass verbenas for adaptability. They can be grown                
in a wide range of climates and on soils ranging from rich loams                
to poor sandy or gravelly loams. Verbenas respond well to                       
occasional light applications of fertilizer, especially if their                
foliage is yellowish or if the rate of growth has slowed.                       
                                                                                
 -------                                                                        
                                                                                
What is the secret to growing delphiniums? Are they annuals or                  
perennials?                                                                     
                                                                                
The big secret to maintaining delphiniums as perennials for                     
several years is heavy feeding and good drainage. A deep, very                  
rich soil is essential to develop and maintain a vigorous root                  
system so that the plant will withstand summer heat and resist                  
disease. Prepare the soil 36 inches deep for the tall hybrids, 18               
inches deep for the small ones. Gardeners may boost soil                        
fertility by adding loam, compost and aged manure to the planting               
site. The soil should also be on the alkaline side therefore lime               
may need to be worked into the ground before planting.                          
                                                                                
The best solution is to treat delphiniums as annuals (sow seed                  
very early) or biennials (sow in summer) which requires less                    
intense soil preparation. As a general rule, delphiniums should                 
be spaced 18-24 inches apart. Sufficient space is important in                  
order that full sun and good air circulation can be provided for                
proper growth as well as to prevent disease. A second flush of                  
bloom is possible in autumn. Cut off flower stalks below the                    
lowest flower when they have finished blooming in early summer                  
but be aware that return flowering is not always consistent.                    
Water and fertilize.                                                            
                                                                                
The hybrids Blackmore & Langdon, and New Century, tall strains of               
delphinium, are more apt to be truly perennial (though still                    
short-lived) than the Pacific Giants series, which needs cool                   
summers and tends to suffer crown rot in winter. Crown rot can be               
avoided by supplying a well drained site. Additions of sand (at                 
least 1/3 to 1/2 of total soil volume) may help soil drainage. In               
areas of hot summers and wet winters, use pine needle mulch in                  
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
What tools are best to trim hedges?                                             
                                                                                
The traditional pair of scissor-action hedge shears is still the                
best all-round tool for hedge trimming. It will cut much better                 
and closer than electric trimmers which often break and tear                    
twigs. Hand shears can be used on any type of hedge, while                      
electric trimmers do poorly on large-leaved and wiry-twigged                    
varieties. Electric trimmers sometimes jam on thick twigs. Hand                 
shears are also quieter and safer, less likely to gouge the hedge               
or harm the operator than electric trimmers.                                    
                                                                                
Hand pruners are useful in removing a few stray branches, and are               
essential if an informal look is desired. Large individual                      
branches can be removed with loppers and/or a pruning saw. Chain                
saws are not recommended for use on hedges or any other home                    
pruning need.                                                                   
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
What makes cabbage flower prematurely?                                          
                                                                                
What really upsets gardeners is when cabbage is growing                         
beautifully during cool weather and goes to seed before harvest                 
stage. Just when the taste buds are primed, no cabbage!                         
                                                                                
Premature flowering is called bolting and is caused by prolonged                
exposure to cold weather. If you start early or use large                       
transplants, and they are exposed to continuous 40 to 50 degree                 
weather for 30 to 60 days, some or all of the plants will bolt.                 
                                                                                
Research shows that the best way to avoid bolting is to start                   
with small plants. Transplants should have leaves no more than 1                
to 1 1/2 inches wide. Bolting is especially serious where mild                  
winters allow very early planting or where fall planted cabbage                 
overwinter.                                                                     
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
How can you ensure good pollination of sweet corn? Is corn                      
sweeter in late fall?                                                           
                                                                                
Plant corn in blocks of several short rows rather than a single                 
long row to help ensure good pollination. Space plants 10 to 12                 
inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. Well-balanced soil fertility,                
plenty of moisture and full pollination are essential for well-                 
filled ears of high quality corn. The sweetest, tenderest sweet                 
corn is harvested in the late summer and early fall from healthy,               
properly fertilized plants that get plenty of moisture and                      
sunlight. The warm days and cool nights ensure maximum sugar                    
production during the day and minimum use of sugar by the plant                 
at night.                                                                       
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
When do you harvest beets?                                                      
                                                                                
Start harvesting beets when roots are about 1 inch in diameter.                 
Clean thoroughly and cook both roots and tops. Continue                         
harvesting by pulling the larger plants; however, the older outer               
leaves will be tough and fibrous after early summer and should be               
discarded. Harvest all roots before they are more than 3 inches                 
in diameter. If you want a longer harvest season, plant                         
additional seedlings up to August first. Consult publication 426-               
334, "Fall Vegetable Gardening."                                                
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
Are Rudbeckias and Gloriosa daisies the same thing?                             
                                                                                
Rudbeckia is the common and scientific name for many diverse                    
species and man-made hybrids of this large genus also called                    
coneflowers. 'Gloriosa Daisy' is the cultivar name created for a                
man-made variety hybridized years ago. It specifically applies to               
a tall, large flowered rudbeckia available in both single and                   
double flowered forms. Closely related to our common Black-eyed                 
Susan (Rudbeckia hirta) the flowers are typically orange-yellow,                
banded with maroon.                                                             
                                                                                
These tetraploid strains, tend to be perennial but bloom the                    
first year from seed with heads six inches across. Cultivars or                 
named varieties of other rudbeckias have been introduced since                  
'Gloriosa Daisy.' These include a double blooming strain known as               
'Double Glorisa Daisy' as well as other related cultivars such as               
'Goldstrum' and 'Goldilocks.'                                                   
                                                                                
Plant the quick sprouting seeds out of doors as you would zinnias               
and marigolds for late summer to fall bloom. Rudbeckias will                    
often overwinter and bloom for two or three season.                             
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
How can I control the height and shape of my pine tree?                         
                                                                                
The best time to prune pines is just after growth has been                      
completed but before tissues in the stem have completely hardened               
off. This is usually about early June to early July depending on                
the pine species and area in the state.                                         
                                                                                
The height and width of pines can be restricted and a more dense                
growth can be induced using this method. Half to two-thirds of                  
the candle-like terminal growth can be pinched by hand or cut off               
with hand pruners before needles unfold. Do not use hedge shears.               
Large shears can damage the needles around the candle and the                   
brown ends will give the tree an unsightly look. When pines are                 
pruned annually, pruning can be limited to cutting back part or                 
all of the new growth.                                                          
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
November Notes                                                                  
                                                                                
* Dead leaf stalks of perennial vegetables such as asparagus                    
and rhubarb should be cut to the ground after their tops are                    
killed by frost.                                                                
                                                                                
* Before storing your stakes and trellises, be sure they are                    
thoroughly cleaned of remnants of plant materials and dirt. Hose                
down all particularly dirty places. Put stakes in bundles and                   
stack them so they won't get lost over the winter. Roll up                      
trellises and tie them securely.                                                
                                                                                
* When time or weather conditions prohibit plowing or cover                     
cropping, you may wish to let your garden lie under a mulch                     
of compost, plant wastes, or leaves all winter to be plowed                     
or tilled under in the spring. However, if you want to plant                    
early the next spring, a mulch of heavy materials such as whole                 
leaves may become matted and keep the soil cold long enough                     
to delay planting. In this case, chop organic matter fine enough                
that it will break down over winter.                                            
                                                                                
* Clean, oil, and mend all hand tools. Repaint handles or identi-               
fication marks that have faded over the summer. Sharpen all                     
blades and remove any rust.                                                     
                                                                                
* Power tools should be cleaned of all plant material and dirt.                 
Replace worn spark plugs, oil all necessary parts, and sharpen                  
blades. Store all tools in their proper place indoors, never                    
outdoors where they will rust over the winter.                                  
                                                                                
* Select accent plants for your landscape that will provide                     
interesting autumn colors. Trees which turn red include dogwood,                
red maple, sweet gum, and red or scarlet oak. Shrubs with red                   
fall foliage include viburnum, winged euonymous, and barberry.                  
                                                                                
* Many perennials and rock garden plants may be planted or                      
divided and replanted during the fall. Set them out early enough                
to establish their roots before the ground freezes.                             
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from the gutters of your home to avoid overflow                 
during fall rains. Paint the inside of the gutters with rust                    
resistant paint. You will extend their life for many years by                   
this treatment.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Peonies can be planted now in full sun and fertile, well-drain-               
ed soil rich in organic matter. Dig holes 18" and fill halfway                  
with a mixture of soil, compost, and a handful of 5-10-10                       
fertilizer. Add a few more inches of soil and set the tubers so                 
the buds are 1-2" below the soil surface. Backfill, firm the                    
soil, and water thoroughly. Peonies resent being moved and will                 
not bloom for several years. So, disturb only if necessary.                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Reduce peony botrytis blight and hollyhock rust by removing                   
and burning all old stems this fall. This will reduce the                       
carry-over of the diseases during the winter and you will have                  
less trouble next year.                                                         
                                                                                
* Reduce mouse damage to shrubs and young fruit trees by removing               
the mulch from around the stem. A ring of crushed stone extending               
out about 8" from the stem will be helpful.                                     
                                                                                
* Avoid transplanting shrubs and trees on sunny or windy days. On               
these days, the roots are exposed to too much light or drying                   
winds which puts undue stress on the plant.                                     
                                                                                
* Water pipes and outdoor faucets in the garden or patio should                 
be drained before cold weather occurs to prevent damage by freez-               
ing. Check guy wires around newly planted trees to be sure they                 
will not be damaged by windy weather during the fall and winter.                
                                                                                
* After the ground freezes, mulch small fruit plants such as                    
strawberries. One inch of straw or leaves is ideal for straw-                   
berries. Small branches may be used to keep mulch in place.                     
                                                                                
* After chrysanthemums have stopped blooming, cut stems back                    
close to the ground and dispose of stems and all dropped and                    
dried leaves and branches.                                                      
                                                                                
* The best way to prevent winter damage to shrubs is to select                  
hardy species when they are planted. Consult publications which                 
contain information on the climatic zones to which shrubs are                   
adapted. It is better to select hardy species in the first place                
than to attempt to protect tender plants later on.                              
                                                                                
* Watch for standing water in perennial beds after long periods                 
of rain. Water which collects on the surface during winter will                 
freeze and may damage perennials. Dig shallow trenches to help                  
drain excess water away. Make a note to raise that bed in spring.               
                                                                                
* Dig up a vigorous rhubarb crown now if you are planning on                    
forcing stalks later this winter.                                               
                                                                                
* Protect concrete pools by covering them, or by floating logs                  
in the water. Drain the water before freezing weather and place                 
a few boards or logs on the pool bottom to absorb the expansion                 
of freezing water that might accumulate.                                        
                                                                                
* Protect the roots of azaleas and rhododendrons with a heavy                   
mulch of acidic materials such as oak leaves, sawdust, or peat                  
moss.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Broadleaf evergreens may need to be protected to prevent drying               
out during the winter. Branches of pines or other evergreens                    
thrust into the ground around the plants work well. Where boughs                
are not plentiful, a screen of wooden boards, corn stalks or                    
burlap tacked to wooden frames will serve the purpose.                          
* Caulk and plug any entrances around the home used by wasps                    
this past summer.                                                               
                                                                                
* If there is any evidence of scale on trees and shrubs, spray                  
with dormant oil in late fall and again in early spring.                        
                                                                                
* Remove grass and weeds from trunks of fruit trees and grapes                  
to prevent damage by mice and rodents. Leave a bare circle one                  
foot wide around tree trunks when spreading mulch to keep mice                  
from feeding on the bark. A collar or fence of poultry wire                     
or a commercial tree guard approximately 18" high will deter                    
rodents and rabbits.                                                            
                                                                                
* Newly planted shade trees especially those with smooth bark                   
are often injured by temperature fluctuations and strong winter                 
sunshine. Prevent sunscald by wrapping the tree trunks with                     
commercial tree wrap, 4" burlap strips, or simply shading with                  
a board against the south side of the trunk.                                    
                                                                                
* If you are planning on having a live, balled and burlapped                    
Christmas tree, dig a planting hole now before the ground                       
freezes. Fill the hole with straw or hay to keep it from freez-                 
ing. Storing the soil in a garage or shed will give you workable                
soil when you need it.                                                          
                                                                                
* Earthworms must remain below frost line to survive. Mulch                     
piled on top of soil raises the frost line. If you want earth-                  
worms to help break down organice matter in the upper soil                      
layers, mulch deeply. If you need the subsoil aerated, leave the                
surface mulch thin; the worms will burrow downward to stay warm.                
                                                                                
* To prevent strawberries from heaving, apply straw or hay mulch                
2 to 5 inches deep after the ground freezes.                                    
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
November 1985                                                                   
                                Number of lines   Page                          
Native Trees                       60               2                           
House Plants Need Light            58               4                           
Winter Flowers Indoors             35               6                           
Plants At War                      53               7                           
Protecting Ornamentals             46               8                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
NATIVE TREES                                                                    
                                                                                
One way that often is recommended to reduce maintenance in the                  
home landscape is to select native trees and shrubs. These plants               
usually are more tolerant of local environmental conditions and                 
pests insuring better performance with less care. One difficulty                
in this approach is that many homeowners have problems identify-                
ing the desirable species among the multitude of trees in our                   
forests.                                                                        
                                                                                
Carolina silverbell (Halesia carolina), native to North Carolina,               
can be seen throughout the mountains of Virginia, but it does                   
well throughout the state. Usually considered to be a small tree,               
height between 30 and 40 feet, the species occasionally has                     
reached 80 feet. Its primary value is its clusters of small,                    
white, bell-like flowers borne on year-old growth in late April                 
or early May. These attractive flowers have a subtle beauty that                
is effective for about a week. Their summer foliage, with its                   
dark, yellowish green tone, also is an asset to the landscape.                  
                                                                                
The American yellowwood (Cladrastus lutea) is a native with its                 
showy spring flowers. In late May and early June, these fragrant                
white blossoms hang in clusters between 8 and 14 inches long.                   
They begin flowering when the tree is between 12 and 18 feet                    
tall. The flowers are as noted for their fragrance as well                      
as their beauty. Bees particularly are attracted to them.                       
Unfortunately, American yellowwoods tend to bloom every second or               
third year, so it would be best to combine them with other plants               
that bloom in the same season to assure an annual show. Because                 
of its medium size (30 to 50 feet) and spreading habit, it is                   
a good tree for smaller properties. Its yellow fall foliage and                 
smooth gray bark bring additional interest to the landscape.                    
                                                                                
A group of native trees that should interest homeowners is the                  
serviceberry. Two of the most interesting are the downy service-                
berry or shadblow (Amelanchier arborea), and Allegheny service-                 
berry (A. laevis). Serviceberries bloom in early April with                     
clusters of white flowers on the tops of the branches. They are                 
among the earliest plants to have fruits, blue or black berries                 
ripening in July. The sweet fruit was first used by American                    
Indians. One common name, the pie bush, indicates how the fruit                 
can be prepared. The fruit also is a favorite of some wildlife                  
and can be used to attract songbirds to the garden.                             
                                                                                
Although there are many other worthy native trees, two that are                 
not well known are the spicebush and American hornbeam. The                     
spicebush (Lindera benzion) grows from six to 12 feet tall with a               
normal spread. It is particularly noted for its pungent aroma                   
when any part of the plant is broken.                                           
                                                                                
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), also called blue beech,               
ironwood or musclewood has smooth, thin, dark bluish gray bark                  
that is sinewy, greatly resembling flexed muscles. The wood                     
itself is very hard and heavy. American hornbeam grows to a                     
height of 20 to 30 feet and is best used in natural looking                     
sites.                                                                          
                                                                                
One difficulty in using the trees named in this column is, with                 
the exception of the American yellowwood, they are not commonly                 
found in the nursery. It may be necessary to locate a supplier of               
native trees, or dig them yourself from the wild.                               
HOUSE PLANTS NEED LIGHT                                                        
                                                                                
Different indoor house plants have varying light requirements. To               
grow them successfully, we must know what these requirements are                
and have a basic knowledge of light and its effects on plant life               
in general.                                                                     
                                                                                
Plants are selected as houseplants primarily because most of them               
do not require a lot of light to grow. Many indoor plants are                   
natives of jungles where light reaches them sporadically.                       
However, other house plants, the cacti and succulents for                       
example, come from open arid regions and thrive on intense light.               
                                                                                
Most house plants would be as badly damaged by overexposure as by               
underexposure. When there is too much light, the chlorophyll (the               
green pigment involved in photosynthesis) is broken down and                    
destroyed. The result is a chlorotic plant which is sick and                    
non-vigorous. In fact, it may look as if someone has dumped                     
bleach on it. Those plants that are not receiving enough light                  
have their own difficulties. They tend to become spindly and                    
leggy, don't flower, and may develop a discolored appearance or                 
lose their distinctive markings.                                                
                                                                                
The most accurate way to measure the quantity of light that                     
plants receive is with a light meter which reads in foot-candles.               
Indoor gardeners should take periodic light inventories with a                  
light meter in the various rooms where plants are growing. If you               
don't have one, a camera with a built-in light meter can be used                
to provide a reasonable light intensity estimate.                               
                                                                                
Be sure to clean windows inside and out to provide the most light               
to your plants. Eastern and western exposures provide moderate                  
light, to about 1,000 foot-candles. This generally is ideal light               
for many house plants. Southern exposures are the sunniest,                     
providing light intensities in the thousands of foot-candle                     
range. This may be too bright for tender foliage plants but is                  
great for the light lovers such as jade plants. You can always                  
shade plants with curtains.                                                     
                                                                                
Generally, windows with a northern exposure yield the least                     
light, having intensity readings in the hundreds of foot-candle                 
range. Remember, if light levels are less than 50 foot-candles,                 
it is difficult to even maintain plants for any length of time                  
and impossible to grow them. If the natural light is inade-                     
quate, try artificial sources. You can supplement the number of                 
exposure hours with artificial lighting, but don't leave lights                 
on plants for more than 16 hours. Most plants cannot tolerate                   
24-hour illumination as it upsets their delicate botanical                      
processes. An inexpensive electric timer can insure the right                   
length of time of artificial light.                                             
                                                                                
For maximum usefulness, artificial light sources need to be close               
to the plants. This probably will be no more than one foot away                 
for fluorescent fixtures and a slightly greater distance for                    
incandescent lights since they generate heat. By using multiple                 
fluorescent tubes and placing plants close to them, light                       
intensities of around 1,000 foot-candles can be provided.                       
WINTER FLOWERS INDOORS                                                         
                                                                                
One of the most reliable sources of winter bloom is the Spathi-                 
phyllum. Its white leaf-like flower is quite striking against the               
deep green foliage. It can easily outgrow most home settings,                   
however, as the plant may reach two or three feet in height.                    
                                                                                
The Streptocarpus or cape primrose is a smaller, but actually                   
much showier, plant. It has blossoms in various shades of purple,               
violet and rose, as well as white. A relative of the African                    
violet, it is easy to care for but equally prone to mealybugs.                  
                                                                                
The flame violet or Episcia is a vining relative of the African                 
violet with deep, orange-red blossoms. Although some people                     
report them difficult to grow, you should have little trouble as                
long as you give them plenty of light, and water thoroughly when                
the soil begins to dry.                                                         
                                                                                
There are several Bromeliads which create a showy display of                    
color on coarse, odd-looking plants. These relatives of the                     
pineapple vaguely resemble the severed top of a pineapple fruit.                
The flame sword and the air pine are the most common. Queen's                   
tears bromeliad provides year-round architecturally interesting                 
foliage and periodically rewards your patience with spikes of                   
pink, blue and yellow flowers. Most Bromeliads are easy to grow                 
but bloom only once. Many gradually die after flowering; but some               
put up side shoots that can be repotted for future plants and                   
flowers.                                                                        
                                                                                
There are many flowering plants, such as mums, poinsettias,                     
cyclamen and zebra plants, available from florists throughout the               
winter. Any of these, with skill and luck, can be induced to                    
rebloom after the initial show; but many gardeners find that it                 
simply isn't worth the effort and toss out the plant when it                    
becomes unattractive.                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
PLANTS AT WAR                                                                   
                                                                                
Chemical warfare has been practiced in the plant kingdom far                    
longer than it has been practiced by man. Canada thistle, yellow                
nutsedge and quackgrass not only do hand-to-hand combat with                    
crops to rob them of water, nutrients and sunlight, they produce                
toxic chemicals that inhibit the other plants' growth.                          
                                                                                
Allelopathy is the term which is used to describe the toxic                     
effect of one plant on another. Toxic chemicals can be released                 
by the roots or leaves of living or dead plants. In some cases,                 
they may be produced by micro-organisms that break down the                     
organic matter.                                                                 
                                                                                
The most common occurence of this characteristic is with the                    
black walnut (Juglans nigra). Since the time of ancient Rome,                   
gardeners have observed that walnut trees are toxic to many other               
plants. Although this toxicity is not fully understood, it is                   
known that a toxic substance called juglone is exuded from the                  
roots of black walnut trees. Not all plants are susceptible to                  
damage. In fact, some seem to have improved vigor when grown near               
a black walnut.                                                                 
                                                                                
Studies show that roots of the tree must have contact with, or be               
very close to, susceptible plants to cause injury. This may                     
include a much larger area, however, than most people expect as                 
the roots of a mature black walnut may occupy an area five or six               
times that of the tree's crown. Even after a walnut tree is                     
removed, the toxic substance will remain in the soil for about a                
year. Although leaves, husks and bark contain juglone, mulches of               
these tree parts are reported not to cause the toxic response                   
that occurs with actual root contact.                                           
                                                                                
Plants which have been recorded as harmed by black walnut include               
tomatoes, potatoes, blackberries, blueberries, rhododendron,                    
azaleas, and mountain laurel. Plants that do as well, or better,                
under black walnuts include Kentucky bluegrass, snap beans, sweet               
corn, red cedars, daffodils and maples. Noticing that the soil                  
under black walnuts is alkaline (the pH may be 0.7 points higher                
than the soil beyond the roots), one researcher suggests that                   
this may influence which plants perform well.                                   
                                                                                
Other researchers are looking at allelopathy as a possible way to               
control weeds. For example, certain selections of rye, wheat and                
barley significantly reduce weed growth, in part by the release                 
of toxic root substances. Therefore, they offer partial control                 
of certain annual weeds when grown as cover crops in fruit                      
orchards. Although research is in early stages, published reports               
indicate a potential for use that some day may be worthwhile for                
consideration by the home orchardist. The use of allelopathic                   
plants will not eliminate the need for herbicides, but it is                    
exciting to know that research is being conducted that may                      
provide another alternative to mechanical or synthetic chemical                 
control of weeds.                                                               
                                                                                
PROTECTING ORNAMENTALS                                                          
                                                                                
Homeowners can take several special actions to protect their                    
trees and shrubs for the winter. Although these actions won't                   
guarantee total absence of damage to the plants, they should                    
limit the severity of the problem.                                              
                                                                                
Any snow that collects on your shrubs should be removed with a                  
broom. Always sweep upward with the broom to lift off the snow.                 
When the branches are frozen and brittle, however, avoid disturb-               
ing the branches. Wait until a warmer day.                                      
                                                                                
Bark splitting is an especially dangerous condition to be guarded               
against on newly planted trees. It may be prevented by wrapping                 
trunks with burlap strips or with commercial tree wrap.                         
                                                                                
If the winter is particularly severe, many plants may show                      
substantial injury. Discolored or "burned" evergreen needles or                 
leaves, dead branch tips and branches, "heaved" root systems and                
broken branches are among the symptoms.                                         
                                                                                
Small evergreens can be protected by erecting wind breaks made                  
out of burlap, canvas, or similar materials attached to a frame                 
surrounding a plant. A complete wrapping of straw and burlap                    
sometimes is used.                                                              
                                                                                
Black plastic should be avoided as a material for wrapping                      
plants. During the day, it allows heat to increase inside and                   
actually increases the fluctuations between day and night                       
temperatures. It also may speed the growth of buds in the spring,               
making them more vulnerable to late frosts.                                     
                                                                                
Since the various boxes, shields and wrappings detract from your                
winter landscape, it might be wise to move sensitive plants to a                
more protected location and replace them with hardier specimens                 
that don't need such protection each year.                                      
                                                                                
Anti-dessicant (anti-dryout) compounds can be used on valuable                  
evergreens to lessen damage during severe freezes. They must be                 
applied at the onset of the coldest weather when plants are                     
unable to take up water from frozen ground. These compounds act                 
as barriers to the movement of water from the plant through                     
the leaves. The protection provided by an anti-dessicant is                     
temporary. After a few days, the film disintegrates.                            
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
November Question Box                                                           
                                                                                
Celery cabbage              16 lines                                            
Ornamental currant          36 lines                                            
Soil acidity                28 lines                                            
Hollow nuts                 40 lines                                            
Sweet gum                   64 lines                                            
Ming aralia                 18 lines                                            
Small aesculus species      36 lines                                            
Wild garden                 34 lines                                            
Spicebush                   30 lines                                            
Fig                         12 lines                                            
                                                                                
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                    
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
I noticed a strange vegetable that looked something like celery                 
in the supermarket. It was called celery cabbage. Can you tell me               
something about how to use and grow it?                                         
                                                                                
Celery cabbage is the most common name, but this green vegetable                
is also called bok-choy or pak-choi. It is a sweetly flavored,                  
lettuce-like vegetable with large crisp leaves. It is used fresh                
in salads, boiled as greens, sauteed, or wokfried.                              
                                                                                
Celery cabbage is in the Brassica family (related to broccoli                   
and cabbage) and requires cool weather during most of its growing               
season. It can be planted in early spring or grown as a fall                    
crop. It can be direct seeded, but in some areas transplants are                
available. Look for a seed source in a catalog which speci-                     
alizes in oriental vegetables. Most varieties mature in 70 to 80                
days.                                                                           
                                                                                
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In Europe I saw some attractive hedge plants called alpine                      
currants. I like currants somewhat, but I'm sure most of the                    
fruit will go to the birds which like them. Will these bushes                   
grow in Virginia?                                                               
                                                                                
In addition to the currants and gooseberries grown principally                  
for their edible fruit, there are several species that are purely               
ornamental. The mountain, or alpine, currant (Ribes alpinum) is a               
native of Europe, but it is grown in this country as well, mostly               
as a hedge plant and for attracting birds. Unlike garden cur-                   
rants, the male flowers and female flowers are on separate plants               
of alpine currants. Because only the female plants produce                      
fruits, some male plants nearby are necessary to insure fruiting.               
Most available cultivars are male clones which produce no fruit                 
but tend to be more rust resistant. Plants grow three to eight                  
feet tall and nearly as wide. They grow best in semishaded                      
locations and are hardy throughout Virginia.                                    
                                                                                
Another ornamental currant is the flowering, or winter, currant                 
(Ribes sanguineum). A native of western North America, it is an                 
attractive shrub, producing pink, red, or white flowers in the                  
spring (depending on the cultivar), and blue-black berries later                
in the season. Flowering currant is hardy only where winters                    
seldom get much below zero. They grow to a height of ten to                     
twelve feet.                                                                    
                                                                                
Be aware that currants are alternate hosts to the white pine                    
blister rust disease and their planting is restricted in many                   
areas of Virginia. In these counties, a permit must be obtained                 
from the Commissioner of Agriculture and Commerce in Richmond                   
before planting. No permit will be issued if the plants are to be               
within 1500' of sizable plantings of ornamental or commercial                   
white pine stands. At present, 33 counties are on the restricted                
list. Contact your extension agent for regulations concerning                   
growing currants in your area.                                                  
                                                                                
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How do I make soil more acid for azaleas and camellias?                         
                                                                                
A number of shrubs which are useful in the home landscape or                    
garden, grow best in an acid soil with a pH of 4.5 to 5.5. Some                 
of the plants which require this low pH are andromeda, azalea,                  
blueberry, camellia, laurel, and rhododendron.                                  
                                                                                
To lower the pH of a soil, first have your soil tested by your                  
extension service to determine its present pH level. If it is                   
higher than pH 5.5, you will need to apply flowers of sulfur or                 
aluminum sulfate to make it more acid. One pound of sulfur or 2                 
pounds of aluminum sulfate per 100 square feet lowers the pH                    
of loam soil about 1 pH value. Work the acidifying material into                
the top several inches of soil and water thoroughly.                            
                                                                                
Sandy soils need only half as much of the acidifying material as                
loam. Therefore, use 1/2 pound of sulfur or 1 pound of aluminum                 
sulfate per 100 square feet for a sandy soil to reduce the pH                   
level 1 pH value. Clay soils need approximately twice as much                   
sulfur or aluminum sulfate as loam to lower the pH. Therefore,                  
use 2 pounds of sulfur or 4 pounds of aluminum sufate per 100                   
square feet to make a clay soil 1 pH value lower (more acidic).                 
                                                                                
After 3 or 4 months, test the soil again for pH. You may need to                
apply more sulfur or aluminum sulfate to secure the desired pH                  
level. Since the procedure of lowering an area's pH takes some                  
time, consider beginning the process now so that your planting                  
bed will have the proper pH at spring planting time.                            
                                                                                
 -----------------                                                              
                                                                                
What causes the nuts on my walnuts and pecans to have no meat                   
inside?                                                                         
                                                                                
Walnut, butternuts, pecans, and hazelnuts that have poorly                      
developed or shriveled and decayed fruit result mostly from                     
problems which began early in the season. At this time of the                   
year, it is difficult or impossible to determine the exact                      
cause, but consider the following suggestions:                                  
Symptom                               Possible Cause                            
1. Fruit absent                       Incomplete pollination due                
                                      to adverse weather during                 
                                      fruit set or lack of a                    
                                      pollinating variety                       
2. Fruit shriveled, but not decayed   Water deficit which could                 
                                      have been due to low soil                 
                                      moisture, crown gall or                   
                                      impaired root system                      
3. Fruit decayed                      a. Insect injury followed                 
                                         by invasion by decay                   
                                         organisms                              
                                         (this would have                       
                                         happpened when the nuts                
                                         were quite small and the               
                                         husk was soft)                         
                                                                                
                                      b. Anthracnose (a fungal                  
                                         disease)                               
                                      c. Bacterial blight                       
                                         (English walnuts are                   
                                         susceptible)                           
                                                                                
If the problem was discovered this fall, next year would be the                 
time to collect specimens. Inspect nuts throughout the growing                  
season for insect injury or disease. Submit specimens to your                   
extension service when symptoms are first noticed.                              
                                                                                
For trees in the home yard, sanitation measures are important.                  
Rake and destroy fallen tree litter before spring arrives.                      
Provide fertilizer in the spring and, where practical, water                    
during dry periods. Water is particularly important for nut                     
development. Consult your extension agent for chemical control of               
insects and fungi if necessary.                                                 
                                                                                
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This autumn I noticed a tree with 5-pointed, nearly star-shaped                 
leaves which had such beautiful fall color, reds and scarlet. It                
reminded me somewhat of a maple tree, but it is not one that I                  
know. Can you identify this tree?                                               
                                                                                
The sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is one of the most                      
beautiful trees in its fall color. Its leaves turn from a bright,               
shiny green to a gorgeous crimson in autumn. With five to seven                 
lobes and serrated edges, the 5- to 6-inch wide, star-shaped                    
leaves are quite like those of maples. However, sweet gum leaves                
are born on the stems alternately instead of opposite one                       
another, as are maple leaves.                                                   
                                                                                
The fruit of the sweet gum is another distinctive feature of the                
tree. Prickly globes about 1 inch in diameter turn from green to                
brown in the fall. These fruit can be quite a nuisance in areas                 
where people walk, but they are highly sought after as an                       
ingredient in pine cone and seed wreaths and other seasonal                     
arrangements and decorations.                                                   
                                                                                
The bark on older sweet gum trees is deeply furrowed. The twigs                 
of the sweet gum are covered with corky bark that forms wing-like               
ridges similar to those on winged euonymous. The overall shape of               
the tree is pyramidal making it an excellent lawn tree.                         
                                                                                
The roots are fleshy, consequently the tree tends to be somewhat                
difficult to transplant in large sizes. (Transplant sweet gums no               
larger than 1-1/2 to 2 inches in trunk diameter.) Sweet gums tend               
to prefer a moist, slightly acidic, planting site with full sun.                
Avoid using this tree in areas where air pollution is a problem                 
or where the root system will be restricted.                                    
                                                                                
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I have a large ming aralia whose lower branches break off at the                
joints. A new shoot develops and grows in place of the lost one.                
Can you diagnose the problem?                                                   
                                                                                
Ming aralia (Polyscias fruticosa) drops leaves and branches when                
moved to a new environment, or when subjected to drafts. It is                  
also possible that you are feeding the aralia with a high                       
nitrogen product, which produces soft vegetative growth which is                
more prone to mechanical, insect, or disease related injury.                    
A liquid 5-10-10 fertilizer diluted according to label instruc-                 
tions should be applied once a month during the active growing                  
season (Mar. through Oct.) if the ming aralia is grown in a sunny               
location. Fertilization should be less if the plant is being                    
grown in light below 200 ft. candles and should be suspended                    
(Nov. through Oct.) while the plant is dormant. Provide ming                    
aralias with bright light, relative humidity of 50 percent, or                  
higher, and winter temperatures not over 70 degrees F. Water                    
thoroughly once a week when the plant is growing actively,                      
and a little less during dormancy, for a healthier plant.                       
                                                                                
 ----------------                                                               
                                                                                
Do you know of any buckeye (horse chestnut) varieties suitable                  
for a smaller home landscape? I remember these trees fondly from                
my youth, but I remember them as being huge. I would gladly plant               
one or two near my new home if I found one suitable for a                       
suburban-sized yard.                                                            
                                                                                
The Ohio buckeye, Aesculus glabra, grows to be 35-45' in height;                
the yellow buckeye, A. octandra reaches 60-75'; while the common                
horsechestnut, A. hippocastanum is 55-60' in height. Since these                
species are large trees with coarse texture, they are best suited               
to large areas such as parks and arboretums. In addition, the                   
fruit with its prickly husks, and the large leaves create                       
maintenance problems and increase fall cleanup in lawn areas.                   
Another reason few horticulturists recommend certain Aesculus is                
their tendency to develop leaf scorch by mid-summer leading to                  
early defoliation. In addition, the trees are susceptible to                    
pest problems such as powdery mildew.                                           
                                                                                
If you still want to try an Aesculus on your property, the                      
cultivars of Aesculus x carnea are smaller trees with red blooms                
and fewer leaf scorch problems, thus more suitable for specimen                 
and residential use. A. x carnea, also called red horsechestnut,                
is popular in Europe as a landscape tree in the 30-40' range.                   
Red buckeye, A. pavia, and bottlebrush buckeye, A. parviflora,                  
are smaller plants even more suited to small properties. Both                   
grow as clump-forming, multi-stemmed shrubs or small trees (under               
20') with flowering interest.                                                   
                                                                                
I advise you to locate these trees and shrubs on the edge of your               
property to minimize your maintenance duties; but be careful not                
to allow the mature canopy to overlap your neighbors' lawn and                  
create extra work for them. Perhaps an even better use for                      
Aesculus species would be in a wild or natural setting where                    
cleanup could be eliminated altogether. Moist, deep, well-drained               
soil in full sun to partial shade satisfies most species.                       
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
I am planning a natural or 'wild' garden. I would like to know                  
where to get some plants without disturbing wild habitats.                      
                                                                                
The best source of native plants for a naturalistic garden is a                 
seedsman or nursery which specializes in such species. Plants                   
should not be collected from the wild. Unless the transplanting                 
is done with extreme care, collected plants are likely to die.                  
Wild plants should be left in their native location for all                     
to enjoy.                                                                       
                                                                                
Select species which are suitable for the soil conditions and                   
exposure of your garden. Do some research to find out whether the               
plants or seeds you desire are adapted to sun or shade, or for                  
moist or dry soils. Your must select species which are adapted to               
your particular garden, or adapt your growing area to fit                       
the plants' needs.                                                              
                                                                                
In caring for a wild garden, attempt to duplicate the conditions                
to which the plants were adapted in their native location. Only                 
moderate amounts of fertilizer are needed. A mulch of pine                      
needles, shredded leaves, peat moss, or similar organic material                
will be beneficial. For best results, pick a site with an                       
irregular terrain and the partial shade of established shrubs and               
trees.                                                                          
                                                                                
Be conservative in the use of wild flowers and native plants. If                
you are offered plants from a friend, gather only the small                     
quantity needed for a special purpose. Handle them carefully to                 
prevent wilting and damage, and get them replanted as soon as                   
possible.                                                                       
                                                                                
Occasionally, attractive wild plants are growing on construction                
sites. If you can get the landowner's permission allowing you to                
remove the plants, you may be able to save a plant with an                      
uncertain fate.                                                                 
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
I recently found a shrub in the undergrowth of a wooded area                    
which has a spicy aroma to its twigs. A friend calls it "wild                   
forsythia". What can you tell me about this bush? Is it ever                    
cultivated?                                                                     
                                                                                
Spicebush, sometimes called "forsythia of the wilds", technical-                
ly, is Lindera benzion. The shrub which grows from 6-12 feet in                 
height, when not crowded by other plants, is valuable as an                     
ornamental. In the early spring, the limbs are covered with tiny                
yellow blossoms (hence the name wild forsythia). In the fall,                   
the leaves turn a brilliant yellow especially when grown in full                
sun.                                                                            
                                                                                
The sweet fragrance of the leaves and the bark helps to identify                
the shrub. Smooth, deep green leaves produce a sweet, lemony                    
fragrance when crushed. The twigs and bark bear an especially                   
spicy scent, as do the red berries that are produced in fall. All               
plant parts have been used in potpourri.                                        
                                                                                
Spicebush can be difficult to transplant from the wild because of               
its coarse fibrous roots. Transplanted shrubs are slow to                       
re-establish themselves. If you wish to put one in your land-                   
scape, obtain a container grown nursery plant. Plant it in moist,               
well-drained soil where it will receive sun at least part of the                
day. In sunny spots, it will become a dense shrub with spring and               
fall interest.                                                                  
                                                                                
A taller Oriental species of Lindera can occasionally be found in               
garden centers. Japanese spicebush (L. obtusiloba) can be trained               
as a shrub or small tree (up to 20'). In fall, its deep yellow                  
leaves and shiny red fruits make it a desired ornamental.                       
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Is possible to grow figs in Virginia?                                           
                                                                                
Fig production in Virginia is limited mainly to the warm coastal                
areas.  The plants are easily injured by cold and cannot be grown               
successfully without protection where winter temperatures                       
frequently drop below 20 F. Figs require a minimum of care and                  
are included in home plantings in the Tidewater area. Two                       
varieties of figs are recommended for planting in Virginia,                     
Celeste and Brown Turkey. Both are good for eating fresh when                   
fully ripe, and are excellent for preserving. A fair crop of                    
fruit may be expected the second year after planting. A single                  
plant will usually produce enough fruit for an entire family.                   
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
November Notes                                                                  
                                                                                
* Dead leaf stalks of perennial vegetables such as asparagus                    
and rhubarb should be cut to the ground after their tops are                    
killed by frost.                                                                
                                                                                
* Before storing your stakes and trellises, be sure they are                    
thoroughly cleaned of remnants of plant materials and dirt. Hose                
down all particularly dirty places. Put stakes in bundles and                   
stack them so they won't get lost over the winter. Roll up                      
trellis netting and tie it securely.                                            
                                                                                
* When time or weather conditions prohibit plowing or cover                     
cropping, you may wish to let your garden lie under a mulch                     
of compost, plant wastes, or leaves all winter. Plow or till                    
under the organic matter in spring. However, if you want to plant               
early next spring, a mulch of heavy materials such as whole                     
leaves may become matted and keep the soil cold long enough                     
to delay planting. Chop organic matter fine enough that it will                 
break down over winter.                                                         
                                                                                
* Clean, oil, and mend all hand tools. Repaint handles or identi-               
fication marks that have faded over the summer. Sharpen all                     
blades and remove any rust.                                                     
                                                                                
* Power tools should be cleaned of all plant material and dirt.                 
Replace worn spark plugs, oil all necessary parts, and sharpen                  
blades. Store all tools in their proper place indoors, never                    
outdoors where they will rust over the winter.                                  
                                                                                
* Select accent plants for your landscape that will provide                     
interesting autumn colors. Trees which turn red include dogwood,                
red maple, sweet gum, and red or scarlet oak. Shrubs with red                   
fall foliage include viburnum, winged euonymous, and barberry.                  
                                                                                
* Many perennials and rock garden plants may be planted or                      
divided and replanted during the fall. Set them out early enough                
to establish their roots before the ground freezes.                             
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from the gutters of your home to avoid overflow                 
during fall rains. Paint the inside of the gutters with rust                    
resistant paint to extend their life by many years.                             
                                                                                
* Peonies can be planted now in full sun and fertile, well-drain-               
ed soil rich in organic matter. Dig holes 18" and fill halfway                  
with a mixture of soil, compost, and a handful of 5-10-10                       
fertilizer. Add a few more inches of soil and set the roots so                  
buds are 1-2" below the soil surface. Backfill, firm the soil,                  
and water thoroughly. Peonies resent being moved and will                       
not bloom for several years. So, choose the original site                       
carefully and disturb only if absolutely necessary.                             
                                                                                
* Reduce peony botrytis blight and hollyhock rust by removing                   
and burning all old stems in fall. This will reduce the carry--                 
over of the diseases during winter and you will have less                       
trouble next year.                                                              
                                                                                
* Avoid transplanting shrubs and trees on sunny or windy days. On               
these days, roots are exposed to too much sun and drying winds                  
which puts undue stress on the plant.                                           
                                                                                
* Water pipes and outdoor faucets in the garden or patio should                 
be drained before cold weather occurs to prevent damage by freez-               
ing. Check guy wires around newly planted trees to be sure they                 
will not be damaged by windy weather during the fall and winter.                
                                                                                
* After the ground freezes, mulch small fruit plants such as                    
strawberries. One to two inches of straw or leaves is ideal for                 
strawberries. Small branches of evergreens may be used to keep                  
mulch in place.                                                                 
                                                                                
* After chrysanthemums have stopped blooming, cut stems back                    
close to the ground. Dispose of stems, dropped leaves and                       
branches.                                                                       
                                                                                
* The best way to prevent winter damage to shrubs is to select                  
hardy species when they are planted. Consult publications which                 
contain information on the climatic zones to which shrubs are                   
adapted. It is better to select hardy species in the first place                
than to attempt to protect tender plants later on.                              
                                                                                
* Watch for standing water in perennial beds after long periods                 
of rain. Water which collects on the surface during winter will                 
freeze and may damage perennials. Dig shallow trenches to help                  
drain excess water away. Make a note to raise the height of that                
bed in spring.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Dig up a vigorous rhubarb crown now if you are planning on                    
forcing stalks later this winter.                                               
                                                                                
* Protect concrete pools by covering them or by floating logs                   
in the water. Drain the water before freezing weather and place                 
a few boards or logs on the pool bottom to absorb the expansion                 
of freezing water that might accumulate.                                        
                                                                                
* Protect roots of azaleas and rhododendrons with a heavy                       
mulch of an acidic material such as oak leaves, aged sawdust, or                
pine needles.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Broadleaf evergreens may need to be protected to prevent drying               
out during the winter. Branches of pines or other evergreens                    
thrust into the ground around the plants work well. Where boughs                
are not plentiful, a screen of wooden boards, corn stalks or                    
burlap tacked to wooden frames will serve the purpose. Ideally,                 
these plants should be located out of severe winds.                             
                                                                                
* Caulk and plug any entrances around the home used by wasps                    
this past summer.                                                               
                                                                                
* If there is any evidence of scale on trees and shrubs, spray                  
with dormant oil in late fall and again in early spring.                        
                                                                                
* Remove grass and weeds from trunks of fruit trees and grapes                  
to prevent damage by mice and rodents. Leave a bare circle one                  
foot wide around tree trunks when spreading mulch to keep mice                  
from feeding on the bark. A collar or fence of poultry wire                     
or a commercial tree guard approximately 18" high will deter                    
rodents and rabbits.                                                            
                                                                                
* Newly planted shade trees especially those with smooth bark                   
are often injured by temperature fluctuations and strong winter                 
sunshine. Prevent sunscald by wrapping the tree trunks with                     
commercial tree wrap, 4" burlap strips, or simply shading with                  
a board against the south side of the trunk.                                    
                                                                                
* If you are planning on having a live, balled and burlapped                    
Christmas tree, dig a planting hole now before the ground                       
freezes. Fill the hole with straw or hay to keep it from freez-                 
ing. Storing the soil in a garage or shed will give you workable                
soil when you need it.                                                          
                                                                                
* Earthworms must remain below frost line to survive. Mulch                     
piled on top of soil raises the frost line. If you want earth-                  
worms to help break down organic matter in the upper soil                       
layers, mulch deeply. If you need the subsoil aerated, leave the                
surface mulch thin; the worms will burrow downward to stay warm.                
                                                                                
* If fall rains have been scarce, water landscape evergreens                    
thoroughly once every week or so until the ground freezes. Ever-                
greens continue to lose moisture from their foliage all winter;                 
but once the ground is frozen, they'll be unable to take up                     
enough water to replace water losses. Sending them into winter                  
well watered reduces the potential for damaged foliage. Broad-                  
leaved and tender evergreens exposed to drying winds and sun may                
need to be shaded on the south and southwest sides to reduce                    
moisture loss and foliage injury.                                               
                                                                                
* Keep the compost heap moist to aid in the decay process. Turn                 
the pile to mix in all late fall additions. Empty any fertilizer                
residues from open bags you are discarding onto the pile and                    
mix in.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Inspect trees and shrubs for bagworm capsules and the silvery                 
egg masses of tent caterpillars. Remove and destroy them to                     
reduce next year's pest population.                                             
                                                                                
* In Northern Virginia, gypsy moths are in the egg stage from now               
until April. Look for tan, fuzzy patches that look like a piece                 
of camel hair coat 1" long and 1/2" wide attached to trees,                     
rocks, fences, lawn furniture, wood piles and buildings. If you                 
find any, scrape them off and kill them in a jar of alcohol or                  
bleach. To confirm identification of the gypsy moth, bring                      
samples of the egg mass to your local extension service.                        
                                                                                
* Low spots in the lawn or irregularities in the surface may                    
be top-dressed using good soil. When not more than 2" of soil                   
is applied, the grass has a chance to come through again.                       
                                                                                
* Fertilize wisteria after leaves have fallen to avoid excess                   
top growth and lack of bloom.                                                   
                                                                                
* Now is a good time to clean out tangled, overgrown vines. Cut-                
ting out old and diseased wood will benefit the remaining                       
branches.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Dwarf fruit trees have a double purpose in furnishing flowers                 
in the spring, as well as fruit in the fall. They are particular-               
ly suited to small lots. Early November is a good time to plant                 
most fruit trees especially if a light mulch is applied to the                  
soil afterwards.                                                                
                                                                                
* Where circumstances necessitate very late planting of trees                   
and shrubs remember to dig the holes before the soil freezes if                 
possible, and mulch the area heavily to keep the ground thawed.                 
                                                                                
* Break the crust on the surface of any sawdust mulch you have                  
around blueberries, shrubs and perennials to improve the absorp-                
tion of water from fall rains.                                                  
                                                                                
* Rough plow or spade garden plots containing heavy, clay                       
soil. Add organic matter and lime if indicated by a soil test.                  
Leave the soil rough -- winter's thawing and freezing will break                
up the clods and kill some of the insects and slugs overwintering               
in the soil. A rough soil surface also catches more moisture and                
reduces erosion.                                                                
                                                                                
* If you use manure as a soil conditioner, apply it now and                     
till it under. Manure can be a source of weed seed. Composting                  
before application can reduce the number of viable seeds.                       
                                                                                
* Store pesticides in a frost-free location away from food                      
and out of the reach of children. If a pesticide is in a paper                  
container, put the whole package in a plastic container and                     
seal it. Be sure that all bottles and cans are tightly sealed                   
and well-labeled.                                                               
                                                                                
* Lock liquid pesticides where temperatures will not fall                       
below 40 degrees F. Too low a temperature may result in a                       
breakdown of the chemical. If the liquid should freeze, there is                
danger of the glass container breaking and scattering the                       
chemical in the storage area.                                                   
                                                                                
* Clean, dry, and put away sprayers and mixing equipment. Any-                  
thing that has been used with a weed-killer should be labeled for               
use only with herbicides. Herbicide residues may later damage                   
valuable plants that you spray with another mixture using the                   
same sprayer.                                                                   
                                                                                
* As soon as seed flats are emptied of fall transplants, wash                   
and sterilize them before storage so that you may use them immed-               
iately when you need them in spring.                                            
                                                                                
* African violets like a day temperature of 70 degrees F and                    
a night temperature of 65 degrees F. They may die if the air                    
temperature surrounding them stays below 55 degrees F for too                   
long. African violets do well under flourescent lights 12-14                    
hours a day; lights should be 8-12" from the plant.                             
                                                                                
* The watt rating of a bulb or tube indicates the electric                      
power it consumes, not the light intensity it generates. A fluor-               
escent tube produces more lumens (a somewhat arbitrary measure                  
of visible light emitted) than an incandescent bulb of the same                 
wattage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Insufficient light will cause a jade plant to lose most of                    
its old, thick leaves and grow thin, new ones on spindly stems.                 
While it will survive low light, it needs as much direct sunlight               
as possible to look its best.                                                   
                                                                                
* Do not neglect to make successional sowings of vegetable                      
crops such as lettuce and radishes in the greenhouse. The secret                
to fresh food all winter is to sow small quantities frequently.                 
                                                                                
* Try dwarf varieties of annual flowers to use as house plants                  
this winter. Asters, calendulas, celosias, and marigolds come                   
in compact, colorful cultivars which can be maintained in the                   
home if sufficient light is provided.                                           
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
NOVEMBER 1986 QUESTION BOX                                                      
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Extension               
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture. The Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed               
for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features and                     
other educational programs.                                                     
                                                                                
Iron Chlorosis                                   63 lines                       
Weeping English Yew                              54 lines                       
Avoid Over Fertilizing Indoor Plants             53 lines                       
Scotch Broom                                     53 lines                       
Developing Resistant Varieties Takes Time        51 lines                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
IRON CHLOROSIS SIGNALS PROBLEMS                                                 
                                                                                
Chlorosis means "becoming green". The term was first applied to                 
a human condition in which the skin took on a greenish hue.                     
Today it is more frequently used to describe plants whose                       
normal color is green, but which have a condition which results                 
in a lack of green color in some leaves. Chlorosis in plants                    
results from nutrient deficiency, insufficient light, or certain                
virus diseases.                                                                 
                                                                                
The most frequent cause of chlorosis linked to nutrient deficien-               
cy is iron chlorosis. This develops when a plant is unable to                   
absorb enough iron from the soil. Sometimes the soil does not                   
contain enough iron; but most often iron is in the soil but in a                
chemical form which makes it unavailable to the plant. Soils with               
high pH (alkaline) often bind iron in a form plants cannot use.                 
                                                                                
Most plants do not develop iron chlorosis in neutral (pH 7) or                  
slightly acid soil, but begin to develop yellowing as soils                     
become more and more alkaline (pH>7). Such plants include                       
rose, iris, firethorn, spirea, apple and peach.                                 
                                                                                
Some plants require very acid soil and develop iron chlorosis                   
when they are grown in soils which are not acid enough. Such                    
plants include azaleas, rhododendron, holly, hydrangea, blueberry               
and pin oak.                                                                    
                                                                                
Iron chlorsis is different from other types of chlorosis; it                    
affects young, new leaves first. Other forms of chlorosis                       
often affect older foliage initially. Leaf color of plants                      
with chlorosis ranges from yellow-green to almost white. Leaves                 
showing iron chlorosis often retain green veins. In severe cases,               
leaf margins may be brown and die, and eventually entire plants                 
may be killed. Even in mild cases where yellowing is slight,                    
growth is reduced.                                                              
                                                                                
Iron chlorosis is usually associated with deficiency or unavaila-               
bility of iron in the soil but it may also appear when roots are                
damaged by overwatering, poor drainage, or overfertilization. Any               
condition that kills roots or does not allow feeder root develop-               
ment can lead to iron chlorosis.                                                
                                                                                
Treat iron chlorosis by eliminating the cause. A soil test will                 
determine soil pH. Alkaline soil, or soil which is not acid                     
enough, may be treated with sulfur or iron sulfate to make it                   
more acidic. Poorly drained soils should be improved and plants                 
subject to iron chlorosis should be watered carefully. The                      
color of plants several months after soil is amendmended will                   
indicate need for future treatment.                                             
                                                                                
To achieve temporary improvement in leaf color, there are                       
materials available for providing iron quickly to plants. Iron                  
chelates are organic compounds containing readily-absorbed iron.                
They can be placed in the soil for absorption by the roots or                   
sprayed in dilute form directly on the leaves. Since the chemical               
concentration of the compound may vary with manufacturer,                       
carefully follow directions given on the package.                               
                                                                                
When fertilizer is sprayed onto leaves the process is called                    
foliar fertilization. It is a good way to supply some nutrients,                
including iron, to plants rapidly, but foliar feeding is not a                  
substitute for good soil conditions. Foliar fertilizer can                      
supplement soil nutrition at a critical time, but to eliminate                  
iron chlorosis, correct the conditions causing it.                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
WEEPING ENGLISH YEW                                                             
                                                                                
Needle-leaf evergreens are valuable in the landscape because of                 
their fine texture and year-round color. Most needle-leaf                       
evergreens grow quite tall leaving few choices where a short,                   
delicate-looking evergreen is needed. Weeping English yew,                      
(Taxus baccata 'Repandens') is a low-growing conifer which may                  
fill the need for such a plant in your landscape.                               
                                                                                
The foliage of weeping English yew is attractive in both texture                
and color. New twigs have a feathery appearance. When mature,                   
twigs display a lustrous, dark green color giving the illusion                  
that the surface is wet. The plants weeping, compact habit                      
adds to the watery illusion as the branches are tiered in such a                
way that it looks like a series of cascades flowing from top to                 
bottom. When this plant is used in the shade, it gives a sensa-                 
tion of refreshing coolness, especially when planted near a                     
white flowering shrub or herbaceous plant.                                      
                                                                                
Weeping English yew develops bright red berries which are very                  
decorative however, the red fruits may be too attractive to                     
small children. Yews are among the most toxic of plants. Foliage,               
bark and seeds contain the greatest concentration of the toxin,                 
but no part of the plant should be ingested. Consider this fact                 
when choosing a site.                                                           
                                                                                
A very low growing plant, weeping English yew will reach a                      
maximum height of about 4 feet with a spread of up to 20 feet.                  
It is useful as an understory plant, in a shrub border, founda-                 
tion, corner or mass planting.                                                  
                                                                                
Different species of yews generally have the same growing                       
requirements. They can be transplanted in spring or fall. They                  
are generally sold balled and burlapped although some plants are                
now being marketed as container-grown. Yews prefer partial                      
shade, but can be successfully grown in sun or shade. Locate                    
plants where they will not be battered by severe winds.                         
                                                                                
The most important consideration when locating yews is good soil                
drainage. In wet soils they will slowly decline and die. In dry                 
spots they will lose their vigor. Modify the soil as necessary                  
to make it fertile and well-drained. Provide plants with suffi-                 
cient moisture at dry times.                                                    
                                                                                
'Repandens' is the most hardy cultivar of the English yews, all                 
of which are less hardy than the Japanese or Canadian species. It               
is resistant to most diseases but there are several insects to                  
watch for. Black vine weevil can pose a serious threat; lesser                  
problems can be caused by mealybugs, scale and yew gall-midge.                  
                                                                                
When sited correctly, weeping English yew is a four-season                      
plant of tremendous quality. The shrubs are naturally compact                   
and symmetrical and should require little corrective pruning. If                
allowed to retain it's natural form, weeping English yew can be                 
rivaled by few low-growing conifer.                                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
AVOID OVER FERTILIZING INDOOR PLANTS                                            
                                                                                
Fertilizing house plants is a question in plant care that gives                 
many new indoor plant owners a difficult time. The object                       
of growing plants indoors is to maintain a fairly steady, but                   
slow rate of growth. Since indoor plants are usually under less                 
than optimal environmental conditions such as light and humidity,               
fertilizer levels should be kept high enough to keep the plant                  
healthy but low enough to keep from injuring it. Over fertilizing               
seems to be more of a problem than under fertilizing.                           
                                                                                
The easiest form of fertilizer to use for indoor plants is the                  
water soluble form. Water-soluble fertilizer comes as a dry                     
compound or concentrated liquid which is diluted with water                     
before use.                                                                     
                                                                                
Slow release and organic fertilizers are also good for house                    
plants. Slow release fertilizers dispense nutrients to plants                   
slowly, usually over a period of months. They are available in                  
pellet or spike form. Organic fertilizers release nutrients more                
slowly than water-soluble fertilizers, but they must be mixed                   
into solution and applied more readily than slow-release formula-               
tions. Some organic fertilizers have an odor which is objection-                
able for indoor use. One drawback about slow release and organic                
fertilizers may be price. Both are expensive per unit of nutri-                 
ent. (See "Estimating the Cost of Convenience" The Virginia                     
Gardener, July 1982 for more information.)                                      
                                                                                
At this time of year, many plants begin a winter dormant period                 
during which they require no fertilizer. Even plants which do                   
not become dormant, require little, if any fertilizer, in the                   
winter because of lower ligh levels. You will observe the                       
greatest response to fertilizer applications during spring and                  
summer as the plants go through their growth flushes.                           
                                                                                
Symptoms of over and under fertilizing are quite varied and                     
depend on the particular nutrients involved. Symptoms range from                
stunting to leaf scorch, marginal necrosis (dead edges on leaves)               
to general chlorosis (leaf yellowing), reddening or purpling of                 
the foliage, and others. If you suspect a nutrient problem, it is               
best to consult your county agent or plant clinician who can                    
send a soil sample to the Va Tech Soil Lab to diagnose the                      
problem.                                                                        
                                                                                
The following are a few "don'ts" to remember about indoor plant                 
fertilzation: 1)Never apply fertilizers at concentrations greater               
than the label recommends. You may see better results by halving                
the recommended rate and applying the diluted mix more frequent-                
ly. 2)Never fertilize newly purchased plants as they need time to               
acclimate to their new environment. Many plants raised as indoor                
specimens have been grown under intense light and have been                     
heavily fertilized to promote rapid growth prior to sale. 3)Never               
fertilize diseased, insect-infested or environment-stressed                     
plants until they have recovered. Fertilizer is not a medicine.                 
SCOTCH BROOM                                                                    
                                                                                
Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) is a small shrub that draws                    
interest to itself at this time of year. Its small green leaves                 
have fallen, yet the fine textured shrub still appears grass                    
green. This is because the young stems of Scotch broom maintain                 
their green color all year making it an attractive landscape                    
plant especially in winter.                                                     
                                                                                
Although Scotch broom isn't used very much in the United States,                
large plantings of it can be seen at Montecello, Thomas Jeffer-                 
son's home. Jefferson used the plant extensively in his land-                   
scape, both where the green color would be appreciated in winter                
and where the bright yellow flowers could be enjoyed in late                    
spring. In Virginia, the plants have been used to stabilize                     
disturbed areas along road cuts.                                                
                                                                                
Scotch broom remains very popular in Europe as it was during                    
Jefferson's time. Plants grow to be five to six feet tall when                  
grown where they have ample room. In a tight situation such as a                
mixed shrub border, plants stretch upward reaching twice as tall.               
The plant's width equals or exceeds its height being widest when                
grown in an open area. Brooms will shed viable seed and can                     
establish large colonies. Locate plants where there is room for                 
it to spread.                                                                   
                                                                                
Winter interest makes Scotch broom an asset to the landscape,                   
but its most ornamental feature is a profusion of bright yellow                 
flowers that open in May to June. The blooms are borne along the                
the stems on old wood. To produce the best show of bloom year                   
after year, prune plants each summer shortly after the plant                    
ceases blooming.                                                                
                                                                                
There are over one hundred cultivars of brooms with flower                      
colors, ranging from white to yellow, red to purple, and all                    
kinds of color combinations. Most cultivars are difficult to find               
in nurseries; you may be able to order through a mail order                     
nursery to get the unusual ones.                                                
                                                                                
Pretty, long, grass-green stems of Scotch broom can be an asset                 
indoors as well as out. The stems work well as greenery in floral               
arrangements and can be molded into curved shapes for special                   
effects. Broom stems may be preserved by air drying small                       
clumps hung upside down in a warm location with good air circula-               
tion.                                                                           
                                                                                
Scotch broom is easy to grow, has few problems, and even thrives                
in poor conditions. It grows best in dry, sandy soil with full                  
sun but doesn't do well in fertile, wet soils. Plants tolerate a                
wide range in soil pH. It is a good choice for erosion control of               
a sandy, non-fertile area. Plants are hardy in Zone 5 to 8                      
making it a good plant thoughout the state. After a severe                      
winter, plants may exhibit some winter kill in the mountainous                  
plant of the state, but overall the shrubs do well in Virginia.                 
DEVELOPING PLANT VARIETIES WITH DISEASE RESISTENCE TAKES TIME                   
                                                                                
Plant diseases cause major garden losses in food production,                    
aesthetic quality and labor. Some varieties have natural resist-                
ance to particular diseases, but other varieties do not. Trans-                 
ferring  disease resistance is a common goal of plant patholog-                 
ists and plant breeders.                                                        
                                                                                
Before an improved variety with a particular disease resistance                 
is introduced to gardeners, many years of hard work and patience                
have preceded the release. Plant pathologists start the process                 
by identifying the organism causing a significant crop disease.                 
Screening tests in which the pathogen, host plants and environ-                 
mental conditions are varied, help pathologists learn how the                   
disease develops and what plants are affected. The next step                    
involves the search for resistance in the host plant. The                       
resistant trait may be found in a cultivated form of the plant,                 
but more often it is in a wild relative. The search may take only               
a few months but usually it takes years.                                        
                                                                                
Once resistance is identified in a plant, plant breeders must                   
determine if the genetic information for resistance can be                      
transferred to other plants. The plants are crossed by controlled               
pollination and plants from the resulting seed are tested.                      
                                                                                
If the genetic information is transferable, breeders then work on               
incorporating it into commercially acceptable types of food                     
crops. Finally, after many generations of crossing and resistance               
selection, the breeder is able to identify horticulturally                      
superior plants which carry the disease resistance genes. From                  
start to finish this process may take decades.                                  
                                                                                
Before the resistant variety can be released, an adequate supply                
of seed must be produced. The original or "breeder" seed is                     
multiplied by growing out the plants and allowing them to set                   
seed. A certifying agency assures that the seed is carefully                    
reproduced to avoid all possibilities of genetic alteration. Seed               
production may be contracted to private growers under supervision               
of the certifying agency.                                                       
                                                                                
The first, second and third generations of seed after breeders                  
seed are known as foundation, registered, and certified, respect-               
ively. Foundation and registered seed is used for further seed                  
production. Certified seed is available for sale for crop                       
production.                                                                     
                                                                                
It may take years before certified seed becomes widely available                
to gardeners. Seed companies choose the varieties they carry with               
great care. If you try a new variety, let the company know how it               
performed for you. If you have heard of a variety that you wish                 
to try, ask for it. Public demand plays an important role in                    
selection of seeds carried by a company.                                        
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
NOVEMBER 1986 QUESTION BOX                                                      
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Pine Nuts                                    36 lines                           
Sweet Gum or Sour Gum Tree                   29 lines                           
Katsura Tree                                 26 lines                           
Hymenocallis (Ismene, Spider lily)           33 lines                           
Designing a Dry Streambed                    40 lines                           
Choosing a Tree Surgeon                      38 lines                           
Grafting Cactus with Glue                    29 lines                           
Vegetable Marrow Squash                      22 lines                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Can one grow the type of pines which produce pine nuts or pinons                
noted in some Italian recipes?                                                  
                                                                                
Shelled pine nuts are used in dished from Italian pesto to soups,               
salads, even eggnog and pies. Also called pinons, pinyons,                      
pignoli and Indian nuts, pine nuts are the edible seeds of many                 
pine trees. They are delicious, high in protein, and expensive to               
buy.                                                                            
                                                                                
Gardeners can grow species of pine which bear edible nuts almost                
anywhere in the U.S., however, one must be willing to wait 10-20                
years for the first crop. Several native species, as well as some               
from Mediterranean Europe and Asia, are handsome ornamentals that               
bear large nuts.                                                                
                                                                                
One of the most ornamental nut producing pines is Korean pine                   
(Pinus koraiensis). Hardy to -35 degrees F, it is a lavish                      
producer of nuts the size of pistachios. Trees grow to 40' in a                 
beautiful pyramidal shape branched to the ground. Korean pine                   
makes a fine specimen plant or windbreak tree. It can be grown                  
in Virginia.                                                                    
                                                                                
Swiss stone pine (P. cembra) is another ornamental pine with                    
edible nuts suitable for planting in Virginia. These trees                      
transplant better than most pines. An open area with well--                     
drained, loamy soil is best for the trees. Mature trees grow 40'                
tall and up to 25' wide.                                                        
                                                                                
Other pines with edible nuts grow well in other parts of the                    
country. In the Southwest. you may see Pinyon pine (P. cembroi-                 
des) which bears large seeds on small trees. In the South,                      
Italian stone pine (P. pinea) grows into a broad, umbrella-                     
shaped tree. This tree is grown commercially in southern Italy                  
and France for its superior nuts. In California, the native                     
torrey (P. torreyana) and digger (P. sabiniana) pines are                       
occasionally grown for their nuts and ornamental value.                         
                                                                                
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Are sweet gum and sour gum the same tree?                                       
                                                                                
Though sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and sour gum (Nyssa                  
sylvatica) are unrelated species, they are both native trees                    
which provide four-seasons of interest in the landscape. Both are               
hardy where temperatures do not go much below -15 degrees F.                    
                                                                                
Sweet gum is a beautifully symmetrical tree; its habit is conical               
when young and broadly pyramidal with age. Trees mature at 60-70'               
in height. Sweet gum has glossy, star-shaped leaves which are                   
strongly incense-scented when crushed.                                          
                                                                                
Sour gum tress are oval to pyramidal-shaped and grow 40' tall and               
25' wide. Its leaves are oval, dark green, lustrous and leathery.               
                                                                                
Both trees are outstanding autumn performers. Sour gum is one of                
the first to show color, becoming brilliant scarlet in early                    
September. Sweet gum is one of the last to turn and gives a                     
spectacular display in golds, reds, and smoky wine purples.                     
Winter brings out the picturesque branch structure of sour gum,                 
while sweet gum is noted for its corky-winged branches and                      
bur-like fruits useful for winter decorations.                                  
                                                                                
Both gums display dense canopies, have few pest problems, and                   
prefer moist, rich, deep loams. Sweet gum trees are best used in                
parks or at the edge of a large landscape as its spiny, round                   
seed capsules can appear messy in finely groomed turf. Sour gum                 
does best in wet soils and is a fine tree for swampy spots. Both                
trees are difficult to transplant; only nursery grown trees are                 
advised.                                                                        
                                                                                
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Will katsura tree do well in Virginia?                                          
                                                                                
Katsura is an Oriental tree handsome in all seasons. Hardy to -20               
degrees F, it makes an unusually fine lawn specimen. There are                  
two species: the single-stem Chinese species, Cercidiphyllum                    
japonicum, and the Japanese species, C. magnificum which usually                
forms several trunks and has wider leaves.                                      
                                                                                
Katsura trees are generally upright in form but sometimes quite                 
wide-spreading. They often grow over 100' tall in their native                  
habitat but in cultivation they range in height from 30 to 60'                  
and in width from 20-40'.                                                       
                                                                                
Broadly oval leaves, which resemble those of the redbud tree, are               
reddish-purple when they open and later become bluish-green.                    
Autumn foliage color is attractive, ranging from yellow to                      
pink and shades of red. Color may be affected by soil pH --                     
predominantly yellow in trees grown at pH of 6.5 to 7.5, but a                  
beautiful apricot-red at pH 5.5 to 6.                                           
                                                                                
Katsura is very handsome in winter, both from a distance and when               
viewed close-up where its shaggy bark, red-brown stems and                      
reddish buds are apparent. Trees have virtually no pest or                      
disease problems and can tolerate a wide range of sites. They do                
best in a moist, rich, well-drained soil in full sun. Nitrogen                  
fertilization and adequate water stimulates rapid sturdy growth                 
in young trees.                                                                 
                                                                                
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I have seen a picture of a summer bulb called spider lily                       
(Ismene) in a catalog. Can I grow this in Virginia?                             
                                                                                
Ismene is a tender bulb showing up in catalogs. Summer or                       
Peruvian daffodil are other names it is sold by. Its unique                     
spidery flowers have earned it the name of spider lily, but this                
common name can be confusing as the fall-blooming, red, pink or                 
orange Lycoris is also known by this name. The true botanical                   
name for ismene is Hymenocallis.                                                
                                                                                
There are about 25 species of Hymenocallis, some of which are                   
native to North America. In the southern U.S., native species                   
such as H. rotata are often transplanted into moist, fertile                    
sites in the garden, where they can be left in the ground over                  
winter. In the cold parts of Virginia, hymenocallis bulbs must be               
lifted before frost and stored in dry peat or sand at 60 degrees                
F or more.                                                                      
                                                                                
Planted in spring when the weather has warmed, spider lilies                    
bloom very quickly. Budded stems often shoot up a week or two                   
after planting. Clusters of 5-10 fragrant white or yellow flowers               
appear on stout leafless stems. Blooms last two weeks; succession               
planting gives a longer season of bloom. Glossy, green, strap--                 
shaped leaves spread upward as the flowers diminish.                            
                                                                                
The best known spider lilies are the white H. narcissiflora,                    
sometimes known as H. calathina. Its 18 to 24" flower stems bear                
up to 5 fragrant flowers. 'Advance' is a cultivar with larger                   
flowers; 'Sulfur Queen' is a yellow hybrid; and 'Festalis                       
Zwanenburg' is a white hybrid with twisted, elongated outer                     
petals. Some of the ismene sold in catalogues are either H.                     
latifolia or H. caribea, both native to the West Indies. These                  
species tend to be only 12" tall with eight or more funnel-shaped               
blooms.                                                                         
                                                                                
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Can a dry streambed like those seen in Oriental display gardens                 
be a part of a home landscape? How would you begin constructing                 
one?                                                                            
                                                                                
A dry streambed, an element in Oriental gardens, is not something               
many gardeners think of when designing their properties but it                  
can be a fine landscape feature in a garden of almost any size.                 
It may be purely decorative, or it may be functional, as a                      
channel for standing water or a stable gully during heavy rains.                
                                                                                
Your garden's topography, either natural or created by grading,                 
determines the kind of stream you design. Gentle slopes suggest                 
a meandering brook with perhaps some long curves widening                       
occasionally to small pools. Steeper slopes call for more of a                  
mountain stream design, narrow with falls and cascades.                         
                                                                                
By careful selection and placement of stones and rocks, you can                 
give the illusion of moving water in a dry streambed. For                       
example, using larger stones in the background and smaller ones                 
spaced more widely apart in the foreground will give the impress-               
ion that the water is moving in the viewer's direction. The same                
can be done with boulders lining the stream and with boulders                   
and rock slabs in the stream itself.                                            
                                                                                
Use clusters of small stones to balance larger ones. A strategi-                
cally placed rock that thrusts upward will add to the feeling of                
strongly moving water. Gravel used to fill in between the stones                
should thin out in "rapids" and heap up the edges of "falls".                   
                                                                                
Be sure to lay black plastic or one of the new weed mat fabrics                 
as the base of the dry bed. The feeling of the stream will                      
be lost if weed control is overlooked.                                          
                                                                                
Designing a dry streambed should not be done in haste. For best                 
results, observe streams in your region to see the types of rocks               
and how they have been shaped and oriented by the forces of the                 
water. Note plants on the banks, the occurrence of mosses and                   
lichens in shade, and the interplay of shapes, colors and                       
textures of living and non-living elements. Although you will not               
be able to use the same plants in a dry bed, you may be able to                 
emulate nature's design through wise plant choices.                             
                                                                                
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I need the help of good tree surgeon to correct and remove some                 
large trees. How would you choose a tree service?                               
                                                                                
According to the American Forestry Association, a key to good                   
tree service is finding professionals. You will have to seek out                
the best companies, since they're generally so busy that they                   
don't have time to go around seeking jobs door-to-door. Companies               
that are members of either the National Arborist Association or                 
the International Society of Arboriculture are generally reli-                  
able.                                                                           
                                                                                
For major jobs contact more than one company for evaluations and                
estimates. Steer clear of people who routinely suggest tree                     
topping (pollarding). The better alternative to topping for                     
trees needing their tops reduced is selective pruning.                          
                                                                                
Don't accept a casual statement that a company is "fully in-                    
sured". Ask for a copy of the certificate of insurance and for                  
details on workman's compensation.                                              
                                                                                
Unusually low estimates are clues that a company may be "fly-by--               
night". You should expect the following in a proposal from a                    
reputable firm:                                                                 
    Starting date.                                                              
    Details of the work to be done, explicitly noting any                       
         chemicals to be used.                                                  
    Cleanup work to be done.                                                    
    Completion date.                                                            
    Total price.                                                                
                                                                                
You should pay when billed, not in advance. Don't pay if you're                 
unhappy with the work; instead, see the company immediately                     
for corrections.                                                                
                                                                                
Try to schedule work during the winter to take advantage of lower               
rates offered by some companies during their slow season.                       
Discount rates may be available for work done for several people                
in a neighborhood, so ask your nearby friends if they've been                   
planning to have tree work done, too.                                           
                                                                                
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Do you believe that cacti can be grafted together with glue?                    
                                                                                
Grafting of cactus is easy with cyanoacrylate adhesive (Super                   
Glue* TM) and other similar products. (It isn't clear yet whether               
or not some commercial brands of cyanoacrylate adhesive are                     
better than others for cactus grafting.) A recent article in the                
Hort Science, the journal of the American Society for Horticul-                 
tural Science contained these simple instructions for glue                      
grafting cacti.                                                                 
                                                                                
Steps for gluing a cactus:                                                      
    1)Cut off the top of the rootstock and the bottom of the                    
scion (the top stock) horizontally. Don't dry off the wet cut                   
surfaces as the wetness actually accelerates the union of the                   
stock and scion.                                                                
    2)Squeeze out a small amount of adhesive onto the outer                     
ring (cortex) of the cut in the rootstock, or put the glue on                   
the scion if it is more convenient. Avoid covering the central                  
core of the cut with adhesive. To avoid glue coagulation on the                 
adhesive dispenser tip, don't touch the tip to the wet cut                      
surface.                                                                        
    3)Press the cut surfaces together for about 10 seconds                      
before leaving the graft to heal.                                               
                                                                                
*Trade Mark                                                                     
Trade and brand names are used only for the purpose of informa-                 
tion and the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service does not                    
guarantee nor warrant the standard of the product, nor does it                  
imply approval of the product to the exclusion of other, which                  
may also be suitable.                                                           
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I have seen a squash called vegetable marrow being sold at a                    
roadside stand. What is it used for? How do I know when it's                    
ripe?                                                                           
                                                                                
A "new" summer squash vegetable marrow is appearing in the                      
markets. Seedsmen are beginning to offer it to gardeners, too.                  
                                                                                
Vegetable marrow has long been popular in Europe and Canada but                 
it's hardly know in the U.S. Marrows have a delicate flavor and                 
non-string, melting texture. They're also as easy to grow and as                
prolific as any zucchini.                                                       
                                                                                
`White Bush', sometimes sold as `Long White', is the most popular               
variety. Its fruits, which should be harvested when 8" long, are                
oblong and faintly ribbed. The skin is creamy white and the flesh               
pale green. `Green Bush' and `Long Green Striped' produce larger,               
green-skinned fruits.                                                           
                                                                                
Italian vegetable marrow or cocozelle has a dark green skin with                
light green stripes. It is an excellent squash for areas with                   
very hot summers. There's also cousa, a Middle Eastern marrow                   
sometimes called the Lebanese zucchini, which produces very high                
yields of small pale green fruits on bushy plants.                              
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
November Notes 1987                                                             
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* After chrysanthemums have stopped blooming, cut stems back                    
close to the ground and dispose of stems and all dropped and                    
dried leaves and branches.                                                      
                                                                                
* Reduce peony botrytis blight and hollyhock rust by removing and               
burning all old stems this fall. This will reduce the carry-over                
of the diseases during the winter and you will have less trouble                
next year.                                                                      
                                                                                
*  Try dwarf varieties of annual flowers to use as house plants                 
this winter. Asters, calendulas, celosias, and marigolds come in                
compact, colorful cultivars which can be maintained in the home                 
if sufficient light is provided.                                                
                                                                                
* Peonies can be planted now in full sun and fertile, well-drain-               
ed soil rich in organic matter. Dig holes 18" and fill halfway                  
with a mixture of soil, compost, and a handful of 5-10-10                       
fertilizer. Add a few more inches of soil and set the tubers so                 
the buds are 1-2" below the soil surface. Backfill, firm the                    
soil, and water thoroughly. Peonies resent being moved and will                 
not bloom for several years. So, disturb only if necessary.                     
                                                                                
*  Now is a good time to clean out tangled, overgrown vines. Cut-               
ting out old and diseased wood will benefit the remaining vines.                
                                                                                
* Watch for standing water in perennial beds after long periods                 
of rain. Water which collects on the surface during winter will                 
freeze and may damage perennials. Dig shallow trenches to help                  
drain excess water away. Make a note to raise that bed in spring.               
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* If you are planning on having a live, balled and burlapped                    
Christmas tree, dig a planting hole now before the ground                       
freezes. Fill the hole with straw or hay to keep it from freez-                 
ing. Storing the soil in a garage or shed will give you workable                
soil when you need it.                                                          
                                                                                
* If there is any evidence of scale on trees and shrubs, spray                  
with dormant oil in late fall and again in early spring.                        
                                                                                
* Newly planted shade trees especially those with smooth bark are               
often injured by temperature fluctuations and strong winter                     
sunshine. Prevent sunscald by wrapping the tree trunks with 4"                  
burlap strips or simply by shading with a board against the south               
side of the trunk.                                                              
                                                                                
*  Inspect trees and shrubs for bagworm capsules and the silvery                
egg masses of tent caterpillars. Remove and destroy them to                     
reduce next year's pest population.                                             
                                                                                
*  If fall rains have been scarce, water landscape evergreens                   
thoroughly once every week or so until the ground freezes. Ever-                
greens continue to lose moisture from their foliage all winter;                 
but once the ground is frozen, they'll be unable to take up                     
enough water to replace it. Sending them into winter well watered               
reduces the potential for damaged foliage.                                      
                                                                                
*  Broadleaved and tender evergreen shrubs exposed to drying                    
winds and sun may need to be shaded on the south and southwest                  
sides to reduce moisture loss and foliage injury.                               
                                                                                
* Protect the roots of azaleas and rhododendrons with a heavy                   
mulch of organic material such as oak leaves, pine needles or                   
wood chips.                                                                     
                                                                                
*  Fertilize wisteria after leaves have fallen to maintain vigor                
without excess top growth and reduced bloom.                                    
                                                                                
* Select accent plants for your landscape that will provide                     
interesting autumn colors. Trees which turn red include dogwood,                
black gum, red maple, sweet gum, and red or scarlet oak. Shrubs                 
with red fall foliage include viburnum, winged euonymous, and                   
barberry.                                                                       
                                                                                
*  Explore bonsai - the ancient oriental art of dwarfing and                    
shaping container grown trees. Many libraries have how-to books                 
on the subject. Plants suitable for bonsai work that may be                     
treated as houseplants include pyracantha, common myrtle,                       
gardenia and small leaved azaleas. These miniature trees make                   
fascinating displays in all stages of training.                                 
                                                                                
* Broadleaf evergreens may need to be protected to prevent drying               
out during the winter. Branches of pines or other evergreens                    
thrust into the ground around the plants work well. Where boughs                
are not plentiful, a screen of wooden boards, corn stalks or                    
burlap tacked to wooden frames will serve the purpose.                          
                                                                                
* However, the best way to prevent winter damage to shrubs is to                
select hardy species when they are planted. Consult publications                
which contain information on the climatic zones to which shrubs                 
are adapted. It is better to select hardy species in the first                  
place than to attempt to protect tender plants later on.                        
                                                                                
*  Trim hollies and other evergreens such as magnolia, aucuba,                  
boxwood and pyracantha to furnish material for Thanksgiving                     
decorations.                                                                    
                                                                                
*  Renovation of overgrown deciduous shrubs is easier after leaf                
fall. Begin by removing all diseased or broken stems. Next,                     
remove 1/3 of all remaining shoots, eliminating the oldest and                  
tallest. If the bush is still too tall, cut the remaining stems                 
to a side bud or branch. Repeat the process in the second or                    
third year to complete renovation.                                              
                                                                                
*  Nurserymen and landscape architects may be less busy over the                
next few months and be more available to help you with plans for                
improving your landscape.                                                       
                                                                                
* Avoid transplanting shrubs and trees on sunny or windy days. On               
these days, the roots are exposed to too much light or drying                   
winds which puts undue stress on the plant.                                     
                                                                                
*  Where circumstances necessitate very late planting of trees                  
and shrubs remember to mulch the area heavily to keep the ground                
from freezing as early so the roots can become established.                     
                                                                                
*  A November application of fertilizer is very beneficial to the               
lawn. It promotes root development without excessive top growth.                
With a strong root system your lawn is better able to withstand                 
drought conditions. If a November application is used, you won't                
need an early spring application.                                               
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
*  If you've purchased gourds this year as decorations, plan to                 
grow them yourself next year. They make great garden projects for               
kids.                                                                           
                                                                                
*  Do not neglect to make successional sowings of vegetable crops               
such as lettuce and radishes in the greenhouse. The secret to                   
fresh food all winter is to sow small quantities frequently.                    
                                                                                
* Dead leaf stalks of perennial vegetables such as asparagus and                
rhubarb should be cut to the ground after their tops are killed                 
by frost.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Dig up a vigorous rhubarb crown now if you are planning on                    
forcing stalks later this winter.                                               
                                                                                
*  Be sure not to store apples or pears with vegetables. The                    
fruits give off ethylene gas which speeds up the breakdown of                   
vegetables and will cause them to develop off-flavors.                          
                                                                                
Fruits/Nuts                                                                     
                                                                                
* After the ground freezes, mulch strawberries with 2 -5 inches                 
of straw or leaves to prevent heaving caused by thawing and                     
freezing of the ground. Small branches may be used to keep mulch                
in place.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Remove grass and weeds from trunks of fruit trees and grapes to               
prevent damage by mice and rodents. Leave a bare circle six                     
inches out from the tree trunk when spreading mulch to keep mice                
from feeding on the bark. A collar or fence of poultry wire or a                
commercial tree guard approximately 18" high will deter rodents                 
and rabbits.                                                                    
                                                                                
*  Break the crust on the surface of any sawdust mulch you have                 
around blueberries, shrubs and perennials to improve the absorp-                
tion of water from fall rains.                                                  
                                                                                
*  Dwarf fruit trees have a double purpose in furnishing flowers                
in the spring, as well as fruit in the fall. They are particular-               
ly suited to small lots. Early November is a good time to plant                 
most fruit trees. Apply a mulch to the soil afterwards.                         
                                                                                
*  Remove all mummified fruit from fruit trees and grape vines,                 
rake up and destroy those on the ground. Also, rake and burn                    
apple and cherry leaves. Good sanitation practices reduce                       
reinfestation of insects and diseases the following season.                     
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
*  Be sure to close shades at night to insulate window plants                   
from cold outdoor temperatures.                                                 
                                                                                
*  Remember cactus go dormant during the winter so be sure to                   
keep them cool (around 50 degrees F) and withhold water until                   
they show signs of growth in spring.                                            
                                                                                
*  Insufficient light will cause a jade plant to lose most of its               
old, thick leaves and grow thin, new ones on spindly stems. While               
it will survive low light, it needs as much direct sunlight as                  
possible to look its best.                                                      
                                                                                
*  African violets like a day temperature of 70 degrees F and a                 
night temoerature of 65 degrees F. They may die if the air                      
temperature dips below 55 degrees F. African violets do well                    
under flourescent lights 12-14 hours a day; lights should be 8-12               
inches from the plant.                                                          
                                                                                
*  For an exotic houseplant, try growing a mango tree. Deep                     
within the flesh of the mango fruit there is a large hairy husk                 
and within this is the seed. Scrape the fruit from the husk and                 
allow it to dry overnight. The next day nick the husk and gently                
pry it open with a dull knife. The seed is very large and is best               
started in a plastic bag filled with damp sphagnum moss. It will                
germinate in 2-3 weeks and will become a slow growing leathery-                 
leaved tree.                                                                    
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
*  Rinse pesticide spray equipment after each use and before                    
winter storage. Add water and several drops of detergent to fill                
the spray tank 1/10th full. Shake the tank and spray the water in               
a save location. Caution: rinsing will not remove herbicides from               
sprayers. A seperate sprayer must be used to apply herbicides to                
prevent the residue from killing plants when other pesticides are               
applied.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Water pipes and outdoor faucets in the garden or patio should                 
be drained before cold weather to prevent damage by freezing.                   
                                                                                
*Check guy wires around newly planted trees to be sure they will                
not be damaged by windy weather during the fall and winter.                     
                                                                                
*  Fluorescent lighting makes a collection of African violets                   
thrive where there is little or no light. To create your own                    
setup use two fluorescent tubes - one cool blue and one warm red                
  with a reflector to focus the light on the plants. Hang the                   
lights 12-18 in. above most plants. The tubes give off less light               
then the center; arrange plants accordingly.                                    
                                                                                
*  The watt rating of a light bulb indicates the electric power                 
it consumes, not the light intensity it generates. A flourescent                
tube produces more lumens (a somewhat arbitrary measure of                      
visible light emitted) than an incandescent bulb of the same                    
wattage.                                                                        
                                                                                
*  As soon as seed flats are emptied of fall transplants, wash                  
and sterilize them before storage so that you may use them immed-               
iately when you need them in spring.                                            
                                                                                
* Caulk and plug any entrances around the home used by wasps this               
past summer.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Power tools should be cleaned of all plant material and dirt.                 
Replace worn spark plugs, oil all necessary parts, and sharpen                  
blades. Store all tools in their proper place indoors, never                    
outdoors where they will rust over the winter.                                  
                                                                                
* Drain concrete pools before freezing weather and place a few                  
boards or logs on the pool bottom to absorb the expansion of                    
freezing water that might accumulate.                                           
                                                                                
* Before storing your stakes and trellises, be sure they are                    
thoroughly cleaned of remnants of plant materials and dirt. Hose                
down all particularly dirty places. Put stakes in bundles and                   
stack them so they won't get lost over the winter. Roll up                      
trellises and tie them securely.                                                
                                                                                
* Clean, oil, and mend all hand tools. Repaint handles and                      
identification marks that have faded over the summer. Sharpen all               
blades and remove any rust.                                                     
                                                                                
Misc.                                                                           
                                                                                
*  Weave garlic, onions or dried chilies together to create                     
holiday wreaths with a gourmet twist.                                           
                                                                                
*  Keep the compost heap moist to aid in the decay process. Turn                
the pile to mix in all late fall additions. Empty any fertilizer                
residues from open bags you are discarding onto the pile and mix.               
                                                                                
* Earthworms must remain below frost line to survive. Mulch piled               
on top of soil raises the frost line. If you want earthworms to                 
help break down organice matter in the upper soil layers, mulch                 
deeply. If you need the subsoil aerated, leave the surface mulch                
thin; the worms will burrow downward to stay warm.                              
                                                                                
* When time or weather conditions prohibit plowing or cover                     
cropping, you may wish to let your garden lie under a mulch of                  
compost, plant wastes, or leaves all winter to be plowed or                     
tilled under in the spring. However, if you want to plant early                 
the next spring, a heavy mulch may keep the soil cold long enough               
to delay planting. Chop organic matter fine enough that it will                 
break down over winter.                                                         
                                                                                
*  Store liquid pesticides where temperatures will not fall below               
40 degrees F. Too low a temperature may result in a breakdown of                
the chemical. If the liquid should freeze, there is the  danger                 
of the glass container breaking and leaking the chemical in the                 
storage area.                                                                   
                                                                                
*  Store pesticides in a frost-free location away from food and                 
out of the reach of children. If a pesticide is in a paper                      
container, put the whole package in a plastic container and seal                
it. Be sure that all bottles and cans are tightly sealed and                    
well-labeled.                                                                   
                                                                                
*  Apply manure as a soil conditioner now and till it                           
under. Manure can be a source of weed seed. Composting before                   
application can reduce the number of viable seeds.                              
                                                                                
*  Rough plow or spade garden plots containing heavy, clay                      
soil. Add organic matter and lime if indicated by a soil test. -                
Leave the soil rough -- winter's thawing and freezing will break                
up the clods and kill some of the insects and weeds overwintering               
in the soil. A rough soil surface also catches more moisture and                
reduces erosion.                                                                
                                                                                
*  Set up an aquarium to display beautiful waterplants and fish.                
Search pet shops for interesting varieties or try introducing                   
water loving houseplants such as Nephthitus. For healthier plants               
and possible flower production allow them to grow out of the                    
water and trail over the sides of the aquarium.                                 
                                                                                
*  Order seed catalogs now for garden planning in January. For                  
excitement consider companies that specialize in old and rare                   
varieties or wildflowers.                                                       
                                                                                
*  The gypsy moth is in the egg stage from now until April. Look                
for tan, fuzzy patches that look like a piece of camel hair coat                
1" long and 1/2" wide attached to trees, rocks, fences, lawn                    
furniture, wood piles and buildings. If you find any, scrape them               
off and kill them in a jar of alcohol or bleach. To confirm                     
identification of the gypsy moth, bring samples of the egg mass                 
to your local extension service.                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases November 1987                                                    
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, working with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The               
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent                  
use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other                         
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
Severe Tree Topping Not Recommended                   44 lines                  
Horticulture Is Therapy                               49 lines                  
Ivy as Houseplants                                    64 lines                  
Pruning Vines                                         83 lines                  
Sweet Potatoes - A Complete Nutritious Food           53 lines                  
Common Insects of Boxwood                             28 linesSevere Tree Toppi
                                                                                
Homeowners often get the urge to top or dehorn yard trees. This                 
practice does not improve the quality or function of shade trees                
and often causes serious permanent damage. Power line maintenance               
personnel sometimes top or extensively trim trees under or near                 
power lines. They have a legal right to do so since the lines                   
must be protected. To avoid this problem, always plant trees away               
from power lines or choose small species that will not reach the                
lines.                                                                          
                                                                                
In topping, large branches are cut back to stubs or all the way                 
back to the trunk. The large wounds take a long time to heal and                
encourage attack by diseases and insects. Severe topping of a                   
large tree may kill it.                                                         
                                                                                
Topping causes a proliferation of buds at the point where the                   
branch was cut. Shoots then rise from these buds, forming a dense               
bush at the end of the branch. This dense growth is weakly                      
attached and is subject to easy breakage by wind storms. The                    
growth does not appear natural, nor is it aesthetically pleasing.               
                                                                                
This new vigorous growth strains the tree's root system, since                  
food reserves are used to support it. Thus, the tree's root                     
system is weakened and its overall vigor is reduced, making the                 
tree more susceptible to attack from insects, diseases and                      
adverse environmental conditions. Sunscald can occur early in the               
season because the inner branches are exposed to the direct rays                
of the sun. Severely limiting the crown development can reduce                  
food manufacturing in the leaves.                                               
                                                                                
Topping reduces a tree's size and life expectancy, therefore                    
decreasing its value in the landscape. Knowledgeable appraisers                 
severely reduce the value of a topped or dehorned tree.                         
                                                                                
Most mature shade trees require no pruning. However, when                       
necessary, proper pruning involves removing unwanted or damaged                 
branches from the tree crown with a minimum of large branches                   
being cut. This practice is not nearly as noticeable as topping,                
retains the crown shape, and provides good air movement and light               
penetration.                                                                    
                                                                                
Trees are a long-term investment and proper pruning and care will               
help protect that investment.Horticulture Is Therapy                           
                                                                                
Any enthusiastic gardener knows that gardening is good                          
preventative therapy. A few minutes in the garden and the worries               
of the day begin to melt away. It is possible to work off anger                 
and frustration in the garden with a sharp hoe or a pair of                     
pruner and improve the plants at the same time.                                 
                                                                                
However, most gardeners are not aware that working with plants is               
now being used as a form of treatment for many physical and                     
mental problems. Horticultural therapy as a recognized profession               
is relatively new. Only in the last few years has it been                       
posssible for someone to receive university training to prepare                 
for a career in this field.                                                     
                                                                                
At the turn of the century, before professionals recognized the                 
beneficial change that occurred in their patients from working                  
with plants, gardening was looked on as mere diversion or perhaps               
a job to help pay the expenses of indigent patients. Today                      
horticulture is part of the prescribed treatment plan in                        
psychiatric hospitals, veterans hospitals, rehabilitation                       
centers,and similar facilities.                                                 
                                                                                
Staff at nursing homes find that plants give residents an added                 
interest in the future as they anticipate the first ripe tomatoes               
or await the opening of a flower. When the residents have                       
complete responsibility for the plants there is a special pride                 
and a sense of nuturing that is too often missing in these                      
settings.                                                                       
                                                                                
Prison programs have found that prisoners who go through their                  
horticulture program generally have a better record of                          
rehabilitation than those that have been in other program                       
areas. Many prisons in Virginia have gardens, farms or                          
greenhouses.                                                                    
                                                                                
One of the areas in which horticulture has been most effective in               
changing the lives of handicapped individuals is in the                         
vocational training of mentally retarded individuals. Throughout                
the country there are numerous vocational schools and training                  
centers that prepare their graduates for jobs in the horticulture               
industry. Grounds maintenance and indoor plant maintenance are                  
two of the major areas of training. Such greenhouse and nursery                 
skills as transplanting and watering are also marketable.                       
                                                                                
Next time you are working the garden and the heavy frown you                    
brought home from the office disappears, think about the small                  
ways in which horticulture changes your life and the major way it               
is changing the life of many others.                                            
                                                                                
Ivy as House Plants                                                            
                                                                                
Many types of ivy can be used as house plants. They are grown                   
primarily for their attractive foliage. As potted plants they can               
be trained in several forms such as a compact mound, on a small                 
trellis or around a window, or trailing over the edge of an                     
elevated container.                                                             
                                                                                
Although ivy will thrive under subdued light conditions which are               
not suitable for flowering plants, some exposure to sun is                      
necessary. Locate ivy plants in a north or east window. Avoid                   
direct, hot sun. Fluorescent lights can be used to stimulate                    
growth in locations where plants do not receive direct sunlight.                
                                                                                
The air should be as fresh and humid as possible. The humidity                  
around the plants can be increased by placing the pots on crushed               
stones in a tray containing water. The pots should not be in the                
water because the soil would remain saturated and result in poor                
growth and possible stem rot.                                                   
                                                                                
Ivy should receive enough water to maintain moderate but not                    
excessive moisture in the soil. Provide good drainage to reduce                 
the possibility of overwatering.                                                
                                                                                
Several of the outdoor ivies can be used as house plants. These                 
plants make good growth even in the relatively dry atmosphere of                
the average home. English Ivy, (Hedera helix), is the most common               
species having rather large, glossy green leaves. The rampant                   
growth remains attractive during all seasons of the year. The                   
cultivar named 'Hahn's Self-branching' produces many short side                 
branches and is one of the best as a house plant.                               
                                                                                
Variegated forms of ivy with green and white leaves are popular                 
as accent plants. They grow less vigorously than the solid green                
types, and seem somewhat more susceptible to disease and insects.               
'Williamsiana' variegated ivy is a good variety.                                
                                                                                
The 'Albany' ivy is a bushy type which does not climb or trail,                 
but forms a dense, broad plant with leaves like small English                   
Ivy. It is somewhat susceptible to black spot.                                  
                                                                                
In addition, there are tropical plants also known as ivy which do               
well as houseplants.                                                            
                                                                                
Grape Ivy, (Cissus rhombifolia), is an easy to care for plant                   
with rich green, glossy leaves. It prefers bright indirect light                
and night temperatures in the 50's.                                             
                                                                                
Kangaroo Vine Ivy, (Cissus antarctica), has leathery, serrated,                 
four-inch leaves on wiry red stems. It is easily propogated by                  
cuttings and is replacing the Grape Ivy in popularity in some                   
localities.                                                                     
                                                                                
Devil's Ivy or Pothos, (Epipremnum aureum), is a tender climbing                
plant similar to philodendron but with oval lance-shaped green                  
leaves spotted with yellow. Several varieties are available.                    
                                                                                
German Ivy, (Senecio mikanioides), is a tender twining house                    
plant with clear green ivy-like leaves which are two to four                    
inches long. However, the flowers have a very unpleasant odor.                  
                                                                                
Swedish Ivy, (Plectranthus australis), is a fast growing plant                  
with irregularly rounded leaves. They prefer a constantly moist                 
soil and bright indirect light.                                                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Pruning Vines                                                                  
                                                                                
The main purpose of pruning vines is to limit growth, remove dead               
wood, and thin stems and branches. Pruning also helps promote new               
growth and improve flowering. Some fast growing vines can be                    
severly cut back to induce growth close to the ground, others                   
require periodic severe pruning or complete cut-back at or near                 
the ground level. Severe pruning is not harmful if done in the                  
spring before new growth starts.                                                
                                                                                
The growth and development of vines are influenced by the type of               
support they have. It is important to know how a vine climbs in                 
order to provide the best support and increase ease of                          
maintenance.                                                                    
                                                                                
One group of vines climbs by attachment to the wall or support                  
with rootlike hold fasts or modified tendrils with circular                     
discs. A second group climbs by winding tendrils around a wire                  
support or trellis, others climb by twining the vine itself                     
around the support.                                                             
                                                                                
The general principles of pruning ornamental shrubs also apply to               
vines. Always prune back to a lateral branch, twig, or bud and do               
not leave a stub. Prune the dead, weak and thin wood back to                    
healthy wood. Annual thinning of the old and weak stems                         
encourages new growth. Thin crowded stems by cutting them to the                
ground. Some vines grow so thick and fast that much pruning is                  
necessary. Weak or slow growing vines require little pruning.                   
                                                                                
Some common vines make rapid vertical growth with few lateral                   
branches except near the top. These vines can be pinched and tied               
or leaders can be pruned back in the growing season to develop                  
more horizontal growing branches to cover the desired areas                     
quicker. Then vertical growth can be allowed to develop where                   
needed. Horizontal branches tend to grow slower and produce more                
leaves and flowers than vertical branches.                                      
                                                                                
The best time to prune most vines is the dormant season before                  
new growth begins. Early spring flowering vines should be pruned                
after they flower, since new growth that develops after pruning                 
produces buds for the next year. Vines that flower on growth made               
in the current year, as do many of the hybrid clematis, can be                  
pruned in early spring a few feet to a few inches from the                      
ground.                                                                         
                                                                                
Each individual must use his own imagination and sense of beauty                
to train vines for specific design or landscape need. Some                      
pruning requirements of specific plants follow:                                 
                                                                                
Boston Ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata): Prune branches to                     
control spreading.                                                              
                                                                                
Clematis: Determine if the vine blooms on the previous year or                  
current year wood according to the cultivar type. Prune after                   
bloom for early spring flowering types and before new growth                    
begins for later flowering types. Flowers are produced on long                  
stems that grow during that season.                                             
                                                                                
Wintercreeper (Euonymus radicans): A useful vine and ground                     
cover. Prune the branches back to control spreading or stems                    
growing out from a support.                                                     
                                                                                
There are a number of rampant growing vines available for special               
use in the landscape. Select cultivars that are easier to control               
but continue to monitor their growth, pruning to maintain them                  
within bounds.                                                                  
                                                                                
Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia durior): A rapid grower, often used               
to cover porches, cut the top back to control size and induce                   
branching. Thin out older stems to promote new growth.                          
                                                                                
Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica): A serious woodland weed in the                 
Mid-Atlantic region must be kept under control or other species                 
grown.                                                                          
                                                                                
Trumpet Creeper (Campsis radicans): Each year cut stems back                    
three to four buds to promote new growth. Cut tops back to                      
encourage the vine to branch. C. radicans 'Flava,'is a large                    
blooming cultivar.                                                              
                                                                                
Wisteria: Prune back stems to three or four buds each year to                   
promote new growth and flowers. The tops can be cut back to                     
induce branching.                                                               
                                                                                
Sweet Potatoes - A Complete Nutritious Food                                    
                                                                                
Horticulture crops supply many of our favorite foods. Among these               
are sweet potatoes which are ideal for providing variety during                 
the fall and winter seasons.                                                    
                                                                                
The sweet potato is a member of the morning glory family,                       
(Ipomoea), and forms vines along the ground. It rarely produces                 
flowers, except in extreme southern regions which have a long                   
growing season. The edible sweet potato is a swollen or tuberous                
root. It is quite different from a white potato which is a                      
enlarged underground stem called a tuber.                                       
                                                                                
Unlike the white potato which is started from pieces of the                     
tuber, propagation by means of transplants or slips is the common               
way to start sweet potatoes. Roots selected for the growing of                  
slips are placed in a heated bed and covered with a layer of                    
sand. Small plants arise from the sprouting nodes or eyes of the                
roots in about six weeks. The plants can be harvested several                   
times from these same roots and planted out for successive crop                 
plantings. Plant sweet potatoes on hills or mounds in a                         
relatively sandy soil. High amounts of fertilizer are not                       
reccommended since this tends to induce vegetative growth instead               
of root development.                                                            
                                                                                
Sweet potatoes originated in the tropics, probably in Mexico or                 
South America. Columbus mentioned this plant in the records of                  
his fourth voyage. It is believed he also observed it on earlier                
expeditions to the West Indies. Because of its tropical origin,                 
the sweet potato will thrive only in a warm climate with an                     
average temperature above 70 degrees F. during July and August.                 
The growing season must have at least four frost-free months.                   
Large quantities are grown in southeastern Virginia and on the                  
Eastern Shore.                                                                  
                                                                                
The sweet potato is one of the most completely nutritious foods                 
available. It was the principal item in the diet of the early                   
settlers in the southern states. Some South Sea Islanders live                  
almost exclusively on sweet potatoes.                                           
                                                                                
The modern sweet potato industry of the U.S. was started from the               
variety Mameya in 1908. It seems to have been smuggled into this                
country illegally from Puerto Rico by an unknown agricultural                   
worker. This variety was known as a yellow yam in Puerto Rico.                  
                                                                                
The sweet, moist, soft Puerto Rico types are more desirable than                
the dry types. Moist sweet potatoes are often called yams, but                  
this is incorrect. The true yam is an entirely different plant                  
which is cultivated as food for people and livestock.                           
                                                                                
Sweet potatoes are not only a fine nutritious food, they have                   
delicious flavor. This versatile vegetable may be boiled, baked,                
browned, fried or candied.                                                      
                                                                                
Common Insects of Boxwood                                                       
                                                                                
Boxwood mite, one of the spider mites, attacks both American and                
European boxwood varieties. Leaves of infested plants appear to                 
be pin-pricked or scratched with tiny white or yellow marks. The                
mites themselves are difficult to find even under a dissecting                  
microscope. Egg shells and cast skins can be important clues but                
they are not as apparent as they are with other spider mite                     
species.                                                                        
                                                                                
The adult boxwood leafminer is a small, delicate fly. Damage is                 
caused by its' larvae which feed between the upper and lower                    
layers of leaves. Two to six larvae typically occur in a single                 
leaf. Infested leaves appear blistered on the underside and are                 
often discolored. Boxwood leafminer larvae overwinter within the                
tunnels in the leaves. With a little practice, they are easily                  
found by breaking open a blistered leaf with the thumbnail. Adult               
flies are evident around boxwoods in late April and early May.                  
                                                                                
Boxwood psyllid is a member of a family of insects closely                      
related to aphids. Adults are active during July and early                      
August, but they are rarely seen. Eggs are laid between bud                     
scales and nymphs emerge from them in mid-to late April. Nymphs                 
soon cover themselves with white, cotton-like secretions. Their                 
feeding on tender new growth causes leaves to cup and stunts the                
growth of shoots.                                                               
                                                                                
Agent Note: Refer to your PMG for control recommendations.                      
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
November 1987 Question Box                                                      
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley and Kimberly Mathias,                 
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
Caladiums Indoors						34 lines                                                 
Fruit Trees Indoors						26 lines                                               
Fall Sown Annuals						 7 lines                                                 
Reliable Indoor Foliage Plants			42 lines                                       
Sheetrock in the Garden					20 lines                                            
Fertilizing Home Fruit Trees				15 lines                                        
Substituting Fertilizers					27 lines                                           
Oak Apple Gall							13 lines                                                   
Golden Locust Tree						17 lines                                                
Winter Sweet Shrub						24 lines                                                
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
I have always considered caladiums as outdoor plants but recently               
saw them for sale as interior pot plants.  How useful are they                  
this way?  Can I start them from bulbs?                                         
                                                                                
No matter what exposure you have, indoors or out, a caladium will               
be successful.     Caladiums have the unique ability of bringing                
color to areas of sun or deep shade in the garden, but can also                 
thrive in bright indirect light of the home or office. Outdoor                  
colors are strongest when grown in shade.  They become bleached                 
in full sun.                                                                    
                                                                                
Caladiums can be started at anytime of year and will last from                  
seven to eight months. It is usually best to start the tubers at                
6 month intervals to insure that the color of mature plants can                 
be maintained year round. To start individual bulbs, place them 1               
inch deep in a 6 inch pot filled with a commercial potting mix.                 
An efficient way of starting a large group of tubers is to place                
them closely in a shallow container from which they will be                     
transplanted to permanent locations in the border.  Many                        
varieties require heat to break tuber dormancy prior to planting                
and growing.  Warmth is essential to leaf development; therefore,               
temperatures around 70 degrees should be maintained in the early                
growth stages. Once the tubers are up, temperatures may range                   
from the low 60's at night to the mid 80's during the day.                      
                                                                                
Typically, caladium foliage begins to wither after 6-8 months.                  
At this time, withhold watering and allow the foliage to die                    
completely. Tubers can then be dug and the soil removed from them               
for storing. Place uprooted bulbs in dry peat moss at 55 to 60                  
degrees for four to five month rest, then start them again as                   
before.                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tubers are generally not available year round and mail order                    
shipping in winter is risky since the tubers are very cold                      
sensitive.  Therefore plan ahead and order your tubers for winter               
use in the fall prior to cold weather.                                          
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
What kinds of fruit trees can I grow indoors?                                   
                                                                                
Calamondins, lemons, limes, kumquats, and pomegranates are good                 
choices for indoor gardening and will often bear successions of                 
perfumed flowers and fruit.  Citrus and other fruit trees should                
be given sunny southern or eastern exposure and their soil kept                 
evenly moist. A well-balanced fertilizer should be applied every                
four to six weeks. Pomegranates, calamondins, and kumquats are                  
the easiest species to grow.                                                    
                                                                                
Calamondins (X Citrofortunella mitis).  Dark green, dense                       
leathery leaves on dwarf trees. White, sweetly perfumed blossoms.               
Sour, deep orange-yellow fruits 1 to 2 inches in diameter.                      
Fruiting season late fall through early summer; occasionally,                   
trees are everbearing. Fruits often used for making marmalade.                  
Excellent pot plant.                                                            
                                                                                
Dwarf pomegranate (Punica granatum nana). Bright green, delicate                
narrow leaves. Flowers scarlet, trumpet shaped. Continuous crops                
of small, orange-red fruits with juicy, edible pulp; slightly                   
more sour than commercial pomegranates. Very easy culture.                      
                                                                                
Nagami kumquat (Fortunella margarita). Small bushy tree. Long,                  
pointed shiny, dark-green leaves. Fragrant white flowers.                       
Prolific yields of sweet fruit, good for preserves or eating                    
fresh. Fruiting season early fall through winter, often longer.                 
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
Is it true that seeds of some annuals can be sown in the garden                 
now?                                                                            
                                                                                
Cosmos, calliopsis, snapdragon, portulaca, calendula and poppy                  
are some annual seeds which can be sown in the garden this month.               
These hardy seeds will germinate in early spring. But don't                     
forget where you put them!                                                      
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
I know nothing about plants but would like to have some reliable                
plants for my light conditions indoors.  Can you tell me about                  
plants that I can't kill?                                                       
                                                                                
Some people are literally `in the dark' when it comes to plants.                
If you enjoy the greenery in your home, but have limited                        
sunlight, you might consider growing the following foliage or                   
flowering plants:                                                               
                                                                                
Cast Iron Plant, (Aspidistra elatior) gets its name from its                    
ability to withstand abuse.  However, its long, leathery leaves                 
will be more attractive with good care. Requires moderate                       
temperatures (70 Degrees F by day 50 to 55 degrees at night).                   
Keep soil moderately moist, but not wet, at all times.                          
                                                                                
Chinese Evergreen, (Aglaonema commutatum).  The leaves have                     
beautiful silver markings on a dark green background. Although                  
slow growing it is one of the most tolerant plants of adverse                   
conditions. All Aglaonema species prefer warm temperatures (80 to               
85 degrees F by day and 62 to 65 at night) and moderately moist                 
soil. They will, however, grow in moderately dry soils.                         
                                                                                
Victoria Table Fern or Silver Leaf Table Fern, (Pteris                          
ensiformis), has irregular forking, silver fronds with wavy green               
margins. This dwarf is often used in terrariums or in hanging                   
baskets. It requires moderate to warm temperatures and moderately               
moist soils.                                                                    
                                                                                
Flamingo Flower, (Anthurium x ferrierense).  The main attraction                
is its colorful spathe (flower bract or sheath). The plant will                 
bloom during any season, but more often from February to July.                  
Other Anthruium species are available with red, white or pink                   
spathes. Requires warm temperature and soils should be kept very                
moist, except in winter when soil should be kept moderately                     
moist.                                                                          
                                                                                
Peace Lily (Spathiphyllum `Clevelandii'),  likes soil with high                 
organic content. Its leaves are sent out from the base of the                   
plant and its spathes or `flowers' resemble a flattened Calla                   
Lily. Normally blooming in the summer and fall, the Peace Lily                  
makes an excellent potted plant for the home. It requires warm                  
temperatures and soil should be very moist at all times.                        
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
Can I use sheetrock in my garden instead of limestone? I have a                 
large free supply.                                                              
                                                                                
The gypsum contained within sheetrock is safe to use; the                       
wallboard exterior is normal pressboard paper and has no toxic                  
components. For sheetrock to react well with the soil, it should                
first be ground or pulverized.                                                  
                                                                                
However, gypsum is not considered a liming material.  It does not               
cause a change in pH when added to the soil.  Gypsum is not any                 
more effective in Virginia for improving the friability of the                  
soil than regular limestone. Out in the Far West on certain                     
alkaline soils where limestone is not needed to neutralize soil                 
acidity, the calcium from gypsum is used to replace sodium in the               
soil which makes those soils more friable. The same is not true,                
however, for Virginia soils.                                                    
                                                                                
The only beneficial use for gypsum in Virginia is to supply                     
Calcium ions for plants growth where upward shift in pH is                      
undesirable as in potatoes, peanuts or certain ornamentals.                     
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
My apple and peach trees growing on the lawn look anemic.  The                  
foilage is yellow and slightly scorched around the edges. Do they               
need to be fertilized?  I have never performed the task, assuming               
it was unnecessary.                                                             
                                                                                
Fruit trees should be fertilized each year.  Every spring before                
growth starts or on heavy soils in the fall after leaf drop,                    
apply 1/4 lbs. sodium nitrate (16% actual nitrogen). After the                  
tree begins to bear increase the rate to 1/4 lbs. for each year                 
of the tree's age. For mature trees the rate should be about 5                  
lbs. but this amount can vary depending upon tree vigor.  The                   
growth rate for a mature apple tree should be 8-10 inches while                 
mature peach trees should grow 10-15 inches a year.  Young peach                
trees should have 20-30 inches of growth during the first growing               
season, young apple trees 16-20 inches.                                         
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
I cannot always find the fertilizer recommended in articles or                  
books. Can I substitute another fertilizer?                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
Often times it is necessary to substitute other kinds of                        
fertilizer when the recommended kind is not available or when                   
tests indicate a deficiency of other nutrients in the soil.                     
When substitutions are made, be sure to adjust the amount of                    
material to supply the quantity of actual nitrogen recommended.                 
For example, to determine the amount of a substitute fertilizer                 
needed to give the recommended amount of actual nitrogen provided               
by sodium nitrate:                                                              
                                                                                
      1. Multiply the amount of sodium nitrate recommended by the               
percent nitrogen in sodium nitrate (16% or 0.16).  This gives the               
amount of actual nitrogen recommended.                                          
                                                                                
      2. Divide the amount of actual nitrogen recommended, as                   
determined in step one, by the percent nitrogen in the new                      
source.  This gives the amount of the new source needed.                        
                                                                                
      3. Example:                                                               
		Substitute 33% ammonium nitrate for 8 oz. of 16% sodium                       
		nitrate                                                                       
                                                                                
		(8oz.) X (0.16) = 1.28 oz. actual nitrogen in sodium                          
							  nitrate                                                                
          (1.28 oz.) / (0.33) = 3.9 oz. of ammonium nitrate                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
We have a spectacular oak tree in our yard that had an                          
infestation of oak galls last year. The gall was a pale                         
parchment-like ball, slightly smaller than a golf ball, and                     
hollow inside. If it happens again this year, what damage can it                
do to the tree and is there any way to prevent it?                              
                                                                                
The oak apple gall which you have described is caused by the                    
cynipid wasp.  The immature insect is a legless white larva, the                
adult a small black wasp.  This gall, as is true with most other                
galls, causes little or no damage to the tree, although  heavy                  
infestation may affect its appearance.  The only way to prevent                 
galls is to eliminate the insects that cause them.  This is a                   
difficult task; there are no known chemical methods of control                  
for the oak apple gall.                                                         
                                                                                
__________________	                                                             
                                                                                
Nearly two years ago I planted a golden locust tree.  Today it is               
about 12 feet tall.  It has beautiful golden leaves, but the                    
trunk looks much to spindly. How can I prune this tree to keep it               
growing tall yet still induce stronger and larger trunk growth?                 
                                                                                
The problem with the golden locust as well as other plants with                 
mostly yellow or white leaves is that the leaves do not have very               
much chlorophyll and that means low carbohydrate or food                        
production.                                                                     
                                                                                
Carbohydrates produced in the leaves are the main source for                    
energy for new growth in the trunk, roots, and limbs.  A dark                   
green leaf can produce more food than a yellow one because they                 
contain considerably larger amounts of chlorophyll.                             
                                                                                
Therefore to promote new growth of the tree and to help it become               
more sturdy, do not prune it at all. When a healthy leaf is                     
removed a food producer is lost.                                                
                                                                                
__________________                                                              
                                                                                
Winter sweet (Chimonanthus praecox) upon first glance appears to                
be just an average shrub-not unlike all the others.  Unless, of                 
course, the first glance is during the winter.                                  
                                                                                
In winter this plant produces fragrant blossoms on short stalks,                
projecting from the previous seasons growth.  The flowers usually               
appear by late December or early January.  In milder climates                   
they may come out in November, and in colder climates as late as                
March.  It is possible that during a very severe winter flowers                 
may not appear at all.  The limit of hardiness is Zone 7. In                    
sheltered locations winter sweet can be hardy through out                       
Virginia.  The shrub may reach eight or nine feet in height and                 
therefore can be easily planted in the home landscape.                          
                                                                                
The fragrance is what makes winter sweet a treasure. It is both                 
pleasing and powerful.  A branch of only three or four blossoms                 
is enough to perfume an entire room. However, only a mature shrub               
should be cut since winter sweet is fairly slow growing and takes               
many years to produce flowers.  Severe pruning is never needed                  
and one should be reluctant to prune at all.                                    
                                                                                
Winter sweet may be planted next to a south or west facing wall                 
in order to provide good winter protection. It is also said to                  
thrive in chalky soils, although it also does well in acid soil                 
rich in humus.  Good drainage is important.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
October Notes                                                                   
                                                                                
* If the weather stays dry enough before the ground freezes,                    
you can plow. Fall plowing allows earlier planting in the spring                
and is especially good for heavy soils since they are exposed                   
to the freezing and thawing action of winter. This will help                    
improve your soil's structure.                                                  
                                                                                
* Remove any diseased or insect-infested plant material from                    
your garden; it may harbor overwintering stages of disease and                  
insect pests. If you leave this plant material in your garden,                  
you are leaving diseases and insects which will begin to reprod-                
uce again next spring and add to next year's pest problem.                      
                                                                                
* The bitter, golf-ball sized fruits of the trifoliate orange                   
(Poncirus trifoliate) may have some uses after all. Sections                    
of the fruit in hot tea have been reported as tastier than lemon                
and the entire fruit make an attractive, miniature pomander                     
when filled with cloves and covered with spices.                                
                                                                                
* Pumpkins which are free from insects, disease or damage will                  
keep 2-3 months if stored at 50-55 degrees F with a relative                    
humidity of 70-75%.                                                             
                                                                                
* Use coldframes to overwinter cuttings of trees and shrubs                     
and perennial seedlings started in mid to late summer. Bulbs                    
prepared for forcing can also be stored in coldframes until                     
time to take indoors.                                                           
                                                                                
* Fertilize trees and shrubs that have shown signs of weak growth               
after they are dormant but before soil temperature drops below                  
45 degrees F.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Water trees and shrubs well to increase winter hardiness.                     
                                                                                
* Move and divide crowded perennials. Arrange for swaps with                    
friends and neighbors.                                                          
                                                                                
* Bring in cannas, dahlias, and gladiolas if not hardy in your                  
area after the tops are hurt by frost. Dry, clean, and store                    
in peat moss or vermiculite in a cool location free from frost.                 
                                                                                
* Treat magnolia and beech leaves for dried flower arrangements                 
in a mixture of 1/3 glycerine, 2/3 warm water. Crush stems and                  
submerge 3 weeks to produce a rich, glossy brown foliage.                       
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from lawn to reduce lawn problems. Compost or                   
save for next year's mulch.                                                     
                                                                                
* Clean up home orchard and small fruit plantings. Sanitation                   
is essential for good maintenance. Dried fruits or "mummies"                    
carry disease organisms through the winter to attack next year's                
crop.                                                                           
                                                                                
* If you have a sunny area to naturalize with small flowering                   
annuals, sow seeds of sweet alyssum or johnny-jump-ups. They                    
will come up this fall or early spring and bloom extra early                    
next spring. Both are very hardy and self-seed readily to                       
maintain the natural area.                                                      
                                                                                
* In deciding on new trees or shrubs to plant around your home,                 
remember to select varieties with a mature height to fit the                    
desired location. This will greatly reduce pruning and other                    
maintenance in the future.                                                      
                                                                                
* House plants will slow down growth as the days get shorter                    
and light intensity is reduced. This means that they will need                  
less frequent watering and fertilizing until next spring. Too                   
much of either in the winter months can cause weak growth.                      
                                                                                
* Make a note of plants displaying outstanding fall colors                      
as you drive along city streets and the surrounding countryside.                
You may wish to incorporate some of them into your own landscape.               
Fall color can often be enjoyed for much longer than the plant's                
flowers in the spring. For this reason, it may be more desirable                
when selecting trees and shrubs for landscape use to plan                       
greater emphasis on their fall features.                                        
                                                                                
* A great deal of winter losses is the result of plants being                   
allowed to become dry during this season.  This is especially                   
true of evergreens because they hold their leaves and lose water                
all during the winter. If the weather is at all dry, water right                
up to the time the ground freezes hard.                                         
                                                                                
* Do not become alarmed if you yews, pines, arborvitae and                      
junipers begin to shed their innermost needles. It is natural                   
for them to do so at this time of year.                                         
                                                                                
* As you plant your spring bulbs, remember that a mass planting                 
of one flower type or color will produce a better effect than a                 
mixture of many colors. Flowers of bulbs stand out more vividly                 
if displayed against a contrasting background: for example, white               
hyacinths among English ivy, yellow daffodils against a `Burford'               
holly hedge, or red tulips towering over a carpet of yellow                     
pansies.                                                                        
                                                                                
* A lily bulb is never dormant; it must be planted as soon as it                
is received. Have beds prepared ahead of time.                                  
                                                                                
* Allow a few of the seeds of your favorite delphinium and holly-               
hock to ripen on their stalks. When mature, plant the seeds                     
at once in a garden bed where they will grow into husky little                  
plants that winter well.                                                        
                                                                                
* To beat birds, squirrels, and other pests to your crops, prompt               
harvest is a must. This month harvest pecans, grapes, and                       
pawpaws.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Bring out the bird feeders and stock them with treats for the                 
birds. Remember to provide fresh water for your feathered                       
friends.                                                                        
                                                                                
* A plant or two of parsley taken from the garden and potted up                 
will do well all winter if watered and set in a sunny window.                   
Chives, sage, and thyme can also be maintained in this manner.                  
                                                                                
* Get the cold frame ready for cuttings you may have rooted in                  
summer. The cold frame is also a good place to root bulbs grown                 
in containers to force into bloom this winter.                                  
                                                                                
* If your climbing roses are in an exposed location, tie them up                
firmly with broad strips of rags so that the wind will not whip                 
them against the trellis and bruise the bark.                                   
                                                                                
* Fall is an excellent time for taking soil samples in your lawn                
and garden.  Soil tests will measure the acidity or alkalinity of               
the soil and the levels of some of the major elements required                  
for plant growth: phosphorus, and potassium. Where lime is                      
needed, now is a good time to apply it.                                         
                                                                                
* Do not use quick acting fertilizers in preparing beds during                  
the fall. They will be leached away before spring. Use materials                
which act slowly and last a long time, such as bone meal.                       
                                                                                
* Mow lawn for as long as it continues to grow to prevent matting               
through the winter which encourages root rots.                                  
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
October  1985                                                                   
LANDSCAPING THE FRONT YARD                                                      
                                                                                
A traditional element in the homesites of most Virginians is the                
yard. Whether it is a 15-by-20 foot patch in front of a townhouse               
or an acre of land fenced-off from the rest of a farm, this space               
is set aside for public viewing and should be an attractive                     
display for all who approach it.                                                
                                                                                
When space permits, a lawn becomes the canvas upon which your                   
landscape picture is constructed. As such, it should be open and                
as wide as possible to give the impression of spaciousness to the               
property.                                                                       
                                                                                
The ground should slope down from the house to cause water to                   
move away from the foundation. If possible, the grading should                  
provide gentle slopes which are easy to mow. Banks which exceed                 
one foot of drop for each two feet of horizontal distance will be               
difficult to maintain in sod, hard to mow, and susceptible to                   
erosion. Such as area as this would be better suited to ground                  
covers.                                                                         
                                                                                
Ideally, the house should be framed with trees. Tall species                    
should be located in the back yard to provide a green backdrop to               
the house. Medium-sized trees should be planted toward the sides                
of the front lawn area. This will focus attention on the resid-                 
ence as the most important feature of the landscape picture.                    
                                                                                
A foundation planting of shrubs or small trees is often located                 
around the house to soften its harsh architectural features and                 
to cause it to blend into the landscape. This is particularly                   
effective if used where vertical lines of the building meet the                 
ground at corners and doorways.                                                 
                                                                                
A continuous planting will reduce the apparent height of a tall                 
house. However, a low house, without an exposed foundation, will                
look larger and more impressive if the shrub planting is not                    
continuous, and ground covers are used in one or two places                     
between the corner and the front door.                                          
                                                                                
Use a limited number of species in the foundation planting.                     
Some variation in form and texture is important, but avoid                      
numerous different types, or mixtures of evergreen and deciduous                
shrubs.                                                                         
                                                                                
Select varieties which will be of suitable size when mature,                    
and be sure to provide adequate space for normal growth. Avoid                  
placing large shrubs under windows, as they will need continuous                
heavy pruning, or will grow too tall.                                           
                                                                                
The height of shrubs is very important along the front of the                   
house. Relatively tall ones should be located at the corners, and               
shorter ones on each side of the front door. This will have the                 
effect of funneling attention on the entrance.                                  
Be prepared to renew or improve your landscaping periodically.                  
Most shrubs need to be replaced with young, more desirable                      
specimens about every 15 or 20 years.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
VIRGINIA IS FOR APPLE LOVERS                                                    
                                                                                
Virginia is the fifth largest apple producing state in the United               
States. More than 12 million bushels of apples are harvested                    
each year in our state. Consequently, it is possible for Virgin-                
ians to select high quality apples for a variety of purposes.                   
The key is knowing what varieties to buy and where to find them.                
 Here are some favorites:                                                       
                                                                                
 Red Delicious, the number one apple in the supermarket, is                     
excellent for salads and eating out of hand. Since they are                     
readily available year-round, Red Delicious could be skipped for                
the harder-to-get varieties during the peak harvest time.                       
                                                                                
 Golden Delicious, also widely available in supermarkets, is                    
ranked high for eating fresh and cooking.                                       
                                                                                
 Jonathan is very tart, juicy and firm. It is an excellent                      
choice for snacks, salads and cooking. Although it ripens from                  
early to midseason, it is widely available into the fall.                       
                                                                                
 Stayman, a late ripening apple, is juicy with a moderately tart,               
rich, wine-like flavor. It is good for fresh eating, salads and                 
cooking.                                                                        
                                                                                
 Winesap apples have very firm, tart, juicy fruit which hold                    
their shape well when cooked.                                                   
                                                                                
 Rome Beauty, considered by some to be "the world's best baking                 
apple," is a variety with a slightly tart taste. The fruit                      
has a long storage life and is widely available.                                
                                                                                
 York is also a popular variety with Virginia producers. It's                   
tart, crisp fruit provides good eating out of hand or cooked.                   
                                                                                
 One variety which has gained popularity recently is the Granny                 
Smith. It is an excellent variety that is being planted in                      
Virginia orchards. Locally produced Granny Smiths may not be                    
available in your area yet, but should be within the next few                   
years.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many of the less common varieties are more easily obtained from                 
Virginia apple orchards and their roadside markets than at the                  
local supermarket. A weekend excursion could take you to the                    
orchards for a bushel of apples. Watch for apple cider and                      
pumpkins too, while you are enjoying the fall foliage.                          
                                                                                
In addition to the more popular modern varieties in some of the                 
old orchards on both eastern and western slopes of the Blue Ridge               
varieties such as Arkansas Black Twig, Baldwin, Ben Davis, Esopus               
Spitzenburg, Gano, King David, Grimes Golden, Horse Apple, Maiden               
Blush, Northern Spy, Smokehouse, Winter Banana and Wolf River are               
grown.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many of the old varieties lost favor with the commercial grower                 
because of low productivity, lack of attractiveness, susceptibil-               
ity to insects and disease, and poor shipping quality. For the                  
home gardener, however, these faults are overshadowed by the                    
delightful flavor, rich aroma, and culinary characteristics                     
found in few of the more recently introduced apple varieties.                   
If you find some of these old varieties at a roadside stand, you                
might try them. Each still has a following among apple lovers.                  
                                                                                
When buying apples, the Virginia State Apple Commission points                  
out that the background or "ground color", on varieties that are                
not solid red, should be yellow-green. If too green, the color                  
indicates immaturity. Too yellow of a color indicates an overripe               
apple.                                                                          
                                                                                
Apples with a brownish roughened area on the skin called surface                
russeting make good eating and may be less expensive. Russeting                 
is only a cosmetic defect.                                                      
                                                                                
It usually is more economical to buy apples in large quantities                 
when they are in season. Purchase only what can be used or                      
stored, however. Smaller apples usually will keep longer and have               
less bruising.                                                                  
                                                                                
Apples should be kept refrigerated. Store in perforated plastic                 
bags to allow proper air circulation. Place away from foods with                
strong odors as the flavor will transfer.                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
FALL RASPBERRIES                                                                
                                                                                
With the introduction of some newer varieties, raspberries can be               
treats in both the summer and the fall. In fact, unless your area               
has been caught by an unseasonably early frost, you still could                 
be picking raspberries from your everbearing varieties. One of                  
the best and most frequently grown everbearing raspberries                      
in Virginia is Heritage.                                                        
                                                                                
The so-called everbearing varieties of raspberries actually                     
should be considered two-season bearers as each cane produces                   
the first crop in the fall its first year, and a second crop in                 
the summer of its second year. After the second crop is produc-                 
ed, the cane dies and should be removed. The crown of the plant,                
however, lives for eight or more years and continues to produce                 
new canes each year. This means that after you have completed                   
the June harvest and removed all canes, there still will be many                
new ones that will produce a fall crop.                                         
                                                                                
For those people who find this system confusing, there is                       
another way of pruning that has proven quite successful with the                
Heritage raspberry. It eliminates the need to decide if a cane                  
has completed both crops and should be removed. In this system,                 
Heritage is grown as a fall bearer only and never allowed                       
to set the second crop in the summer.                                           
                                                                                
Canes grow for a season, produce a crop in the fall and are left                
on the plant to help it survive the winter. They are then removed               
in early spring.  The canes can be cut with a rotary mower and                  
all cut material removed from the planting. New canes will grow                 
from the crowns to produce that fall's harvest and the cutting                  
procedure can be repeated the next spring. Although you miss the                
June harvest, the total yield will be higher in the fall than it                
is on plants producing two crops per year, and the maintenance                  
will be reduced greatly.                                                        
                                                                                
If you don't want to miss those June raspberries, you might set                 
aside one part of your Heritage patch for traditional pruning.                  
Or you might grow one of the June bearing varieties such as                     
Latham.                                                                         
                                                                                
October is the time to prepare your soil to plant raspberries                   
next spring. They prefer a pH of 5.8 to 6.5 and a deep sandy-loam               
soil. Converting part of your garden to raspberries could be                    
ideal, but avoid areas where tomatoes, eggplants or potatoes have               
grown. These crops often carry verticillium wilt which lives in                 
the soil many years and is very damaging to raspberries.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
MICE, VOLES OR MOLES                                                            
                                                                                
When we discover that creatures have been eating our plants, we                 
tend to get excited and start looking for ways to eliminate the                 
pests rather than trying to identify and understand them. This                  
can reduce our effectiveness at times.                                          
                                                                                
One case is the mice, vole, or mole dilemma.  Although easily                   
mistaken by the novice, they are not all plant-devouring rodents.               
 In fact, the mole is neither a rodent nor a plant eater. A close               
relative of the shrew, the mole tunnels through your yard in                    
search of grubs or other soil insects.                                          
                                                                                
Pine or meadow voles, often called mice as they are in that                     
family, are more likely the culprits that are damaging bulbs,                   
roots and tree bark. The pine vole and the mole seem to work as a               
team in creating havoc, as the pine vole loves to use the tunnels               
created by moles as a running path for easy access to its dinner.               
The meadow vole, on the other hand, stays above ground and                      
tunnels through leaves, straw, and other debris to reach its                    
favorite food.                                                                  
                                                                                
While moles are a nuisance, making the yard unsightly and                       
difficult to cross in high heels, they do relatively little                     
actual damage to plants with the exception of pushing small                     
perennials out of the ground. Voles however, can do more damage                 
than insects or disease in a fruit orchard.  They have been known               
to girdle and kill a tree in one winter.                                        
                                                                                
To prevent damage this winter, there are several things a                       
homeowner can do. First, eliminate potential homes for the                      
creatures. Moles can be discouraged by reducing the insect                      
population in the soil, usually through the use of soil insectic-               
ides. Traps may also be used to stop the moles. After the moles                 
are gone, their tunnels should be collapsed around fruit trees to               
prevent winter use by the pine voles.                                           
                                                                                
Mulch, stems, leaves, and dead grass should be removed from                     
around the trunks of trees to reduce meadow vole damage. Tree                   
guards are helpful in reducing summer and early fall damage. They               
should be constructed from hardware cloth with no larger than                   
1/4-inch mesh. Guards should enclose the tree trunk and extend                  
from several inches below ground to about 18 inches above the                   
soil's surface. Never use tarpaper or roofing paper as they may                 
damage the tree by lowering its winter hardiness.                               
                                                                                
If a vole problem still develops, it is better for the homeowner                
to use traps rather than poisonous baits, as the latter are                     
dangerous to pets and children. Common household mouse traps                    
baited with apples and placed in the trail system are probably                  
the most effective control. Continue to use the traps for four to               
five days, surrounding your trees at 10 to 20 square foot                       
intervals to get rid of all the voles.                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
EARLY AMERICAN VEGETABLES                                                       
                                                                                
North American Indians were cultivating several common garden                   
crops when Europeans arrived. Corn, beans and pumpkins were                     
among their most important foods. Sunflowers and Jerusalem                      
artichokes also supplemented their diets.                                       
                                                                                
Believed to be a "gift of the gods," corn was of central importa-               
nce for many of the native Americans. Although popcorn and sweet                
corn were known, they were not as important for food crops as                   
field corn or roasting ears.                                                    
                                                                                
Green corn was roasted in the shuck and also was mixed with green               
beans to make succotash. Dried corn was washed in wood ashes and                
quicklime to make hominy, or parched to make it pop slightly for                
easy eating. Ground hominy or dried field corn was used for                     
making unleavened bread or tortillas. It was also mixed with                    
other foods, such as pumpkins, beans, or acorns to make bread.                  
Evidence indicates that sweet corn primarily was grown for                      
special occasions. Interestingly, it was eaten parched rather                   
than fresh.                                                                     
                                                                                
Some methods used by the Indians to insure a successful crop                    
might be of value in today's home gardens. They included planting               
in a shallow pit in windy areas or dry soils to hold moisture,                  
and soaking seeds for two days to hasten sprouting. Interplant-                 
ing with pumpkins to save space may be an asset to some gardens                 
if field corn is planted and allowed to mature before harvest.                  
When such interplanting is tried with sweet corn, most people                   
have to fight the pumpkin vines to get the corn at harvest                      
time.                                                                           
                                                                                
The pumpkin was second only to corn in importance as a food                     
crop to North American Indians. Pumpkins were protected from                    
freezing in early winter by storing them in corn shocks. As the                 
weather got colder, they were sliced into rings and dried over                  
fires. The dried pumpkin could be ground into meal and used for                 
breads. The seeds that weren't needed for planting the next year                
were roasted and eaten.                                                         
                                                                                
The kidney bean, which includes most snap or green beans, was                   
domesticated in Peru before 6000 B.C. and in Mexico prior to 5000               
B.C. Its use spread north from Mexico, as did corn and pumpkins.                
 These three plants became the principle crops in North America                 
in prehistoric times.                                                           
                                                                                
The early colonist found the native Americans planting pole or                  
"half-runner" types of kidney beans. They often were put among                  
the corn plants so they could climb the stalks. This practice                   
not only led to easier bean harvests, it made it possible to grow               
good crops of corn on the same ground for several years in a row.               
The native Americans did not understand why this worked but, by                 
observing the benefits, were able to take advantage of the fact                 
that beans actually improved the soil by helping to extract                     
nitrogen from the atmosphere and storing it in the soil. The                    
oldest known variety of beans, the "White Half Runner," has been                
planted for as long as records exist by mountain residents in the               
Southeastern United States.                                                     
                                                                                
Another crop grown by the North American Indians was the sunflow-               
er. It is the only important crop plant to have actually been                   
domesticated in what is now the United States. All other crops                  
were brought here by native Americans after domestication.                      
Surprisingly, sunflower did not become important as a food plant                
until it was carried to Russia where it was found to be suitable                
for growth in large areas of that vast country.  This led to the                
development of several new varieties.                                           
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, Extension                       
Technician Horticulture, working with Diane Relf, Home Horticul-                
ture Extension Specialist. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has               
been developed for agent use in preparing the radio and newspaper               
features and is a monthly section of HortFacts.                                 
                                                                                
I already have apple trees growing on my land.  I would like to                 
try pears if they are no more work.  Are they?                                  
                                                                                
Pears are fine trees for home fruit planting.  One good feature                 
of pears is that they are not commonly damaged by insects and                   
diseases.  They can be grown quite easily with the same spray                   
program used on apples.                                                         
                                                                                
Fire blight, a bacterial disease, is the one serious problem of                 
pears in the Eastern states.  It is very destructive on suscepti-               
ble varieties, but many varieties available are quite resistant                 
to fire blight.  Select from Moonglow, Magness, Orient, Seckel or               
Keiffer.                                                                        
                                                                                
Pears are long lived and hardy.  Dwarf trees will begin to bear                 
in two or three years, and the standard sizes in five to seven                  
years.  Dwarf pears grow well along a fence or wire trellis like                
grapes.  The dwarf or standard trees are excellent for training                 
as espalier trees against the side of a house or garage.                        
                                                                                
Fall is an ideal season for planting pears.  The best time is                   
about a month after the average date of the first frost in your                 
area.  Like many other types of fruit, pears are mostly self-unf-               
ruitful.  Plant two or more different varieties to provide                      
cross pollination for good fruit set.                                           
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
With all the rain we've been getting, some of my shrubs are                     
beginning to sprout and the dogwoods look like they're ready to                 
bloom.  I know if a cold spell hits these plants are in trouble.                
Should I wrap them in burlap or something?                                      
                                                                                
Under normal conditions, the active growth of most shrubs ends                  
during September.  In October and November when cold and freezing               
weather occurs, they move into their dormant condition.  During a               
warm and rainy fall, shrubs may be stimulated into renewed growth               
in late September and October instead of becoming dormant.  When                
exposed to a quick and severe drop in temperature tender new                    
shoots and buds may be seriously damaged.  But if cold weather                  
occurs gradually, shrubs develop a satisfactory degree of                       
dormancy and survive the winter well.                                           
                                                                                
In some cases renewed growth is accompanied by flowering which                  
should not have occured until next spring.  If the buds merely                  
swell up but do not open, they may return to a dormant condition                
and bloom next year.  The flowers which open this fall will, of                 
course, not bloom again next spring.  Most of the flower buds on                
your trees will not open in the fall. You should have a good                    
number left for next season if they escape damage by cold this                  
winter.                                                                         
                                                                                
You may wrap your shrubs in burlap to give them some protection.                
This may reduce damage by desiccation, but will probably offer                  
very slight protection from severe cold temperatures.  Broad-leaf               
evergreens benefit most from this practice; needle bearing                      
species should fare well without protection.                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
My bunches of grapes never sweeten up in storage.  I am careful                 
to pick the fruit before frost but I am not pleased with the                    
flavor.  What can I do?                                                         
                                                                                
Grapes are different from most fruits because they do not mature                
and improve in quality after harvest.  They must develop all of                 
their sugar and fine flavor while still on the vine.  Color is a                
poor index of maturity in bunch grapes.  Many varieties change                  
color long before they are fully ripe, and practically all                      
varieties become sweeter and less acid as they mature.                          
                                                                                
For table grapes, maturity is usually determined by taste or by                 
the color of the seeds, which changes from green to brown.                      
Truly, the best way to determine when they are fully ripe is to                 
pick a few berries and taste them for sweetness.                                
                                                                                
Although the highest quality fruit may be obtained by harvesting                
fully ripened clusters, it is sometimes necessary to harvest the                
crop before the fruit is fully mature to prevent loss.  Where the               
growing season is short, a freeze or frost may damage the crop.                 
You are correct in harvesting before the cold damages the fruit,                
but the flavor of these grapes will never be quite as good.                     
                                                                                
 -----------------                                                              
                                                                                
Our budget does not allow us to buy trees from a garden center. -               
Can we move some trees from our woods into the yard?                            
                                                                                
Many native trees can be used for landscaping if care is taken in               
transplanting them. Most plants that are dug from the wild are                  
best transplanted in early spring before growth starts. This                    
requires that they be identified in a dormant condition. People                 
who can identify the plants only when they are in leaf or flower                
should mark plants during the growing season and move plants the                
following spring.                                                               
                                                                                
It is usually better to move small plants, because, despite                     
careful digging, only a small percentage of the roots will remain               
unharmed.  Trees that develop a tap root such as oaks and nut                   
trees, are particularly difficult to transplant and should                      
only be moved as very young plants.   Be sure to bring a large                  
root                                                                            
ball with the tree.                                                             
                                                                                
Despite the fact that the trees are native, some require careful                
site selection. Try to duplicate, as closely as possible, their                 
natural growing environments.                                                   
                                                                                
Unless small trees are transplanted, they will require extensive                
top pruning, too. First, the lower branches that interfere with                 
mowing can be removed. Next, branches that come out at very                     
narrow angles should be eliminated. Attention should be given to                
the spacing of branches and symmetry. Thinning of the twigs on                  
the trunk and larger branches will help compensate for the loss                 
of roots. The practice of removing the tops of trees should be                  
avoided.                                                                        
                                                                                
Young trees should be watered through the first and second                      
growing seasons. Pests and weeds must be controlled.  Wrap the                  
trunk with burlap, kraft paper or vinyl tree guards for the                     
winter to prevent sunscald and provide rodent protection.                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Why do I get conflicting advice from different so-called "garden                
experts"?  Even things I read often contradict one another.                     
                                                                                
Most horticulturists are quite sincere when they offer advice on                
growing different plants. Usually these cultural methods are                    
based on their own experience. Sometimes even expert gardeners                  
forget that conditions can vary considerably from one garden                    
to another. Some soils are heavy; others are sandy. Light,                      
moisture content and pH may vary between locations. The growing                 
environment can change quite radically from garden to garden even               
in the same neighborhood.                                                       
                                                                                
Temper what you read and hear before you go "all out" in your own               
garden. Ask your local extension agent for his/her advice. But                  
remember, you may need to do a little experimenting in your                     
specific growing environment to be successful with your planting-               
s.                                                                              
                                                                                
 --------------------                                                           
                                                                                
Grass does not grow well under my shade trees. What can I try                   
instead?                                                                        
                                                                                
It is generally best to avoid setting plants too close to trees                 
with roots near the soil surface, such as most maples. Few plants               
can successfully compete with such trees for the moisture and                   
nutrients they must have. If you wish to eliminate the grass and                
try a gound cover under the tree, a shade tolerant, trailing vine               
would be a good choice. The plants can be set some distance away                
from the tree trunk and in time the vines will cover most of the                
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
Periwinkle (Vinca minor), Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus                      
quinquefolia), Boston Ivy (P. tricuspidata), Japanese spurge                    
(Pachysandra terminalis),and Carpet bugle (Ajuga reptans) could                 
adapt to the site. Prepare the soil by adding a layer of organic                
matter (such as leafmold or peat moss) and incorporating a                      
granular fertilizer. To keep the plants healthy, be prepared to                 
fertilize several times each year.                                              
                                                                                
 --------------------                                                           
                                                                                
When I lived in Tennessee, several mountain stewartia grew in our               
yard.  They are such beautiful trees, especially in the fall.                   
Will they grow here?                                                            
                                                                                
Mountain stewartia (Stewartia ovata) is a native plant from                     
Tennessee to Florida, but it will do well in Virginia.  It is a                 
very fine specimen tree which is attractive in all seasons.  The                
simple leaves (2 - 5" long) are dark green in the summer and                    
beautiful orange or red in the fall.  Even after leaf drop, the                 
trees retain their ornamental appeal.  The bark, which is deep                  
brown, flakes off revealing light green patches.                                
                                                                                
Mountain stewartia may be grown as a large shrub or small tree.                 
At maturity it will stand between 10 and 15' high, but it will                  
remain bushy with spreading branches.  In summer you will see 4"                
white flowers with purple stamens which form small seed capsules                
in the autumn.                                                                  
                                                                                
Though a lovely landscape plants, stewartias have not been                      
popular in the nursery trade because they are difficult to                      
transplant.  Relocating these trees must be done when the tree is               
small (under 5' tall) in the early spring.  Moist acid soil                     
(pH 4.5 to 5.5) is necessary.  Use plenty of leaf mold or peat                  
moss in the planting hole.  Mountain stewartia would fit in well                
near blueberries, rhododendrons, and other ericaceous plants.                   
                                                                                
Mountain stewartia likes sun, but it does best if it is shaded                  
during the hottest part of the day.  These trees require little                 
maintenance and are practically free of pests.  Two other                       
cultivated stewartias may be more easily found in nurseries:                    
Korean stewartia (Stewartia koreana), a hardy, pyramidal shaped                 
tree, and Japanese stewartia (Stewartia pseudo - camellia), which               
can grow to 60'.  The Japanese stewartia has smaller flowers and                
beautiful, red flaking bark.                                                    
                                                                                
________________________                                                        
                                                                                
Some of my onions are rotting in storage.  What can I do?                       
                                                                                
To have onions that keep well, you must plant one of the brown                  
storage-type varieties such as Ebenezer, Stuttgarter, or Yellow                 
Globe Danvers.  The Bermuda and White types will not keep as well               
as these brown varieties.                                                       
                                                                                
To have your brown onions keep during the fall and winter, they                 
must be harvested at the right stage of maturity and stored                     
properly.  Onions should be harvested when about two-thirds of                  
the tops have fallen over.  Unfortunately, in many parts of                     
Virginia this was a very rainy period, and many onions were                     
harvested in very moist conditions or later than they should have               
been.                                                                           
                                                                                
Careful handling to avoid bruising helps control storage rots.                  
In dry weather, onions may be pulled and left in the field for                  
several days to dry.  Then cure in a well ventilated attic or                   
porch for one to two weeks out of direct sun.  Tops may be                      
left on or cut off; but, leave at least one inch of the top when                
storing.  Thorough curing will increase storage life.                           
                                                                                
Store in shallow, slatted trays not over 2 or 3 onions deep in a                
cool, dark, dry basement room.  Ideal storage conditions are                    
temperature at 32 degrees F and relative humidity of 65-70%.                    
Sort your onions every week or 10 days, and discard any that                    
become soft or start to rot.  The important thing is for the                    
onions to stay dry in a cool, dark place.  Under such conditions                
your onions should keep until midwinter or later.                               
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
Rabbits nibble on my fruit trees during the winter.  What do you                
recommend to prevent their damage?                                              
                                                                                
Rabbits are responsible for the loss of thousands of young fruit                
trees each year.  Perhaps the most satisfactory method of                       
preventing rabbit damage is the use of a mechanical guard.                      
                                                                                
Galvanized screen or "hardware cloth" with a 1/4" mesh is                       
frequently used.  A roll 36" wide may be cut lengthwise forming                 
two 18" strips.  By cutting these strips into pieces 14" long,                  
guards 14 by 18" are obtained.                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Roll or bend the strip around the trunk of the tree so that the                 
long side is up and down the trunk and the edges overlap.  Twist                
a small wire loosely about the center to prevent the strip from                 
unrolling.  Push the lower edges well into the ground.  This                    
metal guard will last indefinitely and can be left in place all                 
year.                                                                           
                                                                                
Other methods of rabbit control have been successful.  Ordinary                 
whitewash has given good results in some instances.  A repellent                
wash recommended by the USDA, containing equal parts of fish oil,               
concentrated lime sulfur, and water is used by some commercial                  
growers.  Also, rabbit repellents under various trade names are                 
available.  All these materials may be applied with a paint brush               
to the trunk of the tree from the ground up into the scaffold                   
limbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
I am considering planting a windbreak of those quick-growing,                   
hybrid poplars.  What can you tell me about these trees?  How                   
fast will they grow, and how wide do they get?                                  
                                                                                
Extensive advertising campaigns have been used to promote sales                 
of hybrid poplars.  Their primary use is for a quick growing                    
timber tree, but they may be used in the home landscape on a                    
limited basis.                                                                  
                                                                                
In your situation, you could use hybrid poplars if the windbreak                
is located away from buildings and valuable landscape plants.                   
The trees tend to be weak wooded.  Falling branches could injure                
other property.                                                                 
                                                                                
Hybrid poplars are not considered a long-lived tree.  Few live to               
be over 40 years old.  An ideal landscape use of these trees                    
would be to plant them as a nurse windbreak.  That is, plant                    
several rows of poplars first, then plant several rows of more                  
desirable windbreak species a few years later.  The poplars will                
protect the more valuable trees from wind as they become establi-               
shed.  When the other trees reach sufficient height and the                     
poplars begin to lose vigor, remove the poplars.                                
                                                                                
Hybrid poplars will grow from 45 to 60 feet tall if given plenty                
of growing room.  In the forest or as a hedge where they are                    
planted close, they can reach 80 to 90 feet in height.  Trees can               
grow up to 10' per year in optimal conditions.  Varieties                       
developed for shade trees can spread to 30-35' in diameter.                     
Screening cultivars will grow about 10' wide.  To attain maximum                
growth, the trees need to be watered, fertilized, and kept free                 
from grass and weed competition.  Use mulch and cultivation                     
equipment to keep the trunks free from weeds.  Do not use                       
herbicides as they can injure the trees.                                        
                                                                                
Rooted cuttings or small trees adapt best when spring planted.                  
They prefer a site with partial to full sun and well-drained                    
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
Hybrid poplars are prone to winter injury.  In young trees, the                 
entire above ground portion can die back.  Fortunately, poplars                 
have a natural tendency to sprout from the roots and the tree may               
not be lost entirely.  Where there is shallow topsoil and hard                  
compacted subsoil, sprouts may appear yearly.  Prune back sprouts               
each fall.                                                                      
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
October Notes                                                                   
                                                                                
* If the weather stays dry enough before the ground freezes,                    
you can plow. Fall plowing allows earlier planting in the spring                
and is especially good for heavy soils since they are exposed                   
to the freezing and thawing action of winter. This will help                    
improve your soil's structure.                                                  
                                                                                
* Remove any diseased or insect-infested plant material from                    
your garden; it may harbor overwintering stages of disease and                  
insect pests. If you leave this plant material in your garden,                  
you are leaving diseases and insects which will begin to reprod-                
uce again next spring and add to next year's pest problem.                      
                                                                                
* The bitter, golf-ball sized fruits of the trifoliate orange                   
(Poncirus trifoliate) may have some uses after all. Sections                    
of the fruit in hot tea have been reported as tastier than lemon                
and the entire fruit makes an attractive, miniature pomander                    
when filled with cloves and covered with spices.                                
                                                                                
* Use coldframes to overwinter cuttings of trees and shrubs                     
and perennial seedlings started in mid to late summer. Bulbs                    
prepared for forcing can also be stored in coldframes until                     
time to take indoors.                                                           
                                                                                
* Fertilize trees and shrubs that have shown signs of weak growth               
after they are dormant but before soil temperature drops below                  
45 degrees F.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Water trees and shrubs well to increase winter hardiness.                     
                                                                                
* Move and divide crowded perennials. Arrange for swaps with                    
friends and neighbors.                                                          
                                                                                
* Bring in cannas, dahlias, and gladiolas if not hardy in your                  
area after the tops are hurt by frost. Dry, clean, and store                    
in peat moss or vermiculite in a cool location free from frost.                 
                                                                                
* Treat magnolia and beech leaves for dried flower arrangements                 
in a mixture of 1/3 glycerine, 2/3 warm water. Crush stems and                  
submerge 3 weeks to produce a rich, glossy, brown foliage.                      
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from lawns to reduce lawn problems. Compost or                  
save for next year's mulch.                                                     
                                                                                
* Clean up home orchard and small fruit plantings. Sanitation                   
is essential for good maintenance. Dried fruits or "mummies"                    
carry disease organisms through the winter to attack next year's                
crop.                                                                           
                                                                                
* If you have a sunny area to naturalize with small flowering                   
annuals, sow seeds of sweet alyssum or Johnny-jump-ups. They                    
will come up this fall or early spring and bloom extra early                    
next spring. Both are very hardy and self-seed readily to                       
maintain the natural area.                                                      
                                                                                
* In deciding on new trees or shrubs to plant around your home,                 
remember to select varieties with a mature height to fit the                    
desired location. This will greatly reduce pruning and other                    
maintenance in the future.                                                      
                                                                                
* House plants will slow down growth as the days get shorter                    
and light intensity is reduced. This means that they will need                  
less frequent watering and fertilizing until next spring. Too                   
much of either in the winter months can cause weak growth.                      
                                                                                
* Make a note of plants displaying outstanding fall colors                      
as you drive along city streets and the surrounding countryside.                
You may wish to incorporate some of them into your own landscape.               
Fall color can often be enjoyed for much longer than the plant's                
flowers in the spring. For this reason, it may be more desirable                
when selecting trees and shrubs for landscape use to plan                       
greater emphasis on their fall features.                                        
                                                                                
* A great deal of winter losses is the result of plants being                   
allowed to become dry during this season.  This is especially                   
true of evergreens because they hold their leaves and lose water                
all during the winter. If the weather is at all dry, water right                
up to the time the ground freezes hard.                                         
                                                                                
* Do not become alarmed if you yews, pines, arborvitae and                      
junipers begin to shed their innermost needles. It is natural                   
for them to do so at this time of year.                                         
                                                                                
* As you plant spring bulbs, remember that a mass planting                      
of one flower type or color will produce a better effect than a                 
mixture of many colors. Flowers of bulbs stand out more vividly                 
if displayed against a contrasting background: for example, white               
hyacinths among English ivy, yellow daffodils against a `Burford'               
holly hedge, or red tulips towering over a carpet of yellow                     
pansies.                                                                        
                                                                                
* A lily bulb is never dormant; it must be planted as soon as it                
is received. Have beds prepared ahead of time.                                  
                                                                                
* Allow a few of the seeds of your favorite delphinium and holly-               
hock to ripen on their stalks. When mature, plant the seeds                     
at once in a garden bed where they will grow into husky little                  
plants that winter well.                                                        
                                                                                
* To beat birds, squirrels, and other pests to your crops, prompt               
harvest is a must. This month harvest pecans, grapes, and                       
pawpaws.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Bring out the bird feeders and stock them with treats for the                 
birds. Remember to provide fresh water for your feathered                       
friends.                                                                        
                                                                                
* A plant or two of parsley taken from the garden and potted up                 
will do well all winter if watered and set in a sunny window.                   
Chives, sage and thyme can also be maintained in this manner.                   
                                                                                
* If your climbing roses are in an exposed location, tie them up                
firmly with broad strips of rags so that the wind will not whip                 
them against the trellis and bruise the bark.                                   
                                                                                
* Fall is an excellent time for taking soil samples in your lawn                
and garden.  Soil tests will measure the acidity or alkalinity of               
the soil and the levels of some of the major elements required                  
for plant growth: phosphorus, and potassium. Where lime is                      
needed, now is a good time to apply it.                                         
                                                                                
* In preparing flower beds which will be planted next spring, do                
not use quick-acting fertilizers. Nutrients will be leached away                
before spring comes.                                                            
                                                                                
* Surround the trunks of fruit trees with hardware cloth or                     
similar wire, and bury the edges in the ground to prevent rodents               
from chewing on them.                                                           
                                                                                
* Pick bagworms from evergreen shrubs. This will eliminate the                  
overwintering females who would lay eggs next spring.                           
                                                                                
* To protect young trees against deer damage, there are a number                
of deterrents you can try. Remember, deer will become accustomed                
to any object, so alternating items will help. Hang bars of soap,               
mesh bags filled with human hair, bags of dried blood or strips                 
of white plastic trash or freezer bags on trees that are likely                 
to be attacked. Chemical deer repellents can also be used. Be                   
sure to reapply any chemicals after 2 to 3 weeks of normal                      
weathering.                                                                     
                                                                                
* A final weeding of strawberries, blueberries, or raspberries                  
will help keep weed problems down to a minimum. Obtain mulch for                
covering strawberries for November. Apply mulch after the ground                
has frozen.                                                                     
                                                                                
* A ripe apple placed in a closed container with green tomatoes                 
will encourage the tomatoes to turn red. Ripe apples give off                   
ethylene gas which will cause tomatoes to ripen.                                
                                                                                
* Check the fence or arbor to see if it should be protected with                
a fresh coat of stain or a paint job.                                           
                                                                                
* Garden tools add up to a large financial investment. Take care                
of tools so they need not be replaced. Bring all your gardening                 
tools inside. Clean them off. Use a stick to remove soil that is                
caked on. With a rag apply oil to the metal parts of tools to                   
prevent rust. With proper care quality tools can last you a                     
lifetime.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Cure pumpkins, butternut and Hubbard squash at temperatures                   
between 70-80 degrees F for two to three weeks immediately after                
harvest. After curing, store them in a dry place at 55-60 degrees               
F. If stored at 50 degrees F or below, pumpkins and squashes are                
subject to damage by chilling. At temperatures above 60 degrees                 
F, they gradually lose moisture and become stringy.                             
                                                                                
* Fall is the best time for taking a soil tests. Contact your                   
local extension agent for the instructions and a sample box.                    
                                                                                
* Many virus diseases overwinter in the roots of perennial                      
weeds so from the aspect of disease control, good fall cleanup is               
essential.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Add mulch to your perennial border. A one-inch layer of                       
weed-free straw or shredded leaves will help conserve soil                      
moisture, protect the root system, and reduce plant loss by                     
heaving during the winter.                                                      
                                                                                
* Continue to mow your lawn so your lawn grasses will not grow so               
high that they mat down under winter snows. Matted grass is an                  
ideal place for lawn diseases to start.                                         
                                                                                
* Poinsettias are short day plants and need special treatment to                
have them bloom for Christmas. Keep the plants in an area where                 
night temperatures are around 60 degrees F and protect from all                 
light at night. Control day length by placing the plant in a dark               
area at 5:00 p.m. and removing it at 8:00 a.m. Do this for 11                   
weeks; so if you start now, they will bloom for Christmas. In                   
addition to this treatment, be sure to provide them with adequate               
water, fertilizer, and night temperatures to get a healthy                      
display of color for the holidays.                                              
                                                                                
* Houseplants should be well watered throughout the summer months               
when they are growing the most. But, when they are resting during               
the cool winter months, less water should be applied.                           
                                                                                
* Plan for Thanksgiving bouquets, cut chrysanthemum stems before                
heavy frosts. Remove all leaves and plunge stems into a pail of                 
water leaving only the blossoms exposed on top. Store the flowers               
in a cool garage or cellar where they will not freeze. Make                     
flower arrangements 5-7 days before the holiday.                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
THE VIRGINIA GARDENER PRESS RELEASES                                            
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Extension               
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture. The Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed               
for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper features and                     
other educational programs.                                                     
                                                                                
October 1986 Press Release Topics                                               
                                                                                
Barberry Barriers                       66 lines                                
Recycled Leaves Improve Garden Soil     74 lines                                
Soil Composition                        64 lines                                
Low-Growing Junipers                    60 lines                                
Uncommon Hydrangeas for the Landscape   63 lines                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
BARBERRY BARRIERS                                                               
                                                                                
Barberry is a common and useful shrub. Its dense, thorny growth                 
makes it ideal for barrier plantings in many locations. Barberry                
plants grow in almost any soil and endure dry conditions better                 
than many other shrubs. Most species available from nurseries are               
quite hardy.                                                                    
                                                                                
Most barberries have small, yellow, waxy flowers. They are                      
somewhat inconspicuous, but do add interest during the spring                   
blooming season. Fruits of barberry are small berries varying                   
in color from bright red to dark purple. They are an attractive                 
feature of the shrub during autumn.                                             
                                                                                
The hardy Japanese Barberry, and some other deciduous types,                    
retain their bright colored berries all winter. Another attrac-                 
tive feature of deciduous barberries is the brilliant red color                 
of the foliage in autumn.                                                       
                                                                                
The berries of evergreen types fall rather quickly after ripen-                 
ing, or are eated by birds. The spiny foliage of evergreen                      
species provides year-round interest, but does not have as vivid                
fall coloration as deciduous barberries.                                        
                                                                                
Spines of barberry shrubs are a bonus feature which gives it                    
unique value. Plants may be used as a barriers to prevent                       
undesirable traffic crossing the lawn. The dense spiny bushes                   
will control both animal and people movement.                                   
                                                                                
A precaution should be observed. Do not plant the common bar-                   
berry, Berberis vulgaris. It is an alternate host for stem rust                 
of wheat. It may cause severe losses to farmers in areas where                  
wheat is grown. There are many fine species of barberry which are               
resistant to the rust therefore, there is no need to plant common               
barberry, or other species which are susceptible to this disease.               
Types now offered by nurseries are resitant to rust.                            
                                                                                
Japanese Barberry is the most popular and dependable species.                   
The shrub grows to a height of two to six feet depending on                     
cultivar. It is available in red (purplish) or green leaf                       
type. Japanese barberry is of particular interst in the spring                  
when it has its waxy yellow flower, last year's red berries, and                
new green leaves. In the fall the foliage turns brilliant red. It               
has a place in almost all home landscape plantings.                             
                                                                                
Two common cultivars of Japanese barberry are 'Crimson Pygmy' and               
`Aurea' (also called yellow barberry). 'Crimson Pygmy' is a                     
minature red-leafed barberry. It is a fine shrub to use as a low                
hedge or border plant. When mature it reaches about two feet with               
a spread of three feet. 'Aurea' is a colorful, slow-growing plant               
which attains a height of about four feet. It has attractive                    
yellowish foliage when grown in full sun.                                       
                                                                                
Among the best evergreen barberries is Chenault barberry. Plants                
grow 3-4 feet tall. The foliage turns bronze-red in the fall. It                
is a fine shrub in a foundation planting or hedge.                              
                                                                                
Wintergreen barberry is probably the hardiest of the evergreen                  
barberries although leaf burning may occur after exposure to                    
severe cold temperatures. Plants form a 6-8 foot mound of dense                 
branches almost impenetrable by people or pets. For this reason,                
it makes a good barrier or hedge.                                               
                                                                                
Descriptions and pictures of the most popular and useful species                
of barberry may be found in nursery catalogs. They may be                       
planted in fall about a month or six weeks after the first                      
killing frost in your area.                                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
RECYCLED LEAVES IMPROVE GARDEN SOIL                                             
                                                                                
The leaves which add color to the autumn landscape become a fine                
source of organic matter for your garden when they fall. Gather-                
ing them makes extra work but it is worth the effort because of                 
their value as mulch or as a component of compost. Leaves which                 
fall onto lawns, should be raked up so they will not smother                    
grass and cause bare spots in the turf next summer.                             
                                                                                
If your lawn is small, raking leaves will provide pleasant                      
exercise on a sunny afternoon. A lawn sweeper or vacuum will make               
the job easier if you have a large lot with many trees. Lawn                    
mowers equipt with collecting bags can be used on any size lawn.                
You will be able to collect leaves while trimming the grass                     
saving several steps.                                                           
                                                                                
The problem of disposing of leaves is easy if you save them for                 
mulch or compost. Avoid burning this valuable material as this                  
practice pollutes the air and destroys organic matter which can                 
benefit your garden can benefit.                                                
                                                                                
Mulching                                                                        
You can secure double value from leaves by using a 2-3 inch layer               
as mulch in your vegetable or flower garden during the summer.                  
Then plow or rototill them into the soil in fall. As a mulch they               
conserve moisture, temper changes in soil temperature and control               
weeds. When plowed into the ground, leaves decompose improving                  
soil structure and adding nutrients.                                            
                                                                                
In most locations, leaves used as mulch tend to anchor themselves               
after the first rain or two. But if your yard is in a windy                     
location, coarse leaves may blow around. Try shredding them to                  
make a mulch which stays in place. A shredding machine is the                   
best method for grinding leaves. It will reduce the leaves to                   
about ten percent of their original volume.                                     
                                                                                
If you have no access to a shredder, run over leaves with a                     
rotary lawn mower. Spread leaves in a long low pile on a smooth                 
paved surface and mow over them several times. If they are dry                  
and brittle this procedure should reduce them to about 25 percent               
of their original volume. Finely chopped leaves make a fine mulch               
material, or an addition to the compost pile which decomposes                   
rapidly.                                                                        
                                                                                
A practice especially effective to reduce soil erosion and weed                 
invasion in gardens is clump mulching. Save autumn leaves                       
for clump mulching by piling loose leaves in a back corner of                   
your lot and allow them to weather over winter. To avoid having                 
leaves blow around, enclose the pile with chicken wire or snow                  
fence. In spring, lift 2-3" thick clumps of leaves off the pile                 
and place them on soil or around the base of plants.                            
                                                                                
Organic mulch such as leaves are also useful as winter protection               
to newly planted evergreens, low growing plants, bulbs and tender               
plants especially when there is little snow cover. Mulching will                
help prevent plants from being heaved out of the ground by                      
alternated freezing and thawing. Avoid to thick a layer which                   
can compact and cause rotting of foliage.                                       
                                                                                
Composting                                                                      
Composting leaves will also reduce their original volume and                    
produce a material beneficial to garden soil. Through composting,               
large amounts of organic refuse can be reduced to a pile of                     
crumbly, black humus which makes an ideal soil conditioner.                     
Compost added regularly to the soil will improve soil structure.                
In clay soil, this leads to increasing air spaces thus improving                
drainage and air infiltration into the soil. In sandy soil, humus               
helps soil particles stick together adding to the nutrient- and                 
moisture-holding capacities.                                                    
                                                                                
Leaves make a fine addition to a compost pile used to decompose                 
kitchen wastes and garden refuse. Details for starting a compost                
pile can be found in Extension publication #426-325 and many                    
gardening books. Extension publications can be obtained from                    
your local Extension office.                                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
SOIL COMPOSITION                                                                
                                                                                
Soil is composed of three ingredients: particles of broken                      
rock, organic matter, and microorganisms. When water and air are                
present in proper amounts, this mixture provides physical and                   
nutritional support for plants.                                                 
                                                                                
The texture of soil, which refers to the size of the rock                       
particles, is the most important feature in determining whether                 
it is good or poor for a garden. Particle size varies from sand                 
which is coarse, to silt which is fine, and to clay which is                    
very fine. The size of the particle determines the total surface                
area in a given amount of soil. This in turn determines the                     
nutrient holding ability. Small particles such as clay have a                   
great deal of total surface area therefore hold nutrients                       
readily. Particle size also influences the amount of air space                  
between particles and the ability of the soil to hold water.                    
                                                                                
Coarse sandy soils are infertile and hold very little water.                    
Clay, on the other hand, with its very fine texture, is quite                   
fertile. Clay particles pack closely together and hold large                    
amounts of water making them heavy and hard to work. Silt is                    
between sand and clay in fineness and also in its fertility and                 
water holding capacity.                                                         
                                                                                
Organic matter is a very important material because it adds                     
fertility and improves the water holding capacity of sandy                      
soils. It is very useful in clay soils because it loosens them                  
and makes them easier to work.                                                  
                                                                                
Loam, the ideal soil type, is composed of a mixture of sand,                    
silt, clay, and organic matter. It is ideal because sand provides               
aeration and drainage, and silt, clay and organic matter give                   
fertility and water holding ability.                                            
                                                                                
In your home garden you cannot easily change the amount of sand                 
or clay in your soil. However, by using organic matter, you can                 
improve either one and make it more productive and easier to                    
work.                                                                           
                                                                                
One of the best ways to improve soil is to use an organic mulch                 
such as straw, grass clippings or leaves during the growing                     
season. In fall, till in the organic mulch along with old                       
vegetable and flower plants which have been cut into pieces about               
six to eight inches long. Before chopping garden debris, check to               
make sure it does not harbor disease or insect pests which can                  
overwinter. Infested plant material is best disgarded or added to               
a 'hot' (active) compost pile.                                                  
                                                                                
Working soil in fall has several advantages over traditional                    
spring plowing: 1)It allows for earlier spring planting; 2)Organ-               
ic matter decomposes better while soil is still warm in fall;                   
3)Insects, disease organisms, and perennial weeds may be reduced                
by exposure to harsh winter weather; 4)The physical condition                   
of heavy clay can be improved by alternate freezing and thawing.                
                                                                                
Fall plowing is not recommended for hillsides or steep garden                   
plots since the soil would be subject to erosion all winter.                    
A winter cover crop such as winter rye may be grown to improve                  
soil and decrease erosion. Alternatively, leave coarsely chopped                
garden refuse on the garden as a winter mulch. Plow the cover                   
crop or plant debris into the soil in spring along with an                      
application of fertilizer. Spring plowing is also better for                    
sandy soils and where shallow tilling is practiced.                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
LOW GROWING JUNIPERS                                                            
                                                                                
Among the conifers, junipers provide some of the most desirable                 
forms of ground covers. They are extremely valuable both aesthe-                
tically and practically, and are useful in various situations.                  
Some varieties maintain neat, prostrate growth and are suitable                 
for formal as well as informal sites.                                           
                                                                                
Juniper foliage varies through shades of green, gray and blue,                  
with many different textures. Junipers are effective, long-endur-               
ing covers for many difficult situations. The following varie-                  
ties have been useful for problem areas in either full or partial               
sun:                                                                            
                                                                                
Creeping juniper (Juniperus horizontalis) is a native North                     
American prostrate shrub with rapidly extending long branches.                  
Its rate of growth is slow to medium; established plants gain                   
over 1' in diameter per year.                                                   
                                                                                
Several named forms have been introduced, each slighty varied in                
color and growth habit. Selected favorites include: 1)'Bar                      
Harbor' which closely hugs the ground (12" tall) and spreads in                 
all directions maturing at 6-8' in width. Its very short ascend-                
ing branchlets are waxy and grey-green. 2)'Wiltonii', also called               
Blue Rug, one of the best and most popular forms is more compact                
than 'Bar Harbor'. It forms silvery blue capet up to 6" tall and                
8' wide. Foliage assumes a light purple tinge in winter. 'Wil-                  
tonii' is one of the faster growing juniper.                                    
                                                                                
Japanese garden juniper (Juniperus procumbens) has stiff branches               
covered with grey-green foliage. Like creeping juniper, well                    
cared for plants can grow over a foot in diameter per year.                     
Plants are tolerant of many soils but needs full sun.                           
                                                                                
Japanese garden juniper forms a handsome ground cover for beds,                 
borders, terraces and hillsides. The dwarf cultivar 'Nana' is                   
bluish green in summer and purple tinged in winter.                             
                                                                                
Shore juniper (Juniperus conferta) is a native of the sea coasts                
of Japan. It is prostrate with short, ascending, bright green                   
branches which contrast with other blue, grey or dark green                     
junipers. Shore junipers grow slower than either creeping or                    
Japanese garden juniper.. At maturity, plants will spread over                  
6'.                                                                             
                                                                                
Shore juniper is an invaluable undemanding carpet for many                      
difficult areas. It is tolerant of salt spray and poor soils. Use               
shore juniper on banks, in planter boxer or where it can cascade                
over a wall.                                                                    
                                                                                
One to two year old plants of ground cover junipers are set                     
36" from each other. In areas where there are are more than two                 
rows of plants, rows should be staggered so that the plants of                  
every other row are between the plants in the adjacent row. A                   
2" layer of a coarse organic mulch such as shredded pine bark                   
looks good around the plants, conserves moisture, and reduces                   
weed encroachment as the plants get established. When fall                      
planting, be sure to soak the soil around newly planted woody                   
ornamentals each week.                                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
UNCOMMON HYDRANGEAS FOR THE LANDSCAPE                                           
                                                                                
Hydrangeas attract attention wherever they are planted. Large                   
flower heads adorn the plants from midsummer until frost.                       
Most species are best used for mass plantings and in shrub                      
borders. Dwarf forms and less common species becoming available                 
in nurseries may be suited for an area of your landscape.                       
                                                                                
Dwarf Hydrangea 'Forever Pink'                                                  
The Dwarf Hydrangea 'Forever Pink' is an unusual hydrangea                      
because its large, bright pink flower heads begin to appear in                  
June, an entire month earlier than other Hydrangeas. The floral                 
interest continues reliably until the first frost.                              
                                                                                
The petite size of this plant, 2-3 feet, is also unique in                      
hydrangeas as most varieties mature at 5 feet. Glossy, dark green               
foliage, which stays attractive until a hard frost, and compact                 
rounded habit are other stunning features which can make this                   
plant a star in your yard.                                                      
                                                                                
For best results, purchase hydrangeas grown as container plants.                
Locate plants in a moist, well-drained soil amended with peat                   
moss. pH 6.0-6.5 is ideal. 'Forever Pink' will tolerate a                       
fully shaded spot, but for the fullest effect from the 4" flower                
heads and glossy green foliage give it more sun if possible.                    
                                                                                
You may want to use this multi-featured shrub in a mixed border,                
around the foundation of your house, or as a specimen plant to                  
attract deserved attention. The problems homeowners should keep                 
an eye out for with 'Forever Pink' are aphids, nematodes, and                   
powdery mildew.                                                                 
                                                                                
Oakleaf Hydrangea                                                               
Oakleaf Hydrangea is another excellent choice for a shrub border                
or it may be appropriate in your landscape as a large foundation                
plant. It is hardy in zones 5-9 which makes it a splendid                       
specimen throughout Virginia. It has an upright irregular habit.                
Plants mature at 6-8 feet in height.  year round coarse texture                 
because of its large leaves (3"-8" long).                                       
                                                                                
Some of the ornamental features associated with oakleaf hydrangea               
are the older cinnamon-brown bark of mature plants which exfoli-                
ates; large, dark green, oak-like leaves which give the plant a                 
coarse visual texture; showy fall color of orange, red, and                     
purple; and showy bracts surrounding the flowers. The ornamental                
bracts provide floral interest late June through July. They are                 
white at first, change to pink as summer progresses, and then                   
to brown in late fall. The paper bracts cling to the plant into                 
winter providing yet another season of interest in the landscape.               
                                                                                
Best conditions for Oakleaf Hydrangea are full sun to partial                   
shade and moist, fertile, well-drained soil. Partial shade is                   
important for plant vigor in the warmer regions of the state.                   
Care for this plant should include keeping it in moist soil                     
and pruning it after flowering in late summer or possibly later,                
if height control is necessary.                                                 
                                                                                
Uses for this plant are limited to shrub borders and shady                      
areas because of its texture. It is an attractive plant which                   
should have no problem finding a place in many landscape situ-                  
ations. Some available cultivars of Oakleaf Hydrangea are                       
'Harmony', 'Roanoke', and 'Snowflake'.                                          
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
THE VIRGINIA GARDENER QUESTION BOX                                              
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
October 1986 Topics                                                             
                                                                                
Root Drying in Transplants                      33 lines                        
Winterberry, A Groundcover                      21 lines                        
Berm Construction                               34 lines                        
Jerusalem Artichokes                            42 lines                        
Tea Viburnub Shrub                              16 lines                        
Bulb Hardiness Relates to Soil Temperature      40 lines                        
Frost Protection with a Water Spray             21 lines                        
Shrub Hardiness                                 63 lines                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
How fast do exposed tree roots dry out? Should I soak tree roots                
which arrive dry in the mail? Should I keep the roots in water as               
I transplant?                                                                   
                                                                                
Recent experiments in England provide some data which begins to                 
answer your questions. One-year-old birch and ash seedlings were                
dug from nursery beds, then allowed to dry out at room tempera-                 
ture and about 50% relative humidity for up to 72 hours. It was                 
found that lateral roots lost moisture more quickly than tap                    
roots. Half of the water initially in laterals can be lost in                   
under two hours, while a similar loss from tap roots takes about                
three hours. Laterals were bone dry after about 20 hours, but tap               
roots retained a bit of water even after 72 hours of drying.                    
                                                                                
It appears that a few minutes of drying has neglible effect on                  
root system health of some broad-leaf trees, but needle-leaf                    
trees may drop needles if allowed to dry out.                                   
                                                                                
Should roots that arrive dry in the mail be soaked before                       
planting? The English research suggests a cautious "yes". Soaking               
birch and ash roots that had been dried for several hours                       
sometimes resulted in better growth. No harm was seen due                       
to soaking for a short period of time.                                          
                                                                                
If plants arrive in questionable condition, check for signs of                  
life in the roots and stems of trees by scratching off a small                  
area of bark. Look for succulent, light-colored tissue under-                   
neath. Plant new purchases as soon as possible. Although nurser-                
ies usually ship plants in good condition and with adequate                     
packing to retain moisture, plants too long in transit can dry                  
out to a damaging level. Do not hesitate to return plants if they               
arrive in poor shape. If something fails to grow, notify the                    
nursery immediately.                                                            
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
Are parts of the groundcover wintergreen edible? Is it native to                
Virginia? Can it be grown from seed?                                            
                                                                                
Wintergreen or checkerberry (Gaultheria procumbens) is native to                
the eastern part of Canada and the U.S. occurring as far south as               
Alabama. Growing in deep woods, it makes an evergreen carpet,                   
with tiny leaves all along its slender branches. Small white bell               
flowers are borne in the leaf axils in late spring through early                
fall. Fragrant, 1/3", red berries which begin ripening in late                  
summer are easy to harvest and delectable fresh or cooked. The                  
flavor is unique, a delicately sweet, slightly acidic winter-                   
green. Oil extracted from leaves was the original source of                     
wintergreen flavoring.                                                          
                                                                                
Wintergreen is a delightful, edible, ornamental groundcover for                 
light to deep shade and organic, acidic soil. Given these condi-                
tions it will ramble over rotting logs and stumps and thrive                    
under all sorts of acid-loving shrubs.                                          
Seed of creeping wintergreen can be collected from wild plants or               
ordered from nurseries specializing in native plants. They should               
be sown in autumn. Plants can also be propagated by division and                
root or stem cuttings in late spring.                                           
                                                                                
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Can you offer any pointers for constructing and planting a hill                 
(berm) in the landscape?                                                        
                                                                                
A well-designed berm or man-made "hill" can be a landscape asset.               
Even a low berm adds considerable interest on a flat property. A                
berm will provide screening for privacy, deflect and absorb                     
noise, or redirect wind or water flow where necessary. It can                   
also improve the microclimates for plants, its south side staying               
warmer all year, the north side cooler.                                         
                                                                                
A berm should be asymmetrical, its peak located near one end or                 
one side rather than in the center. Try to vary the height, width               
and degree of slope as much as possible, or have several peaks,                 
or even make two or more berms of different sizes and contouring                
if space permits.                                                               
                                                                                
Soft contouring is essential; the berm should never look like                   
just a bump on the land. Make the change from flat ground to the                
berm's slopes very gradual, and keep the crown of the berm gently               
rounded. This will both make the berm appear to be a natural                    
feature of the landscape and make plant maintenance easier.                     
                                                                                
Plantings should accentuate the form of the berm. Plant several                 
trees along the sides rather than at the top. Shrubs are general-               
ly best in masses that flow across or around the berm to empha-                 
size its form. Remember that too many individual plants will                    
cause the landscape to look ununified. Mulch or groundcover                     
plants should cover the entire surface to minimize erosion. Grass               
is rarely used on berms because of difficulty of mowing on a                    
slope.                                                                          
                                                                                
Be sure not to construct a berm where the built-up soil would                   
smother the roots of existing trees. Where space is limited, a                  
retaining wall can be used on one side of the berm instead of a                 
slope.                                                                          
                                                                                
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Please tell me what to do with Jerusalem artichokes, those funny                
looking potato-like vegetables in the specialty produce section.                
Are they locally grown?                                                         
                                                                                
Jerusalem artichokes, native Eastern wildflowers, were very well                
known to the Indians and Colonial Americans. They are reappearing               
in markets and some nursery catalogs, but most gardeners and                    
shoppers still don't know what they are looking at when they see                
Jerusalem artichokes - or what to do with them.                                 
                                                                                
The edible tubers grow underground and look like knobby whitish                 
potatoes. Tubers can be peeled and cooked exactly like potatoes,                
or sliced raw into a salad. The texture is apple-crisp with a                   
flavor much like that of water chestnuts for which they are a                   
good substitute.                                                                
                                                                                
Jerusalem artichokes store for up to one month in a perforated                  
plastic bag in the crisper of the refrigerator. Tubers also keep                
well in the soil where they were grown if the plot is covered                   
with a thick layer of straw or other organic mulch in fall.                     
Unlike potatoes, if tubers are dug and stored in a dry environ-                 
ment, they soon shrivel because of their thin skin.                             
                                                                                
Jerusalem artichokes thrive everywhere in the U.S. except the                   
deep South. A few mail-order nurseries carry seed tubers. Culture               
is simple. Spade the soil well, and plant tubers about 4 inches                 
deep and a foot apart. If the soil is moderately fertile nothing                
else is needed, although some gardeners like to spade in 3 inches               
of compost and mulch with the same amount each spring. The plants               
prefer full sun but do well even in a partly shaded area. Few                   
pests bother Jerusalem artichokes in gardens.                                   
                                                                                
Like potatoes, tubers of Jerusalem artichokes develop after top                 
growth is well developed. Stalks die at the end of summer but                   
tubers live on sprouting the next spring about April. In fact, in               
clay soil volunteer plants can become pesty and difficult to                    
eradicate. Roots grown in heavy clay also tend to be small and                  
misshapened.                                                                    
                                                                                
Cut dead stalks down in late fall and mulch heavily. Dig tubers                 
as needed. Those you overlook along with the ones too small to                  
bother harvesting will grow next year's crop. The harvest                       
averages about a pound per plant per season.                                    
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
What can you tell me about the tea viburnum shrub?                              
                                                                                
Tea viburnum (Viburnum setigerum) is a native of China. It is one               
of the lesser known viburnums but quite useful in landscapes.                   
Growing narrowly upright to 10', it is better suited in small                   
gardens than the more vigorous viburnum species. Its graceful                   
habit, lustrous leaves, and white flowers in spring make it                     
useful for foundation and border plantings.                                     
                                                                                
In fall tea viburnum becomes a real stand-out, its branches                     
literally weighted down with great clusters of brilliant red                    
fruit. These persist until long after the bronze-green foliage                  
has fallen, ignored by birds while other food is present,. The                  
shrub is hardy to -15 degrees F in a protected spot. An orange--                
fruited cultivar `Aurantiacum' is available from some nurseries.                
(For more information on Viburnums see The Virginia Gardener                    
Vol.3, No.11 and Vol.4, No.4.                                                   
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
Each year I loose some spring bulbs - I think to the cold. Which                
bulbs can I rely on in the mountains of Virginia?                               
                                                                                
If you're planning to plant "hardy bulbs" this fall, be advised                 
that the widely published hardiness zones are based on minimum                  
air temperatures. According to horticulturists at the University                
of Minnesota, the appropriate criterion for rating hardiness of                 
bulbous plants is soil temperature. In the mid 1970's reasearch-                
ers there measured soil temperatures causing severe injury to                   
several species of bulbous plants. Here are the results:                        
                                                                                
Species						Soil Temp. for Severe Injury                                       
                                      in degrees Fahrenheit                     
Allium Moly/lily leek					20                                                    
Allium neapolitanum/daffodil garlic		16                                         
Anemone blanda/Greek anemone				16                                              
Camassia Quamash/quamash					 4                                                 
Crocus speciosus/crocus					16                                                  
Endymion hispanicus/Spanish bluebell		16                                        
Eranthis hyemalis/winter aconite			12                                           
Galanthus nivalis/common snowdrop			16                                          
Hyacinthus orientalis/hyacinth			16                                             
	(cv.`King of the Blues')                                                       
Ixia species/corn lily					28                                                   
Iriolirion tataricum/Siberian lily			 0                                         
Leucjum aestivum/giant snowflake			20                                           
Muscari armeniacum/Armenian grape hyacinth	16                                   
	(cv.`Blue Spike')                                                              
Puschkinia scilloides/striped squill		16                                        
Scilla siberica/Siberian squill			12                                            
Scilla Tubergenianal/squill				16                                               
Sparaxis tricolor/wandflower				28                                              
Sternbergia lutea/winter daffodil			20                                          
Tulipa Fosterana/tulip					 8                                                   
	(cv.`Red Emperor')                                                             
Tulipa generana/tulip					 8                                                    
	(cv. `Apledoorn')                                                              
Tulipa Kaufmaniana/water-lily tulip		16                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
You may wish to start monitoring soil temperature with an                       
inexpensive soil thermometer available from some garden centers                 
and mail order garden supply companies. If you know local                       
expected minimum soil temperatures at bulb planting depths, the                 
above table will give you a rough indication of which bulbs                     
should be hardy for you. Marginal locations can be improved by                  
adding mulch to the soil surface after it freezes.                              
                                                                                
 --------                                                                       
                                                                                
Have you heard about spraying water on plants to protect them                   
from frost? How does this work?                                                 
                                                                                
Protection against an early frost may be given to particularly                  
valuable specimen plants and crops by spraying them with a                      
gentle, continuous spray of water. When the air temperature drops               
below freezing, the water sprayed onto the plants begins to form                
ice. During the process of freezing, water gives off heat.                      
Enough heat is absorbed by the plants to prevent them from                      
freezing.                                                                       
                                                                                
The application of the water should begin when the temperature                  
descends to 34 degrees F at the height of the plants. A station-                
ary or rotary sprinkler will give satisfactory results. Watering                
must be constant throughout the period when air temperature is                  
below freezing and continued until all ice has melted from the                  
plants. Satisfactory frost protection can be obtained in many                   
cases, even when the temperature drops as low as 20 degrees F.                  
But use this technique with caution as ice build up during a                    
prolonged freeze can result in breakage or other damage to the                  
plants.                                                                         
                                                                                
___________                                                                     
                                                                                
Why are some shrubs more hardy than others? Why do certain                      
species or varieties of shrubs, roses, or perennials survive the                
winter, while others die, or become so badly damaged that they                  
need to be replaced in the spring?                                              
                                                                                
The type of hardiness you refer to relates to a plant's ability                 
to tolerate severe winter weather with little or no injury. For                 
most plants the answer to the hardiness question is quite simple.               
Hardy plants bind the water in their cells so tightly in a                      
colloidal complex, that it does not freeze at the usual tempera-                
ture. Thus, the first solution to the hardiness problem is to                   
select hardy shrubs.                                                            
                                                                                
The other half of the answer to hardiness concerns the way                      
you treat your plants during the summer. Fertilize shrubs                       
and perennial plants in the spring, not late in the season., As                 
late summer approaches, active growth should cease. This is a                   
natural process which may be promoted by withholding fertilizer                 
and providing only moderate amounts of water. This practice                     
allows carbohydrates to accumulate which increase the amount of                 
bound water and also the hardiness. Control weeds and supply                    
water as needed during the summer to promote green, vigorous                    
growth. Disease and insect pests must be controlled too if shrubs               
are to have good foliage and develop their maximum hardiness.                   
Severe foliage damage will reduce carbohydrate formation, and                   
prevent plants from maturing properly. Keep your plants healthy.                
They will be more attractive in the landscape and more resistant                
to damage by cold.                                                              
                                                                                
Shrubs may be stimulated into renewed growth by rainy weather in                
the fall, if they have been damaged by pests or drought in the                  
summer. In some cases a late crop of flowers may develop. Fall                  
growth of this sort will utilize carbohydrate reserves and be                   
immature. It may be injured if cold weather occurs early in the                 
winter.                                                                         
                                                                                
Heavy pruning of shrubs and fruit trees should be avoided in the                
fall and early winter. Pruning at this time removes reserve foods               
and shocks plants making them becomes more susceptible to winter                
injury, especially if a rapid and severe drop in temperature                    
occurs. Heavy pruning in late summer should also be avoided as                  
it stimulates new growth that will not have time to mature                      
before cold weather arrives.                                                    
                                                                                
Also be concerned about desiccation or water loss from plant                    
tissues during the winter. This type of damage, called windburn                 
or sunburn, may be severe enough to cause death, especially on                  
evergreen shrubs. The best way to prevent injury by dessiccation                
is to be sure the soil around the shrub is moist before the                     
ground freezes. This is especially true for plants which have not               
become established after being transplanted. If there is insuffi-               
cient rainfall to keep soil around shrubs moist, start watering                 
shrubs at about the average date of the first fall frost. At this               
time there will be no possibility of causing tender, late season                
growth. Apply water at weekly intervals until the ground freezes.               
                                                                                
Evergreen shrubs located on windy sites may be dried out quite                  
severely even on moist soils. This damage may be reduced or                     
prevented by wrapping the plants in burlap. Spraying the foliage                
with an anti-wilt spray also helps, but plants must be sprayed                  
regularly, as often as weekly, as the compound breaks down                      
readily. The best solution is to move tender shrubs to a better                 
location and replant the area with species that can withstand                   
harsh conditions.                                                               
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes for October 1987                                                  
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Move and divide crowded perennials. Arrange for swaps with                    
friends and neighbors.                                                          
                                                                                
* Add mulch to your perennial border. A one-inch layer of                       
weed-free straw or chopped leaves will help conserve soil                       
moisture, protect the root system, and reduce plant loss from                   
heaving during the winter.                                                      
                                                                                
* A lily bulb is never dormant; it must be planted as soon as it                
is received. Have beds prepared ahead of time.                                  
                                                                                
* If your climbing roses are in an exposed location, tie them up                
firmly with broad strips of rags so that the wind will not whip                 
them against the trellis and bruise the bark.                                   
                                                                                
* It is too late this year to prune roses as they would become                  
subject to winter injury. However, the rose garden should be                    
raked and cleaned to prevent black spot and other diseases.                     
Additional mulch should be added after the ground has frozen.                   
                                                                                
* For colorful greenery in window boxes during the winter, try a                
varigated variety of Vinca minor with its evergreen foliage.                    
                                                                                
* Plan for Thanksgiving bouquets, cut chrysanthemum stems before                
heavy frosts. Remove all leaves and plunge stems into a pail of                 
water leaving only the blossoms exposed on top. Store the flowers               
in a cool garage or cellar where they will not freeze. Make                     
flower arrangements 5-7 days before the holiday.                                
                                                                                
* Bring in cannas, dahlias, and gladiolas if not hardy in your                  
area after the tops are hurt by frost. Dry, clean, and store in                 
peat moss or vermiculite in a cool location free from frost.                    
                                                                                
* Use coldframes to overwinter cuttings of trees and shrubs and                 
perennial seedlings started in mid to late summer. Bulbs prepared               
for forcing can also be stored in coldframes until time to take                 
indoors.                                                                        
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* A plant or two of parsley taken from the garden and potted up                 
will do well all winter if watered and set in a sunny window.                   
Chives, sage, and thyme can also be maintained in this manner.                  
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* Water evergreens thoroughly before the ground freezes.                        
Evergreens continue to lose water by transpiring during the                     
winter, but when the ground is frozen they cannot replenish the                 
water.                                                                          
                                                                                
* The bitter, golf-ball sized fruits of the trifoliate orange                   
(Poncirus trifoliate) may have some uses after all. Sections of                 
the fruit in hot tea have been reported as tastier than lemon and               
the entire fruit make an attractive, miniature pomander when                    
covered with cloves and coated with spices.                                     
                                                                                
* Fertilize trees and shrubs that have shown signs of weak growth               
after they are dormant but before soil temperature drops below 45               
degrees F.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Water trees and shrubs well to increase winter hardiness.                     
                                                                                
* The eastern native, Canby paxistima (Paxistima canbyi) makes a                
fine, carefree evergreen groundcover or low hedge.  It grows                    
about 1' tall and 3' to 5' across. A handsome small leaved plant                
it grows well in sun or light shade. Plants will tolerate high pH               
soil if it is high in organic matter and well drained. Once                     
established, it requires little attention.                                      
                                                                                
* Do not become alarmed if yews, pines, arborvitae and junipers                 
begin to shed their innermost needles. It is natural for them to                
do so at this time of year.                                                     
                                                                                
* Pick bagworms from evergreen shrubs. This will eliminate the                  
overwintering females who would lay eggs next spring.                           
Landscape                                                                       
                                                                                
* In deciding on new trees or shrubs to plant around your home,                 
remember to select varieties with a mature height to fit the                    
desired location. This will greatly reduce pruning and other                    
maintenance in the future.                                                      
                                                                                
* Fall color can often be enjoyed for much longer than the                      
plant's flowers in the spring. For this reason, it may be more                  
desirable when selecting trees and shrubs for landscape use to                  
plan greater emphasis on their fall features.                                   
                                                                                
* Make a note of plants displaying outstanding fall colors as you               
drive along city streets and the surrounding countryside.  You                  
may wish to incorporate some of them into your own landscape.                   
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from the lawn to reduce problems. Compost or save               
for next year's mulch.                                                          
                                                                                
* Mow lawn for as long as it continues to grow to prevent matting               
through the winter which encourages root rots.                                  
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Many virus diseases overwinter in the roots of perennial weeds.               
Tomato mosaic virus overwinters in the roots of ground cherry,                  
horsenettle, jimson weed, nightshade, and bittersweet; cucumber                 
mosaic virus lives in the roots of milkweed, catnip, white                      
cockle, hollyhock, and wild bluebell; bean mosaic overwinters in                
white sweet clover roots; and lettuce yellows virus and lettuce                 
mosaic virus overwinter in most field weeds. So, from the aspect                
of disease control, it is evident that a good fall cleanup is                   
essential.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Remove any diseased or insect-infested plant material from your               
garden; it may harbor overwintering stages of disease and insect                
pests. If you leave this plant material in your garden, you are                 
leaving diseases and insects which will begin to reproduce again                
next spring and add to next year's pest problem.                                
                                                                                
* Cure butternut and Hubbard squash at temperatures between 70-80               
degrees F for two to three weeks immediately after harvest. After               
curing, store them in a dry place at 55-60 degrees F. If stored                 
at 50 degrees F or below, squashes are subject to damage by                     
chilling. At temperatures above 60 degrees F, they gradually lose               
moisture and become stringy.                                                    
                                                                                
* A ripe apple placed in a closed container with green tomatoes                 
will encourage the tomatoes to turn red. Ripe apples give off                   
ethylene gas which will cause tomatoes to ripen.                                
                                                                                
* Pumpkins which are free from insects, disease or damage will                  
keep 2-3 months if stored at 50-55 degrees F with a relative                    
humidity of 70-75%.                                                             
                                                                                
Fruits/ Nuts                                                                    
                                                                                
* Surround the trunks of fruit trees with hardware cloth or                     
similar wire, and bury the edges in the ground to prevent rodents               
from chewing on the bark.                                                       
                                                                                
* Clean up home orchard and small fruit plantings. Sanitation is                
essential for good maintenance. Dried fruits or "mummies" carry                 
disease organisms through the winter to attack next year's crop.                
                                                                                
* Nut trees are a fine addition to the home landscape. They may                 
accent the house, provide shade in the summer, and even become a                
good source of home grown nuts.                                                 
                                                                                
* To beat birds, squirrels, and other pests to your crops, prompt               
harvest is a must. This month harvest pecans and pawpaws.                       
                                                                                
* A final weeding of strawberries, blueberries, or raspberries                  
will help keep weed problems down to a minimum. Order mulch for                 
your strawberries for November. Apply mulch after the ground has                
frozen.                                                                         
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* House plants will slow down growth as the days get shorter and                
light intensity is reduced. This means that they will need less                 
frequent watering and fertilizing until next spring. Too much of                
either in the winter months can cause weak growth.                              
                                                                                
* Christmas cactus need special care now to reveal its beautiful                
flowers this December. Buds will form at 50-60 degrees F in a                   
spare room or if the plant is insured of at least 13 hours of                   
complete darkness each night. The extra effort is well worth it.                
                                                                                
* House plants need to come indoors before they are damaged by                  
the cold (below 50 degrees F). First be sure to check them for                  
pests. Rinse the plants' leaves and soak pots in water for 15-20                
minutes to drown most soil-dwelling pests.                                      
                                                                                
* House plants should be well watered throughout the summer                     
months when they are growing the most. But, when they are resting               
during the cool winter months, less water should be applied.                    
                                                                                
* Poinsettias are short day plants and need special treatment to                
have them bloom for Christmas. Keep the plants in an area where                 
night temperatures are around 60 degrees F. Control day length by               
placing the plant in a dark area at 5:00 p.m. and removing it at                
8:00 a.m. Do this for 11 weeks; so if you start now, they will                  
bloom for Christmas. In addition to this treatment, be sure to                  
provide them with adequate water, fertilizer, and night                         
temperatures to get a healthy display of color for the holidays.                
                                                                                
Tools and Equipment                                                             
                                                                                
* The cool dry days of fall are an ideal time for painting                      
buildings and wood fences. The job will enhance the beauty,                     
usefulness, and value of your property.                                         
                                                                                
* During fall, demand for garden supplies is low, so keep an eye                
open for special prices on hand tools and power equipment to be                 
given as gifts or used next year.                                               
                                                                                
* Garden tools add up to a large financial investment. Take care                
of tools so they need not be replaced. Bring all gardening tools                
inside and clean them. Use a stick to remove soil that is caked                 
on. With a rag apply oil to the metal parts of tools to prevent                 
rust. With proper care quality tools can last a lifetime.                       
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* To speed decomposition of organic material in the garden,                     
sprinkle a quick release nitrogen fertilizer over the plant                     
material before working it into the soil. Turn the soil every 2-3               
weeks until decomposition is complete.                                          
                                                                                
* Quick acting fertilizers applied to bare soil during the fall                 
will be leached away before spring. Use materials which take a                  
long time to break down and become available to plants, such as                 
bone meal.                                                                      
                                                                                
* If the weather stays dry enough before the ground freezes, you                
can plow. Fall plowing allows earlier planting in the spring and                
is especially good for heavy soils since they are exposed to the                
freezing and thawing action of winter. This will help improve                   
your soil's structure.                                                          
                                                                                
* Fall is an excellent time for taking soil samples in your lawn                
and garden.  Soil tests will measure the acidity or alkalinity of               
the soil and the levels of two major elements required for plant                
growth: phosphorus, and potassium. Where lime is needed, now is a               
good time to apply it.                                                          
                                                                                
* In folklore, woolybear caterpillars are used to forecast the                  
severity of the winter - the more black on the woolybear, the                   
colder the winter will be. Conduct your own research to see if it               
works. Though these insects feed on a variety of garden                         
vegetables they are not present in large numbers and are not                    
pests of any particular plant.                                                  
                                                                                
* `Tis the season for apples. Visit your farmer's market or a                   
"pick-your-own" orchard for unusual and local varieties. For a                  
listing of PYO farms write:  Va. Dept. of Agriculture and                       
Consumer Services, Division of Markets, P.O.Box 1163, Richmond,                 
Virginia  23209.                                                                
                                                                                
* Pebbles or crushed rock make an attractive mulch. With a                      
combination of rocks and a barrier layer (such as 3-4 sheets of                 
newpaper or one of the new weed barrier fabrics) underneath, weed               
control is assured for up to 2 years. Plastic is effective in                   
weed control under rocks; however, it reduces the movement of                   
oxygen into the soil and can reduce water availablity. If plastic               
is used check periodically to see that the soil beneath remains                 
moist; cut holes in it if the water doesn't seem to be getting                  
through.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Pine needles are like good building insulation, full of air                   
spaces. They insulate the soil and make an ideal winter mulch for               
perennial flowers, small fruit plants, especially strawberries,                 
and acid-loving shrubs and trees. Pine needles prevent alternate                
freezing and thawing which may heave shallow-rooted plants out of               
the ground, a problem especially serious on heavy soils.                        
                                                                                
* Bring out the bird feeders and stock them with treats for the                 
birds. Remember to provide fresh water for your feathered                       
friends.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Treat magnolia and beech leaves for dried flower arrangements                 
in a mixture of 1/3 glycerine, 2/3 warm water. Crush stems and                  
submerge 3 weeks to produce a rich, glossy brown foliage.                       
                                                                                
* To protect young trees against deer damage, there are a number                
of deterrents you can try. Remember, deer will become accustomed                
to any object, so alternating items will help. Hang bars of soap,               
mesh bags filled with human hair, bags of dried blood or strips                 
of white plastic trash or freezer bags on trees that are likely                 
to be attacked. Chemical deer repellents can also be applied,                   
such as creosote on felt strips. Be sure to reapply any chemicals               
after 2 to 3 weeks of normal weathering.                                        
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases October 1987                                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Extension                   
Technician, and Diane Relf, Extension Specialist in Home Horti-                 
culture, working with Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The               
Virginia Gardener Press Releases have been developed for agent                  
use in preparing radio and newspaper features and other                         
educational programs.                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Selecting Shade Trees                               83 lines                    
Seed Stratification                                 53 lines                    
Fall Clean up Can Be Fun                            47 lines                    
Dianthus                                            48 lines                    
Avoiding Winter Injury in Trees and Shrubs          86 lines                    
Pine Needle Scale                                   30 lines                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Selecting Shade Trees                                                          
                                                                                
People are sometimes hesitant to invest in a tree, rationalizing                
that it may be several years before the tree has any aesthetic or               
environmental impact on their home. However, it is precisely                    
because of this time lag that trees should be one of the first                  
elements added to the landscape. As the tree matures, the                       
investment is regained not only in pleasure, but in enhanced                    
value to your home and in savings on heating and cooling bills.                 
                                                                                
Once the purposes and location for trees have been established,                 
select trees that will best fit your needs. To do this, consider                
the following factors:                                                          
                                                                                
Hardiness - the ability to survive extremes of winter and summer                
temperatures. Native species are typically hardy selections.                    
                                                                                
Mature height and spread - a particularly important aspect of the               
tree is to provide shade. Consider the space available and make                 
sure trees are not planted so close to the house or other trees                 
as to require removal of branches as they develop. Avoid planting               
trees near overhead wires.                                                      
                                                                                
Growth rate - particularly important in determining how soon a                  
tree will have desired characteristics.                                         
                                                                                
Type of root system - deeper rooting trees can better tolerate                  
drought. Shallow rooted trees give more problems in sewage lines                
and drainage fields.                                                            
                                                                                
Maintenance requirements - consider moisture and fertility                      
requirements, cleanliness, desirable fruits, nuts or seed pods.                 
Avoid weak wood that breaks easily creating pruning problems.                   
                                                                                
Ornamental effect - such as branching habit, texture and color of               
bark, flowers, fruit and foliage.                                               
                                                                                
Insect and disease susceptibility - a particularly important                    
aspect as the gypsy moth becomes more prevalent in Virginia.                    
                                                                                
There are many excellant trees that thrive in Virginia. The                     
following list contains a number of trees that deserve more                     
attention and should be considered for planting.                                
                                                                                
Allegheny serviceberry (Amelanchier laevis). A small deciduous                  
tree with an ultimate height of 40 feet,desirable features                      
include prominent gray winter bark, delicate white flowers in                   
early spring, red fruit in July, and yellow to red autumn                       
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
Littleleaf linden (Tilia cordata). Several new and improved                     
selections of linden are becoming increasingly available in the                 
trade. The cultivar Greenspire has an oval shape with small,                    
dense, dark leaves and can reach an ultimate mature height of 100               
feet. All perform well under difficult city conditions.                         
                                                                                
Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora japonica). Valued for its large                   
white to yellow clusters of pea-like flowers in late July to                    
early August, it is tolerant of city conditions and reaches a                   
maximum height of 80 feet.                                                      
                                                                                
River birch (Betula nigra). A large tree, often approaching 100                 
feet, it is typically found along stream beds or low lands, where               
roots can easily penetrate to water. Noted for its excellent                    
cinnamon-colored, exfoliating bark and resistance to borers.                    
                                                                                
A few commonly used trees have significant problems that should                 
limit their landscape use. These include:                                       
                                                                                
Box elder (Acer negundo) is weak-wooded and subject to numerous                 
insect problems.                                                                
                                                                                
Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) is also weak-wooded with                        
generally a poor branch development that results in severe                      
breakage during wind or ice storms. It has a shallow root system.               
                                                                                
Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra 'Italica') is very susceptible to                
wind and ice damage due to structurally weak wood. In addition,                 
it has numerous insect and disease problems.                                    
                                                                                
Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila) is a weak wooded tree easily broken                 
and damaged during wind and ice storms. It is also subject to                   
severe defoliation by the elm leaf beetle and bark borer. Don,t                 
confuse this species with the more attractive Chinese elm (U.                   
parvifolia).                                                                    
Seed Stratification                                                            
                                                                                
Seeds of some fall-ripening trees and shrubs of the temperate                   
zone will not germinate unless chilled underground as they over-                
winter. This so called after-ripening may be accomplished                       
artificially by a practice called stratification.                               
                                                                                
Stratification can be described as the imitation of nature                      
intended to ensure the sprouting of seeds. When seeds drop on the               
ground in early fall, they are usually covered by a natural mulch               
of forest debris such as leaves. This mulch protects the seeds by               
providing a moist, dark haven where they can remain until time to               
sprout while winter temperatures fulfill the cold requirements of               
the seed. Stratification mimics this natural process using moist                
sand or a peat moss medium in which the seeds are mixed and                     
chilled for the proper period of time.                                          
                                                                                
The following stratification procedure is usually successful. Put               
sand or vermiculite in a clay pot to about 1 inch from the top.                 
Place the seeds on top of the medium and cover with 1/2 inch of                 
sand or vermiculite. Wet the medium thoroughly and allow excess                 
water to drain through the hole in the pot. Place the pot                       
containing the moist medium and seeds in a plastic bag and tie                  
the bag using a twist-tie or rubber band. Place the bag in a                    
refrigerator. Temperatures in the range of 35-45 F (2-7 C) are                  
effective. Most refrigerators operate in this range. Periodically               
check to see if the medium is moist but not wet. Additional water               
will probably not be necessary.                                                 
                                                                                
After 10-12 weeks, remove the pot from the bag and set it in a                  
warm place in the house. Water often enough to keep the medium                  
moist. Soon the seedlings should emerge. When the young plants                  
are about 3 inches tall, transplant them into pots to grow until                
time for setting outside.                                                       
                                                                                
Another approach is to use sphagnum moss or peat moss. Wet                      
thoroughly, then squeeze out excess water with hands. Mix seed                  
with the sphagnum or peat and place in a plastic bag. Use a                     
twist-tie or rubber band to secure the top and put the bag in a                 
refrigerator and check periodically. If there is condensation on                
the inside of the bag, the process will probably be successful.                 
After 10-12 weeks remove the bag from the refrigerator. Plant the               
seeds in pots to germinate and grow. Handle seeds carefully.                    
Often the small roots and shoots are emerging by the end of the                 
stratification period. Care must be taken not to break these off.               
                                                                                
Seeds of most fruit and nut trees can be successfully germinated                
by these procedures. Seeds of peaches should be removed from the                
hard pit. Care must be taken when cracking the pits. Any injury                 
to the seed itself can be an entry path for disease organisms.                  
Other woody plants which require seed stratification include:                   
maples, firs, birch, chestnut, dogwood, holly, juniper, hickory,                
pine, cherry, oak, spruce, yew, and viburnum.                                   
                                                                                
Fall Clean Up Can Be Fun                                                        
                                                                                
Clean-up and planting around the garden can provide enjoyable                   
exercise on sunny fall days. Be sure to keep leaves raked up from               
the lawn. If they are allowed to accumulate and become matted                   
down by rain, they may smother the grass. Rake them up regularly                
and store them in a pile for use as mulch in the garden next                    
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
Cut down the plants in the vegetable and flower garden and turn                 
them under to decompose. This will enrich the soil with organic                 
matter while eliminating over wintering sites for insects and                   
disease. If your garden is on a slope, leave the chopped trash to               
protect the soil and prevent winter erosion. Use hand pruners,                  
hedge shears or a sharp sickle to cut the plants into pieces                    
about six inches long.                                                          
                                                                                
Low growing plants like beans and dwarf flowers can be cut up by                
running along the row with a rotary lawn mower. For most home                   
gardeners the incorporation of garden debris is a much more                     
practical way of maintaining soil organic matter than seeding a                 
fall cover crop of rye.                                                         
                                                                                
Coarse materials such as corn stalks, or evergreen branches may                 
be used as mulch on chrysanthemums. In the colder parts of the                  
state a better procedure than using mulch on chrysanthemums is to               
cut the tops back to about three inches long, dig the plants, and               
place them in pots or flats in a cold frame until growth starts                 
in the spring. Cuttings or divisions can be taken from these                    
plants which will make vigorous growth next summer. Such plants                 
usually will produce better flowers than the older plants.                      
                                                                                
Try sowing some hardy annual flowers to secure an early start in                
the garden next year. The following seeds will tolerate the cold                
of winter and be ready to grow rapidly when warm weather arrives                
next spring: calliopsis, cornflower, larkspur, Johnny-jump-up,                  
and annual poppies.  When planting hardy annual flowers in the                  
fall, make a shallow, wide furrow. Sow seeds thinly in a band                   
about three or four inches wide and cover lightly with soil.                    
Space the seed wide enough apart to allow some of the young                     
plants to be easily transplanted into more desirable locations in               
flower beds and borders.                                                        
                                                                                
Mulch fall-sown annuals with coarse material to reduce erosion                  
and damage by rapid and extreme changes in temperature. Mark the                
rows carefully so you will know where to look for young seedlings               
next spring. Remove the mulch after cold weather is past but                    
before the plants start to grow.                                                
Dianthus                                                                       
                                                                                
The Dianthus family is often recognized by its most common                      
member, the carnation, but this group includes smaller flowering                
plants which can provide color to the home grounds. Dianthus,                   
commonly called pinks, includes many fine annual, biennial and                  
perennial flowers. The fragrant blooms add beauty to the                        
landscape and are ideal for small and medium arrangements.                      
                                                                                
Annual dianthus varieties will bloom freely and continuously from               
June until frost. Clusters of small double flowers about one inch               
in diameter, on stiff, erect stems are produced. The annual China               
Pink (D. chinensis) is a popular species which can be used in                   
containers, beds or as an edging plant. Planted in masses this                  
species can provide a dramatic effect throughout summer in many                 
landscape situations. It performs best with afternoon shade in                  
the hottest part of the state.                                                  
                                                                                
The biennial Sweet William (D. barbatus) has been in cultivation                
for about three centuries. On well drained soils it may endure as               
a perennial. The single forms are more hardy and easier to grow                 
than the double types. Sweet William produces clusters of small                 
flowers in May and June. The plants are about eighteen inches                   
tall. The blooms have numerous combinations of red, pink and                    
white, with novel ring and spot markings. The plants are about                  
eigthteen inches tall and tolerate light shade.                                 
                                                                                
The perennial pinks are old favorites which bloom for many years                
if planted in a sunny location and a well drained soil. The color               
range includes white as well as shades of pink and red edged in                 
white. The Cheddar Pink (D. gratianopolitanus) produces small                   
solitary flowers on plants that grow to eight inches tall. The                  
cultivar `Tiny Rubies' has a dense flat mat of leaves topped by                 
double pink flowers on stems 2-3 inches tall. It blooms in late                 
spring as a very effective addition to rock gardens or along path               
ways. Grass Pink (D. plumarius) is another good perennial for                   
sunny locations with well drained soil and is reliably hardy                    
throughout Virginia. The plants self sow but are not invasive.                  
The seedlings will not be true to the parents but they tend to be               
quite lovely. The plants can also be propagated by shoot cuttings               
or division of the clumps in spring or fall.                                    
                                                                                
Select a well drained sandy loam soil for annual or perennial                   
pinks. Add enough lime to bring the soil to nearly neutral at pH                
7.0. Use an organic mulch of wood chips or pine needles to help                 
conserve soil moisture and control weeds during the summer. Apply               
a light coarse mulch after the ground freezes in the fall to                    
protect the plants during the winter.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Maintaining Winter Hardiness in Trees and Shrubs                               
                                                                                
Gardeners have long known that certain species of trees, shrubs,                
roses or perennials will survive the winter while others die, or                
become so badly damaged that they need to be replaced in the                    
spring. Usually this is due to differences in the plants' cold                  
hardiness.                                                                      
                                                                                
Hardiness refers to a plant's ability to survive the extreme                    
environmental conditions in which it is growing. This includes                  
tolerance to severe winter weather with little or no injury. A                  
plant's natural cold hardiness is explained most simply as the                  
result of the plant's ability to bind water in its cells in a way               
that it does not freeze at the usual temperatures.  However,                    
hardiness can be influenced by a number of factors. These factors               
include cultural considerations such as the lowest winter                       
temperature in the area, the amount of water the plant receives                 
during the growing season and winter, type of soil and its                      
drainage capacity, protection from wind, and the amount of yearly               
sunlight. By selecting plants that are naturally hardy, winter                  
damage problems can be avoided. However, cultural practices play                
a significant role in a plant's ability to withstand cold.                      
                                                                                
The way plants are treated during the summer is particularly                    
important in increasing hardiness. A plant's growth rate must be                
reduced after mid-August so that preparations can begin for                     
winter. The accumulation of food reserves in the form of                        
carbohydrates will increase a plant's hardiness. During the                     
spring and early summer, the carbohydrates which are manufactured               
by photosynthesis are used for growth as rapidly as they are                    
produced. As late summer approaches, active growth should cease                 
to allow food reserves or carbohydrates to accumulate. If the                   
plant is stimulated into further growth instead of storing food,                
it can go into the dormancy period in a weakened state allowing                 
greater chance of winter injury. This natural process can be                    
promoted by withholding fertilizer and providing only moderate                  
amounts of water.                                                               
                                                                                
Fertilizers should be applied either in the spring or in the fall               
after the plants are dormant. Roots remain active as long as the                
soil temperature is above 40 degrees F. and nutrient up-take                    
continues. Fall fertilization promotes green, vigorous growth                   
without increasing the probability of winter injury. Disease and                
insect pests must also be controlled if shrubs are to have good                 
foliage and develop maximum hardiness. Severe foliage damage will               
reduce carbohydrate formation and prevent plants from maturing                  
properly. Keeping your plants healthy will not only make them                   
attractive but also more resistant to damage by cold.                           
                                                                                
Shrubs can be stimulated into renewed vigorous growth by rainy                  
weather in the fall if they have been damaged by pests or drought               
in the summer. Once the source of stress to a plant such as                     
drought has been lessened or eliminated, the plant attempts to                  
compensate for the adverse conditions by putting on a quick flush               
of growth late in the season. In some cases, a late flush of                    
flowers may develop. This late season growth uses carbohydrate                  
reserves and thus weakens the plant.  In addition, this soft                    
growth may be injured if cold weather occurs early in the winter                
before it has hardened.                                                         
                                                                                
Late summer pruning can encourage growth that will not have                     
sufficient time to harden and will be susceptible to winter                     
damage. Heavy pruning of shrubs and fruit trees in the fall and                 
early winter may result in winter damage in the colder parts of                 
the state, especially in severe winters. Pruning removes food                   
reserves and shocks the plant, making it more susceptible to                    
winter injury, especially if a rapid and severe drop in                         
temperature occurs.                                                             
                                                                                
Another important consideration is keeping water loss from plant                
tissues to a minimum during the winter. Damage due to drying out                
is called windburn or desiccation and may be severe enough to                   
cause death, especially in evergreen shrubs. The best way to                    
prevent injury by desiccation is to be sure the soil around the                 
shrub is moist before the ground freezes. This is especially                    
important for plants which have not yet become established after                
being transplanted.                                                             
                                                                                
Start watering shrubs near the average date of the first fall                   
frost. If rainfall is insufficient to supply needed moisture                    
apply water at weekly intervals until the ground freezes. Even in               
moist soils, evergreen shrubs located on windy sites may dry out                
quite severely. This damage can be reduced or prevented by                      
wrapping the plants in burlap. However, this is quite                           
unattractive. It may be preferable to move easily damaged plants                
to more protected locations.                                                    
Pine Needle Scale                                                              
                                                                                
Pine needle scale can be a serious pest of Christmas trees as                   
well as ornamental trees and shrubs including mugho, Scotch and                 
Austrian pines as well as the Norway Spruce. Though present, it                 
is seldom damaging to white pine.                                               
                                                                                
Damage is not apparent until large populations have been present                
for more than one or two seasons. Affected trees are stunted,                   
grow slowly, and have short needles and shoots. Occasionally the                
feeding of scales produces chlorotic, yellowish flecks on the                   
needles, but normally this is not apparent. Heavily infested                    
plants are seriously weakened and may be in a state of decline.                 
                                                                                
The coverings on pine needle scale insects are about 1/8 inch                   
long, elongate, narrow in front and broad in back. They are most                
often identified by their characteristic white color. Eggs under                
the scale covers are purplish in color. Crawlers and settled                    
nymphs are reddish in color beneath the white scale covers.                     
                                                                                
The hatching period is relatively short, lasting from seven to                  
ten days in mid May and again in mid to late July. The first                    
generation crawlers settle on old needles, since new growth is                  
not fully developed until later. Second generation crawlers                     
settle primarily on the current year's growth. Females produce 5-               
30 reddish purple eggs. Although the number of eggs laid is                     
relatively small, two generations a year permit rapid buildup of                
infestations. In areas where infestations are large, lady beetles               
are an effective predator. For chemical controls contact your                   
local extension agent for the most recent spray recommendations.                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
October 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley, Horticulture Extension               
Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Specialist Home                  
Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has been                       
developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                        
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
Moisture Tolerant Trees, Shrubs and Perennials      33 lines                    
Sludge                                              18 lines                    
Daylilies                                           17 lines                    
Tree Tomatoes                                       21 lines                    
American Chestnut Tree Research                     21 lines                    
Storage of Onions                                   13 lines                    
Geranium Cuttings                                   14 lines                    
Moving Established Rose Bushes                      10 lines                    
Home Storage of Apples                              15 lines                    
Attracting Butterflies                              15 lines                    
Root Cuttings                                       18 lines                    
Greenhouse Containers                               23 lines                    
Pruning Fireblight                                  11 lines                    
Late Summer Flowering Shrubs                        17 lines                    
                                                                                
________________________                                                        
                                                                                
What, other than willows and swamp azaleas, will survive in an                  
area where the soil stays quite moist?                                          
                                                                                
Many landscapes are troubled by incurable wet spots. No amount of               
tilling, breaking up hardpan, or adding organic matter can reduce               
sogginess due to a high water table, shallow bedrock, or a                      
subsurface spring.                                                              
                                                                                
The following trees are able to tolerate wet conditions: sour gum               
(Nyssa sylvatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), sweetbay magnolia                   
(Magnolia virginiana), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), swamp               
white oak (Quercus bicolor), river birch (Betula nigra), bald                   
cypress (Taxodium distichum), tamarack (Larix laricina), alder                  
(Alnus spp.), and London plane (Platanus x acerifolia).                         
                                                                                
Shrubs for moist to wet conditions:  Hollies: winterberry (Ilex                 
verticillata), inkberry (I.glabra), yaupon (I. vomitoria), dahoon               
(I. cassine); Viburnums: arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum), witherod                
(V. cassinoides), cranberry (V. trilobum); Dogwoods: silky                      
(Cornus amomum), bloodtwig (C. sanguinea), red osier (C.                        
stolonifera); Azaleas: sweet (Rhododendron arborescens), flame                  
(R. nudiflorum), rhodora (R. canadense), pinkshell (R. vaseyi);                 
Others: Spicebush (Lindera benzoin), buttonbush (Cephalanthus                   
occidentalis), summersweet (Clethra alnifolia), bayberry (Myrica                
pennsylvanica), leatherwood (Dirca palustris), mountain holly                   
(Nemopanthus mucronatus), American elder (Sanbucus canadensis),                 
blueberry (Vaccinium), red chokeberry (Aronia arbutifolia), and                 
mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia).                                             
                                                                                
Perennials which tolerate moist soil:                                           
Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata, marsh marigold (Caltha                     
palustris, Joe-pye-weed (Eupatorium purpureum), swamp rose mallow               
(Hibicus Moscheutos), yellowflag (Iris pseudacorus), cardinal                   
flower (Lobelia cardinalis), loosestrife (Lysimachia                            
clethroides), bee-balm (Monarda didyma).                                        
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
In some garden centers I see "sludge" being sold along with the                 
fertilizers. What is it and what do you use it for?                             
                                                                                
Sewer sludge is the recycled product of municipal sewage                        
treatment plants, which may be added to soil. Two forms are                     
commonly available, activated and composted. Activated sludge has               
higher concentrations of nutrients (roughly 6-3-0) than composted               
sludge, and is usually sold in a dry, granular form. It may be                  
used as a general purpose, longlasting, nonburning fertilizer.                  
Composted sludge has a lower nutrient content (roughly 1-2-0) and               
is used primarily as a soil amendment.                                          
                                                                                
There is some question about the long term effect of using sewage               
sludge products in the garden, particularly around edible crops.                
Heavy metals, such as cadmium are sometimes present in the                      
sludge, and may build up in the soil and consequently in                        
crops. Possible negative effects vary not only with the origin of               
the sludge but also with the characteristics of the soil to which               
it is added.                                                                    
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
My flower border looks drab this month. What could I grow to                    
brighten things up?                                                             
                                                                                
Some of the new and beautiful hybrid daylily plants might be a                  
fine addition. You can select varieties of daylilies that will                  
extend the flowering season from June to late fall. It will take                
more than one variety to cover this period, but a few carefully                 
selected varieties will add color through the summer. Colors from               
pale yellow through gold, melon, peach, pink, rose,lavender,                    
purple, red, wine and a few that are almost white are available.                
                                                                                
Unlike some perennials, the daylily (Hemerocallis) has attractive               
foliage. Additionally it is practically pest free and has height                
range in height from 12 inches to well over 3 feet. The best time               
for planting is spring or fall. It is a good idea to set the                    
plants early enough in the fall so that their roots will become                 
established and will not heave out of the ground over winter.                   
Daylilies are sunloving flowers that will tolerate partial shade.               
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
What are tree tomatoes?                                                         
                                                                                
The tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea) is a member of the                        
nightshade family as is the regular tomato; however, the tree                   
tomato belongs to a different species. Like the tomato, it is                   
native to Peru and grown in home and market gardens in the semi-                
tropical areas of Peru, Brazil, New Zealand and other countries.                
                                                                                
The tree tomato is woody, upright, and grows 8 to 10 feet tall.                 
The plant is propogated from seeds or woody cuttings. It does not               
begin to bear fruit until 2 years after seeding and may continue                
to bear for 5 or 6 years. Tree tomatoes cannot survive Virginia                 
winters outdoors and must be brought inside.                                    
                                                                                
Fruits of the most common tree tomato are oval, about 2 inches                  
long and change from greenish purple to orange or bright red when               
fully ripe. The fruit are not as acidic as regular tomatoes and                 
have a good flavor.                                                             
                                                                                
Although the fruit can be eaten fresh it is most often used in                  
stews or preserves after removal of the tough skin and hard                     
seeds.                                                                          
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
We have a small group of American chestnut trees. This year one                 
of them produced burrs for the first time. I thought the American               
chestnut was nonexistent. Do we have a rarity?                                  
                                                                                
There are many stands of young American chestnut trees scattered                
across the country. Shoots from old, blight-killed chestnut trees               
grow and survive for up to twenty years only to be infected and                 
killed by the blight-causing fungus Endothia parasitica. However,               
help seems to be on the way for future survival of this beautiful               
tree.                                                                           
                                                                                
Extensive research has been carried out at Virginia Tech on                     
reviving the American chestnut. The introduction of an avirulent                
strain of Endothia parasitica offers some hope for the return of                
this former king of the forest. The avirulent strain does not                   
cause the extent of canker damage that the original killing                     
strain of the blight caused. In fact, the weaker strain prohibits               
the infection of the stronger blight organisms once the tree is                 
infected.                                                                       
______________                                                                  
                                                                                
Are the fruit of Japanese flowering quince edible? If so, how are               
they used?                                                                      
                                                                                
Yes they are. Many people make quince jelly or preserves from                   
them.                                                                           
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
How should I store onions from my garden for winter?                            
                                                                                
Onions must be mature and thoroughly dry to keep well in storage.               
Damaged onions and onions that have thick necks will not keep.                  
Store onions in a dry, well-ventilated place, such as an attic or               
unheated room. Keep them in ventilated containers, such as                      
slatted crates or open-mesh bags. Fill bags half full and hang                  
them on overhead hooks. Crates should be half filled and then                   
stacked on crossbars. Don't store onions in cellars.                            
                                                                                
Panty hose work well for storage. Drop in an onion, tie a knot,                 
and continue filling then suspend from rafters. Make sure your                  
variety keeps well. Most onions grown in Virginia do not store                  
for long.                                                                       
___________                                                                     
                                                                                
How should I overwinter the geraniums I have planted around my                  
house?                                                                          
                                                                                
One way is to take cuttings by snapping off stems 2-3 inches long               
and stripping each stem of all but three or four of the top                     
leaves. Leave the cuttings in a shady location for a day with the               
cut end exposed to air to help form a callous and reduce rot. Set               
each stem in a pot of moist, sterlized soil packed lightly. Keep                
the soil moist but not soggy. In about three weeks the roots                    
should be a half inch long. After roots develop, place the pot in               
a bright, sunny window; let soil dry between waterings and                      
fertilize after new growth begins. Once plants are five inches                  
tall or so, pinch back stem tips to encourage branching. Under                  
proper growing conditions flowering begins about 4 to 5 months                  
later.                                                                          
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
What is the best way to transplant established rose bushes?                     
                                                                                
Older rose bushes are slow to develop new roots and may take                    
years to become reestablished. Therefore, it is best to consider                
buying new plants. If the older plants have a sentimental value                 
and must be moved, the best moving time is the fall. Move as much               
of the soil and root ball as you can handle. Take pains to cut                  
only small roots if any must be severed. Once placed in its new                 
home the top can be pruned as if it were a newly purchased rose.                
Water the plant well and mulch the crown to prepare for winter.                 
__________                                                                      
                                                                                
We have a bumper crop of apples. Please, tell us how apples are                 
stored.                                                                         
                                                                                
The storage life of produce depends on varietiesgrown, storage                  
temperature, humidity and produce condition. For the best holding               
of any fruit or vegetable, harvest and handle each crop                         
carefully. Avoid bruising and skin breaks from dropping or rough                
handling, Store clean produce free of disease or insect injury.                 
Harvest at the best maturity for long keeping.                                  
                                                                                
Virginia grown apples keep longest when they are held near 32                   
degrees F in home storage. Such a low temperature is seldom                     
available from normal air cooling in the fall in the state.                     
Storage life of apples is considerably reduced at higher                        
temperatures and fruit quickly becomes over-ripe at 70 degrees F.               
To prevent shriveling, apples need a relative humidilty of 85 to                
90 %.                                                                           
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
Can you suggest some plants the I might use to attract                          
butterflies to my garden next year?                                             
                                                                                
Plants with flowers that attract butterflies include butterfly                  
weed (Asclepias tuberosa), butterfly bush (Buddleia davidii),                   
abelia, sedums, annual and perennial phloxes, thrift (Phlox                     
subulata), lantana, stock, marigolds, chives, purple coneflower,                
coreopsis, dianthus and pinks, verbena, goldenrod, joe-pye weed                 
and native asters.                                                              
                                                                                
The following plants provide food for the caterpillars of one or                
more species of butterflies: wild indigo or baptisia, clovers,                  
Queen Anne's Lace, parsley, tulip poplar, milkweeds, sweet bay,                 
sassafras, pawpaw, alfalfa, spicebush (Lindera benzoin), native                 
asters, thistles, passionflower, violets, elms, willows, wild                   
cherry, mistletoe, plaintain, and burdock.                                      
                                                                                
________________                                                                
                                                                                
Please give me information on making root cuttings.                             
                                                                                
Root cuttings are usually taken from 2-3 year old plants during                 
their dormant season when they have a large carbohydrate supply.                
Root cuttings of some species produce new shoots, which then form               
their own root systems, while root cuttings of other plants                     
develop root systems before producing new shoots.                               
                                                                                
Plants with large roots:  Make a straight top cut. Make a slanted               
cut 2-6" below the first cut. Store about 3 weeks in moist                      
sawdust, peat moss or sand at 40 degrees F. Remove from storage.                
Insert the cutting vertically with the top approximately level                  
with the surface  of the rooting medium. This method is often                   
done outdoors.                                                                  
                                                                                
Plants with small roots:  Take 1-2" sections of roots. Insert the               
cuttings horizontally about 1/2" below the surface of the medium.               
This method is usually done indoors or in a hotbed.                             
____________                                                                    
                                                                                
I have a new home greenhouse and plan to start many of my own                   
seedlings this next year. What do you recommend for containers?                 
                                                                                
Wooden or plastic flats and trays can be purchased or you can                   
make your own from scrap lumber. A convenient size to handle                    
would be about 18 inches long and 12 inches wide with a depth of                
about 2 inches. Leave cracks of about 1/8 of an inch between the                
boards in the bottom or drill a series of holes to ensure                       
drainage.                                                                       
                                                                                
Flower pots of either clay or plastic can be used. You can also                 
make your own containers for starting seeds by recycling such                   
things as cottage cheese containers, the bottoms of milk cartons                
or bleach containers and pie pans, as long as good drainage is                  
provided.                                                                       
                                                                                
Numerous types of pots and strips made of compressed peat are                   
also on the market which can be utilized to start seeds. Plant                  
bands and plastic cell packs are also available. Each cell or                   
minipot holds a single plant which reduces the risk of root                     
injury when transplanting. Peat pellets, peat or fiber based                    
blocks and expanded plastic foam cubes can also be used for                     
seeding. Here the growing medium itself forms the container unit.               
                                                                                
______________                                                                  
                                                                                
I pruned a pear tree with fireblight and it seemed to get worse.                
Why?                                                                            
                                                                                
When removing wood infected with a disease, such as a fungal                    
canker or fire blight, it is important that the cut be made in                  
healthy wood beyond the point of infection. Any dying branch or                 
stub can be the entry point or build-up chamber for fungi that                  
could spread to other parts of the tree. In addition , it is very               
important the pruners be dipped in a solution of one part bleach                
to nine parts of water to kill any disease organisms that might                 
have been picked up while pruning. Infected pruners are a major                 
way that disease can be spread throughout the tree.                             
_____________                                                                   
                                                                                
After spring bulbs and flowering shrubs have faded, my landscape                
suddenly has no color. What shrubs can I plant to add summer                    
color from July until fall foliage begins to color?                             
                                                                                
Many gardeners are familiar with spring flowering shrubs and                    
trees such as azaleas, rhododendrons, crabapples, lilacs,                       
viburnums, cercis (Redbud), and weigelias, to name a few.                       
However, shrubs are available which provide mid to late summer                  
bloom that may not be as familiar.                                              
                                                                                
Shrubs with mid to late summer bloom include:  butterfly bush                   
(Buddleia Davidii), blue spirea (Caryopteris incana), summer-                   
sweet (Clethra alnifolia), rose-of-Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus),                  
hills-of-snow (Hydrangea arborescens 'Annabelle'), sourwood tree                
(Oxydendrum arboreum), shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa),               
Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora japonica), crape myrtle                           
(Lagerstroemia indica - for use in the warmer parts of the                      
state).                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
September Monthly Notes                                                         
                                                                                
* An easy indoor plant watering system can be designed by                       
inserting an asbestos-glass water wick into one of the drainage                 
holes of a pot. Old nylon stockings can be braided and used                     
instead. Set the pot on a water reservoir made from heavy plastic               
such as large-sized whipped margarine containers. Prepare the                   
lid by making two holes; one for the wick to reach the water,                   
and a larger one for supplying fresh water. This is a highly                    
efficient system for carefree watering. However, the plants                     
should be periodically watered from the top to flush accumulated                
minerals from the soil.                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't overlook excellent sources of organic material available                
during the fall. Leaves are abundant and neighbors will usually                 
be glad to give their leaves to you. Plow some into the garden                  
now and store some for next year's mulch.                                       
                                                                                
* You can help leaves break down more easily by running a lawn                  
mover back and forth over the pile. Put the shredded leaves                     
directly onto the garden or compost pile.                                       
                                                                                
* Cover crops can be planted as early as August 1, but should                   
not be planted any later than November 1. They should make some                 
growth before hard frost kills them. Where you have fall crops                  
growing, you can sow cover crop seed between rows a month or                    
less before expected harvest. This way, the cover crop gets                     
a good start but will not interfere with vegetable plant growth.                
                                                                                
* If you plan to move some of your chives indoors this winter,                  
this is the time to pot them up. When dividing your outdoor                     
plants, select young, mature plants and pot 8 to 10 per 6"                      
pot. They will do best on a sunny windowsill.                                   
                                                                                
* Sowing seeds of hardy annuals such as sweet alyssum, pinks                    
and sweet peas will give the seedlings time to get established                  
and develop good root systems before the coldest part of winter.                
This gives them a head start on growth and flowering next spring.               
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of such annual bedding plants as begonias,                      
coleus, geraniums and impatiens. Rooted indoors, these overwinter               
in a bright window and give plants for next year's garden.                      
                                                                                
* If you enjoy growing wild flowers, now is the time to collect                 
seed for your garden from many of the summer flowering types.                   
                                                                                
* When using a cold frame to extend your harvest season, be                     
sure to close the top for frosty nights to protect the plants                   
from the cold. When the sun comes out the next morning and the                  
air warms, you can open the cold frame again.                                   
                                                                                
* Fall is a good time for planting. Researchers have concluded                  
that the last safe planting date is approximately 4 weeks before                
soil temperatures fall to 40 degrees which inhibits root develop-               
ment. For plants which are marginally hardy and hard-to-trans-                  
plant, this date should be early.                                               
                                                                                
* Wood ashes contain phosphorous, calcium and potassium and                     
can be placed on garden, flower beds, or spread on lawn but                     
don't overdo it. Avoid acid-loving plants as it raises the pH.                  
                                                                                
* A green manure or cover crop improves water infiltration,                     
reduces soil erosion, reduces nutrient leaching and promotes                    
the growth of microorganisms. Annual rye can be sown at the                     
rate of 15.2 lbs. per 1000 sq. ft. during September and October.                
A light fertilization with 1-2 lbs. of 5-10-10 will generally                   
increase plant growth.                                                          
                                                                                
* The tomato variety Long Keeper has received high acclaim by                   
home gardeners who have successfully kept fruit past the first                  
of the new year in parts of Virginia.                                           
                                                                                
* Before moving your houseplants back inside from their outdoor                 
summer, take time to wash your windows. Not only will it be                     
easier without plants in the way, it will make considerably                     
more light available and help your plants adjust to their new                   
lower light regime.                                                             
                                                                                
* Don't wait for frost warnings to move your plants indoors. Tem-               
peratures of 50 degrees or lower can damage many tropical                       
houseplants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Dried beans and peas are among the easiest crops to store. They               
will keep for many months in a cool, dry location. Control                      
weevils before storage by placing in a freezer at 0 degrees F or                
lower for 4 days, or heat to 180 degrees F for at least 15                      
minutes. Following this treatment, place the dry beans or peas in               
a tight container and place in a cool, dry place.                               
                                                                                
* Winter type pumpkins and squash such as acorn, butternut and                  
spaghetti may keep for several months in a cool, medium-dry                     
basement, garage or tool shed. Allow the fruit to ripen fully                   
on the vine, and cure in the sun to form a hard rind. Harvest                   
before frost, and leave a piece of stem on each when they are                   
cut from the vine. If the floor is damp, place pumpkins and                     
squash on shelves to reduce the possibility of rot. The best                    
storage temperature is about 60 degrees F.                                      
                                                                                
* Sweet potatoes will keep for several months in a medium dry                   
basement. Handle sweet potatoes very carefully to avoid bruising                
or cutting. Cure for about 10 days at 80 degrees F or for 20                    
days at 70 degrees F to dry and toughen the skin. This can be                   
done near the furnace in your basement. Store under medium dry                  
conditions at 60 degrees F, or as close to this temperature                     
as possible. Sort your sweet potatoes carefully every few weeks                 
and remove any that may start to decay.                                         
                                                                                
* Hot peppers will keep best if stored after they are dry. Pull                 
the plants and hang them up, or pick the peppers and thread                     
on a string. Store in any cool, dry place.                                      
                                                                                
* Green tomatoes may be stored for 4 to 6 weeks and will gradual-               
ly ripen to a nice red color. The best storage conditions are                   
about 60 degrees F and a moderately moist atmosphere. Harvest the               
tomatoes in a firm, green condition before frost. Remove the                    
stems to prevent puncturing other fruits. Wash dirt off rather                  
than wiping, which may cause skin scratches which will be                       
susceptible to decay. If the basement is quite dry, the tomatoes                
may be placed in film bags, or film-lined boxes to increase the                 
humidity. Sort the fruit every week to remove those which ripen                 
or start to decay.                                                              
                                                                                
* Dig out the list of spring flowering bulbs you made last spring               
and start getting them into the ground so you can be among the                  
blissful rather than wistful as next winter snows begin to                      
melt. If you did not get a list started last spring, a few bulbs                
to consider for starters are Snowflake, Glory-of-the-Snow,                      
Snowdrops, and Winter Aconite.                                                  
                                                                                
* Divide lilies-of-the-valley.  Mix bone meal in the soil before                
replanting.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plant new Madonna lilies as soon as they arrive.  Do not plant                
deeper than two inches from top of bulb to ground level.  Set                   
bulb in sand.                                                                   
                                                                                
* As the nights become cool, caladiums will begin to lose leaves.               
Dig up, dry, and store in a warm, dry place to prevent rot.                     
This space can be replanted with Christmas peppers or Jerusalem                 
cherry plants which have been grown from seed in pots sunk in the               
vegetable garden, or transplant mums that have been grown to                    
flower size in the vegetable garden.                                            
                                                                                
* Mums can be transplanted while in bloom which makes them useful               
for instant landscapes in early Autumn.  Dig plants carefully                   
after thorough watering, retaining as much of the root system as                
feasible.  Gently loosen a small amount of soil from the outer                  
soil depth.  Water thoroughly to set plants in.  As with any                    
transplanting, it is best to do this in early morning or late                   
evening when temperatures are cool. Monitor plants carefully for                
several days for wilting, and shade briefly during the hotter                   
periods of the day, if necessary.                                               
                                                                                
* For early blooms in May and June next year, certain annuals can               
be sown now, including larkspur, nigella, calendula, Shirley                    
poppies, annual scabious, and coreopsis.  Sown in the open, they                
should be well established by the time the cold weather comes.                  
                                                                                
* Plant tubers of both garden and tree peonies in September or                  
early October so they will have time to become established in the               
soil before winter.  Dig a hole 18 inches across and 18 inches                  
deep for each tuber. Space the holes so that the plants will be                 
at least 3 feet apart.  Pile loose soil at the side of the hole                 
and break up all lumps.                                                         
                                                                                
* If pesky seedlings of woody plants, such as elm or hackberry,                 
are found growing in your hedge, remove them as soon as possible.               
If left too long, they will take over and leaves gaps in the                    
hedge when they are finally removed.                                            
                                                                                
* Check grapevines for mummied berries - victims of black rot.                  
Pick them and dispose of (do not compost) before they can spread                
the disease.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Rake up leaves, twigs, and fruit from crabapple trees and                     
dispose of them in the trash to help control scab.                              
                                                                                
* Pot up chives, parsley and other herbs to extend the growing                  
season in the house.                                                            
                                                                                
* Harvesting guidelines: PEARS should be picked at the hard ripe                
stage, and allowed to finish ripening off the tree.  The base                   
color of yellow pears should change from green to yellow as                     
the fruit approaches maturity. APPLES should separate readily                   
from the trees when lifted gently upwards.                                      
                                                                                
* The gardening season can be extended well into the winter.                    
Lettuce, cress, radishes, endive, and spinach can all be grown in               
the well-known structure, the coldframe.  In cooler weather,                    
insulate the outer sides of the box with banked soil or sawdust.                
Cover the top with sacks stuffed with straw or other insulation                 
during cold nights.                                                             
                                                                                
* Fall is usually cool and moist and a good time to plant trees                 
and shrubs.  Research has shown that roots will continue to grow                
until the soil freezes, which is about Thanksgiving.  This is                   
true for both evergreens and deciduous plants. The best time for                
lawn construction is from mid-August to mid-September for                       
cool-season grasses.  Seeding at this time allows for a long                    
fall growing period, when temperatures and moisture conditions                  
are most favorable and weed competition is at a minimum.  By the                
time cold weather arrives, the grass is fairly well established                 
and ready to grow and thicken early the following spring.                       
                                                                                
* Perennial flowers which will bloom in September include:                      
Biglow sneezeweed (Helenium biglovi), hardy asters, hardy                       
chrysanthemums, showy stonecrop (Sedum spectabile), false                       
dragonhead (Physostagia virgianana), bigleaf sea lavender                       
(Limonium latifolium), and great azure sage (Salvia pitcheri).                  
                                                                                
* Spray cabbage, broccoli, and caulifower with BT (bacillus                     
thuringiensis) once a week through harvest to avoid cabbage                     
loopers.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Allow plants to finish the summer growth cycle in a normal                    
manner. Never encourage growth with heavy applications of                       
fertilizer or excessive pruning at this time.  Plants will                      
quickly delay their hardening process that has already begun in                 
anticipation of winter several months ahead.  New growth can be                 
injured by an early freeze.                                                     
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
PREPARING FOR FROST                                                             
                                                                                
It  may seem a little early to begin worrying about frost, but                  
well-laid plans now may avoid disaster and disappointment                       
later.                                                                          
                                                                                
When the nights begin to reach 55 degrees F, it's time to                       
acclimate your house plants to return indoors.  Move them to a                  
lower light area and bring them in at night.  Most tropical house               
plants can be injured by low night temperatures that are well                   
above freezing. Inspect plants closely for insects and complete                 
any pesticide spraying while the plants are still out-of-doors.                 
                                                                                
If a pot has been in contact with the soil, you may want to soak                
it in a bucket of water for several hours to drown any insects                  
that may have entered the drain hole. Clean the foliage and wash                
your windows to provide maximum light this winter before taking                 
the plants inside.  Remember, that with lower light and cooler                  
temperatures, plant growth will slow down so less water and                     
fertilizer will be required.                                                    
                                                                                
Begonias, coleus, geraniums and impatiens can be potted up and                  
moved indoors for added winter color.  If this is not desirable,                
cuttings can be taken and rooted in a glass of water to make a                  
fresh start of young plants.  Protecting your chrysanthemums,                   
marigolds, and other flowers from the first light frost may                     
prolong their flowering period through the warm Indian summer                   
that usually follows our early freezes.                                         
                                                                                
If there are tender plants, such as tomatoes, in your vegetable                 
garden, that still hold an abundance of immature fruit when                     
frost arrives, plan to cover them during the night.  Start                      
collecting baskets, burlap or canvas sacks, boxes, blankets or                  
buckets to protect them from the frost.  The warm days after the                
frost will mature some of the fruit as long as the plants have                  
this nightly frost protection.                                                  
                                                                                
Summer squash, melons, eggplant, cucumbers, peppers and okra are                
some crops that cannot withstand frost and should be picked                     
immediately prior to heavy frosts. Store the vegetables in a                    
refrigerator until needed for eating or processing.                             
                                                                                
Cool-season crops, such as cabbage, cauliflower, peas, broccoli                 
and Brussels sprouts can withstand some cold; in fact, their                    
favor is often enhanced after a frost.  They cannot stay in                     
the garden all winter, but do not need to be picked immediately                 
when frost comes.                                                               
                                                                                
Kale, spinach, evergreen bunching onions, lettuce, parsley,                     
parsnips, carrots, and salsify are crops that may survive all                   
winter in your garden.  Mulch overwintering vegetables with                     
8 inches of mulch to prevent heaving of the soil.  Most of these                
vegetables can be dug or picked as needed throughout the winter                 
or in early spring.                                                             
                                                                                
The average date of the first killing frost in your areas can be                
obtained from a local Extension agent.                                          
Tom Brunback, Virginia Tech agricultural meteorologist, explain-                
s, however, that although these average dates can be used to                    
determine when the first freeze is expected, weather systems and                
local effects largely determine the exact date.  The first freeze               
of autumn forms when the air is relatively cool the day before.                 
Be wary of cloudy daytime skies that prevent maximum temperatures               
from reaching 65 degrees F.  Freezes are especially likely when                 
these cool days are followed by a clear night with little or no                 
wind.                                                                           
                                                                                
The clear night skies allow heat from the soil surface and                      
plants to escape into space.  Eventually, if there are enough                   
hours of this night time heat loss, plant temperatures will fall                
below freezing, usually just before sunrise.  Since the ground                  
and plant surfaces cool the most, any wind helps mix warmer air                 
from above and thus reduces the risk of a freeze.  Likewise,                    
cloudy skies at night reduce heat loss and freeze risks.                        
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
PLANT HARDY BULBS FOR NEXT YEAR'S COLOR                                         
                                                                                
Hardy bulbs can be planted now to provide color from early                      
spring until the end of summer.  Most people think of fall as the               
time to plant daffodils and tulips.  Certainly these lovely bulbs               
with their spectacular displays should not be forgotten, but the                
wealth of other bulbs can't be ignored.                                         
                                                                                
Winter can be endured more easily if promises of spring are                     
brought by such extra early small bulbs as Glory of the Snow,                   
winter aconite and snowdrops.  With flowers from three to six                   
inches tall, these bulbs grow will in rock gardens or raised                    
beds.  They also naturalize well under leafy trees that allow                   
light early in the season but give shade in the summer.                         
                                                                                
Species tulips, such as the Kaufmannia and Fosterlana, bloom                    
next. Their unusual flower shapes and colors set them apart from                
the later blooming, larger tulips.  Because of their smaller                    
sizes, these tulips also lend themselves to rock gardens, raised                
beds or window boxes that give them special places to show their                
individuality.                                                                  
                                                                                
Hyacinths, daffodils and tulips follow, assuring everyone                       
that spring is indeed here to stay and summer is on the way.                    
                                                                                
Depending on the variety grown, alliums or "flowering onions"                   
may be the next to bloom.  Giant alliums produce flower balls up                
to nine inches across on stalks four to eight feet tall.  They                  
are certainly not an easy plant to use in the flower bed, but                   
their astounding flower can be the spark that ignites a child's                 
enthusiasm for plants.  Other species of small, red, yellow and                 
white flowering alliums (under a foot tall) can also be found in                
most bulb catalogs.                                                             
                                                                                
Another allium with lovely blossoms that often is relegated to                  
the herb garden is chives.  Chives can be a very effective part                 
of the flower border with their pinkish lavender, ball-shaped                   
flowers in early June. The added benefit of snipping leaves                     
throughout the summer flavors soups and salads.                                 
                                                                                
Lilies are a highly diverse group of summer flowering perennials                
that can provide the novice or the experienced gardener with a                  
highly rewarding, continuous show of color from June through                    
October.  Careful selection of varieties not only can provide                   
this prolonged profusion of color, but a diversity in shape and                 
color of blossom and size of plant. Yellows and oranges predom-                 
inate, but whites, pinks and reds are readily available.                        
Although some varieties reach over eight feet tall, the newer                   
hybrids that bloom at between two and three feet easily integrate               
themselves into most flower borders.                                            
                                                                                
Foxtail lilies, which are really an Eremus, make dramatic                       
accents in the early summer, producing tall spikes covered with                 
hundreds of starry bells.  Some species reach as tall as 10 feet,               
so unless you design a giant-sized flower border, be careful to                 
select from the shorter (3-4 feet) species.  Actually grown from                
tubers rather than true bulbs, foxtail lilies are more difficult                
to establish than most of the hardy bulbs but are well worth the                
effort.                                                                         
                                                                                
Another favorite for late summer bloom is the blackberry lily.                  
Actually a member of the iris family, this plant is started from                
division of rhizomes or fleshy underground stems.  In August and                
September graceful sprays of small red-spotted orange flowers                   
appear, producing a thick green capsule type fruit.  Later in the               
fall, the capsules split to reveal clusters of black seed,                      
resembling a blackberry, thus its name. These seed heads are                    
useful for dried flower arrangements.                                           
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
HARDY MUMS FOR FALL COLOR                                                       
                                                                                
Many flower gardeners find the essence of autumn in the diversi-                
ty of their hardy chrysanthemums.  This herbaceous perennial is                 
noteworthy for its wide range of colors, sizes and shapes of                    
flowers.                                                                        
                                                                                
Their usefulness in extending the flower gardening season to the                
first heavy frost can't be matched.  They can be used in borders                
for massing, as accent plants, or even to replant containers that               
were filled with summer annuals.  Their long-lasting cut flowers                
are a welcome bonus after the summer cutting garden has passed                  
its peak.                                                                       
                                                                                
As chrysanthemums bloom during the shorter days of late summer                  
and early fall, their natural flowering period coincides with the               
coloring of autumn foliage.  Their color range often resembles                  
the leaves of a hardwood forest with yellows, rusts, reds and                   
bronze predominating. Whites, pinks and lavenders also are                      
available.                                                                      
                                                                                
Decorative button, pompon, spoon, spider and daisy are only a                   
few of the flower types that are available.  Chrysanthemum size                 
differs among varieties but also can be manipulated by the                      
gardener.                                                                       
                                                                                
If you would like extra large blooms, disbud or remove all of                   
the flower buds on the stem except for the large terminal bud in                
the center of the cluster.  This will greatly reduce the total                  
number of flowers but the one that does open will be much more                  
showy.  This is the method that is used, in combination with                    
careful variety selection, to produce the large mums you see at                 
football games.                                                                 
                                                                                
Many garden centers have a wide array of mums available in full                 
bloom to dress up your autumn landscape.  These mums, grown in                  
gallon containers, can easily be planted anywhere in the garden                 
for instant show.  With care, it even is possible to transplant                 
mums in bloom from one location to another, more permanent spot.                
                                                                                
Dig the plants carefully after thorough watering, retaining as                  
much of the root system as feasible.  Gently loosen a small                     
amount of soil from the outer edge of the root ball and replant                 
in the new location at the same soil depth.  Water thoroughly to                
settle the plants and monitor them for several days.  If needed,                
shade the plants during the hottest part of the day.                            
                                                                                
Some gardeners try planting greenhouse grown mums received as                   
pot plants.  Unfortunately, most of these are not hardy and won't               
survive even the mildest winter.  True hardiness, even for the                  
garden varieties, may be marginal in parts of Virginia.  These                  
mums are best grown as annuals.                                                 
                                                                                
Chrysanthemums are relatively easy perennials to grow.  However,                
careful site and variety selection and proper cultural practices                
are needed to assure maximum autumn show.  Diseases and insects                 
can cause problems--especially stem rots, powdery mildew, aphids                
and spider mites. Should these or other problems occur, consult                 
your local Extension agent for recommended control measures.                    
                                                                                
As you enjoy the chrysanthemums in bloom around your neighbor-                  
hood, take note of your favorites.  Perhaps you can arrange for a               
trade of "starts" next spring when they are divided and thinned.                
Or, at least get the name so you can order it from the catalogs                 
to set in your favorite spot.                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
FALL SOIL MANAGEMENT                                                            
                                                                                
Gardeners often wonder whether to do their plowing or tilling in                
the spring or fall.  Working the soil in the fall has several                   
advantages over the traditional spring plowing.                                 
                                                                                
It allows for earlier planting, since the basic soil preparation                
is already done when spring arrives.  The turning under of large                
amount of organic matter is likely to result in better decomposi-               
tion when done in the fall, as autumn temperatures are higher                   
than those of early spring, and there is more time for the                      
process to take place.                                                          
                                                                                
Insects, disease organisms and perennial weeds may be reduced                   
through burial, or exposure to harsh winter weather.  The                       
physical condition of heavy clay soils may be improved by the                   
alternate freezing and thawing, which breaks tightly aggregated                 
particles.                                                                      
                                                                                
When snow is trapped between the hills of roughly-plowed soil,                  
more moisture is retained than on flat, bare ground.  Incorpo-                  
ration of limestone in the fall gives the mineral time to become                
intergrated into the soil and influences spring plant growth.                   
                                                                                
To prepare for fall tilling, you should check soil fertility and                
pH by having your soil analyzed through a local Extension office.               
This test should be repeated at least once every three years.                   
                                                                                
Soil pH measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the                     
soil. Vegetables vary some in their requirements, but most garden               
crops will do well with a soil pH of 6.2-6.8.  This is a little                 
below neutral or slightly acid (sour).                                          
                                                                                
If soil pH is too high or low, poor crop growth will result,                    
largely due to the effects of pH on the availability of nutrients               
to plants.  A soil test also will give you an idea of the                       
nutrient level in your soil.                                                    
                                                                                
Lime and sulfur are commonly used to change soil pH.  The                       
correct soil pH is essential for optimum plant growth.  Dolomitic               
limestone adds calcium and magnesium as it increases pH.  Sulfur                
acidifies alkaline soil.  The amount to add depends on the                      
current and desired pH.  This is a good reason to have your soil                
checked periodically.                                                           
                                                                                
Wood ashes are often used as a soil amendment.  They contain                    
potash (potassium), phosphate, boron, and other elements.  Wood                 
ashes can be used to raise soil pH with twice as much ash applied               
as limestone for the same effect.                                               
                                                                                
Ashes should not come into contact with germinating seedlings or                
plant roots as they may cause root burn.  Spread a thin layer of                
ashes prior to winter, and incorporate it into the soil.  Check                 
pH yearly if you use wood ashes.  Never use coal ashes or large                 
amounts of wood ash (no more than 20 pounds per 1,000 square                    
feet), as toxicity problems may occur.                                          
                                                                                
Animal manures are commonly used directly as a garden soil                      
amendment both to improve soil structure and increase nutrients.                
The value of manure in terms of the nutrients it contains varies.               
                                                                                
Fresh horse, sheep, rabbit and poultry manures are quite high in                
nitrogen and may even "burn" plants if applied directly to a                    
growing garden.  They are best applied in the fall and tilled                   
under.                                                                          
                                                                                
Cover crops shouldn't be underestimated as a source for inexpens-               
ive soil improvement.  Green manures, or such cover crops                       
as annual rye, ryegrass, and oats, are planted in the garden in                 
the fall for incorporation in the spring.  For best results, seed               
should be sown at least a month before the first killing frost.                 
                                                                                
In a fall garden, plant cover crops between the rows and in any                 
cleared areas.  Cover cropping provides additional organic                      
matter, holds nutrients that might have been lost over the winter               
and helps reduce erosion and loss of topsoil.  Legume cover crops               
can increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil and reduce                      
fertilizer needs.                                                               
                                                                                
A deep-rooted cover crop like buckwheat, allowed to grow for a                  
season in problem soil, can help break a hardpan and greatly                    
improve tilth. Incorporate green manures into the soil at least                 
two weeks before planting vegetables. Do not allow them to go to                
seed.                                                                           
                                                                                
Fall plowing is not recommended for hillside or steep garden                    
plots since the soil, left exposed all winter, is subject to                    
erosion when the spring rains come.  If a winter cover crop is                  
grown to improve soil and prevent erosion, the ground will have                 
to be tilled in the fall to prepare the soil for seed, and again                
in spring to turn under the green manure.                                       
                                                                                
Spring plowing is better for sandy soils and those where shallow                
tilling is practiced.  Generally, most gardens must be disked or                
rotary-tilled in the spring to smooth the soil for planting.                    
However, as research is being done for no-till methods of crop                  
production, the potential for eliminating the heavy work of                     
tilling or plowing looks increasingly bright.                                   
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                    
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
 -----------------------                                                        
                                                                                
Can I dig up my chives and parsley and grow them indoors in                     
winter, or do I need to start from seed?                                        
                                                                                
To provide chives and parsley for winter use you may transplant a               
few clumps into five or six inch pots and grow them on a sunny                  
window sill. Use a light potting soil such as you would use for                 
your flowering house plants. Water at weekly intervals with a                   
soluble house plant fertilizer to promote vigorous growth.                      
                                                                                
Since chive bulbs multiply rapidly, clumps need to be divided                   
every two or three years to prevent excessive crowding. Dividing                
your plants now will benefit them and provide you with winter                   
herbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
Parsley is a biennial which ordinarily produces leaves during the               
first season, followed by flowers and seeds the second year. If                 
you pot up some of your plants this fall, they will continue to                 
produce leaves during the winter. They will not produce flower                  
stalks because they must go through a cold dormant period to                    
cause young flowers to be formed in the crown of the plant.                     
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
Could you suggest some nut trees which will shade my yard as well               
as produce a crop in Virginia?                                                  
                                                                                
Pecans are suitable for home planting if you select varieties                   
which are adapted for your locality. Paper-shell pecans such as                 
Stuart and Desirable may be grown in southeastern Virginia. These               
require a long growing season to allow the kernel to attain plump               
size and fill the nut. The hardy northern pecans are divided into               
two groups: 1) Colby and Posey, 2) Major Giles and Perugue. These               
varieties are somewhat smaller than the southern types, but will                
produce edible nuts during the shorter growing season of the                    
Piedmont and Mountain areas. At least one from each group should                
be planted to insure cross-pollination.                                         
                                                                                
Walnuts can also be grown in Virginia if you select the hardy                   
Carpathian or Persian types. These are similar to the commercial                
types of English walnuts which are grown in California, but are                 
more tolerant of cold climatic conditions. Colby, Hansen, Helmle                
and McKinster are suggested varieties.                                          
                                                                                
Chinese Chestnuts are resistant to the blight which killed the                  
American species many years ago. Although the nuts are not                      
identical to those from native trees, they are an acceptable                    
substitute if you like chestnuts. Choose from the varieties                     
Orrin, Crane, Nanking, Abundance and Meiling. However, be aware                 
that the flowers can have a very unpleasant odor.                               
                                                                                
To ensure pollination and fruit set, plant two or more varieties                
of each type of nut. Select a deep, well-drained site to promote                
vigorous growth and long life. The best time to plant is about a                
month after the first killing frost, once the leaves have fallen                
from the trees. Apply a two-inch mulch of sawdust, peat moss, or                
other organic material around the trunk to conserve soil moisture               
and help reduce weed competition to the newly planted trees.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
We have a hillside which I would like to make into a rock garden.               
Many rocks are already exposed. Please give me some pointers.                   
                                                                                
A rocky hillside or ledge may be made into a rock garden with a                 
minimum of work. For the best effect, at least half of the                      
surface should be made up of exposed rocks. If more rocks are                   
needed than are already present, use weathered native stone.                    
Place the rocks in a natural position with the strata in the same               
plane as existing material. The rocks you use should be large and               
well imbedded in the soil.                                                      
                                                                                
Plan your rock garden for easy maintenance. Place some large,                   
relatively flat stones throughout the garden on which you can                   
walk and stand to weed and set out new plants.                                  
                                                                                
Good soil drainage is essential in rock gardens. Most suitable                  
plants need adequate moisture, but they cannot tolerate poor                    
drainage and wet feet. Provide an adequate depth of good soil for               
your plants in the pockets between the rocks. If the soil is                    
poor, add leaf mold, or shredded peat moss and some dried manure.               
                                                                                
Autumn is a good time to set out bulbs and perennials in rock                   
gardens. Your planting should be completed by about the time of                 
the average first frost date to allow the plants or bulbs to send               
out new roots and become established before the ground freezes.                 
Apply water as needed during the fall and early winter to keep                  
the soil moist. Use a mulch of straw, shredded leaves or similar                
material to provide winter protection and conserve soil moisture.               
                                                                                
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
Our lawn has many shade trees and I have been saving the leaves                 
through the winter to mulch my gardens for many years. Storage                  
space is at a premium now that we have a boat. Would compost work               
as well as a mulch, and what is the best way to compost leaves?                 
                                                                                
Although you will derive greater benefits by using leaves as a                  
mulch, composting them will reduce their volume to a manageable                 
level. Compost is excellent material to improve the soil in the                 
flower or vegetable garden, but it does not act as effective-                   
ly in weed control as leaves. And, of course, it does involve the               
additional work of building a compost pile.                                     
                                                                                
To make compost, assemble your leaves, lawn clippings and other                 
plant material in a six to eight inch layer. Apply one cup of                   
ground limestone, and one cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer per square                 
yard of organic litter, and cover with about one-half inch of                   
soil. Make as many layers as necessary to utilize the leaves you                
have available. Leave the pile concave on top to collect rain to                
supply the necessary moisture. During dry spells, water the pile                
to keep the contents moist.                                                     
                                                                                
Decomposition will proceed very slowly during the winter but will               
be quite rapid next spring. Turning the pile over once a month                  
will speed the process. Compost made this way should be ready to                
use by midsummer next year. Shredding the leaves with a commer-                 
cial shredder or lawn mower before building the compost pile will               
lessen the time required to break-down the leaves. The composting               
would be complete in several months and be ready for spring use.                
                                                                                
 -----------------------                                                        
                                                                                
I have peanuts growing in my garden. I have never grown them                    
before. When are they ready to dig and eat?                                     
                                                                                
The peanut crop should be harvested about 60 days after flowering               
when the plants turn yellow, or are killed by frost. When ready                 
to harvest, the inside of the shell should be brown and the                     
seedcoat will be light pink, unwrinkled, and very thin. The                     
inside of the pods will begin to develop dark-colored veins. If                 
harvested early, the seed will not have developed their maximum                 
size in the pod. Over-mature pods will break off the vine during                
the digging operation.                                                          
                                                                                
Lift the plants carefully with a garden fork and shake off the                  
loose soil. Cure the peanuts on the vine, or pulled off in trays,               
in a warm, airy place. About 4 to 8 weeks will be needed to dry                 
the nuts before roasting, depending on the temperature and                      
relative humidity of the air.                                                   
                                                                                
Roast unshelled or shelled peanuts on a cookie sheet for about 30               
minutes in an oven preheated to 300 degrees F. Stir frequently to               
avoid scorching. The nuts should be poured out of the hot pan as                
soon as they are removed from the oven. It is better to roast                   
peanuts for too short a time than to have them overcooked. When                 
properly roasted, the skin slips easily and the kernel is light                 
brown.                                                                          
                                                                                
Shelled, roasted peanuts should be stored in tight containers in                
a refrigerator. For long storage, place them in a freezer at 0                  
degrees F or lower.                                                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Should I cut off the fronds of my asparagus?  If so, when?                      
                                                                                
After harvest is over, asparagus spears should be allowed to                    
grow. Asparagus has an attractive, fern-like foliage that makes a               
nice garden border. Some gardeners prefer to support the growing                
foliage with stakes and strings to keep them tidy. In high-wind                 
areas, it is a good idea to plant the rows parallel to the                      
prevailing winds so that the plants support each other to some                  
extent.                                                                         
                                                                                
In all asparagus plantings, cut the foliage down to 2" stubs                    
after frost, when the foliage yellows, but before the red berries               
fall off. A 4-6" mulch of compost, manure, leaves or other                      
material added at this time will help control weeds and add                     
organic matter and nutrients.                                                   
_______________________                                                         
                                                                                
How and when should I plant hyacinths?  Are they perennials?  Are               
they hardy?                                                                     
                                                                                
Hyacinths grow from bulbs which must be planted in the fall. They               
are easy to plant and require very little maintenance. They are                 
hardy perennials, and will continue to bloom for several years,                 
although the quality of the flower decreases each year in many                  
areas. Plant hyacinth bulbs when the soil temperature has fallen                
to 60 degrees F. In northern climates that generally occurs from                
late September to early November. In the South, the bulbs can be                
planted through December.                                                       
                                                                                
Hyacinths prefer partial shade. Avoid planting them in areas                    
which receive direct midday sun. Good drainage is essential.                    
Break up and loosen the soil to a depth of 10 inches. If the soil               
is mostly clay, mix in an organic material such as peat moss or                 
compost in amounts up to 50 percent in volume.                                  
Plant hyacinths, tulips and other large bulbs 8 inches deep (from               
ground level to the base of the bulb). Space them 6 inches apart.               
Once the bulbs are in position, cover them with about 3 to 4                    
inches of soil and water the area. Add  the remaining soil and                  
water again.                                                                    
                                                                                
Fertilization improves bulb performance and encourages longevity.               
Two fertilizing methods are recommended. One utilizes a sulfur                  
coated, slow release complete fertilizer incorporated into the                  
rooting area at the rate of one rounded tablespoon per square                   
foot. A single application will nourish the bulbs throughout the                
fall, winter and spring. The other method is an application of                  
8-8-8 (one level tablespoon) or 10-10-10 (one rounded teaspoon)                 
fertilizer per square foot in the fall. Apply again in the spring               
when the first shoots break through the ground.                                 
                                                                                
Many gardeners prefer to use bone meal as a slow release source                 
of phosphorus for their bulbs. This works very well used at the                 
rate of one teaspoon incorporated into the planting hole of each                
bulb.                                                                           
After planting, cover the area with a 3-inch layer of organic                   
mulch. Keep the soil moist, particularly during dry spells.                     
                                                                                
Avoid the temptation to plant hyacinths in stiff rows and stark                 
geometric patterns.                                                             
They look best when nestled among shrubbery or interplanted in                  
clumps with other bulb flowers. Since they grow about 10 inches                 
tall, they are especially effective in combination with daffodils               
and tulips. If hyacinths are to be used in borders, plant them                  
two or three rows deep, rather than in a single row. Mix and                    
match colors for maximum effect.                                                
                                                                                
 -------------------------                                                      
                                                                                
What should I do with empty pesticide containers?                               
                                                                                
Dispose of empty pesticide containers in the manner specified on                
their labels. Generally the recommendation is either to burn the                
container, or throw it away with trash destined for a sanitary                  
landfill.                                                                       
                                                                                
Some states have special chemical dumps for pesticides; however,                
Virginia does not have such dump sites.                                         
                                                                                
Containers designed to hold liquids should be rinsed with a small               
quantity of water. The rinse water should be poured into a spray                
tank and used.                                                                  
                                                                                
Containers designed to hold dry formulations should be burned,                  
one at a time, in a location where the smoke can not reach                      
desirable plants, people and animals. In many cases this may be                 
impossible. If so, containers should be thrown away following the               
EPA procedures below for bags of chemicals. Never burn aerosol                  
cans; they can explode.                                                         
                                                                                
The EPA suggested procedures for homeowners to dispose of small                 
quantities of waste pesticides are as follows:                                  
                                                                                
Liquid formulations in quantities of less than 1 gallon should be               
left in the original container. Make sure the cap is securely in                
place to prevent spills or leaks. Wrap in several layers of                     
newspaper and secure. The package should then be placed in a                    
trash receptacle for routine collection with municipal refuse.                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
Dry formulations in quantities of one bag or less (up to 10                     
pounds) should be secured to prevent leaking. This can be done by               
wrapping in paper or placing the package in a tight carton or                   
bag, and taping or tying it closed. Once secured, the package                   
should be placed in an appropriate trash collection receptacle.                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
Small quantities of pesticides, when handled as described above,                
do not present a hazard to trash collectors or to the environ-                  
ment. A properly operated sanitary landfill presents a large                    
dilution factor and provides sufficient containment to negate any               
hazardous effects the product may present. One should be aware of               
local ordinances and sanitary landfill rules before disposing of                
pesticides.                                                                     
                                                                                
These are the federal EPA guidelines and not those of the                       
Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Although they seem                      
reasonable for most situations, there can be exceptions which                   
warrant further guidance. If in doubt contact your local exten-                 
sion agent, or call the Virginia Department of Agriculture and                  
Consumer Services (804/786-3798), the Virginia Department of                    
Health,  Bureau of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management (804-                   
786-1754), or the EPA (800/424-9346).                                           
                                                                                
(Excerpted from an article by Michael J. Weaver, Extension                      
Pesticide Information Coordinator)                                              
                                                                                
 -----------------------                                                        
                                                                                
Little by little, my lawn is being taken over by moss. What can I               
do to stop it?                                                                  
                                                                                
The presence of moss in a lawn indicates a basic fault in the                   
lawn environment; it rarely invades a healthy lawn. Moss is                     
usually associated with low fertility, poor subsurface drainage                 
and high soil acidity; but improper watering, too much shade,                   
soil compaction, or a combination of any of these factors can                   
lead to moss encroachment. The environmental problem must be                    
diagnosed and corrected in order to eliminate moss growth.                      
                                                                                
Lack of fertility is the most common cause of moss invasion. A                  
regular balanced fertilizer program will go a long way toward                   
preventing moss. Aerating the soil, incorporating coarse organic                
matter, and liming also discourages moss.                                       
                                                                                
Algae is another type of plant that may be found growing in moist               
areas under trees where it is often mistaken for moss. Typical                  
forms of algae are the green slimes on the trunks of trees and                  
flower pots, and the green scum on pond water. Algae is colony of               
fresh water plants with no true roots, stems or leaves. Like                    
moss, algae will return if the causal factor, usually poor                      
drainage, is not corrected.                                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS FOR NURSERY OPERATORS                              
        __________________________________________                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
        The  Virginia  Tech Extension Service is planning a series of educa-    
        tional programs for nursery operators over the  next  seven  months.    
        Following is a schedule of program dates and topics:                    
                                                                                
        o  Oct.   21-22,   Opportunities   in  Horticulture  and  Turfgrass,    
           Donaldson Brown Continuing Education Center, Virginia Tech           
                                                                                
        o  Oct. 28-30, Beginning in the  Nursery  Business,  Prince  William    
           County Extension Office, Manassas                                    
                                                                                
        o  Nov. 4-5, Weed Control in the Nursery, Donaldson Brown Center        
                                                                                
        o  Nov. 17-19, Production of Native Plants, Donaldson Brown Center      
                                                                                
        o  Feb. 17-19, Plant Propagation and Tissue Culture, Donaldson Brown    
           Center                                                               
                                                                                
        o  Feb.  24-25,  Container-Grown  Plant  Production  and  Nutrition,    
           Hampton Roads Agriculture Experiment Station, Virginia Beach         
                                                                                
        o  Mar. 24-25, Nursery and Greenhouse Insects, Donaldson Brown  Cen-    
           ter                                                                  
                                                                                
        All  programs  will  begin  at 8 a.m. with the exception of the weed    
        control seminar which begins at 12:30 p.m.  Registration is  limited    
        to  20  in  each program with the exception of the plant propagation    
        program which is limited to 15.                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        NOTES FROM HAMPTON ROADS AG EXPT STATION                                
        ________________________________________                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        Anyone using or considering using one of the in-ground  fabric  con-    
        tainers  for nursery or living Christmas tree production (Field-Grow    
        Container and Tree Sox are the only two that are on the market right    
        now), learn from my mistakes this year.   We  augered  some  of  our    
        planting  holes  too  deep, and when we backfilled to bring the soil    
        level up to the recommended planting height, we did  not  pack  that    
        soil down enough.  Between that settling and the settling of soil in    
        the  two container types, some of my trees are becoming mild subter-    
        ranean and may be harvested by the Chinese in a few years!    There-    
        fore,  don't  auger those holes too deep and pack the soil in before    
        planting.  Err on the shallow side if anything.  And consider what I    
        plan to do this year; I'm going to put mine in the ground this  fall    
        and let them settle in over winter before spring planting into them.    
        That could help spread out labor use also.                              
                                                                                
        A  Christmas tree species from the southwest that likes sandy soils,    
        drought, and heat (Pinus eldarica) will be added  to  the  Christmas    
                          ________________                                      
        tree  demonstration  plot  next year for evaluation.   It reportedly    
        grows up to six feet per year in Arizona.  We'll keep you posted  on    
        how it does.                                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        Also  to  be  added to the Christmas tree plot next year will be se-    
        veral hollies for evaluation as cut Christmas  greens.    J.  Nelson    
        Stuart  of Lancaster, Virginia, feels we have great potential in the    
        Tidewater area for English holly orcharding that  could  rival  pro-    
        duction now almost exclusively restricted to Oregon and Washington.     
                                                                                
        SEEDS AND PLANTS NOW CAN BE PATENTED:  A recent decision by the U.S.    
        Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, reversing decades of fed-    
        eral rulings, allows patents to be granted for "man-made" plant life    
        (artificially bred "novel" forms).  In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled    
        that  "man-made" microorganisms can be patented; the recent BPAI de-    
        cision extends this ruling to seeds, plants, and plant  tissue  cul-    
        tures.                                                                  
                                                                                
        The history behind plant-patenting is interesting.  The Plant Patent    
        Act  (PPA)  of  1930  permitted patenting of vegetatively propagated    
        plants only; the Plant Variety Protection Act (PVPA) allowed certain    
        rights for developers of  new  varieties  of  some  seed  propagated    
        plants.    In  both  cases, the protected plants were required to be    
        "novel."  Before the PPA, plant-patenting had been dismissed as  in-    
        appropriate  because plants were considered to be products of nature    
        and because written descriptions  (as  required  for  patents)  were    
        thought to be difficult or impossible for plants.                       
                                                                                
        Now  breeders  and  propagators  can protect "new" plants which they    
        "create" and in some cases this can simply mean finding a novel  va-    
        riety  already  growing  somewhere, although usually it will involve    
        breeding - via a standard product patent.  Of course, the  seed  in-    
        dustry is unabashedly gleeful over this turn of events, making pred-    
        ictions   for   increasing   applications   of   "biotechnology"  in    
        agriculture and horticulture.  One thing is clear - there will be  a    
        lot of patented plants in our future!                                   
                                                                                
        (Taken  from  Seed  World, Vol. 123, No. 13, December 1985, Scranton    
        Gillette Communications, Inc., 380 Northwest Hwy., Des  Plaines,  IL    
        60016.)                                                                 
                                                                                
        ROUNDUP AROUND WOODY PLANTS SAFEST IN THE FALL?:  Recent research at    
        North  Carolina  State University appears to imply that applications    
        of  glyphosate   herbicide   (Monsanto's   Roundup)   around   woody    
        ornamentals  may be safest in the fall.  In trials with several spe-    
        cies, glyphosate was found to be minimally toxic  (or  at  least  no    
        more  toxic)  in the fall, compared to applications in the spring or    
        in the summer.  In the absence of data on  other  species'  seasonal    
        fluctuations  in  glyphosate tolerance, it seems reasonable to apply    
        the herbicide only in the fall to limit possible  damage  to  nearby    
        woody ornamentals -- assuming, of course, that adequate weed control    
        with  glyphosate  is  possible  at that time of year in the specific    
        situation at hand.  (If you must use it at all.)                        
                                                                                
        (By J. C. Neal and W. A. Skroch, "Effects  of  Timing  and  Rate  of    
        Glyphosate  Application  on Toxicity to Selected Woody Ornamentals,"    
        Journal of The American Society for Hort. Science, Vol. 110, No.  6,    
        November 1985.)                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        LANDSCAPE  IRRIGATION  SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE HANDBOOK:   The Idea Bank    
        (1000 E. Apache Blvd, Suite 211, Tempe,  AZ  85281)  is  selling  an    
        88-page  handbook on troubleshooting and maintaining landscape irri-    
        gation systems,  with  step-by-step  guidelines  and  how-to  illus-    
        trations for in-field workers.  Price is $16 postpaid.                  
                                                                                
        KEEP  THIS  NUMBER HANDY IF YOU USE PESTICIDES:  The National Pesti-    
        cide Telecommunication Network (NPTN) is a  round-the-clock  service    
        funded  by  the  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.   A toll-free    
        call to NPTN at 1-800-858-7379 from anywhere within  the  contiguous    
        U.S.  will  access  information  in  a  hurry on pesticide poisoning    
        treatment, pesticide product information, clean-up and disposal rec-    
        ommendations, regulatory laws, etc.                                     
                                                                                
        COVER UP FOR PESTICIDE APPLICATION -- BUT HOW?:  Researchers at  the    
        University  of  California,  Berkeley, report that recent tests have    
        shown that pesticides can sometimes accumulate on skin areas covered    
        by protective clothing, including rubber gloves.  Just how the chem-    
        icals penetrate safety garb is currently unknown, and the  research-    
        ers  admit  to  being  surprised  by  the findings.   For occasional    
        pesticide users, it appears that the best plan  is  to  shower  com-    
        pletely after exposure -- just washing off "exposed" areas, that is,    
        areas  unprotected  by  clothing, may not be adequate since even the    
        "protected" areas could in fact be exposed!                             
                                                                                
        (Taken from Agrichemical  Age,  Vol.  29,  No.  10,  December  1985,    
        California  Publishing  Co.,  83  Stevenson  St.,  San Francisco, CA    
        94105.)                                                                 
                                                                                
        COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR CUSTOM PRINTING PLANT TAGS:    Fox  Hill  Farm    
        (444  W.  Michigan  Ave.,  Box  7,  Parma,  MI  49269)  is  offering    
        "Tagprinter" (IBM PC compatible) software to  custom  print  plastic    
        plant  tags  using a conventional dot-matrix printer.  Several lines    
        of information can be printed on each tag.  Price is $95,  including    
        a  supply  of  tags (extra tags are available from Fox Hill).  Looks    
        like an economical alternative to preprinted or handwritten tags for    
        small commercial growers.  Write for more details and sample tags.      
                                                                                
        TRICKLE IRRIGATION PUBLICATION:  "Trickle Irrigation in the  Eastern    
        U.S.,"  a  24-page  guidebook,  is available for $3.00 postpaid from    
        NRAES, Riley Robb Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca,  NY  14853.    A    
        4-page  bulletin,  "Trickle  Irrigation  for  Home Gardens," is also    
        available from the same address for 30 cents.    NRAES  offers  many    
        other  publications and computer programs of interest to amateur and    
        professional growers; write for a complete list.                        
                                                                                
                                                                Bonnie          
        Appleton                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        FALL PLANTING AND GARDENING ACTIVITIES                                  
        ______________________________________                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
        Don't retire the lawn mower when the growth of your lawn slows  down    
        this  fall.    As  long as the grass continues to grow, it should be    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        mowed.  Contact your local Cooperative Extension Office for  recomm-    
        endations on fertilizing your lawn this fall.                           
                                                                                
        Do  not  allow  leaves  to accumulate on the lawn.  When leaves fall    
        from your shade trees, rake them up regularly and store  them  in  a    
        pile for use as mulch in your garden next summer.  If leaves accumu-    
        late and become matted down by rain, they will seriously damage your    
        grass.                                                                  
                                                                                
        Plant  shrubs  and trees this fall to add new interest to your land-    
        scape.  Balled and burlapped evergreen  species  or  container-grown    
        deciduous  shrubs may be planted at any time.  Field-grown deciduous    
        plants which are usually sold bare-root  are  easier  to  transplant    
        when  they  are dormant.   The best time for this job is to start at    
        about the time of the first killing frost in your area and finish in    
        about 3 to 4 weeks.   This will allow  your  plants  to  start  root    
        growth before deep cold sets in and the ground freezes.                 
                                                                                
        When  planting trees and shrubs, dig holes which are large enough to    
        allow all roots to be extended  to  their  full  length.    Put  the    
        topsoil  in  one  pile and the less fertile subsoil in another.  Use    
        the topsoil around the roots of your plant and the subsoil  on  top.    
        Do  not put fertilizer in the planting hole because it will burn the    
        roots.  Scatter some 5-10-5 garden fertilizer on the surface  around    
        the newly planted shrub or tree and rake it into the soil.              
                                                                                
        Daffodils,  tulips,  and  other  spring  flowering  bulbs  should be    
        planted as soon as they are secured from your garden center or plant    
        store.  Plant as early as possible in the fall to allow the bulbs to    
        develop a good root system before the ground freezes.  The  planting    
        should  be  completed  not later than 2 or 3 weeks after the average    
        first fall frost date in your area.                                     
                                                                                
        Buy only high-quality bulbs from a reliable source.  Cheap bulbs may    
        be of poor quality and inferior  varieties.    Small  bulbs  produce    
        small  blooms.    High-quality  U.S. bulbs are just as good as those    
        from foreign sources.                                                   
                                                                                
        Daffodils are probably the most  useful  and  dependable  of  spring    
        flowering  bulbs.  Varieties are now available which range in height    
        from 4 to 20 inches.  Some of the dwarf daffodils may be  used  like    
        crocus  in  the shrub or border plantings.  The taller varieties may    
        be used for mass display in beds, naturalizing, or for  cut  flowers    
        in the home.                                                            
                                                                                
        Some of the new pink daffodils are extremely attractive.  During re-    
        cent  years  some  plant breeders have worked frantically to develop    
        varieties with a bright pink trumpet or cup.  You may also add vari-    
        ety to your daffodil collection by including some of  the  fragrant,    
        cluster-flowered  Tazetta  types.    They  will bring the delightful    
        aroma of spring into your home when they are used in flower arrange-    
        ments.                                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                JAMES     A.    
        FAISZT                                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        PRE-PLANT FUMIGATION FOR SMALL FRUITS                                   
        _____________________________________                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
        Fumigation prior to planting should be considered by all small fruit    
        growers.  Fumigation is almost always beneficial, and if it were not    
        for  cost,  this  practice  would  be  a standard recommendation for    
        brambles and strawberries.                                              
                                                                                
        The advantages of fumigation are nematode,  soil-insect,  weed,  and    
        pathogen  control in one procedure.  The major disadvantage is cost,    
        so the grower must decide if benefits outweigh the expense.    Obvi-    
        ously  fumigation  is  beneficial  in sites infested with nematodes,    
        verticillium wilt, Phytophthora spp., and insect larvae.    However,    
                           ____________                                         
        many  growers in the Northeast can select a site which is relatively    
        free of these harmful pests.  Can fumigation pay for itself in  such    
        sites?                                                                  
                                                                                
        In  California,  strawberry  beds  are  fumigated each year prior to    
        planting because site selection  is  limited.    Over  half  of  the    
        fumigated acreage in that state is planted to strawberries.  A study    
        conducted  in 1971 by Victor Voth revealed that even after 5 succes-    
        sive fumigations, a methyl  bromide-chloropicrin  mixture  increased    
        yields  27%  over  a non-fumigated bed (which had been fumigated the    
        previous 5 years).  This increase was more than  sufficient  to  pay    
        for  the  cost  of the fumigation.  A study in West Virginia in 1978    
        found that yields of 'Surecrop' were increased 1/2 ton per  acre  in    
        response  to  Vorlex fumigation.  In 1984, Voth and Bringhurst found    
        that Vapam fumigation  increased  yields  19%  and  methyl  bromide-    
        chloropicrin 27%.  A study in Kentucky documented yield increases of    
        9% in land never planted to strawberries.  No differences were noted    
        the second year, however.                                               
                                                                                
        Strawberry  yields  in  California  averaged  11,000  lbs/acre  from    
        1950-1960.  After the widespread use of fumigation, yields increased    
        to an average of 55,000 lbs/acre.   Obviously not all  the  increase    
        was  due  to  fumigation;  however, this practice allowed strawberry    
        breeders to concentrate on yield, size, and shipping  quality  while    
        ignoring  disease  resistance.   Strawberry breeders could then make    
        rapid progress through selection on fewer trials.  Eastern  breeders    
        must   screen   cultivars   for   resistance  to  several  races  of    
        Phytophthora and Verticillium, in addition to fruit quality traits.     
        ____________     _____________                                          
                                                                                
        There are several additional advantages of soil fumigation.  Pythium    
                                                                     _______    
        and other harmful pathogens are controlled.   Nitrogen  is  released    
        from these dying organisms, and bacteria which oxidize nitrogen to a    
        leachable form are destroyed.  Fertilizer needs have been reduced in    
        half  since  growers began fumigating in California.  They have also    
        measured better nutrient uptake even though  mycorrhizae  fungi  are    
        killed.   Since weeds are also controlled, growers have been able to    
        avoid the use of herbicides.                                            
                                                                                
        This last point may have implications for raspberry growers  in  the    
        Northeast.    We  have  received  reports that young tissue-cultured    
        raspberries are extremely sensitive to simazine.  When we  attempted    
        to  find  an alternative, all the herbicides we examined had effects    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        on growth.  One solution may be to plant only on fumigated beds  and    
        avoid the use of herbicides for one year.                               
                                                                                
        There are several choices of a fumigant although some may be prohib-    
        ited  in  certain  areas  (e.g.  Long Island).   The most common are    
        MBC-33   (methyl   bromide-chloropicrin),   Vorlex,    Vapam,    D-D    
        (dichloropropene-dichloropropane),  and Telone II.  The former gives    
        the broad range of pest control with the methyl bromide  controlling    
        weeds and nematodes, and chloropicrin controlling soil pathogens.       
                                                                                
        Regardless  of choice, one must prepare the site for the fumigant to    
        work properly.  The site must be free of weeds and all  plant  mate-    
        rial  must be decomposed.  Fumigants can be absorbed by organic mat-    
        ter and lose effectiveness.  Since the fumigant  moves  through  the    
        soil  air,  the  soil  should be friable with no clods.  Soil should    
        also be moist (approx. 50% field capacity) and have a temperature of    
        50-90*F.  The best time to fumigate in the Northeast  is  September.    
        This  will allow sufficient time for the fumigant to escape from the    
        soil prior to spring planting.                                          
                                                                                
        The following are specific notes  for  some  of  the  commonly  used    
        fumigants.                                                              
                                                                                
        MBC-33 OR MBC-2                                                         
                                                                                
        1.  Use MBC-33 (33% chloropicrin) where soil pathogens are present.     
        2.  Requires a special application device.                              
        3.  Bed must be tarped after injection.                                 
        4.  Must rework bed after one week to allow gases to escape.            
        5.  Expensive but effective.                                            
        6.  Can be used to sterilize straw prior to mulching.                   
                                                                                
        VORLEX                                                                  
                                                                                
        1.  Requires a special application device.                              
        2.  Will  work on cold soils (to 40*F), but not on warm soils (above    
            75*) without tarping.                                               
        3.  Tarping is most effective although a water seal will work.          
        4.  Fall application is recommended as it is slow to leave the soil.    
        5.  Herbicide program still necessary in first year.                    
        6.  Avoid ammonium based fertilizers the following spring.              
                                                                                
        VAPAM                                                                   
                                                                                
        1.  Can be applied through an irrigation system (including drip sys-    
            tems).                                                              
        2.  Relatively safe to use.                                             
        3.  Herbicide program still necessary in first year.                    
                                                                                
        D-D                                                                     
                                                                                
        1.  Not effective in heavy soils.                                       
        2.  Avoid ammonium based fertilizers the following spring.              
        3.  Herbicide program still necessary in first year.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        TELONE II                                                               
                                                                                
        1.  Most effective on nematodes but little weed control.                
        2.  Do not use on heavy soils.                                          
        3.  Corrosive.                                                          
                                                                                
        With any fumigant, avoid recontamination by cleaning field equipment    
        before entering the site, keep weeds  mowed  in  surrounding  areas,    
        avoid  deep  plowing, and do not use transplants infested with pests    
        or pathogens.                                                           
                                                                                
        Now back to the original question.  Will fumigation pay for  itself?    
        Obviously  no  one  answer  will apply to everyone.  If the site has    
        high  levels  of  nematodes,  or   if   Phytophthora,   red   stele,    
                                                _____________                   
        verticillium wilt, black root rot, or root weevils are present, then    
        the  answer is probably yes.  If a site has been planted to the same    
        crop for many years, it should help to fumigate prior to replanting.    
                                                                                
        Now is the time to consider fumigation for sites to  be  planted  in    
        1987.                                                                   
                                                                                
        (By  Marvin  P.  Pritts,  Extension Faculty, Department of Pomology,    
        Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.  Taken from Small Fruit  Newsletter,    
        August  1986,  Cooperative  Extension Association of Suffolk County,    
        New York.)                                                              
                                                                                
                                                                 JERRY          
        WILLIAMS                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        USE CAUTION WITH HOMEMADE FERTILIZERS                                   
        _____________________________________                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
        We would like our homegrown vegetables and summer flowering  annuals    
        to  look  like the pictures we see in the seed catalogs and the blue    
        ribbon winners at the county fair.   With the range  of  fertilizers    
        available  these  days,  we  needn't be satisfied with less than the    
        ideal.                                                                  
                                                                                
        Fertilizers build soil and provide plants with the nutrients  needed    
        to  increase  growth and nutritional content and the gardener's per-    
        sonal satisfaction.  Fertilizer for the average home gardener is not    
        expensive.   A few dollars  buys  enough  fertilizer  to  completely    
        change  the  nutrient level of the soil.  A wide variety of formulas    
        are available and suitable for most gardening  situations,  although    
        5-10-5 and 10-10-10 seem to be the favorites.                           
                                                                                
        Some valuable soil boosters like ashes, compost, or barnyard manure,    
        for  example,  are  free.   Compost is decomposed, discarded organic    
        plant material such as leaves or grass clippings, stems  and  stalks    
        from  harvested  vegetables, pea hulls, overripe fruits, and kitchen    
        scraps, including egg shells and coffee grounds.                        
                                                                                
        Gardeners should exercise caution in using  these  commonplace  soil    
        boosters.    Ashes,  for  example,  should come only from woodstoves    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        where little or no trash is incinerated.  Coal ashes and ashes  from    
        lead-painted  or  chemically-treated  wood  may have a bad effect on    
        plants.   Ashes from cardboard boxes  and  paper  bags  may  contain    
        boron,  a  component  of glue that is toxic to plants if too much is    
        present in the soil.  Ashes should not be applied to  gardens  where    
        potassium  levels  are  high  or  added to the soil at the same time    
        fertilizers containing nitrogen in the form of ammonium are added.      
                                                                                
        Gardeners should exercise judgment  before  using  compost.    While    
        composts  can get rid of a lot of plant refuse from the yard or gar-    
        den, composting will not kill many weed seeds, disease organisms, or    
        underground stems and roots  of  many  weeds  and  grasses.    These    
        plants,  as  well  as those homegrown vegetables which were infected    
        with root maggots, should be kept out of the compost pile.              
                                                                                
        Since most plant refuse needs nitrogen to decompose, a  second  pre-    
        caution  must be followed when making and using compost from plants.    
        If the refuse is to be composted first, apply nitrogen fertilizer to    
        the compost pile.  If you wish to add  organic  refuse  directly  to    
        your  garden soil, add a nitrogen fertilizer at the same time.  This    
        will prevent the undecomposed organic material from robbing nitrogen    
        from the soil.    Compost  from  kitchen  scraps  need  no  nitrogen    
        fertilizer  unless  there  is a lot of plant material like cornhusks    
        mixed in.                                                               
                                                                                
        Manure can be a good fertilizer, but its value depends on the extent    
        to which it has been diluted with straw,  sawdust  or  shavings,  or    
        whether  or  not it has been stored outdoors where heavy rains leach    
        out valuable nutrients.  Fresh manure should never touch plants  di-    
        rectly.    It  is  best applied in the fall after already being par-    
        tially decomposed and allowed to  complete  decomposition  over  the    
        winter.  Rotted or dehydrated manure can be mixed with the soil dur-    
        ing prepaation of plant beds in the spring and as a mulch.              
                                                                                
                                                                  JAMES   A.    
        FAISZT                                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        ALL AMERICAN SELECTIONS FOR 1987                                        
        ________________________________                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
        Basil, 'Purple Ruffles' -- An  annual  ornamental  herb  with  deep,    
        _______________________                                                 
        reddish black glossy leaves, quite possibly the darkest purple color    
        of  any  garden  annual.   It has strong aromatic fragrance when the    
        leaves are lightly crushed.                                             
                                                                                
        Petunia, 'Purple Pirouette' -- It is the first double petunia with a    
        ___________________________                                             
        pure white petal edge.  Each ruffled petal has a white border with a    
        rich velvety purple center.   The fully  double  grandiflora  blooms    
        measure 3 1/2 to 4 inches and are borne on dwarf compact plants.        
                                                                                
        Sanvitalia  (Creeping  Zinnia),  'Mandarin  Orange'  -- Is the first    
        ___________________________________________________                     
        sanvitalia with orange flowers, and the flower form can be described    
        as a miniature sunflower with one inch semidouble flowers.  It has a    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        spreading ground  cover.    Once  established  it  thrives  in  hot,    
        brilliantly sunny locations and requires little garden maintenance.     
                                                                                
        Snapdragon,  'Princess White with Purple Eye' -- It is a new bicolor    
        _____________________________________________                           
        in the semidwarf class.  Pure white florets with  a  purple  center.    
        The  6  to  8  inch flower spikes can be cut and used for floral ar-    
        rangements.  Will grow in either a full sun or a half day shade  lo-    
        cation.                                                                 
                                                                                
        Pumpkin  Hybrid,  'Autumn  Gold'  -- It begins coloring its pumpkins    
        ________________________________                                        
        golden yellow while still immature.  It is very early to mature,  90    
        days  from sowing.  Early coloring pumpkins and an early harvest are    
        two unique qualities that give 'Autumn Gold'  a  distinct  advantage    
        for  gardeners.    The  hybrid  vigor results in a highly productive    
        plant bearing three to five pumpkins per vine.   The pumpkins  weigh    
        from seven to ten pounds.                                               
                                                                                
                                                                    PAUL  L.    
        SMEAL                                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        NEW PORTABLE OR FIELD USE POCKET PH METER                               
        _________________________________________                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
        Dear Extension Agents:                                                  
                                                                                
        Before you read this, remember this is a communication to you not  a    
        commercial  for the general public for some product or a recommenda-    
        tion to the general public.  Ears perk up in  many  places  when  we    
        mention  product  names, but the purpose of HortFacts is to communi-    
                                                    _________                   
        cate information to you agents, so  please  remember  the  following    
        product  information  does not qualify for penalty mail to your cli-    
                                   ___                                          
        ents.                                                                   
                                                                                
        Production of vegetable crops requires close attention to  all  cul-    
        tural   best  management  practices,  including  soil  pH  and  soil    
        fertility.  Even older experienced vegetable producers  occasionally    
        "back-slide"  and forget how fast intensive vegetable production can    
        lower soil pH.  I have a favorite saying about soil pH and vegetable    
        production -- Lime is your BEST fertilizer!  Lime is also  the  most    
        economical of all soil amendments to purchase, truly a bargain!         
                                                                                
        However, we can also overlime or get carried away to extremes on an-    
        ything (why I even once turkey hunted and camped in the woods in the    
        rain  for  3  straight  days,  nearly  ruining my clothing, firearm,    
        health, and outlook)!  Sending off soil samples is costly and  slow,    
        especially  if  a farmer client has a suspected soil pH problem on a    
        vegetable crop field at planting time or even early  in  the  season    
        after planting.  A quick on-the-spot accurate pH test and quick cor-    
                                             ________                           
        rective  liming  action will improve both his profitability and your    
        professional image!                                                     
                                                                                
        With this thought in mind, I've tried several  portable  pH  meters.    
        Most   are  cheaply  priced  and  results  are  terrible,  i.e.  not    
        duplicable  or  consistently  repeatable.    Then,  when  calibrated    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
        against  known pH standards and soil pH lab tests, they were inaccu-    
                                    ___                                         
        rate, often "off" by several points; save your money folks!             
                                                                                
        Then last February, alone out at the  Indiana  State  Hort.  Society    
        Meetings  and  Trade  Show,  I suddenly spied this cute little . . .    
        gadget at a booth, called the  Nester  Instruments  pH  Pen.    With    
        miniaturized,  space  age  circuitry  winking back at me, powered by    
        tiny calculator-type batteries, a protected glass/gel proble, even a    
        pocket clip (sigh), my heart went out to it.   But fate  intervened,    
        the $90 cost I could not find so far from home!  The best I could do    
        was  return  with  a  flyer  handout  to hang on my office wall as a    
        "pin-up poster" in memory of our fateful meeting!                       
                                                                                
        Finally I found the funds to purchase this little beauty and ran  it    
        through the tests against both known pH lab standards and field soil    
        test  lab results.  I received the pen in late August so field tests    
        are not sufficiently completed, but so far the pen is right on, both    
        accurate and repeatable to within .1 pH point in every case.            
                                                                                
        Following is more information for your use, including the simple in-    
        structions for field soil pH testing.  This product really works and    
        only requires a 5 minute wait for stabilizing a half cup soil and  a    
        half cup of distilled water stirred together before reading results!    
        If  I  appear to be carrying a sidearm, why it's only my plastic jug    
        of distilled H2O on my belt.   With a firm  jaw,  steely  eyes,  and    
        quick  draw, I'll get the drop on the 'ole acid bankrobber before he    
        can even blink and get buffered up!                                     
                                                                                
                                                                CHARLES   R.    
        O'DELL                                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
September Monthly Notes                                                         
                                                                                
* An easy indoor plant watering system can be designed by                       
inserting an asbestos-glass water wick into one of the drainage                 
holes of a pot. Or old nylon stockings can be braided and used                  
instead. Set the pot on a water reservoir made from heavy plastic               
such as large-sized whipped margarine containers. Prepare the                   
lid by making two holes; one for the wick to reach the water,                   
and a larger one for supplying fresh water. This is a highly                    
efficient system for carefree watering. However, the plants                     
should be periodically watered from the top to flush accumulated                
minerals from the soil.                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't overlook excellent sources of organic material available                
during the fall. Leaves are abundant and neighbors will usually                 
be glad to give their leaves to you. Plow some into the garden                  
now and store some for next year's mulch.                                       
                                                                                
* You can help leaves break down more easily by running a lawn                  
mover back and forth over the pile. Put the shredded leaves                     
directly onto the garden or compost pile.                                       
                                                                                
* Cover crops can be planted as early as August 1, but should                   
not be planted any later than November 1. They should make some                 
growth before hard frost kills them. Where you have fall crops                  
growing, you can sow cover crop seed between rows a month or                    
less before expected harvest. This way, the cover crop gets                     
a good start but will not interfere with vegetable plant growth.                
                                                                                
* If you plan to move some of your chives indoors this winter,                  
this is the time to pot them up. When dividing your outdoor                     
plants, select young, mature plants and pot 8 to 10 per 6"                      
pot. They will do best on a sunny windowsill.                                   
                                                                                
* Sowing seeds of hardy annuals such as sweet alyssum, pinks                    
and sweet peas will give the seedlings time to get established                  
and develop good root systems before the coldest part of winter.                
This gives them a head start on growth and flowering next spring.               
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of such annual bedding plants as begonias,                      
coleus, geraniums and impatiens. Rooted indoors, these overwinter               
in a bright window and give plants for next year's garden.                      
                                                                                
* If you enjoy growing wild flowers, now is the time to collect                 
seed for your garden from many of the summer flowering types.                   
                                                                                
* When using a cold frame to extend your harvest season, be                     
sure to close the top for frosty nights to protect the plants                   
from the cold. When the sun comes out the next morning and the                  
air warms, you can open the cold frame again.                                   
                                                                                
* Fall is a good time for planting. Researchers have concluded                  
that the last safe planting date is approximately 4 weeks before                
soil temperatures fall to 40 degrees F which inhibits root                      
development. For plants which are marginally hardy and hard-to-                 
transplant, this date should be early.                                          
                                                                                
* Wood ashes contain phosphorous, calcium and potassium and                     
can be placed on garden, flower beds, or spread on lawn, but                    
don't overdo it. Avoid using wood ashes on acid-loving plants as                
it raises the pH.                                                               
                                                                                
* A green manure or cover crop improves water infiltration,                     
reduces soil erosion, reduces nutrient leaching and promotes                    
the growth of microorganisms. Annual rye can be sown at the                     
rate of 15.2 lbs. per 1000 sq. ft. during September and October.                
A light fertilization with 1-2 lbs. of 5-10-10 will generally                   
increase plant growth.                                                          
                                                                                
* The tomato variety Long Keeper has received high acclaim by                   
home gardeners who have successfully kept fruit past the first                  
of the new year in parts of Virginia.                                           
                                                                                
* Before moving your houseplants back inside from their outdoor                 
summer, take time to wash your windows. Not only will it be                     
easier without plants in the way, it will make considerably                     
more light available and help your plants adjust to their new                   
lower light regime.                                                             
                                                                                
* Don't wait for frost warnings to move your plants indoors. Tem-               
peratures of 50 degrees F or lower can damage many tropical                     
houseplants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Dried beans and peas are among the easiest crops to store. They               
will keep for many months in a cool, dry location. Control                      
weevils before storage by placing in a freezer at 0 degrees F or                
lower for 4 days, or heat to 180 degrees F for at least 15                      
minutes. Following this treatment, place the dry beans or peas in               
a tight container and place in a cool, dry place.                               
                                                                                
* Winter type pumpkins and squash such as acorn, butternut and                  
spaghetti may keep for several months in a cool, medium-dry                     
basement, garage or tool shed. Allow the fruit to ripen fully                   
on the vine, and cure in the sun to form a hard rind. Harvest                   
before frost, and leave a piece of stem on each when they are                   
cut from the vine. If the floor is damp, place pumpkins and                     
squash on shelves to reduce the possibility of rot. The best                    
storage temperature is about 60 degrees F.                                      
                                                                                
* Sweet potatoes will keep for several months in a medium dry                   
basement. Handle sweet potatoes very carefully to avoid bruising                
or cutting. Cure for about 10 days at 80 degrees F or for 20                    
days at 70 degrees F to dry and toughen the skin. This can be                   
done near the furnace in your basement. Store under medium dry                  
conditions at 60 degrees F, or as close to this temperature                     
as possible. Sort your sweet potatoes carefully every few weeks                 
and remove any that may start to decay.                                         
                                                                                
* Hot peppers will keep best if stored after they are dry. Pull                 
the plants and hang them up, or pick the peppers and thread                     
on a string. Store in any cool, dry place.                                      
                                                                                
* Green tomatoes may be stored for 4 to 6 weeks and will gradual-               
ly ripen to a nice red color. The best storage conditions are                   
about 60 degrees F and a moderately moist atmosphere. Harvest the               
tomatoes in a firm, green condition before frost. Remove the                    
stems to prevent puncturing other fruits. Wash dirt off rather                  
than wiping, which may cause skin scratches which will be                       
susceptible to decay. If the basement is quite dry, the tomatoes                
may be placed in film bags, or film-lined boxes to increase the                 
humidity. Sort the fruit every week to remove those which ripen                 
or start to decay.                                                              
                                                                                
* Dig out the list of spring flowering bulbs you made last spring               
and start getting them into the ground so you can be among the                  
blissful rather than wistful as next winter snows begin to                      
melt. If you did not get a list started last spring, a few bulbs                
to consider for starters are Snowflake, Glory-of-the-Snow,                      
Snowdrops, and Winter Aconite.                                                  
                                                                                
* Divide lilies-of-the-valley. Mix bone meal in the soil before                 
replanting.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plant new Madonna lilies as soon as they arrive. Do not plant                 
deeper than two inches from top of bulb to ground level. Set                    
bulb in sand.                                                                   
                                                                                
* As the nights become cool, caladiums will begin to lose leaves.               
Dig up, dry, and store in a warm, dry place to prevent rot. This                
space can be replanted with Christmas peppers or Jerusalem                      
cherry plants which have been grown from seed in pots sunk in the               
vegetable garden, or transplant mums that have been grown to                    
flower size in the vegetable garden.                                            
                                                                                
* Mums can be transplanted while in bloom which makes them useful               
for instant landscapes in early Autumn. Dig plants carefully                    
after thorough watering, retaining as much of the root system as                
feasible. Gently loosen a small amount of soil from the outer                   
soil depth. Water thoroughly to set plants in. As with any                      
transplanting, it is best to do this in early morning or late                   
evening when temperatures are cool. Monitor plants carefully for                
several days for wilting, and shade briefly during the hotter                   
periods of the day, if necessary.                                               
                                                                                
* For early blooms in May and June next year, certain annuals can               
be sown now, including larkspur, nigella, calendula, Shirley                    
poppies, annual scabious, and coreopsis. Sown in the open, they                 
should be well established by the time the cold weather comes.                  
                                                                                
* Plant tubers of both garden and tree peonies in September or                  
early October so they will have time to become established in the               
soil before winter. Dig a hole 18 inches across and 18 inches                   
deep for each tuber. Space the holes so that the plants will be                 
at least 3 feet apart. Pile loose soil at the side of the hole                  
and break up all lumps.                                                         
                                                                                
* If pesky seedlings of woody plants, such as elm or hackberry,                 
are found growing in your hedge, remove them as soon as possible.               
If left too long, they will take over and leaves gaps in the                    
hedge when they are finally removed.                                            
                                                                                
* Check grapevines for mummied berries - victims of black rot.                  
Pick them and dispose of (do not compost) before they can spread                
the disease.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Rake up leaves, twigs, and fruit from crabapple trees and                     
dispose of them in the trash to help control scab.                              
                                                                                
* Pot up chives, parsley and other herbs to extend the growing                  
season in the house.                                                            
                                                                                
* Harvesting guidelines: PEARS should be picked at the hard ripe                
stage, and allowed to finish ripening off the tree. The base                    
color of yellow pears should change from green to yellow as                     
the fruit approaches maturity. APPLES should separate readily                   
from the trees when lifted gently upwards.                                      
                                                                                
* The gardening season can be extended well into the winter.                    
Lettuce, cress, radishes, endive, and spinach can all be grown in               
the well-known structure, the coldframe. In cooler weather,                     
insulate the outer sides of the box with banked soil or sawdust.                
Cover the top with sacks stuffed with straw or other insulation                 
during cold nights.                                                             
                                                                                
* Fall is usually cool and moist and a good time to plant trees                 
and shrubs. Research has shown that roots will continue to grow                 
until the soil freezes, which is about Thanksgiving. This is                    
true for both evergreens and deciduous plants. The best time for                
lawn construction is from mid-August to mid-September for                       
cool-season grasses. Seeding at this time allows for a long                     
fall growing period, when temperatures and moisture conditions                  
are most favorable and weed competition is at a minimum. By the                 
time cold weather arrives, the grass is fairly well established                 
and ready to grow and thicken early the following spring.                       
                                                                                
* Perennial flowers which will bloom in September include:                      
Biglow sneezeweed (Helenium biglovi), hardy asters, hardy                       
chrysanthemums, showy stonecrop (Sedum spectabile), false                       
dragonhead (Physostegia virginiana), bigleaf sea lavender                       
(Limonium latifolium), and great azure sage (Salvia pitcheri).                  
                                                                                
* Spray cabbage, broccoli, and caulifower with BT (Bacillus                     
thuringiensis) once a week through harvest to avoid cabbage                     
loopers.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Allow plants to finish the summer growth cycle in a normal                    
manner. Never encourage growth with heavy applications of                       
fertilizer or excessive pruning at this time. Plants will                       
quickly delay their hardening process that has already begun in                 
anticipation of winter several months ahead. New growth can be                  
injured by an early freeze.                                                     
                                                                                
* Harvest fall-bearing and/or everbearing raspberries as quickly                
as they ripen. Frequent harvesting helps to reduce insect and                   
disease problems. Prune out canes (or portions of canes on                      
everbearers) that have borne fruit immediately after harvest.                   
                                                                                
* There are several methods that can be used to determine when                  
apples are ready to be picked. The first is to hold a fruit                     
gently in the palm of your hand. Then, slowly lift up on the                    
fruit. If the stem easily separates from the tree, it is ripe.                  
Second, the base color, the side of the fruit nearest the trunk,                
of many varieties changes from a darker to a lighter shade of                   
green as the fruit reaches maturity. A third test is to cut                     
a fruit in half to check the color of its seeds. Brown seeds                    
indicate ripeness or maturity.                                                  
                                                                                
* Establish new perennial flower beds; dig, divide, and replant                 
overcrowded beds of bearded iris, cannas, daylilies, violets,                   
and shasta daisies. Spread a liberal amount of organic matter                   
and bulb fertilizer evenly over the area. Mix this into the                     
soil at least 6 to 8 inches deep. Space divisions at least                      
1 foot apart in all directions so that root competition will                    
not be a problem for several year.                                              
                                                                                
* The disease, powdery mildew, becomes more abundant following                  
periods of cool nights and warm, dry days. Infected plants                      
such as crepe myrtle, lilac, zinnias, and azalea are covered                    
with a white powdery growth. Benomyl is a fungicide which can                   
be used for control of powdery mildew.                                          
                                                                                
* Dig gladiolus corms when the leaves yellow. The tops should                   
be cut off 1/2 inch above the top of the corm immediately after                 
digging. After digging, dry the corms (about 10-20 days),                       
separate the large corms from the smaller ones and store them in                
damp peat moss at 40-45 degrees F where there is good air                       
circulation.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Perennial phlox should be divided about every third or fourth                 
year. Divide big clumps of perennial phlox into thirds. Early                   
fall and early spring are the best times to plant and transplant                
them.                                                                           
                                                                                
* The National Chrysanthemum Society is currently operating out                 
of Virginia. Contact B. L. Markham, 2612 Beverly Road, Roanoke,                 
VA 24015 for information on this group.                                         
                                                                                
* Get in a supply of sand (without salt) for the winter. It                     
comes in handy not only for walks and driveways, but also for                   
making soil mixtures and for storing root crops.                                
                                                                                
* Keep basil, parsley, mint, sage, balm, and borage producing                   
by pinching out the seed pods. Herbs can be used fresh, frozen                  
in airtight bags, or dried. Wait until the dew has dried and                    
cut a few stems, tie a string around this little bouquet and                    
hang in a cool, dry place until completely dry. Crumble and                     
place in a jar for use during the winter.                                       
                                                                                
* Onions should be mature now. Dig on any airy day and store                    
in a shady, dry place, in mesh bags or braided into a rope and                  
hung.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Garlic is harvested when the tops die down. To prepare garlic                 
for long term storage, cure the bulbs for four to six weeks                     
in a warm, dry, shady location where there is very good air                     
circulation. Pile bulbs no more than two to three deep. After                   
curing, store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated spot.                             
                                                                                
* To harvest sunflower seeds, wait until the seeds are fully                    
grown and firm, then cut the head leaving one foot of stem. Hang                
it in a dry, airy spot to finish ripening. Do not store sun-                    
flowers one on top of the other, or they may rot.                               
                                                                                
* Autumn is a good time for improving your garden soil. Add                     
manure, compost, wood chips and leaves to increase the organic                  
matter content. Before adding lime to your soil, have your soil                 
tested to determine if your garden needs lime.                                  
                                                                                
* Houseplants should be moved into the house when night tempera-                
tures hit 50 degrees F.                                                         
                                                                                
* Fall is a good time to plant trees around your home. According                
to the U.S. Forest Service, lawn trees increase the real estate                 
value of your home by 5-7%. In addition to this economic advan-                 
tage, trees provide erosion control, air cooling, wildlife                      
shelter, and air pollution reduction.                                           
                                                                                
* Needle leaf or cone-bearing evergreens can be moved now if you                
want to transplant them. Move plants with ample rootball.                       
                                                                                
* Generally, it is best for amateur arborists not to move                       
deciduous trees before their leaves fall.                                       
                                                                                
* Remember to stake and wire newly planted trees. Use rubber                    
hose around the guy wires to protect the trunk. Remember to                     
take the supports and stakes out in a few months once the tree                  
is established.                                                                 
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
MINIBULBS IN THE LANDSCAPE                                                      
                                                                                
Start planning your fall bulb planting. Try some of the small                   
spring flowering bulbs this year. They will add new charm and                   
beauty to your landscape. Dwarf types are ideal for rock gardens,               
at the edge of the terrace, or in front of the shrub border.                    
                                                                                
Consider miniature daffodils especially useful if your garden is                
small. They need only a few square inches of space for each bulb,               
so you may have a collection of several varieties or species in                 
a few square feet of space.                                                     
                                                                                
Hoop-Petticoat daffodil is a favorite miniature with many garden-               
ers. The trumpet or corona is long and cone shaped, and resembles               
hoop-skirt dresses for which it was names. Yellow and white                     
varieties are available.                                                        
                                                                                
Several of the small daffodil varieties have a typical long                     
trumpet like the standard types, but produce flowers only six or                
eight inches tall. Some interesting varieties include February                  
Gold, February Silver, Little Beauty and Lobularis.                             
                                                                                
If you prefer the cluster flower type of daffodils with small                   
cups you may want to try Baby Moon, Tenuior, or Minnow. These                   
miniatures daffodils will give blooms for several weeks in the                  
garden, and are useful for small flower arrangements.                           
                                                                                
Include some of the dwarf species type tulips in your collection                
of spring flowering bulbs. T. Batalinii produces fine yellow                    
flowers which are seven inches tall. T. pulchella `Violacea' has                
beautiful red-violet blooms which have long lasting quality, and                
often occur two on a stem. T. praestans `Fusilier' is one of the                
brightest red tulips, with several flowers per stem.                            
                                                                                
Don't forget Kaufmanniana (water lily) tulips. This dwarf                       
species produces flowers about two weeks before other tulips, and               
is useful when planted in front of standard size daffodils.                     
                                                                                
Hardy anemones also called windflowers are among the first to                   
bloom in the spring. These daisy-like flowers are available in                  
various shades of blue, red, pin, and white. They vary in height                
from six to twelve inches. The plants are easily grown in                       
well-drained soil and will bloom from March through May.                        
                                                                                
Several types of hyacinth should be present in delicate bulb                    
borders. Scilla siberica or Forest Hyacinth will produce small                  
blue spikes about eight inches tall and bloom very early along                  
with crocus. Scilla campanulata, the Woods Hyacinth or Spanish                  
Bluebell, blooms later along with Darwin tulips. Blue, pink and                 
white varieites are available.                                                  
                                                                                
Muscari or Grape Hyacinth is an old favorite which blooms as                    
crocus fades. Blue varieties seem to be the most popular, but                   
white ones are also available. Plumosum is an unusual form of                   
Muscari which has feathery plumes of violet colored flowers.                    
                                                                                
Consult fall bulb catalogs for pictures and descriptions of the                 
many dwarf and standard species which are available. Order your                 
selections within the next few weeks to allow adequate time for                 
planting before soil freezes.                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
FALL BLOOMING PERENNIALS                                                        
                                                                                
Perennial beds and borders can provide floral interest in                       
autumn if plants which bloom in fall are incorporated into them.                
The plants featured below are hardy perennials which you will                   
want to try in your landscape for late season color.                            
                                                                                
Fall Asters                                                                     
Fall asters, as the name implies, bloom largely during autumn.                  
Your garden can break into shades of pink and blue with varieties               
of fall asters, also called Michaelmas daisies. Use masses of                   
white varieties between blue cultivars to heighten perception of                
the blue color.                                                                 
                                                                                
Both tall and low varieties bring color to a perennial border                   
often lacking at this time of year. Taller varieties (up to 6')                 
may be planted to hide fences or as a background for lower                      
perennials. You may want to stake tall varieties. Plant shorter                 
asters (as low as 6") in low borders and reock gardens. Asters                  
are at home anywhere from a naturalistic planting or to along                   
the side of a barn or garage.                                                   
                                                                                
Divide large clumps in spring and reset plants in your border.                  
Asters grow best in full sun, but will bloom brightly in partial                
shade. Plants grow rapidly in almost any soil.                                  
                                                                                
Hardy Chrysanthemums                                                            
Chrysanthemum is such a long name that these plants are usually                 
called mums. Although generally said to be hardy, they do not                   
always live through a hard winter. Mums sold as potted plants                   
are often not hardy. If you can't get chrysanthemum divisions                   
which have overwintered successfully in your locality from                      
friends, buy cultivars that have proven hardy in northern                       
nurseries.                                                                      
                                                                                
To increase the plants' ability to overwinter, mums should be cut               
back to within a few inches of the ground after a hard freeze.                  
Evergreen boughs placed over trimmed plants is a good winter                    
covering.                                                                       
                                                                                
Mums are at their best where autumns are long and warm. They are                
easy to grow and will flower for many weeks. They come in all                   
colors except blue. Varieties vary widely in height, flower size                
and form, and time of bloom. Low growing "cushion" mums average                 
15" in height and require the least work.                                       
                                                                                
For maximum bushiness, all but the cushion types are pinched back               
until mid-July. Pinch out the soft growing tip of each shoot when               
it reaches 4-6 inches in length. If you have a lot of plants, use               
garden shears to top them.                                                      
                                                                                
When plants get crowded in 2-3 years, divide mums in spring and                 
reset them about 2 feet apart. Cushion mums are best divided                    
yearly. Mums like fertile soil. Mix rotted manure or fertilizer                 
with the soil when you set the plants.                                          
                                                                                
Shasta Daisies                                                                  
Shasta daisies are really a type of chrysanthemum. They do best                 
in areas with cool summers and rich, moist, well-drained soil.                  
Light shade is helpful in hot locations.                                        
                                                                                
White blooms with yellow centers grace the plants in summer and                 
fall. Remove spent flower heads to keep blossoms coming. Fall                   
varieties can be kept bushy by pinching back or shearing as is                  
done for other mums. This produces smaller flowers in greater                   
number. Divide plants every other spring for best growth.                       
                                                                                
Fall Blooming Anemones                                                          
Fall blooming anemones, collectively known as Japanese anemones,                
put on their floral show from late summer until frost. Like                     
early season anemones, Japanese anemones display a vivid profu-                 
sion of mauve, rose, pink and white blossoms. Flowers are                       
borne on leafless stalks 15" to 4' tall. Blooms last a long time                
on the plant, but flowers are unreliable as cut flowers.                        
                                                                                
Japanese anemones are hardy perennials. A light organic mulch                   
such as shredded bark will protect the roots in cold areas in                   
winter. In rich, sandy loam, anemones spread and can be used in                 
naturalizing. In areas with heavier soil, they tend to remain in                
clumps. Well-drained garden soil amended with peat or leaf mold                 
provides a satisfactory root environment. Plants prefer a                       
slightly acid soil.                                                             
                                                                                
A sheltered location with filtered sunlight is ideal for Japanese               
anemones, but where summers are cool, they can take full sun.                   
Consider using them as border plants, in rock gardens, and in                   
open soil near deciduous trees. The roots dislike being disturbed               
so the original site should be carefully chosen. Be aware that                  
it may take Japanese anemones several years to become established               
and display their best bloom. Divisions should be taken only when               
clumps become crowded.                                                          
                                                                                
Black-eyed Susans                                                               
Black-eyed Susans are also known as yellow coneflowers and                      
Rudbeckias. The species, Rudbeckia fulgida is one of the best                   
late blooming perennials. It holds golden yellow daisy-like                     
blooms for several weeks. The dark central cone remains attrac-                 
tive after the petals fall.                                                     
                                                                                
Perennial Black-eyed Susans are long-lived. They grow well in                   
any moderately fertile soil. In light, moist soil, they will grow               
fast and require division every few years. Most varieties of                    
Rudbeckias grow from 2-3 feet tall. `Golstrum' is a compact                     
cultivar with large flowers. It will not come true to seed;                     
propagate by division.                                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
INDOOR BULB GARDENS                                                             
                                                                                
You can take the chill out of the upcoming winter months with an                
indoor garden of sunny tulips, daffodils, hyacinths and other                   
spring-flowering bulbs. A simple procedure called "forcing' makes               
it possible to enjoy spring blooms in winter. If you start the                  
bulbs in late September, blossoms will begin to appear in                       
January. You can have a sequence of bulbs in bloom through                      
March by potting them at two-week intervals through the end of                  
November.                                                                       
                                                                                
It takes about 18 weeks from the time the bulbs are potted until                
they burst into bloom. They must spend at least 13 of those                     
weeks in a simulated winter environment. A cool (35 to 48                       
degrees F) location such as a basement, unheated closet, attic or               
garage will do. During this "cooling" period bulbs develop roots.               
                                                                                
To begin the forcing process, select a container that is twice                  
the depth of the bulb and has a bottom drainage hole. A clay or                 
plastic flower pot or a ceramic planter are excellent. If you                   
use a new clay pot, soak it overnight in water to allow it to                   
absorb moisture. Whatever container you use, be sure it is clean                
inside and out before planting the bulbs.                                       
                                                                                
Bulbs need light, well-drained media. A combination of equal                    
parts potting soil, peat moss and sand is recommended. No                       
fertilizer is necessary.                                                        
                                                                                
Place a few flat pebbles or pieces of broken clay pot over the                  
drainage hole and fill the container half way with media. If                    
you're potting tulip bulbs, position them so that the flat side                 
is facing the side of the pot. Plant hyacinths, daffodils and                   
other bulbs upright with the tips of the bulbs level with the                   
container rim. In both cases, gently tamp the soil firmly around                
the base of the bulbs.                                                          
                                                                                
After the bulbs are in place, add more potting media. Cover small               
bulbs completely, but leave the tips of larger bulbs exposed.                   
Water the soil thoroughly and let it drain. Label the container                 
with the flower type, variety, color, and potting date. Place                   
it in a cool location and water the soil regularly to keep the                  
media moist but not waterlogged.                                                
                                                                                
After approximately 10 weeks at 48 degrees F, roots will begin                  
to grow out of the drainage hole and light green shoots will                    
emerge from the bulbs. This is your cue to move the container                   
to a mild (60 to 65 degreee F), sunny room. In a matter of 20 to                
25 days the buds will open. You can prolong the life of the                     
flowers by keeping them away from radiators, heaters and drafts.                
                                                                                
When bulbs have finished flowering, remove the faded flowers but                
not the foliage. Continue watering the potted bulbs until the                   
ground can be dug in spring. Then plant the bulbs outdoors. Bulbs               
that have been forced will not bloom again indoors, but flowers,                
especially daffodils, have been known to bloom the following                    
spring in the garden.                                                           
                                                                                
Some bulb varieties suggested for forcing are tulips, hyacinths,                
daffodils, and minor bulbs such as crocus, Iris reticulata, and                 
muscari.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREEN GROUND COVER SHRUBS                                      
                                                                                
Some low growing, broad-leaved evergreen shrubs function well as                
ground covers. In addition they provide unique textural effects                 
in the landscape. Many of these plants display attractive                       
flowers and fruits. Consider the following broad leafed ever-                   
greens as ground covers:                                                        
                                                                                
For sun:                                                                        
Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) is a hardy native evergreen                 
which ranges over the cooler temperate areas of the northern                    
hemisphere. It is a trailing shrub with slender branches which                  
bear shiny oval evergreen leaves. Small urn-shaped, pink or white               
flowers appear in April or May. Small brilliant red fruits                      
develop in mid-summer and persist on the plants.                                
                                                                                
Bearberry forms an excellent carpet in gardens in full or                       
partial sun. It looks graceful draping over slopes or rock                      
faces. Plants need good drainage but thrive in infertile soil.                  
Bearberry also exhibits good salt tolerance. Pruning and fertil-                
izing is seldom necessary. In Virginia, bearberry is suited to                  
mountainous regions. Purchase container grown nursery stock for                 
establishing the planting.                                                      
                                                                                
Creeping Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) is native to a                     
large area of the eastern United States. It is a slow growing                   
evergreen shrub three to six inches tall. It spreads by creeping                
roots which produce upright shoots. These shoots carry a cluster                
of dark, showy, oval leaves about an inch in length. Leaves turn                
reddish in winter. Flowers which appear in summer are nodding and               
pinkish. They form bright red, round fruits.                                    
                                                                                
Gaultherias a have strong aromatic odor and taste. In the past                  
leaves have been used as a source of wintergreen oil. This                      
native is adapatable to sunny as well as shady areas and is an                  
excellent foreground cover for larger shrubs. Its soil require-                 
ments are moist, acidic soil high in organic matter. Pot grown                  
nursery plants transplanted in spring or early fall are recom-                  
mended in order to assure a dependable introduction to the                      
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
In shade:                                                                       
Dwarf varieties of Oregon grapeholly (Mahonia aquifolium), a                    
native of the western Pacific area of the U.S., can be considered               
for shady locations where a taller evergreen groundcover with a                 
coarse texture is desired. The varieties 'Compactum' and 'Mayham                
Strain' grow up to 2' tall. The rate of growth is quite slow.                   
                                                                                
Dwarf mahonias have proven to be excellent ground covers in deep                
shade. Avoid hot, dry sites and windy areas. Plants may become                  
partially browned by severe winter weather, but new foliage                     
rapidly replaces much of the damage. The plant is very attractive               
in April with its fragrant, rich yellow flowers in dense terminal               
clusters. Blue-black berries are produced later. The shrubs bear                
glossy, holly-like foliage. Both these traits account for the                   
common name, Oregon-grapeholly.                                                 
                                                                                
Other western dwarf species, casades mahonia (M. nervosa) and                   
creeping mahonia (M. repens) are too slow growing to be classifi-               
ed as dense ground covers, but they can be very attractive for                  
limited use. Cascades mahonia readily reaches 16" in height;                    
creeping mahonia grows several inches lower. Both bear yellow                   
flowers in spring.                                                              
                                                                                
Low growing, broad-leaved evergreen shrubs may not be readily                   
available at your favorite nursery or local garden center. Some                 
nurseries will special order plants for their custumers. Alterna-               
tively, you may order special plants by mail.                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
HOBBY GREENHOUSES                                                               
                                                                                
Why stop enjoying gardening just because cold weather stops                     
plant growth outdoors? Continue your gardening activities all                   
winter in a greenhouse. There is still time to construct a                      
greenhouse facility this fall. Such a structutre will provide                   
pleasure during the months ahead and will be a valuable addition                
to your property.                                                               
                                                                                
You can easily plan a greenhouse to fit your budget. A few                      
shelves in a dormer window may be installed for less than 100                   
dollars. For a slightly larger amount, you may enclose a side                   
porch to secure a sunroom type conservatory.                                    
                                                                                
A lean-to or small plastic greenhouse may be constructed for a                  
few hundred dollars. A more elaborate glass greenhouse may cost                 
several thousand dollars. Save money by recycling building                      
materials and using standard sizes of lumber and glazing.                       
                                                                                
An attached greenhouse is best located on the south or west side                
of the house. It should be in full sun and not shaded by trees.                 
If it is a small structure, heaters are available to keep the                   
structure warm. The floor of your greenhouse could be crushed                   
stone or gravel on packed earth; or it may be brick or concrete.                
All are low maintenance, low cost materials.                                    
                                                                                
Plants in a greenhouse require daily attention to provide water                 
and a suitable temperature. You may arrange to leave for periods                
of one to several weeks if you enlist the aid of a friend to do                 
the watering and watching but automatic controls for ventilators,               
heating systems and watering may be more reliable.                              
                                                                                
Spring flowering bulbs are an ideal winter crop for the home                    
greenhouse. Following a period of cold storage, they may be                     
placed under the benches to start growth. When leaves appear,                   
place them in full sun until they bloom.                                        
                                                                                
Potted flowering plants are easy to grow if you have a green-                   
house. Many dwarf annuals can be grown in this way. Try mari-                   
gold, calendula, geranium and nasterium. Plan to use at least                   
part of one bench for cut flowers, such as snapdragons, carna-                  
tions and chrysanthemums, if you enjoy displaying flowers in your               
home.                                                                           
                                                                                
A greenhouse is an excellent place in which to propagate favorite               
shrubs. For example, you may start azaleas from seeds in spring,                
or root semihardwood cuttings from your landscape plants in                     
midsummer. A simple, automated misting system which can be                      
constructed inexpensively will aid plant propagation.                           
                                                                                
You may also grow delicious vegetables in your greenhouse. Look                 
in seed catalogs for varieties suited for greenhouse growing.                   
Tomatoes and cucumbers are two crops easy to grow in a warm                     
greenhouse. Tomatoes require very little space if trained to a                  
single stem on a strong cord. You can raise fine cucumbers on a                 
trellis. In an unheated greenhouse, you can force rhubarb and                   
grow lettuce, Swiss chard and other hardy greens.                               
                                                                                
One of the most important reasons for having a home greenhouse                  
is to produce flower and vegetable transplants in spring for your               
garden. Greenhouse growing allows gardeners a larger choice of                  
varieties than those offered for sale by nurseries. Bedding                     
plants may also be sold as a source of additional income. Some                  
easy to grow transplants are cabbage, broccoli, tomatoes, salvia,               
basil and statice.                                                              
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SEPTEMBER 1986 QUESTION BOX                                                     
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
September 1986 Topics:                                                          
                                                                                
Fertilizer/Pesticide Combination Products              25 lines                 
Preparing to Plant a Hedge                             71 lines                 
Why "Hardy" Plants May Fail                            35 lines                 
Vegetable Marrow                                       23 lines                 
Onion Sets Set Seed                                    26 lines                 
Ferns for Sunny Spots                                  27 lines                 
Transplanting Tips for Woody Ornamentals               38 lines                 
Perennial Tulips                                       28 lines                 
Snowbell Trees                                         25 lines                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
I would like to save some time on yard work by buying some lawn                 
fertilizer which also contains pesticides. Do you recommend these               
duo-purpose products?                                                           
                                                                                
The major reason for buying a fertilizer combined with a pesti-                 
cide is convenience. It is very convenient to combine everything                
you need in one application, but it is also very expensive.                     
Beside cost, the other problem with fertilizer/pesticide combina-               
tion products is that the timing for a fertilizer application                   
often does not coincide with the appearance of a disease or an                  
insect problem.                                                                 
                                                                                
In the case of a number of turfgrass diseases, the primary cause                
of disease infestation is improper fertilization. A fertilizer-                 
insecticide combination can do an adequate job of controlling a                 
turf pest plus give the grass "a shot in the arm" and help it in                
its recovery if the amount of fertilizer and timing are appropri-               
ate.                                                                            
                                                                                
Remember that the time for fertilizing cool season grasses is in                
the fall while warm season grasses should be fertilized in                      
summer. The time to control different pests varies widely. Also,                
never use a fertilizer/pesticide product on a garden. It may                    
contain chemicals harmful if ingested and it may kill crop                      
plants and flowers. Contact your local Cooperative Extension                    
Service for more detailed information.                                          
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
We are considering surrounding our property with a hedge. We have               
seen some hedges which look good but many which look thin and                   
poor after some years. How can we maintain a good looking hedge?                
                                                                                
Establishment of a deciduous hedge begins with the selection                    
of nursery stock. Choose young trees or shrubs one to two feet                  
high, preferably with multiple stems. Privet, Tartarian honey-                  
suckle and winged euonymus are popular deciduous hedge plants.                  
Consider arborvitae, hemlock or yew if you want a needle-leaved,                
evergreen hedge. Broad-leaved evergreens such as English holly                  
and boxwood make good hedges although they are slow growing.                    
                                                                                
A well-shaped hedge is no accident. It must be trained from the                 
beginning. When planting, cut deciduous plants back to six or                   
eight inches. This will induce low branching. Late in the first                 
season or before bud-break in the next, prune off half of the new               
growth. In the following year, again trim off half.                             
                                                                                
In the third year, start shaping. Trim to the desired shape                     
before the hedge grows to the desired size. Never allow plants to               
grow untrimmed to the final height before shearing. By that time                
it will be too late to get maximum branching at the base. Lower                 
branches must not be allowed to be shaded out. After the hedge                  
has reached the dimensions desired, trim closely in order to keep               
within chosen bounds.                                                           
                                                                                
Evergreen nursery stock for hedging need not be as small as                     
deciduous material and should not be cut back when planted. Trim                
lightly after a year or two. Start shaping as individual plants                 
merge into a continuous hedge. Do not trim too closely because                  
many needle-bearing evergreens do not easily generate new growth                
from old wood.                                                                  
                                                                                
Before shaping, some thought should be given to the shape of the                
untrimmed plant. Hedges are often shaped with flat tops and                     
vertical sides. This unnatural shaping is seldom successful. The                
best shape, as far as the plant is concerned, is a natural form,                
rounded or slightly pointed top with sides slanting to a wide                   
base.                                                                           
                                                                                
After plants have been pruned initially to induce branching at                  
the base, low branching must be maintained by trimming the top                  
narrower than the bottom, so that sunlight can reach all of the                 
leaves on the plant. Rounded or peaked tops aid in the shedding                 
of snow, which if left, may break branches.                                     
                                                                                
These questions often arise: "How often should this hedge be                    
trimmed?" and "When should I trim?". Answers depend to some                     
extent on how formal an appearance is desired. Excessive untrimm-               
ed growth will kill leaves beneath, and also pull the hedge out                 
of shape. In general, trim before growth exceeds one foot.                      
                                                                                
Hedges of slow-growing plants such as boxwood need trimming                     
sooner, but do not shear. Shearing boxwood results in plants with               
a thin layer of leaves on the outside of plants. Boxwood shrubs                 
should be pruned by thinning out the top half of the plant and                  
cutting back branches to retain the desired height.                             
                                                                                
In mountainous areas of Virginia, yews and other evergreens may                 
need shearing only once annually and then not before July. In                   
milder areas, two or even three shearings may be necessary.                     
Deciduous material should be trimmed earlier than July, but after               
the spring flush of new growth, and will often need to be trimmed               
once or twice more. Frequency depends on the kind of shrub,                     
season, and degree of neatness desired.                                         
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Sometimes I loose landscape plants over winter which I believe                  
are "hardy". Other times the plants survive but turn brown or do                
not flower as expected. What can be done?                                       
                                                                                
Winter injury can occur to hardy plants if temperatures are                     
extremely low or if unseasonably low temperatures occur early in                
fall or late in spring. If temperatures drop too low during                     
winter, entire trees of some species are killed by freezing and                 
splitting plant cells and tissue. Planting hardy varieties is the               
best way to lessen losses due to cold temperatures.                             
                                                                                
Winter injury may also occur on hardy plants because of desiccat-               
ion or drying out. Plants need water during winter. When the soil               
is frozen, movement of water into plants is severely restricted.                
On a windy winter day, broadleaf evergreens can become water-de-                
ficient; the leaves or needles then turn brown. You may prevent                 
winter injury caused by desiccation by supplying your plants with               
sufficient moisture as they go into winter and watering them                    
during mild periods in winter. Try to locate new plantings of                   
broad-leaved evergreens in wind sheltered locations. Wind breaks                
may be constructed to decrease water loss from leaves of ever-                  
greens already located in windy locations.                                      
                                                                                
Site selection in regards to soil pH, drainage and light also                   
affects a plant's hardiness. Locate plants where their cultural                 
requirements are met, or modify the area to meet their needs.                   
                                                                                
Wide variations in winter temperatures can cause premature bud                  
break in some plants and consequent bud freezing. There is                      
nothing which can be done to delay bud break if it is caused by                 
unseasonably warm temperatures but this may also occur if plants                
are set near a stone wall or other heat retaining surface. Avoid                
placing early blooming plants in these locations. Choose late                   
blooming cultivars when available if your plants often fail to                  
bloom in spring.                                                                
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I have seen a squash called vegetable marrow being sold at a                    
roadside stand. What is it used for? How do I know when it's                    
ripe?                                                                           
                                                                                
A "new" summer squash vegetable marrow is appearing in the                      
markets. Seedsmen are beginning to offer it to gardeners, too.                  
                                                                                
Vegetable marrow has long been popular in Europe and Canada but                 
it's hardly know in the U.S. Marrows have a delicate flavor and                 
non-string, melting texture. They're also as easy to grow and as                
prolific as any zucchini.                                                       
                                                                                
`White Bush', sometimes sold as `Long White', is the most popular               
variety. Its fruits, which should be harvested when 8" long, are                
oblong and faintly ribbed. The skin is creamy white and the flesh               
pale green. `Green Bush' and `Long Green Striped' produce larger,               
green-skinned fruits.                                                           
                                                                                
Italian vegetable marrow or cocozelle has a dark green skin with                
light green stripes. It is an excellent squash for areas with                   
very hot summers. There's also cousa, a Middle Eastern marrow                   
sometimes called the Lebanese zucchini, which produces very                     
high yields of small pale green fruits on bushy plants.                         
                                                                                
__________                                                                      
                                                                                
In spring I put out onion sets. Now I have seed heads, no bulbs.                
Why is this?                                                                    
                                                                                
Onions are biennial that is under normal growing conditions they                
are vegetative the first year and produce seed the second. The                  
risk you run when buying sets is that the plants may behave as                  
though they are in their second year of growth and, rather than                 
bulbing, produce seed. When growing onions from sets, try to buy                
small sets (ones smaller than a dime). They will usually stay                   
vegetative. Onion sets may also produce seed if they have been                  
stored for long periods at 45 to 50 degrees F.                                  
                                                                                
Onions are sensitive to day length, forming a bulb when days                    
become longer than a certain critical day length. Southern and                  
western cultivars form bulbs in response to long days and short                 
nights. Northern cultivars bulb after midsummer, when days grow                 
shorter. This is why northern cultivars do not form bulbs                       
reliably in the South and southern cultivars bulb prematurely in                
the North. It is important to grow an onion that was developed                  
for your region. Your local Extension agent can provide a list of               
recommended cultivars.                                                          
                                                                                
Where the season is long, onions grown from seed bulb reliably.                 
Many gardeners report best success growing green or salad onions                
from sets and bulbs from seed or transplants. Some nurseries are                
beginning to carry onion transplants in spring. Alternatively you               
may want to try growing your own transplants.                                   
                                                                                
 ---------                                                                      
                                                                                
I have seen ferns growing in the sun. Are these special varie-                  
ties? How does on keep ferns looking healthy in the sun?                        
                                                                                
Ferns have a greater range of adaptability than most gardeners                  
realize. Contemporary landscaping trends have given new promi-                  
nence to these low maintenance perennials. They have become                     
popular in rock gardens, woodland settings, and foundation                      
plantings.                                                                      
                                                                                
Ferns will grow in sunny situtations provided they have ample                   
moisture. An organic mulch such as shredded bark helps maintain                 
soil moisture especially on sites with full open sun. A few                     
ferns which actually can thrive in full sunlight are maidenhair                 
spleenwort, Asplenium trichomanes, an evergreen; cinnamon fern,                 
Osmunda cinnamomea, useful for bold effects; and Christmas                      
fern, Polystichum acrostichoides which forms compact clumps 1-2'                
round. Other sun tolerant ferns are sensitive fern, Onoclea                     
sensibilis, up to 18" tall but can become invasive even in full                 
sun; hay-scented fern, Dennstaedtia puctilobula, 24" - adaptable                
to almost any soil and moisture conditions and an excellent                     
groundcover for rough banks; native climbing fern, Lygodium                     
palmatum, an semievergreen climbing species for bright, moist,                  
very acid situations; two cliff ferns, Woodsia ilvensis and W.                  
obtusa, very easy to grow on dry rock ledges or walls; ostrich                  
fern, Pteretis nodulosa, spreads too rampantly for small gardens                
but good for vast areas; and two for very moist locations,                      
Virginia chain fern, Woodwardia virginica, 36", and marsh fern,                 
Thelypteris palustris, 24".                                                     
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
How can I have better success transplanting woody ornamentals?                  
                                                                                
About 75% of woody plant failures are due to improper siting.                   
Careful analysis of the planting site can save much disappoint-                 
ment and replanting work and cost.                                              
                                                                                
Soil pH and drainage are vital considerations. Check the soil for               
rubble, depth and quality before siting plants. Have a soil test                
done and follow the recommendations provided with it. It is best                
to choose a species suited to the existing conditions than to try               
to modify the site.                                                             
                                                                                
To test soil drainage for ornamental plants, dig a hole two feet                
deep and fill it with water. Allow the water to drain away for 24               
hours then refill with water. If the water level drops at less                  
than 1/10" per hour after the second filling, there is a drainage               
problem. Improving drainage may be as easy as adding organic                    
matter to the soil if it is heavy clay; but if an impervious                    
hardpan is near the surface, a system of underground drainage                   
tiles may be necessary. Sometimes it is advisable to divert                     
runoff from other areas, or to plant on a mound or in a raised                  
bed instead.                                                                    
                                                                                
Changes in and interactions between sun, wind and temperature                   
through the seasons affect plant hardiness. In winter, for                      
example, sun plus wind can severely desiccate plants evergreen                  
plants. Remember that wind may be stronger in certain spots where               
it is deflected by walls.                                                       
                                                                                
Sunlight and heat reflected from structures and pavement may be                 
equally injurious in summer. Plants of borderline hardiness or                  
which bloom in early spring should never be planted on extra warm               
sites such as near a sunny, rock wall. Sensitive plants should                  
also not be located in low spots to which cold air drains.                      
                                                                                
The other 25% of plant losses are primarily due to poor planting                
technique. Few losses can be attributed to poor stock if plants                 
are purchased from a reliable nursery. When planting, be careful                
not to let roots dry out. Avoid planting too high or too low;                   
ask the nursery personnel or the Extension service for advice.                  
Often a small move or a minor change in the above or below ground               
environment can make the difference between a thriving plant and                
one that declines or fails.                                                     
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Can you suggest a few varieties of tulips which will be reliably                
perennial?                                                                      
                                                                                
It can be difficult to get tulips to grow as perennials in the                  
Mid-south. Here is a list of the cultivars that naturalized best                
in trials at the University of Kentucky in order of bloom (early                
to late):                                                                       
                                                                                
Type					Cultivars                                                              
Kaufmaniana Fosteriana	'Hearts Delight'                                         
                         'Red Emperor' (a.k.a. 'Madame Lefeber')                
                         'White Emperor' (a.k.a. 'Purissima')                   
                                                                                
Greigii Darwin Hybrid    'Margaret Herbst'                                      
                         'Dawnglow'                                             
                         'Elizabeth Arden'                                      
                         'General Eisenhower'                                   
                         'Gudoshnik'                                            
                         'Jewel of Spring'                                      
                                                                                
Single Early             'General de Wet'                                       
                         'Princess Irene'                                       
                                                                                
Lily Flowered            'Jacqueline'                                           
                         'White Triumphator'                                    
                                                                                
Double Late              'Bonanza'                                              
                         'May Wonder'                                           
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Please discuss the flowering trees called snowbells. Are these                  
native to Virginia?                                                             
                                                                                
Japanese snowbell (Styrax japonica) and fragrant snowbell (S.                   
obassia) are among the best spring-flowering small trees. Both                  
grow 20 to 30' tall, are hardy to -20 degrees F. They make fine                 
lawn or patio trees and also look good in a border of mixed                     
trees. Japanese snowbell tends to be multistemmed and spreading;                
fragrant snowbell is more columnar, with larger leaves, beautiful               
peeling bark, and longer racemes of fragrant bell-shaped white                  
flowers. Japanese snowbell is more readily available in nurseries               
than the fragrant species.                                                      
                                                                                
Two fine shrubby American species are coming into use in land-                  
scapes. American snowbell (S. americana) grows 6 - 8' tall and                  
is multistemmed and twiggy. It has the largest flowers of all the               
styraxes, beautiful white blossoms in June or July. The trees do                
best in cool, moist, slightly acid soil and can be found in damp                
lowlands and bordering streams. In its native habitat, the woods                
of the Southeast, American snowbell tends to grow rather open but               
in the garden, it is a handsome, dense shrub. A variety, S. a.                  
pulverulenta, is lower and more spreading and has hairy leaves.                 
                                                                                
Bigleaf snowbell (S. grandifolius) grow as tall as 12'. This                    
species, too, has beautiful, fragrant, white flowers and large,                 
dark fruits. Leaves may be as long as 6" to 7". Bigleaf snowbell                
is hardy to 0 degrees F. Trees have rarely been propagated by                   
nurseries. Wild specimens may be found along stream banks from                  
Virginia to Georgia.                                                            
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes for September, 1987                                               
                                                                                
Herbaceous Plants                                                               
                                                                                
* Sowing seeds of hardy annuals such as sweet alyssum, pinks and                
sweet peas will give the seedlings time to get established and                  
develop good root systems before the coldest part of winter. This               
gives them a head start on growth and flowering next spring.                    
                                                                                
* Other annuals that can be sown now, including larkspur,                       
nigella, calendula, Shirley poppies, annual scabious, and                       
coreopsis. Sown in the open, they should be well established by                 
the time the cold weather comes.                                                
                                                                                
* Dig prize gladiolus corms when the leaves yellow. The tops                    
should be cut off 1/2 inch above the top of the corm immediately                
after digging. After digging, dry the corms (about 10-20 days),                 
separate the large corms from the smaller ones and store them in                
damp peat moss at 40-45 degrees F where there is good air                       
circulation. In most parts of the state, glads will normally over               
winter without the need to dig them.                                            
                                                                                
* To harvest sunflower seeds, wait until the seeds are fully                    
grown and starting to take on a brownish tinge, then cut the head               
leaving one foot of stem. Hang it in a dry, airy spot. Do not                   
store sunflowers one on top of the other, or they may rot.                      
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of such annual bedding plants as begonias,                      
coleus, geraniums and impatiens. Rooted indoors, these overwinter               
in a bright window and give plants for next year's garden.                      
                                                                                
* Perennial flowers which will bloom in September include:                      
Biglow sneezeweed (Helenium Biglovii), hardy asters, hardy                      
chrysanthemums, showy stonecrop (Sedum spectabile), false                       
dragonhead (Physostegia virginiana), bigleaf sea lavender                       
(Limonium latifolium), and great azure sage (Salvia Pitcheri).                  
                                                                                
* Plant new Madonna lilies as soon as they arrive. Do not plant                 
deeper than one inches from top of bulb to ground level.                        
                                                                                
* Mums can be transplanted while in bloom which makes them useful               
for instant landscapes in early Autumn. Dig plants carefully                    
after thorough watering, retaining as much of the root system as                
feasible. Gently loosen a small amount of soil from the outer                   
soil depth. Water thoroughly to set plants in. As with any                      
transplanting, it is best to do this in early morning or late                   
evening when temperatures are cool. Monitor plants carefully for                
several days for wilting, and shade briefly during the hotter                   
periods of the day, if necessary.                                               
                                                                                
* Establish new perennial flower beds; dig, divide, and replant                 
overcrowded beds of bearded iris, cannas, daylilies, violets, and               
shasta daisies. Spread a liberal amount of organic matter and                   
bulb fertilizer evenly over the area. Mix this into the soil at                 
least 6 to 8 inches deep. Space divisions at least 1 foot apart                 
in all directions so that root competition will not be a problem                
for several year.                                                               
                                                                                
* Dig out the list of spring flowering bulbs you made last spring               
and start getting them into the ground so you can be among the                  
blissful rather than wistful as next winter snows begin to                      
melt. If you did not get a list started last spring, a few bulbs                
to consider for starters are Snowflake, Glory-of-the-Snow,                      
Snowdrops, and Winter Aconite.                                                  
                                                                                
* If you enjoy growing wild flowers, now is the time to collect                 
seed for your garden from many of the summer flowering types.                   
                                                                                
* As the nights become cool, caladiums will begin to lose leaves.               
Dig up, dry, and store in a warm, dry place to prevent rot. This                
space can be replanted with Christmas peppers or Jerusalem cherry               
plants which have been grown from seed in pots sunk in the                      
vegetable garden, or transplant mums that have been grown to                    
flower size in the vegetable garden.                                            
                                                                                
* Lots of spring bulb fanciers swear by bonemeal for fertilizing                
their planting beds, but the phosphorus in bonemeal is almost                   
completely unavailable to plants until the soil temperature                     
reaches about 50 degrees F. Bonemeal might aid your bulbs late in               
the growing season, but it does not aid flowering appreciable.                  
More soluble phosphorus fertilizers may work better in spring.                  
                                                                                
* Perennial phlox should be divided about every third or fourth                 
year. Divide big clumps of perennial phlox into thirds. Early                   
fall and early spring are the best times to plant and transplant                
them.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Plant tubers of both garden and tree peonies in September or                  
early October so they will have time to become established in the               
soil before winter. Dig a hole 18 inches across and 18 inches                   
deep for each tuber. Space the holes so that the plants will be                 
at least 3 feet apart. Pile loose soil at the side of the hole                  
and break up all lumps. Make sure the roots are buried only 1 1/2               
 2 inches below ground level so they will bloom next summer.                    
                                                                                
* Divide lilies-of-the-valley. Mix bone meal in the soil before                 
replanting.                                                                     
                                                                                
* A generation or two ago, gardeners over-wintered geraniums as                 
houseplants. In sunny windows, the plants flowered but usually                  
grew quite leggy. Development of new compact cultivars of                       
geraniums provides incentive to try overwintering a few plants.                 
In fact, some geranium producers are growing them as pot plants                 
for fall and winter sales.                                                      
                                                                                
* The maintanance of tulips as perennials depends on proper                     
selection of site, cultivars, and nutrition. Soil aeration is the               
most important consideration in siting tulips--forget poorly                    
drained sites. Add organic materials to heavy clay soils and                    
loosen the soil down to a foot deep, if possible.                               
                                                                                
Herbs                                                                           
                                                                                
* To insure a good crop of big bulbs next fall plant garlic                     
cloves this fall. Be sure to cover with a layer of organic mulch.               
                                                                                
* Garlic is harvested when the tops die down. To prepare garlic                 
for long term storage, cure the bulbs for four to six weeks in a                
warm, dry, shady location where there is very good air circu-                   
lation. Pile bulbs no more than two to three deep. After curing,                
store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated spot.                                     
                                                                                
* If you plan to move some of your chives indoors this winter,                  
this is the time to pot them up. When dividing your outdoor                     
plants, select young, mature plants and pot 8 to 10 per 6"                      
pot. They will do best on a sunny windowsill.                                   
                                                                                
* Keep basil, parsley, mint, sage, balm, and borage producing by                
pinching out the seed pods. Herbs can be used fresh, frozen in                  
airtight bags, or dried. Wait until the dew has dried and cut a                 
few stems, tie a string around this little bouquet and hang in a                
cool, dry place until completely dry. Crumble and place in a jar                
for use during the winter.                                                      
                                                                                
Woody Ornamentals                                                               
                                                                                
* An easy way to propagate autumn olive bushes by seed is to                    
simply plant the whole fruits soon after they ripen in the fall.                
                                                                                
* The disease, powdery mildew, becomes more abundant following                  
periods of cool nights and warm, dry days. Infected plants such                 
as crepe myrtle, lilac, zinnias, and azalea are covered with a                  
white powdery growth. Powdery mildew can be contralled by the use               
of appropriate fungicides. Contact your local Extension agent for               
recommendations.                                                                
                                                                                
* If pesky seedlings of woody plants, such as elm or hackberry,                 
are found growing in your hedge, remove them as soon as possible.               
If left too long, they will take over and leaves gaps in the                    
hedge when they are finally removed.                                            
                                                                                
* Allow plants to finish the summer growth cycle in a normal                    
manner. Heavy applications of fertilizer or excessive pruning at                
this time will encourage new growth. This will delay the                        
hardening process that has already begun in anticipation of                     
winter several months ahead. New growth can be injured by an                    
early freeze.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Select some accent plants for your landscape that will provide                
autumn colors. Trees that turn red include: dogwood, red maple,                 
black gum, sweet gum, and red or scarlet oak. Shrubs with red                   
fall foliage include: viburnum, winged euonymus, and barberry.                  
                                                                                
* Rake up leaves, twigs, and fruit from crabapple trees and                     
dispose of them in the trash to help control scab.                              
                                                                                
* Water newly planted trees and shrubs to provide sufficient                    
moisture and prevent winter damage. Add a 3" layer of a organic                 
mulch such as shredded bark around the base of plants to retain                 
soil moisture and regulate soil temperature. Leave mulch back                   
about 5" from the trunk of the tree to prvent mice feed on the                  
bark.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Remember to stake and wire newly planted trees. Use rubber hose               
around the guy wires to protect the trunk. Remember to take the                 
supports and stakes out in a few months once the tree is establi-               
shed.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Generally, it is best for home gardeners not to attempt moving                
deciduous trees before their leaves fall.                                       
                                                                                
* Needle leaf or cone-bearing evergreens can be transplanted now.               
Dig plants with ample rootball.                                                 
                                                                                
* Fall is a good time to plant trees around your home. According                
to the U.S. Forest Service, lawn trees increase the real estate                 
value of your home by 5-7%. In addition to this economic advan-                 
tage, trees provide erosion control, air cooling, wildlife                      
shelter, and air pollution reduction.                                           
                                                                                
* Fall is usually cool and moist and a good time to plant trees                 
and shrubs. Research has shown that roots will continue to grow                 
until the soil freezes. This is true for both evergreens and                    
deciduous plants.                                                               
                                                                                
Lawns                                                                           
                                                                                
* Lawns should be fertilized in late September or early October.                
Consult your local Extension agent for the most recent recommen-                
dations for your area.                                                          
                                                                                
* Healthy green grass outside the windows of your home can cool                 
the breeze off hot pavement by as much as 10 degrees F.                         
                                                                                
* Wood ashes contain phosphorous, calcium and potassium and can                 
be placed on garden, flower beds, or spread on lawn, but don't                  
overdo it. Avoid using wood ashes on acid-loving plants as it                   
raises the pH.                                                                  
                                                                                
* The best time for lawn construction is from mid-August to                     
mid-September for cool-season grasses. Seeding at this time                     
allows for a long fall growing period, when temperatures and                    
moisture conditions are most favorable and weed competition is at               
a minimum. By the time cold weather arrives, the grass is fairly                
well established and ready to grow and thicken early the                        
following spring.                                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
Vegetables                                                                      
                                                                                
* Dried beans and peas are among the easiest crops to store. They               
will keep for many months in a cool, dry location. Control                      
weevils before storage by placing in a freezer at 0 degrees F or                
lower for 4 days, or heat to 180 degrees F for at least 15                      
minutes. Following this treatment, place the dry beans or peas in               
a tight container and place in a cool, dry place.                               
                                                                                
* Spinach is much better as a fall crop as it goes to seed                      
quickly when the weather warms up in spring.                                    
                                                                                
* Plant spinach, lettuce, kale, turnips, and radishes in early                  
September as the last crops for your fall garden. Soak seed                     
furrows well before sowing seed and mulch lightly. Water the rows               
daily to promote germination and growth of young seedlings.                     
                                                                                
* Save seeds from favorite self-pollinating non-hybrid flowers                  
and vegetables by allowing the flower heads to mature. Lay seeds                
on newspaper, turning often to dry; then store in glass jars or                 
envelopes in a cool (40-50 degrees F) dry, dark place.                          
                                                                                
* The tomato variety Long Keeper has received high acclaim by                   
home gardeners who have successfully kept fruit past the first of               
the new year in parts of Virginia.                                              
                                                                                
* Onions should be mature now. Dig on any airy day and store in a               
shady, dry place, in mesh bags or braided into a rope and hung.                 
                                                                                
* Green tomatoes may be stored for 4 to 6 weeks and will gradual-               
ly ripen to a nice red color. The best storage conditions are                   
about 60 degrees F and a moderately moist atmosphere. Harvest the               
tomatoes in a firm, green condition before frost. Remove the                    
stems to prevent puncturing other fruits. Wash dirt off rather                  
than wiping, which may cause skin scratches which will be                       
susceptible to decay. If the basement is quite dry, the tomatoes                
may be placed in film bags, or film-lined boxes to increase the                 
humidity. Sort the fruit every week to remove those which ripen                 
or start to decay.                                                              
                                                                                
* Hot peppers will keep best if stored after they are dry. Pull                 
the plants and hang them up, or pick the peppers and thread on a                
string. Store in any cool, dry place.                                           
                                                                                
* Spray cabbage, broccoli, and caulifower with BT (Bacillus                     
thuringiensis) once a week through harvest to avoid cabbage                     
loopers.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Sweet potatoes will keep for several months in a medium dry                   
basement. Handle sweet potatoes very carefully to avoid bruising                
or cutting. Cure for about 10 days at 80 degrees F or for 20 days               
at 70 degrees F to dry and toughen the skin. This can be done                   
near the furnace in your basement. Store under medium dry                       
conditions at 60 degrees F, or as close to this temperature as                  
possible. Sort your sweet potatoes carefully every few weeks and                
remove any that may start to decay.                                             
                                                                                
* The gardening season can be extended well into the winter.                    
Lettuce, cress, radishes, endive, and spinach can all be grown in               
the well-known structure, the coldframe. In cooler weather,                     
insulate the outer sides of the box with banked soil or sawdust.                
Cover the top with sacks stuffed with straw or other insulation                 
during cold nights.                                                             
                                                                                
* Winter type pumpkins and squash such as acorn, butternut and                  
spaghetti may keep for several months in a cool, medium-dry                     
basement, garage or tool shed. Allow the fruit to ripen fully on                
the vine, and cure in the sun to form a hard rind. Harvest before               
frost, and leave a piece of stem on each when they are cut from                 
the vine. If the floor is damp, place pumpkins and squash on                    
shelves to reduce the possibility of rot. The best storage                      
temperature is about 60 degrees F.                                              
                                                                                
* Cover crops can be planted as early as August 1, but should not               
be planted any later than November 1. They should make some                     
growth before hard frost kills them. Where you have fall crops                  
growing, you can sow cover crop seed between rows a month or less               
before expected harvest. This way, the cover crop gets a good                   
start but will not interfere with vegetable plant growth.                       
                                                                                
Fruits/ Nuts                                                                    
                                                                                
* Pears should be picked at the hard ripe stage, and allowed to                 
finish ripening off the tree. The base color of yellow pears                    
should change from green to yellow as the fruit approaches                      
maturity. Pick Kieffer pears when full size but still green.                    
Store at 60 to 70 degrees F. Then store at 35-40 degrees for top                
quality.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Check grapevines for mummied berries - victims of black rot.                  
Pick them and dispose of (do not compost) before they can spread                
the disease.                                                                    
                                                                                
* There are several methods that can be used to determine when                  
apples are ready to be picked. The first is to hold a fruit                     
gently in the palm of your hand. Then, slowly lift up on the                    
fruit. If the stem easily separates from the tree, it is ripe.                  
Second, the base color, the side of the fruit nearest the trunk,                
of many varieties changes from a darker to a lighter shade of                   
green as the fruit reaches maturity. A third test is to cut a                   
fruit in half to check the color of its seeds. Brown seeds                      
indicate ripeness or maturity.                                                  
                                                                                
* Harvest fall-bearing and/or everbearing raspberries as quickly                
as they ripen. Frequent harvesting helps to reduce insect and                   
disease problems. Prune out canes (or portions of canes on                      
everbearers) that have borne fruit immediately after harvest.                   
                                                                                
Indoor Plants                                                                   
                                                                                
* Don't wait for frost warnings to move your plants indoors. Tem-               
peratures of 50 degrees F or lower can damage many tropical                     
houseplants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Before moving your houseplants back inside from their outdoor                 
summer, take time to wash your windows. Not only will it be                     
easier without plants in the way, it will make considerably more                
light available and help your plants adjust to their new lower                  
light regime.                                                                   
                                                                                
* An easy indoor plant watering system can be designed by                       
inserting an asbestos-glass water wick into one of the drainage                 
holes of a pot. Or old nylon stockings can be braided and used                  
instead. Set the pot on a water reservoir made from heavy plastic               
such as large-sized whipped margarine containers. Prepare the lid               
by making two holes; one for the wick to reach the water, and a                 
larger one for supplying fresh water. This is a highly efficient                
system for carefree watering. However, the plants should be                     
periodically watered from the top to flush accumulated minerals                 
from the soil.                                                                  
                                                                                
Miscellaneous                                                                   
                                                                                
* When using a cold frame to extend your harvest season, be sure                
to close the top for frosty nights to protect the plants from the               
cold. When the sun comes out the next morning and the air warms,                
you can open the cold frame again.                                              
                                                                                
* All those leaves which fall each autumn are perfect for                       
starting a compost pile. A compost pile does not have to be                     
anything fancy. Simply pile up leaves in a corner of your garden.               
Mix in some soil to provide organisms that will break down the                  
leaves and other compost material. Next spring you can                          
incorporate the broken down leaves (leaf mold) into your garden                 
when you turn the soil over. For more detailed information on                   
composting request publication 426-325.                                         
                                                                                
* Now is the time to collect okra, gourds, seed pods, sumac seed                
heads, rose hips and other suitable material for dried flower                   
arrangements. Air dry these materials in a dark, cool location.                 
                                                                                
* Autumn is a good time for improving your garden soil. Add                     
manure, compost, sawdust and leaves to increase the organic                     
matter content. Before adding lime to your soil, have your soil                 
tested to determine if your garden needs lime.                                  
                                                                                
* You can help leaves break down more easily by running a lawn                  
mover back and forth over the pile. Put the shredded leaves                     
directly onto the garden or compost pile.                                       
                                                                                
* Get in a supply of sand (without salt) for the winter. It comes               
in handy not only for walks and driveways, but also for making                  
soil mixtures and for storing root crops.                                       
                                                                                
* A green manure or cover crop improves water infiltration,                     
reduces soil erosion, reduces nutrient leaching and promotes the                
growth of microorganisms. Annual rye can be sown at the rate of                 
15.2 lbs. per 1000 sq. ft. during September and October. A light                
fertilization with 1-2 lbs. of 5-10-10 will generally increase                  
plant growth.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Try a cover crop this fall. Planted as early as possible winter               
rye (the grain, not the grass) can produce lush growth which when               
turned under in spring loosens and enriches the soil.                           
                                                                                
* While leaves are abundant, plow some into the garden and store                
some for next year's mulch.                                                     
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases September 1987                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Press release material was prepared by J. T. Foley and Clare                    
McGinnis, Extension Technicians, and Diane Relf, Extension                      
Specialist in Consumer Horticulture, working with Eric Day,                     
Manager of the Insect ID Lab. The Virginia Gardener Press                       
Releases have been developed for agent use in preparing radio and               
newspaper features and other educational programs.                              
                                                                                
Daffodils and Tulips                                72 lines                    
Starting a Wildflower Meadow                        79 lines                    
Ginseng                                             49 lines                    
Clematis for the Landscape                          71 lines                    
Lilies, Aristocrats of the Garden                   53 lines                    
Boxelder Bugs                                       52 lines                    
                                                                                
Daffodils and Tulips                                                           
                                                                                
Would you like to plant some flowers that are practically                       
guaranteed to bloom? There are many bulbs which are very                        
dependable, with  daffodils and tulips leading the list. Plant                  
them this fall for fine blooms next spring.                                     
                                                                                
Some general guidelines:                                                        
                                                                                
Purchase only high quality bulbs from a reliable source. Cheap                  
bulbs may be of poor quality and inferior varieties. Small bulbs                
produce small blooms. Plant fall bulbs soon after you get them                  
from the garden center or mail order catalog. If necessary they                 
can be stored for several weeks in a cool, dry place. Be sure                   
they are not held in a damp basement where they may rot.                        
                                                                                
The best time to plant spring-flowering bulbs is when soil                      
temperatures fall below 60 degrees F. In Virginia this is                       
generally from late September to early November. Planting as                    
early as possible in the fall allows the bulbs to develop a good                
root system before the ground freezes. Planting should be                       
completed not later than two or three weeks after the average                   
first fall frost date in your area.                                             
                                                                                
Spring flowering bulbs should be planted in well drained soil.                  
They need a good moisture supply during the growing season, but                 
will rot if the ground stays wet for long periods. Plant tulips,                
daffodils and other large bulbs 6 inches deep from ground level                 
to the base of the bulb. Space them 6 inches apart. In lighter                  
sandy soils, plant bulbs a little deeper, in heavier soils not as               
deep.                                                                           
                                                                                
Fertilizaton improves bulb performance and encourages bloom in                  
sucessive years. Either of two fertilizing methods is                           
recommended. One utilizes a sulfur-coated, slow-release complete                
fertilizer incorporated into the rooting area at the rate of one                
rounded tablespoon per square foot, or 4 lbs per 100 sq.ft. This                
is applied once per year in the fall.                                           
                                                                                
The other method is an application of 8-8-8 at 4 lbs per 100 sq.                
ft. or 10-10-10, at 3 lbs per 100 sq. ft. (roughly one rounded                  
teaspoon fertilizer per square foot), in the early fall. Apply                  
again in the spring when the first shoots break through the                     
ground.                                                                         
                                                                                
Cover the planted area with a 3 inch layer of organic mulch. Keep               
the soil moist, particularly during dry spells.                                 
                                                                                
Daffodils are probably the most useful and dependable of spring                 
flowering bulbs. Varieties are now available which range in                     
height from about four to 20 inches. Dwarf daffodils work nicely                
in shrub or border plantings. The taller varieties are good for                 
mass display in beds, naturalizing, or for cut flowers in the                   
home.                                                                           
                                                                                
The large trumpet-flowered daffodils are the type most frequently               
seen. Add variety to your collection by planting some of the                    
fragrant cluster-flowered Tazetta types such as Paper-whites. As                
cut flowers they will bring spring freshness into your home. They               
last quite well in arrangements.                                                
                                                                                
Do not neglect tulips in your fall planting. Plant breeders have                
done a terrific job in supplying new varieties. Many colors are                 
available in dwarf and tall varieites for all types of gardens. A               
catalog will be helpful to determine which are best for your                    
particular garden.                                                              
                                                                                
Consider planting some of the dwarf and medium-sized tulips. They               
are long lasting in the garden and less subject to wind damage                  
than the tall species. Also, plant a few of the cluster flowered                
varieties. These May-flowering tulips are quite different from                  
those which have only one flower per stem.                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Starting a Wildflower Meadow                                                   
                                                                                
The first step in starting a wildflower area is selecting an                    
appropriate site and matching the species to that site. When                    
possible, use indigenous species. Plants are adapted to                         
environmental factors such as climate, rainfall, pH and type of                 
soil and any attempt to establish wildflowers must begin with                   
recognizing these field conditions. Research indicates that                     
indigenous species have a high rate of germination and survival                 
which are keys to successful establishment of wildflowers.                      
                                                                                
To determine  a species desirability, several factors should be                 
considered. Does the species exhibit showy vegetation or flowers?               
Will the species be successful in establishing itself? Will it be               
able to maintain itself in that location? Is it a perennial or a                
self-seeding biennial or annual? Finally, is the species invasive               
or considered a noxious weed?                                                   
                                                                                
The typically cool, wet months of fall are the optimum time to                  
plant seed for next spring's wildflowers. There are two reasons                 
for this early start. Some species germinate in the fall,                       
establishing a root system and some vegetative growth prior to                  
winter. Other seeds require a cold period to break their                        
dormancy. Germination is induced when a warm, wet spring occurs                 
after sufficient chilling. Therefore, a fall seeding is the most                
economical approach to establishing spring and early summer                     
wildflowers. A recognized problem with some wildflowers is                      
getting the seeds to sprout. However, in successive growing                     
seasons, some of the residual seeds will germinate. Establishing                
a good stand of wildflowers can take several years and plenty of                
patience.                                                                       
                                                                                
Ground preparation depends on the area to be planted, but one                   
rule applies to all situations. There must be good seed/soil                    
contact to provide protection from bird predation, optimum                      
moisture for germination, and a growing substrate for the                       
seedlings. Fertilization in most cases does not benefit the plant               
and can cause excess vegetative growth at the expense of                        
flowering.                                                                      
                                                                                
For large areas where tilling is not economical or desirable,                   
several planting techniques exist. The first is to mow existing                 
vegetation to ground level and loose the surface of the topsoil                 
to make it possible to rake seed into the soil to ensure good                   
seed/soil contact. Another technique is to mow the vegetation as                
short as possible, spread a thin layer of topsoil (1/2 to 1 inch)               
and work seed into it. The least effective method of wildflower                 
seeding is the "feeding the chickens" technique of imitating                    
Mother Nature by randomly scattering seed on unprepared ground.                 
This process works in nature because it occurs over and over                    
again with hundreds or even thousands of times more seed.                       
                                                                                
The actual process of scattering the seed is another consider-                  
ation. Even distribution of seed at the recommended rate                        
determines the resulting wildflower density. An adjustable hand                 
carried mechanical seeder works well for many species. Some                     
species have such small seed that even distribution is very                     
difficult. If you scatter the seed manually, mix very small seed                
with damp sand to improve the results. Whether by hand or                       
mechanical seeder, evenly spreading a commercial wildflower mix                 
is difficult because of the different size and weight of the seed               
included in the mix. If possible, purchase each species                         
separately and seed one at a time to eliminate this problem.                    
                                                                                
All plants require water for seed germination. Watering is                      
recommended if fall rains are insufficient. Water thoroughly once               
and then lightly each week thereafter until the first freeze. If                
there is no winter moisture, water a couple of times during                     
December and January. This will provide moisture to the root zone               
of seedlings and effectively provide a cold wet treatment for                   
spring germinating seeds. If spring rains are light or                          
nonexistant, periodic watering will ensure optimal growth and                   
flowering.                                                                      
                                                                                
Do not mow until at least half of the latest flowering species                  
has dropped its seed. Annual and biennial wildflowers must be                   
allowed to reseed themselves to produce a good stand the next                   
year. Once established, wildflowers should return each year with                
little or no reseeding necessary and minimal maintenance.                       
Ginseng                                                                        
                                                                                
American ginseng is a herbaceous plant with a fleshy root. It                   
grows in open hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota, and south               
to the mountains of Carolina and Georgia. The plant was                         
discovered by a missionary near Montreal, Canada in 1716 and is                 
very similar in appearance and aromatic properties to Chinese                   
ginseng.                                                                        
                                                                                
The scientific name of the American species of ginseng is Panax                 
quiquefolius. The genus name, Panax, means it is a panacea or                   
remedy for ills of the flesh. The species name quiquefolius,                    
refers to the five leaflets or segments of each leaf. The Asian                 
species is named Panax pseudoginseng. The species name in this                  
case means man-shape, a likeness which the root often favors.                   
                                                                                
Ginseng requires a well drained light loam soil, with a high                    
organic matter content. An adequate supply of moisture must be                  
available at all times. The planting must be protected from hot                 
sun by tall trees or a slatted shade covering.                                  
                                                                                
The seeds of ginseng mature in September and should be planted                  
immediately. When this procedure is followed, a good percentage                 
will germinate the next spring. If seeds are allowed to become                  
thoroughly dry, they may require an additional twelve to eighteen               
months germination time.                                                        
                                                                                
When grown in a bed, ginseng plants can be spaced about two by                  
six inches apart where they will be grown for one or two years.                 
They should then be transplanted to a permanent location with                   
plants four inches apart in rows 12 to 15 inches apart.                         
                                                                                
Keep ginseng beds free from grass and weeds at all times. Apply                 
one pound of bone meal per square yard each spring about a month                
before the average date of the last frost. Scratch this into the                
surface soil and water thoroughly. Soluble fertilizers are not                  
recommended, a naturally enriched organic soil is always best.                  
Also add a light organic mulch to help conserve soil moisture and               
keep the soil cool.                                                             
                                                                                
Ginseng reaches marketable size in five or six years. Dig the                   
roots carefully because the trade accepts only whole roots. Dry                 
them in a well ventilated room at 80 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit.                  
Large roots dry slowly and must be turned regularly to avoid                    
molding.                                                                        
                                                                                
Ginseng can be sold to wholesale pharmaceutical dealers who                     
supply the U.S. market and export to China. Be sure to check on                 
the outlet for your crop before starting production.                            
                                                                                
Clematis for the Landscape                                                     
                                                                                
Large flowering clematis vines will add dramatic beauty to your                 
garden or landscape. The original large flowering form of                       
Clematis, C. x Jackmanii, has purple flowers up to about three                  
inches across. The new hybrid varieties have six to eight inch                  
blooms in attractive shades of violet, red, white, blue, pink,                  
and bi-colors.                                                                  
                                                                                
The vines make a striking display on a post, old tree stump,                    
arbor, fence, or trellis. The plants do not have tendrils, but                  
are supported by twining leaf stalks. Common varieties are hardy                
at temperatures to 30 degrees below zero.                                       
                                                                                
Clematis blooms from early summer until fall depending on the                   
variety. The plant is excellent as a landscape specimen, and the                
flowers are very good for arrangements. Blooms may last ten days                
if cut with some older wood attached.                                           
                                                                                
The clematis has a very unusual and interesting flower which has                
no petals. The colorful parts are actually enlarged sepals which                
give the impression of being long beautiful petals.                             
                                                                                
Fall is a good time to set out clematis vines. Check with                       
nurseryman now for the plants you will need. The best time for                  
planting is a couple weeks after the average first frost in your                
area. If you don't get the job done this fall, plant them next                  
spring, about a month before the average date of the last frost.                
                                                                                
Select a deep, well drained, fertile loam soil, in a sunny                      
location. For good growth, clematis should receive at least six                 
hours of sun daily.                                                             
                                                                                
Dig a deep large hole to allow plenty of room to spread the                     
roots. Mix an amount of shredded peat moss equal to one third the               
volume of the hole with the excavated soil. Clematis prefer a pH                
of 6.5 to 7.0 so add ground limestone if your soil is acidic. Set               
the crown of the plants about two to three inches below the soil                
surface. Stem rot can occur when clematis is planted too                        
shallowly. Fill the hole about three-fourths full of rich soil                  
and tamp down firmly around the roots. Then add several gallons                 
of water, and after it has been completely absorbed, finish                     
filling the hole to ground level.                                               
                                                                                
After planting, the clematis should be cut back to a height of                  
about ten inches. The stems are slender and brittle and should be               
carefully tied to a supporting stake immediately after planting.                
The stems are easily broken if whipped by the wind, or bent by                  
cultural equipment. Also, sharp or repeated bending may break the               
bark and provide an easy entrance for disease organisms.                        
                                                                                
Clematis plants require an abundance of moisture and a cool soil                
to promote vigorous growth. They will not tolerate poor drainage                
and wet feet, or a sun baked soil. Mulch with a two inch layer of               
shredded bark, peat moss, wood chips, or other organic material.                
This will help to conserve moisture, keep the soil cool, and                    
control weeds.                                                                  
                                                                                
Fertilize your clematis in early spring and late fall with a 5-                 
10-5 fertilizer. Use about one cupful per plant spread evenly in                
a circle extending about two feet around the plant. Do not use                  
fertilizer during the middle or late summer as it will stimulate                
new growth which might be damaged by cold weather. Occasional                   
soil pH adjustment may be needed as well.                                       
                                                                                
Light to moderate pruning of clematis is needed to maintain vigor               
and desirable size. Most hybrid varieties bloom on new shoots                   
which grow during the spring. Such vines are pruned in late                     
winter before growth starts. However, some varieties produce                    
flowers on old wood which grew the previous summer. These should                
be pruned as soon as they stop blooming.                                        
                                                                                
Lilies, Aristocrats of the Garden                                              
                                                                                
During recent years, plant breeders have developed many fine new                
hybrid lilies. Their stately grace and color add charm and beauty               
to the landscape. The flowers are ideal for arrangements in the                 
home or church. The plants are hardy and easy to grow.                          
                                                                                
Lily varieties can be selected by color, blooming season, and                   
height. Lilies will bloom from June until September, ranging in                 
height from two to six feet. Clear white or spotted varieties are               
available as well as shades of yellow, orange, pink, red and                    
violet. Bulbs of these new hybrids suffer less from virus                       
diseases than the old species types. Study the descriptions and                 
pictures in catalogs to help select the varieties which are best                
for your particular garden. Most catalogs are reliable sources of               
information.                                                                    
                                                                                
Lilies should be planted during September or October, as early as               
the bulbs can be secured. Lily bulbs do not become completely                   
dormant like daffodils and tulips. They must be kept moist at all               
times. When buying lilies look for fresh bulbs with a cluster of                
living roots at the base, packed in a plastic bag with moist                    
peat. Plant immediately.                                                        
                                                                                
The location of the lily planting is important. Plant lily bulbs                
where they will remain undisturbed for many years. Select a well-               
drained fertile loam soil. In areas where excessive soil moisture               
in winter can occur, surround the bulbs with coarse sand to avoid               
rotting. Most lilies grow best in full sun, but will tolerate                   
partial shade.                                                                  
                                                                                
Displays of lilies will be more attractive if planted bulbs are                 
in groups of three, spaced about 12 inches apart. If your taste                 
runs to some of the more expensive new varieties, you may prefer                
to buy only one bulb and wait patiently for a few years for it to               
multiply. Some varieties multiply quite rapidly and may be dug up               
and divided every four to six years.                                            
                                                                                
To plant the lilies, cover the bulbs with soil equal to about                   
twice their largest diameter. Plant those that produce roots at                 
above the top of the bulb at least four inches deep, however                    
plant lilies which form roots only at the base of the bulb, such                
as madonna lily, about 1 inch deep. Mark the location carefully,                
or make a planting chart, to avoid damaging young shoots when                   
working in the flower border next spring.                                       
                                                                                
Use one to two inches of a mulch such as bark, peat moss,                       
shredded leaves or wood chips around lilies to help conserve soil               
moisture and provide to protection during the winter. Lilies can                
be harmed by large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer or fresh                      
manure. Promote vigorous growth by using 5-10-5 fertilizer as a                 
side-dressing once in the early spring and again in mid-summer.                 
Apply about one pound per 100 square feet of bed area.                          
                                                                                
Boxelder Bug                                                                    
                                                                                
The boxelder bug becomes a pest in and around many homes each                   
year in fall and spring. This one half inch long bug is black                   
with three red lines on the thorax, a red line along each side,                 
and an oblique red line on each wing. The wings lie flat on the                 
back when at rest. The young nymphs are red and gray.                           
                                                                                
Boxelder bugs normally feed on the leaves, flowers, and seed pods               
of the boxelder tree. Though a large population of the insects                  
may be present, they actually do little detectable damage to the                
plant. Large infestations are usually on the female, or pod-                    
bearing tree. They usually do not build up to such large numbers                
when feeding on male boxelder trees and other plants such as ash,               
maple or fruit trees.                                                           
                                                                                
Boxelder bugs have piercing-sucking mouth parts and feed on plant               
juices. A large infestation will commonly stunt a plant but not                 
drastically effect the overall appearance. The major worry of                   
many homeowners is the invasion of their homes by these                         
conspicuous insects. Control measures are not commonly suggested                
unless the insects threaten to over run the house.                              
                                                                                
Adult boxelder bugs lay eggs in the spring and the nymphs emerge                
in a few days. The nymphs are small and show more red than                      
adults. These nymphs develop into adults during the summer, then                
mate and lay eggs which hatch into nymphs of the second                         
generation. Activity of nearly fully grown nymphs is noticed in                 
August and September when they gather in large numbers on the                   
trunks of boxelder trees. The migration of the adults begins at                 
this time.                                                                      
                                                                                
The adults' search for a place to overwinter brings them into                   
homes where they hide in small cracks and crevices in walls, door               
and window casings, attics, and around the foundation. During                   
warm days in winter and early spring they come out and scatter                  
through the house. They are primarily a nuisance as they crawl or               
fly about in the rooms. They do no damage by feeding, but their                 
excrement spots on draperies are difficult to remove.                           
                                                                                
Boxelder bugs do not feed on household structures, so there is no               
need for extensive chemical control in the house. The bugs can be               
cleaned up with a vacuum cleaner. Eliminate hiding places such as               
piles of rocks, boards, leaves, and general debris close to                     
houses. Repair places where the bugs may enter the house, such as               
cracks around doors, windows, weather-boarding, and in the                      
foundation.                                                                     
                                                                                
(Information provided by Eric Day, Manager of the Insect ID Lab,                
adapted from Insect Control for Ornamentals, Gardens, and the                   
Home, Publication 371, by William Robinson, Extension Specialist,               
Entomology.)                                                                    
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
                                                                                
September 1987  The Virginia Gardener Question Box                              
                                                                                
This material was prepared by J. T. Foley and Clare McGinnis,                   
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Consumer Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener               
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
Harvesting Carrots and Parsnips                  27 lines                       
Reasons to Plant Trees                           44 lines                       
Cabbages Resistant to Cabbage Yellows Fungus      8 lines                       
Planting Garlic                                  24 lines                       
Black Gum                                        18 lines                       
Winter Onions                                    35 lines                       
Harvesting and Curing Gourds                     12 lines                       
Digging Gladiolus Bulbs                          14 lines                       
Insects Carry Disease                            18 lines                       
Balloon Flower                                   18 lines                       
                                                                                
___________________                                                             
                                                                                
How and when should you harvest carrots and parsnips for home                   
storage?                                                                        
                                                                                
To store carrots and parsnips indoors, harvest the roots when                   
fully mature as the thicker skin helps them store better. Plant                 
root crops so that they mature as late as possible to allow the                 
cool weather to sweeten them and to have the freshest possible                  
roots for storage. Dig the roots after 2-3 days of dry weather                  
and leave them in the sun for a few hours to kill the root hairs                
and force the root to become dormant. Cut the tops off close to                 
the root and do not wash! Do not store diseased roots, broken                   
roots, or roots with cuts or bruises as they are susceptible to                 
rot. Store roots in a root celler or in an insulated box in a                   
cool room. Pack the roots loosely. With good air circulation,                   
roots are less likely to rot.                                                   
                                                                                
However, carrots and parsnips may be left in the ground all                     
winter long. In fact, parsnips need several frosts to develop                   
good flavor and may be best when harvested in the spring. Carrots               
and parsnips need about 10 inches of mulch over the soil to                     
maintain even soil temperature and to prevent the ground from                   
freezing and keeping you from harvesting them. In early spring,                 
stored starches are changed to sugar as the plants prepare for                  
new growth, thus roots harvested in early spring are especially                 
tender and sweet. The roots lose flavor and become fibrous if you               
do not harvest them before new tops and seed stalks begin to                    
grow. This method is simple and especially useful for those who                 
have limited storage space.                                                     
                                                                                
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I have recently purchased a house on a lot with no landscaping or               
trees. It looks very barren and not at all welcoming. Planting                  
large trees is a significant investment. Will I get good return                 
for my money?                                                                   
                                                                                
Yes, trees provide return on investment in many ways. As well as                
beautifying a site, ornamental trees provide other benefits and                 
have many uses.                                                                 
                                                                                
Trees provide a great deal of shelter. They give shade from the                 
hot sun and they eliminate much of the cutting force of strong                  
wind and rain. Their canopy helps retain moisture in the soil.                  
They help secure privacy by providing eye-pleasing barriers,                    
borders and hedges.                                                             
                                                                                
Evergreen trees act as noise barriers between busy highways and                 
home or business sites.                                                         
                                                                                
Trees can also save you energy dollars. By placing trees in                     
strategic locations around your home to act as windbreaks you may               
realize energy savings of 25 to 40 percent. By reducing wind                    
speeds home heating costs can be lowered significantly.                         
(See publication 324-859, Landscaping to Cut Fuel Costs or                      
September `86 issue of the Virginia Gardener with article of the                
same name).                                                                     
                                                                                
Trees convert carbon dioxide to oxygen. It is estimated that each               
person needs seven trees to perform this task of keeping our air                
fresh and clean.                                                                
                                                                                
Trees may enrich a pleasant feature such as a perennial border in               
the garden by forming a contrasting background for that feature.                
They can be used to screen unsightly objects or to frame and                    
accent pleasing views. Trees are also an excellant way of                       
preventing soil erosion on steep slopes and banks.                              
                                                                                
In addition, trees increase land values. Landscaping can add to                 
the resale value of your property. A well-planted, properly                     
maintained home site may have its orginal value increased from 10               
to 15 percent.                                                                  
                                                                                
Research and planning are crucial to successful use of trees in a               
landscape. Your library, extension agent, or local nursery should               
be able to provide helpful information.                                         
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
Are there cultivars of cabbage resistant to yellows disease?                    
                                                                                
The cabbage yellows fungus is found in many Virginia garden soils               
and, once present, can live there for many years. However there                 
are yellows resistant cultivars available. Some of these,                       
recommended in VPI publication 450-171 by Robert Lambe plant                    
pathologist, are:`Gourmet`,`Moneymaker`, `Abbott and Cobb No.5                  
Plus`,`Blue Boy`,`Prime Pak`,`Little Rock`, and`Market Prize`.                  
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
I would like to grow garlic in my garden and have been told that                
it can be started in the fall. How do I go about planting it?                   
                                                                                
Plant  garlic in the fall or early spring for a vigorous start                  
that will help it grow the healthy tops necessary for large                     
bulbs. Bulbing begins when days get long and temperatures warm                  
and is completed in August when the tops die back.                              
                                                                                
Full sun, good fertility and loose, crumbly soil are important to               
a successful garlic crop. For a ten-foot row, which will produce                
about twenty bulbs, spread one pound of 5-10-10 fertilizer or the               
organic equivalent and a three-inch layer of compost or other                   
organic matter and work thoroughly into the soil. Buy several                   
bulbs of garlic from the market, and using the largest, outer                   
cloves, plant them one inch deep and six inches apart. Use                      
smaller cloves for cooking. Cloves must be planted as soon as                   
they are removed from the bulb for best development.                            
                                                                                
In spring, when the leaves are six or eight inches high, side                   
dress with about a quarter of a cup of 5-10-10. The plants will                 
flower in early summer, but this does not have a major effect on                
bulbing. The bulbs are ready for harvesting when the foliage                    
begins to die back and fall over. To harvest, lift the bulbs from               
underneath, free them of soil, and let them dry in a cool place                 
for several days.                                                               
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
Last fall I noticed a tree in the woods with brilliant red leaves               
that I did not recognize. A neighbor suggested it might be a gum.               
What kind of gum could it be? Can I obtain this tree from a                     
nursery?                                                                        
                                                                                
Black gum, Nyssa sylvatica, is a beautiful native tree that is                  
not often found in nurseries. Another gum with attractive fall                  
foliage is the sweet gum, a common nursery plant. In spite of                   
their similar common names, black gum and sweet gum are not                     
related. Sweet gum belongs to the witch-hazel family; is tall,                  
upright with large star-shaped leaves and conspicuous ball shaped               
fruits. Black gum, also known as tupelo or sour gum, is often                   
straight and single trunked when young but becomes gnarled and                  
twisted in a picturesque manner when old. A spreading and round                 
headed tree with rather small unlobed and untoothed leaves, its                 
fall foliage is spectacular - the brightest red of any native                   
tree. Found in swamps in the wild, the black gum grows well in                  
heavy clay and poorly drained soil. It is very deep rooted,                     
making it difficult to transplant, especially large specimens.                  
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Can you give me information on "winter" onions?                                 
                                                                                
The term "winter" onion refers to perennial onions that, unlike                 
ordinary onions, may be left year to year without problems                      
associated with bolting. There are several types of winter onions               
that may be of interest to Virginia gardeners. Among these are                  
the walker onions (top multipliers or Egyptian onions) and the                  
bunching onions (Welsh or Japanese onions).                                     
                                                                                
Walker onions (Allium cepa var. viviparum) produce flowers at the               
top of stalks in the summer followed by miniature onions                        
(bulbils) instead of seeds. As summer progresses the hollow stalk               
bearing the bulbils ages and falls over, dropping the little                    
onions to the ground. The bulbils then root and create new plants               
giving the plant the name "walker" onion. Plant these onions in                 
September or October to allow them to develop root systems before               
winter. The plants mature in mid-summer and form their bulbils.                 
They produce no big bulb underground, however the green blades                  
may be snipped while tender for use as green onions and the                     
strong-flavored bulbils used in pickling. The bulbils keep very                 
well by storing indoors, hanging and drying. These plants are                   
very hardy and all parts are edible.                                            
                                                                                
Bunching onions (Allium fistulosum) are hardy green onions with a               
mild, sweet flavor. They originated in Asia and are widely used                 
in Oriental cuisine. Bunching onions were widely cultivated in                  
English herb gardens from the 17th century but never quite caught               
on in the West. They are best grown in a trench with soil pulled                
in around the stem as they grow. This is called "blanching" and                 
will increase the amount of white stem formed (as with leeks).                  
These plants will suffer if the soil dries out and do well with a               
thick layer of mulch. Bunching onions multiply from the base of                 
the plants much like shallots, however they will not produce a                  
bulb. They don't store well, and are best left in the garden to                 
be dug for immediate use.                                                       
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
When do you harvest gourds and how can you make them last?                      
                                                                                
Harvest ornamental gourd cultivars when fruits are fully mature                 
and the stem that attaches the gourd to the vine has shriveled                  
and become hard. Cut the fruit from the vine leaving a few inches               
of stem on the gourd.                                                           
                                                                                
Ornamental gourds require thorough curing to preserve them. Wash                
newly harvested gourds in warm soapy water and dry with a soft                  
cloth. Allow them to air dry completely before polishing the                    
fruit with floor or furniture wax or coating with white shellac                 
to improve appearance and prolong storage. Store in a dry, well-                
ventilated location.                                                            
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
When should I dig my gladiolus bulbs and how do I go about it?                  
                                                                                
Gladiolus corms do not need to be dug in most parts of Virginia                 
except as a precaution against winter damage on especially prized               
specimens. Gladiolus may be dug when the foliage begins to yellow               
after the first killing frost. Loosen the dirt under the corms,                 
remove the plants, and cut the foliage back 1/2 inch from the tip               
of the corms. Lay the corms out in a warm, airy spot out of                     
direct sunlight for about one week. After they have dried, break                
off the main or parent corm and separate the smaller cormels.                   
Place these in a paper bag along with a few moth flakes (to kill                
destructive thrips) and a light dusting of fungicide for disease                
control. Store in a cool, dry room with the temperature around 45               
degrees F.                                                                      
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
I recently had a sick bush in my hedge. I noticed some tiny                     
insects on the plant's leaves so I took a sample of the leaves                  
and insects to the extension office to learn what was killing the               
plant. The plant lab report said that the bush was diseased and                 
must be removed because insects would transmit the disease to the               
rest of the hedge. My question is how would insects spread                      
disease?                                                                        
                                                                                
Insects are responsible for spreading plant diseases in a number                
of different ways: (a) by feeding or laying eggs or boring into                 
plants, they make an entrance point for a disease that is not                   
actually transported by them; (b) by disseminating pathogens on                 
or in their bodies, from one plant to a susceptible surface of                  
another plant; (c) by harboring pathogens inside their bodies                   
during adverse periods, such as winter, drought or host plant                   
scarcity and protecting them from adverse climatic conditions.                  
The insect later injects the pathogen into the host plant when                  
feeding.                                                                        
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
I'm looking for new or unusual flowers that can be used for                     
flower arrangements. What can you tell me about the possible uses               
of balloon flower?                                                              
                                                                                
The balloon flower, Platycodon grandiflorum, is an attractive,                  
long-lived, hardy herbaceous perennial with thick, fleshy,                      
carrot-like roots. Flower colors are blue, white, and light pink.               
Before the flower opens, the petals remain fused, giving the                    
swollen bud a balloon-like appearance. Although balloon flower is               
usually grown for its beauty in the garden, recent interest in                  
using perennials as cut flowers has increased and brought more                  
attention to balloon flower because of its upright growth habit,                
attractive buds and flowers, and the long period of time that the               
plants remain in flower.                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
In research at Penn State, it has been found that balloon flower                
could be forced in the greenhouse for use as a cut flower. Though               
individual buds, once opened, lasted only 2 to 3 days before                    
fading, the flower stem remained attractive and with time, nearly               
all the buds enlarged and opened over an 8-10 day period.                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December Notes                                                                  
                                                                                
* Minimizing traffic on the frozen lawn will reduce winter                      
damage.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Turn your houseplants frequently to insure uniform light                      
distribution and straighter growth. Avoid putting them on the                   
television, near the heater vents or other sources of heat. Don't               
overwater; growth has slowed significantly for the winter so less               
water and fertilizer is required.                                               
                                                                                
* Once the ground freezes in your area, mulch your perennial                    
flowers and small fruit plants to prevent winter heaving.                       
                                                                                
* Check any fruits and vegetables, or corms and tubers that you                 
have in storage. Sort out any that show signs of disease and                    
dispose of them.                                                                
                                                                                
* Start reviewing and expanding your garden notes to help with                  
next year's plans.                                                              
                                                                                
* Plan a visit to a public garden or nursery where you can                      
observe trees and shrubs in their winter phase. Some have quite                 
lovely shapes and colors that could be an asset to your land-                   
scape.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Assess the energy efficiency of your landscape. Do you have                   
evergreen trees or shrubs blocking a window where the sun's                     
warmth would be welcome? Consider replacing them with a deciduous               
plant that would let sun in in the winter but cast cooling shade                
in the summer.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Prepare gifts from your garden. Wreaths or swags from pruning                 
your evergreen will be welcome holiday decorations anywhere. If                 
you have seed from a treasured variety that you know comes back                 
the same year after year, share some with an equally treasured                  
friend. Write I.O.U.'s for perennials that you will be dividing                 
in the spring so the recipient can plan ahead for the best                      
location.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Handbook on Culinary Herbs, a complete concise manual of herbs                
for cooking, is available from the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens, 1000               
Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11225 for $2.25 plus .80 postage                
and handling. They have an extensive list of handbooks on a                     
variety of horticultural topics. Write them for a complete list.                
                                                                                
* Give a friend a subscription to The Virginia Gardener--an                     
inexpensive way to say "Good Gardening" all year long.                          
                                                                                
* Dust your foliage plants or give them an occasional shower.                   
They'll get more light and grow better without a coating of dust.               
                                                                                
* Don't forget to use some of those vegetables still out in your                
garden--carrots, turnip greens, kale, or other hardy one.                       
                                                                                
* For easy "country candle sticks" cut an assortment of 5 to 7                  
small logs (approximately 2-3 inches in diameter) into lengths                  
from 3 to 6 inches. Drill holes in the log tops the diameter of                 
the candles you plan to use. A collection of these surrounded                   
with pine cones and nuts make an attractive centerpiece for                     
the holidays.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Use hair spray to keep seed heads and dried flowers intact.                   
                                                                                
* Although most people postpone this chore to late winter, grape                
vines can be pruned between Thanksgiving and the end of Decem-                  
ber. Use the long vines to make wreaths, baskets, and other                     
country decorations.                                                            
                                                                                
* Pots of narcissus started indoors now will still bring fra-                   
grance of spring before their outside cousins bloom.                            
                                                                                
* Use branches from discarded Christmas trees to mulch beds of                  
bulbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Both live and cut Christmas trees need water while they are                   
inside. Keep live trees indoors for a minimum of time to keep                   
them healthy.                                                                   
                                                                                
* When cutting holly and boxwood for Christmas decorations, use                 
care to prevent harm to your plants. Distribute pruning over                    
entire plant. Limit cutting to mild shaping and thinning.                       
                                                                                
* Use a combination of red and green sweet peppers frozen from                  
last summer's garden to give holiday food a seasonal flair.                     
                                                                                
* The Avant Gardener (P.O. Box 485, New York, NY 10028) gives                   
three useful resource lists for gardeners interested in growing                 
and conserving wildflowers. These are "Nursery Sources for Native               
Plants" and "Botanical Clubs and Native Plant Societies", $2 each               
from the New England Wildflower Society (Hemenway Road, Framing-                
ham, MA 01701), and the new edition of "Sources of Native Seeds                 
and Plants", $2.50 from the Soil Conservation Society of America                
(7515 Ankeny Road, Ankeny, IA 50021)--the last also includes                    
trees and shrubs.                                                               
                                                                                
* Mice chew off the bark of fruit trees at ground level or below                
and often completely girdle a tree causing it to die. To reduce                 
this damage, keep mulch pulled away from the base of the tree and               
examine it frequently for the presence of mice.                                 
                                                                                
* To prevent rabbit damage, roll or bend a strip of 1/4" galvan-                
ized screen (approximately 14" x 18") around the trunk of the                   
tree so that the long side is up and down the trunk and the edges               
overlap. Twist a small wire loosely about the center to prevent                 
the strip from unrolling. Push the lower edges well into the                    
ground. This metal guard will last indefinitely and can be left                 
in place all year.list.                                                         
                                                                                
* Before the snow sticks, do filling and grading around the                     
yard. The loose soil will settle during the cold months.                        
                                                                                
* Fresh nuts of hickory, butternut, and black walnut germinate                  
quite readily if planted outdoors approximately 1" deep. The                    
alternating freezing and thawing splits their hard shells and                   
allows the root to emerge. A small wire cage placed over the nut                
will mark planting spots and keep the squirrels from excavating                 
the seeds.                                                                      
                                                                                
* The more tender plants in rock gardens will benefit from a                    
light covering of evergreen boughs or oak branches retaining                    
their leaves. The purpose of this covering is to lessen dessica-                
tion by wind. Care must be taken not to smother the plants. You                 
should be able to see the plants through the branches.                          
                                                                                
* Early winter is a good time to collect more stones for expand-                
ing the rock garden in spring. The rocks are more visible and the               
solid ground makes a good base on which to haul stone.                          
                                                                                
* Peat moss absorbs moisture very slowly. When it is used in                    
potting soil mixes, break clods apart and moisten the material                  
slightly before incorporating it into the mixture. Ideally,                     
prepare potting soil the day before you use it so the moisture                  
equalizes throughout the mixture.                                               
                                                                                
* Chicory is an easy winter salad plant to force. Plant roots in                
a box and place in a warm, dark place such as your cellar.                      
Keep the soil moderately moist. The shoots will be ready for                    
cutting in 3-5 weeks. Rhubarb roots also respond to this treat-                 
ment.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Check dahlia tubers and gladiolus corms in storage. If they are               
sprouting, place them in a cooler spot. If they show signs of                   
shriveling, rewrap them in ventilated plastic bags. Moldy or                    
damaged roots must be removed and destroyed. Molding indicates                  
over moist conditions. Move healthy bulbs to a location with                    
better ventilation and set in dry peat moss.                                    
                                                                                
* Erect snow deflectors over shrubs under the dripline of houses                
and other buildings to protect them against avalanches off the                  
roof.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Take a few minutes to decorate your home with materials from                  
your yard. Evergreen trees such as pines, junipers, cedar and                   
arborvitae tolerate selective pruning and their fragrance adds a                
holiday touch. Among the broadleaf evergreens, cut holly, laurel,               
and boxwood sprigs.                                                             
                                                                                
* Be unconventional -- offer perennial divisons, seedlings, and                 
shrub volunteers as gifts to your gardening friends.                            
                                                                                
* Ask Santa for a special plant or garden tool for yourself.                    
Begin a collection of your favorite perennials and request a new                
plant every year. If you garden indoors, start a collection of                  
succulents which can be added to yearly.                                        
                                                                                
* For hours of windowside enjoyment, trim a tree for the birds.                 
Tie on dried fruit, suet, and peanut butter covered pine cones                  
rolled in bird seed.                                                            
                                                                                
* On very cold nights, cover cold frames in which semi-hardy                    
plants are being overwintered. Use old carpet scraps, burlap bags               
stuffed with leaves, bales of hay or soil.                                      
                                                                                
* Where snow drifts, plan to plant a windbreak next spring. Ex-                 
periment with a movable barrier to decide the best angle and                    
position for the planting.                                                      
                                                                                
* Keep several jars of sprouts going to keep your family in fresh               
greens all winter long.                                                         
                                                                                
* Move gift plants with caution. Plants shocked by the cold may                 
drop their leaves in a few days and no longer be such a lovely                  
gift. Wrap each plant in ten or more layers of newspaper. If it                 
is freezing outside, warm up the car before loading the plants.                 
                                                                                
* You still have time to make herb vinegars from chives, shallot-               
s, garlic, or any windowsill herbs for the holidays. Use approxi-               
mately 4 oz. of fresh herbs to one quart of wine vinegar. Allow                 
the herbs to infuse for at least two weeks.                                     
                                                                                
* The aim of tree wrapping is to keep the trunk from heating                    
unevenly on bright, sunny winter days. The bark tends to split as               
it cools rapidly after the winter sun has warmed the south and                  
west sides. Use commercially available tree wraps or put up                     
canvas or burlap screens to shade young fruit trees. Even a plank               
leaned up against the south side of the trunk will help. Painting               
trunks with white latex paint is a technique used in orchards                   
which achieves the same purpose. Consider this practice if you                  
have many young tender-barked trees.                                            
November Notes                                                                  
                                                                                
* Dead leaf stalks of perennial vegetables such as asparagus                    
and rhubarb should be cut to the ground after their tops are                    
killed by frost.                                                                
                                                                                
* Before storing your stakes and trellises, be sure they are                    
thoroughly cleaned of remnants of plant materials and dirt. Hose                
down all particularly dirty places. Put stakes in bundles and                   
stack them so they won't get lost over the winter. Roll up                      
trellises and tie them securely.                                                
                                                                                
* When time or weather conditions prohibit plowing or cover                     
cropping, you may wish to let your garden lie under a mulch                     
of compost, plant wastes, or leaves all winter to be plowed                     
or tilled under in the spring. However, if you want to plant                    
early the next spring, a mulch of heavy materials such as whole                 
leaves may become matted and keep the soil cold long enough                     
to delay planting. In this case, chop organic matter fine enough                
that it will break down over winter.                                            
                                                                                
* Clean, oil, and mend all hand tools. Repaint handles or identi-               
fication marks that have faded over the summer. Sharpen all                     
blades and remove any rust.                                                     
                                                                                
* Power tools should be cleaned of all plant material and dirt.                 
Replace worn spark plugs, oil all necessary parts, and sharpen                  
blades. Store all tools in their proper place indoors, never                    
outdoors where they will rust over the winter.                                  
                                                                                
* Select accent plants for your landscape that will provide                     
interesting autumn colors. Trees which turn red include dogwood,                
red maple, sweet gum, and red or scarlet oak. Shrubs with red                   
fall foliage include viburnum, winged euonymous, and barberry.                  
                                                                                
* Many perennials and rock garden plants may be planted or                      
divided and replanted during the fall. Set them out early enough                
to establish their roots before the ground freezes.                             
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from the gutters of your home to avoid overflow                 
during fall rains. Paint the inside of the gutters with rust                    
resistant paint. You will extend their life for many years by                   
this treatment.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Peonies can be planted now in full sun and fertile, well-drain-               
ed soil rich in organic matter. Dig holes 18" and fill halfway                  
with a mixture of soil, compost, and a handful of 5-10-10                       
fertilizer. Add a few more inches of soil and set the tubers so                 
the buds are 1-2" below the soil surface. Backfill, firm the                    
soil, and water thoroughly. Peonies resent being moved and will                 
not bloom for several years. So, disturb only if necessary.                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
* Reduce peony botrytis blight and hollyhock rust by removing                   
and burning all old stems this fall. This will reduce the                       
carry-over of the diseases during the winter and you will have                  
less trouble next year.                                                         
                                                                                
* Reduce mouse damage to shrubs and young fruit trees by removing               
the mulch from around the stem. A ring of crushed stone extending               
out about 8" from the stem will be helpful.                                     
                                                                                
* Avoid transplanting shrubs and trees on sunny or windy days. On               
these days, the roots are exposed to too much light or drying                   
winds which puts undue stress on the plant.                                     
                                                                                
* Water pipes and outdoor faucets in the garden or patio should                 
be drained before cold weather occurs to prevent damage by freez-               
ing. Check guy wires around newly planted trees to be sure they                 
will not be damaged by windy weather during the fall and winter.                
                                                                                
* After the ground freezes, mulch small fruit plants such as                    
strawberries. One inch of straw or leaves is ideal for straw-                   
berries. Small branches may be used to keep mulch in place.                     
                                                                                
* After chrysanthemums have stopped blooming, cut stems back                    
close to the ground and dispose of stems and all dropped and                    
dried leaves and branches.                                                      
                                                                                
* The best way to prevent winter damage to shrubs is to select                  
hardy species when they are planted. Consult publications which                 
contain information on the climatic zones to which shrubs are                   
adapted. It is better to select hardy species in the first place                
than to attempt to protect tender plants later on.                              
                                                                                
* Watch for standing water in perennial beds after long periods                 
of rain. Water which collects on the surface during winter will                 
freeze and may damage perennials. Dig shallow trenches to help                  
drain excess water away. Make a note to raise that bed in spring.               
                                                                                
* Dig up a vigorous rhubarb crown now if you are planning on                    
forcing stalks later this winter.                                               
                                                                                
* Protect concrete pools by covering them, or by floating logs                  
in the water. Drain the water before freezing weather and place                 
a few boards or logs on the pool bottom to absorb the expansion                 
of freezing water that might accumulate.                                        
                                                                                
* Protect the roots of azaleas and rhododendrons with a heavy                   
mulch of acidic materials such as oak leaves, sawdust, or peat                  
moss.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Broadleaf evergreens may need to be protected to prevent drying               
out during the winter. Branches of pines or other evergreens                    
thrust into the ground around the plants work well. Where boughs                
are not plentiful, a screen of wooden boards, corn stalks or                    
burlap tacked to wooden frames will serve the purpose.                          
* Caulk and plug any entrances around the home used by wasps                    
this past summer.                                                               
                                                                                
* If there is any evidence of scale on trees and shrubs, spray                  
with dormant oil in late fall and again in early spring.                        
                                                                                
* Remove grass and weeds from trunks of fruit trees and grapes                  
to prevent damage by mice and rodents. Leave a bare circle one                  
foot wide around tree trunks when spreading mulch to keep mice                  
from feeding on the bark. A collar or fence of poultry wire                     
or a commercial tree guard approximately 18" high will deter                    
rodents and rabbits.                                                            
                                                                                
* Newly planted shade trees especially those with smooth bark                   
are often injured by temperature fluctuations and strong winter                 
sunshine. Prevent sunscald by wrapping the tree trunks with                     
commercial tree wrap, 4" burlap strips, or simply shading with                  
a board against the south side of the trunk.                                    
                                                                                
* If you are planning on having a live, balled and burlapped                    
Christmas tree, dig a planting hole now before the ground                       
freezes. Fill the hole with straw or hay to keep it from freez-                 
ing. Storing the soil in a garage or shed will give you workable                
soil when you need it.                                                          
                                                                                
* Earthworms must remain below frost line to survive. Mulch                     
piled on top of soil raises the frost line. If you want earth-                  
worms to help break down organice matter in the upper soil                      
layers, mulch deeply. If you need the subsoil aerated, leave the                
surface mulch thin; the worms will burrow downward to stay warm.                
                                                                                
* To prevent strawberries from heaving, apply straw or hay mulch                
2 to 5 inches deep after the ground freezes.                                    
October Notes                                                                   
                                                                                
* If the weather stays dry enough before the ground freezes,                    
you can plow. Fall plowing allows earlier planting in the spring                
and is especially good for heavy soils since they are exposed                   
to the freezing and thawing action of winter. This will help                    
improve your soil's structure.                                                  
                                                                                
* Remove any diseased or insect-infested plant material from                    
your garden; it may harbor overwintering stages of disease and                  
insect pests. If you leave this plant material in your garden,                  
you are leaving diseases and insects which will begin to reprod-                
uce again next spring and add to next year's pest problem.                      
                                                                                
* The bitter, golf-ball sized fruits of the trifoliate orange                   
(Poncirus trifoliate) may have some uses after all. Sections                    
of the fruit in hot tea have been reported as tastier than lemon                
and the entire fruit make an attractive, miniature pomander                     
when filled with cloves and covered with spices.                                
                                                                                
* Pumpkins which are free from insects, disease or damage will                  
keep 2-3 months if stored at 50-55 degrees F with a relative                    
humidity of 70-75%.                                                             
                                                                                
* Use coldframes to overwinter cuttings of trees and shrubs                     
and perennial seedlings started in mid to late summer. Bulbs                    
prepared for forcing can also be stored in coldframes until                     
time to take indoors.                                                           
                                                                                
* Fertilize trees and shrubs that have shown signs of weak growth               
after they are dormant but before soil temperature drops below                  
45 degrees F.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Water trees and shrubs well to increase winter hardiness.                     
                                                                                
* Move and divide crowded perennials. Arrange for swaps with                    
friends and neighbors.                                                          
                                                                                
* Bring in cannas, dahlias, and gladiolas if not hardy in your                  
area after the tops are hurt by frost. Dry, clean, and store                    
in peat moss or vermiculite in a cool location free from frost.                 
                                                                                
* Treat magnolia and beech leaves for dried flower arrangements                 
in a mixture of 1/3 glycerine, 2/3 warm water. Crush stems and                  
submerge 3 weeks to produce a rich, glossy brown foliage.                       
                                                                                
* Remove leaves from lawn to reduce lawn problems. Compost or                   
save for next year's mulch.                                                     
                                                                                
* Clean up home orchard and small fruit plantings. Sanitation                   
is essential for good maintenance. Dried fruits or "mummies"                    
carry disease organisms through the winter to attack next year's                
crop.                                                                           
                                                                                
* If you have a sunny area to naturalize with small flowering                   
annuals, sow seeds of sweet alyssum or johnny-jump-ups. They                    
will come up this fall or early spring and bloom extra early                    
next spring. Both are very hardy and self-seed readily to                       
maintain the natural area.                                                      
                                                                                
* In deciding on new trees or shrubs to plant around your home,                 
remember to select varieties with a mature height to fit the                    
desired location. This will greatly reduce pruning and other                    
maintenance in the future.                                                      
                                                                                
* House plants will slow down growth as the days get shorter                    
and light intensity is reduced. This means that they will need                  
less frequent watering and fertilizing until next spring. Too                   
much of either in the winter months can cause weak growth.                      
                                                                                
* Make a note of plants displaying outstanding fall colors                      
as you drive along city streets and the surrounding countryside.                
You may wish to incorporate some of them into your own landscape.               
Fall color can often be enjoyed for much longer than the plant's                
flowers in the spring. For this reason, it may be more desirable                
when selecting trees and shrubs for landscape use to plan                       
greater emphasis on their fall features.                                        
                                                                                
* A great deal of winter losses is the result of plants being                   
allowed to become dry during this season.  This is especially                   
true of evergreens because they hold their leaves and lose water                
all during the winter. If the weather is at all dry, water right                
up to the time the ground freezes hard.                                         
                                                                                
* Do not become alarmed if you yews, pines, arborvitae and                      
junipers begin to shed their innermost needles. It is natural                   
for them to do so at this time of year.                                         
                                                                                
* As you plant your spring bulbs, remember that a mass planting                 
of one flower type or color will produce a better effect than a                 
mixture of many colors. Flowers of bulbs stand out more vividly                 
if displayed against a contrasting background: for example, white               
hyacinths among English ivy, yellow daffodils against a `Burford'               
holly hedge, or red tulips towering over a carpet of yellow                     
pansies.                                                                        
                                                                                
* A lily bulb is never dormant; it must be planted as soon as it                
is received. Have beds prepared ahead of time.                                  
                                                                                
* Allow a few of the seeds of your favorite delphinium and holly-               
hock to ripen on their stalks. When mature, plant the seeds                     
at once in a garden bed where they will grow into husky little                  
plants that winter well.                                                        
                                                                                
* To beat birds, squirrels, and other pests to your crops, prompt               
harvest is a must. This month harvest pecans, grapes, and                       
pawpaws.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Bring out the bird feeders and stock them with treats for the                 
birds. Remember to provide fresh water for your feathered                       
friends.                                                                        
                                                                                
* A plant or two of parsley taken from the garden and potted up                 
will do well all winter if watered and set in a sunny window.                   
Chives, sage, and thyme can also be maintained in this manner.                  
                                                                                
* Get the cold frame ready for cuttings you may have rooted in                  
summer. The cold frame is also a good place to root bulbs grown                 
in containers to force into bloom this winter.                                  
                                                                                
* If your climbing roses are in an exposed location, tie them up                
firmly with broad strips of rags so that the wind will not whip                 
them against the trellis and bruise the bark.                                   
                                                                                
* Fall is an excellent time for taking soil samples in your lawn                
and garden.  Soil tests will measure the acidity or alkalinity of               
the soil and the levels of some of the major elements required                  
for plant growth: phosphorus, and potassium. Where lime is                      
needed, now is a good time to apply it.                                         
                                                                                
* Do not use quick acting fertilizers in preparing beds during                  
the fall. They will be leached away before spring. Use materials                
which act slowly and last a long time, such as bone meal.                       
                                                                                
* Mow lawn for as long as it continues to grow to prevent matting               
through the winter which encourages root rots.                                  
                                                                                
September Monthly Notes                                                         
                                                                                
* An easy indoor plant watering system can be designed by                       
inserting an asbestos-glass water wick into one of the drainage                 
holes of a pot. Old nylon stockings can be braided and used                     
instead. Set the pot on a water reservoir made from heavy plastic               
such as large-sized whipped margarine containers. Prepare the                   
lid by making two holes; one for the wick to reach the water,                   
and a larger one for supplying fresh water. This is a highly                    
efficient system for carefree watering. However, the plants                     
should be periodically watered from the top to flush accumulated                
minerals from the soil.                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't overlook excellent sources of organic material available                
during the fall. Leaves are abundant and neighbors will usually                 
be glad to give their leaves to you. Plow some into the garden                  
now and store some for next year's mulch.                                       
                                                                                
* You can help leaves break down more easily by running a lawn                  
mover back and forth over the pile. Put the shredded leaves                     
directly onto the garden or compost pile.                                       
                                                                                
* Cover crops can be planted as early as August 1, but should                   
not be planted any later than November 1. They should make some                 
growth before hard frost kills them. Where you have fall crops                  
growing, you can sow cover crop seed between rows a month or                    
less before expected harvest. This way, the cover crop gets                     
a good start but will not interfere with vegetable plant growth.                
                                                                                
* If you plan to move some of your chives indoors this winter,                  
this is the time to pot them up. When dividing your outdoor                     
plants, select young, mature plants and pot 8 to 10 per 6"                      
pot. They will do best on a sunny windowsill.                                   
                                                                                
* Sowing seeds of hardy annuals such as sweet alyssum, pinks                    
and sweet peas will give the seedlings time to get established                  
and develop good root systems before the coldest part of winter.                
This gives them a head start on growth and flowering next spring.               
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of such annual bedding plants as begonias,                      
coleus, geraniums and impatiens. Rooted indoors, these overwinter               
in a bright window and give plants for next year's garden.                      
                                                                                
* If you enjoy growing wild flowers, now is the time to collect                 
seed for your garden from many of the summer flowering types.                   
                                                                                
* When using a cold frame to extend your harvest season, be                     
sure to close the top for frosty nights to protect the plants                   
from the cold. When the sun comes out the next morning and the                  
air warms, you can open the cold frame again.                                   
                                                                                
* Fall is a good time for planting. Researchers have concluded                  
that the last safe planting date is approximately 4 weeks before                
soil temperatures fall to 40 degrees which inhibits root develop-               
ment. For plants which are marginally hardy and hard-to-trans-                  
plant, this date should be early.                                               
                                                                                
* Wood ashes contain phosphorous, calcium and potassium and                     
can be placed on garden, flower beds, or spread on lawn but                     
don't overdo it. Avoid acid-loving plants as it raises the pH.                  
                                                                                
* A green manure or cover crop improves water infiltration,                     
reduces soil erosion, reduces nutrient leaching and promotes                    
the growth of microorganisms. Annual rye can be sown at the                     
rate of 15.2 lbs. per 1000 sq. ft. during September and October.                
A light fertilization with 1-2 lbs. of 5-10-10 will generally                   
increase plant growth.                                                          
                                                                                
* The tomato variety Long Keeper has received high acclaim by                   
home gardeners who have successfully kept fruit past the first                  
of the new year in parts of Virginia.                                           
                                                                                
* Before moving your houseplants back inside from their outdoor                 
summer, take time to wash your windows. Not only will it be                     
easier without plants in the way, it will make considerably                     
more light available and help your plants adjust to their new                   
lower light regime.                                                             
                                                                                
* Don't wait for frost warnings to move your plants indoors. Tem-               
peratures of 50 degrees or lower can damage many tropical                       
houseplants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Dried beans and peas are among the easiest crops to store. They               
will keep for many months in a cool, dry location. Control                      
weevils before storage by placing in a freezer at 0 degrees F or                
lower for 4 days, or heat to 180 degrees F for at least 15                      
minutes. Following this treatment, place the dry beans or peas in               
a tight container and place in a cool, dry place.                               
                                                                                
* Winter type pumpkins and squash such as acorn, butternut and                  
spaghetti may keep for several months in a cool, medium-dry                     
basement, garage or tool shed. Allow the fruit to ripen fully                   
on the vine, and cure in the sun to form a hard rind. Harvest                   
before frost, and leave a piece of stem on each when they are                   
cut from the vine. If the floor is damp, place pumpkins and                     
squash on shelves to reduce the possibility of rot. The best                    
storage temperature is about 60 degrees F.                                      
                                                                                
* Sweet potatoes will keep for several months in a medium dry                   
basement. Handle sweet potatoes very carefully to avoid bruising                
or cutting. Cure for about 10 days at 80 degrees F or for 20                    
days at 70 degrees F to dry and toughen the skin. This can be                   
done near the furnace in your basement. Store under medium dry                  
conditions at 60 degrees F, or as close to this temperature                     
as possible. Sort your sweet potatoes carefully every few weeks                 
and remove any that may start to decay.                                         
                                                                                
* Hot peppers will keep best if stored after they are dry. Pull                 
the plants and hang them up, or pick the peppers and thread                     
on a string. Store in any cool, dry place.                                      
                                                                                
* Green tomatoes may be stored for 4 to 6 weeks and will gradual-               
ly ripen to a nice red color. The best storage conditions are                   
about 60 degrees F and a moderately moist atmosphere. Harvest the               
tomatoes in a firm, green condition before frost. Remove the                    
stems to prevent puncturing other fruits. Wash dirt off rather                  
than wiping, which may cause skin scratches which will be                       
susceptible to decay. If the basement is quite dry, the tomatoes                
may be placed in film bags, or film-lined boxes to increase the                 
humidity. Sort the fruit every week to remove those which ripen                 
or start to decay.                                                              
                                                                                
* Dig out the list of spring flowering bulbs you made last spring               
and start getting them into the ground so you can be among the                  
blissful rather than wistful as next winter snows begin to                      
melt. If you did not get a list started last spring, a few bulbs                
to consider for starters are Snowflake, Glory-of-the-Snow,                      
Snowdrops, and Winter Aconite.                                                  
                                                                                
* Divide lilies-of-the-valley.  Mix bone meal in the soil before                
replanting.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plant new Madonna lilies as soon as they arrive.  Do not plant                
deeper than two inches from top of bulb to ground level.  Set                   
bulb in sand.                                                                   
                                                                                
* As the nights become cool, caladiums will begin to lose leaves.               
Dig up, dry, and store in a warm, dry place to prevent rot.                     
This space can be replanted with Christmas peppers or Jerusalem                 
cherry plants which have been grown from seed in pots sunk in the               
vegetable garden, or transplant mums that have been grown to                    
flower size in the vegetable garden.                                            
                                                                                
* Mums can be transplanted while in bloom which makes them useful               
for instant landscapes in early Autumn.  Dig plants carefully                   
after thorough watering, retaining as much of the root system as                
feasible.  Gently loosen a small amount of soil from the outer                  
soil depth.  Water thoroughly to set plants in.  As with any                    
transplanting, it is best to do this in early morning or late                   
evening when temperatures are cool. Monitor plants carefully for                
several days for wilting, and shade briefly during the hotter                   
periods of the day, if necessary.                                               
                                                                                
* For early blooms in May and June next year, certain annuals can               
be sown now, including larkspur, nigella, calendula, Shirley                    
poppies, annual scabious, and coreopsis.  Sown in the open, they                
should be well established by the time the cold weather comes.                  
                                                                                
* Plant tubers of both garden and tree peonies in September or                  
early October so they will have time to become established in the               
soil before winter.  Dig a hole 18 inches across and 18 inches                  
deep for each tuber. Space the holes so that the plants will be                 
at least 3 feet apart.  Pile loose soil at the side of the hole                 
and break up all lumps.                                                         
                                                                                
* If pesky seedlings of woody plants, such as elm or hackberry,                 
are found growing in your hedge, remove them as soon as possible.               
If left too long, they will take over and leaves gaps in the                    
hedge when they are finally removed.                                            
                                                                                
* Check grapevines for mummied berries - victims of black rot.                  
Pick them and dispose of (do not compost) before they can spread                
the disease.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Rake up leaves, twigs, and fruit from crabapple trees and                     
dispose of them in the trash to help control scab.                              
                                                                                
* Pot up chives, parsley and other herbs to extend the growing                  
season in the house.                                                            
                                                                                
* Harvesting guidelines: PEARS should be picked at the hard ripe                
stage, and allowed to finish ripening off the tree.  The base                   
color of yellow pears should change from green to yellow as                     
the fruit approaches maturity. APPLES should separate readily                   
from the trees when lifted gently upwards.                                      
                                                                                
* The gardening season can be extended well into the winter.                    
Lettuce, cress, radishes, endive, and spinach can all be grown in               
the well-known structure, the coldframe.  In cooler weather,                    
insulate the outer sides of the box with banked soil or sawdust.                
Cover the top with sacks stuffed with straw or other insulation                 
during cold nights.                                                             
                                                                                
* Fall is usually cool and moist and a good time to plant trees                 
and shrubs.  Research has shown that roots will continue to grow                
until the soil freezes, which is about Thanksgiving.  This is                   
true for both evergreens and deciduous plants. The best time for                
lawn construction is from mid-August to mid-September for                       
cool-season grasses.  Seeding at this time allows for a long                    
fall growing period, when temperatures and moisture conditions                  
are most favorable and weed competition is at a minimum.  By the                
time cold weather arrives, the grass is fairly well established                 
and ready to grow and thicken early the following spring.                       
                                                                                
* Perennial flowers which will bloom in September include:                      
Biglow sneezeweed (Helenium biglovi), hardy asters, hardy                       
chrysanthemums, showy stonecrop (Sedum spectabile), false                       
dragonhead (Physostagia virgianana), bigleaf sea lavender                       
(Limonium latifolium), and great azure sage (Salvia pitcheri).                  
                                                                                
* Spray cabbage, broccoli, and caulifower with BT (bacillus                     
thuringiensis) once a week through harvest to avoid cabbage                     
loopers.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Allow plants to finish the summer growth cycle in a normal                    
manner. Never encourage growth with heavy applications of                       
fertilizer or excessive pruning at this time.  Plants will                      
quickly delay their hardening process that has already begun in                 
anticipation of winter several months ahead.  New growth can be                 
injured by an early freeze.                                                     
AUGUST NOTES                                                                    
                                                                                
* The last fall garden vegetables should be planted in August                   
in most sections of Virginia. For hardy crops like cabbage,                     
cauliflower, and collard, count back from your average first                    
frost date the number of days the particular variety requires                   
to mature and plant at that time. For half-hardy crops like                     
beets and carrots, allow an additional week. For tender crops                   
like beans and sweet corn, allow an extra 2 weeks to be sure                    
an early frost does not kill your vegetables before they mature.                
                                                                                
* If going on vacation this month, be sure to harvest all your                  
vegetables and then arrange for someone to pick such fast-maturing              
crops as squash and okra; otherwise, they will become over-mature               
and stop producing.                                                             
                                                                                
* Potatoes continue to grow as long as the tops are green. Dig                  
only as many as you need for immediate use. The tubers will                     
keep better in the ground than in a warm, dry home.                             
                                                                                
* Be sure to mow the lawn before going on vacation. If you will                 
be gone over two weeks, arrange to have it cut while you are                    
away. If you don't, too much of the top growth will be removed                  
on its next mowing. Removal of over 2/3 of the growth at one                    
time weakens the plant.                                                         
                                                                                
* Cut strawflowers for winter use when the blooms are only half                 
open. Hang head down in a well-ventilated place to dry.                         
                                                                                
* Don't let your hybrid annual flowers go to seed. This weakens                 
the plant and reduces bloom. In addition, the seed are not desirable            
to save as the plant will ordinarily be very different from                     
the parent and of poorer quality.                                               
                                                                                
* Do not add weeds with ripened seed heads to your compost pile. Many           
will remain viable and germinate wherever the compost is used                   
next year.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Order your spring-flowering bulbs now! Be careful about buying                
so-called "bargains," as the bulbs may be small or of inferior                  
quality.                                                                        
                                                                                
* An effective biological control agent for verticillium, one                   
of the world's worst crop diseases, is being tested by scientists               
at USDA'S Agricultural Research Service (ARS). The biocontrol                   
agent is a fungus  Talaromyces flavus that fights other fungi,                  
especially those that cause the disease.                                        
                                                                                
* Pinch off onion seed pods from the top of the plants to keep                  
them from going to seed.                                                        
                                                                                
* Pick winter squash and pumpkins with two or three inches of                   
stem; they'll keep better in storage.                                           
                                                                                
* Landscape plants, particularly trees, have important dollar                   
value and steps should be taken if anything damages or destroys                 
them. A folder is available for 10 cents from The Council of                    
Tree and Landscape Appraisers (232 Southern Bldg., Washington,                  
D.C. 20005) to help homeowners understand this value.                           
                                                                                
* August is the time to fertilize your strawberries. On plants                  
set out this spring, apply 4 to 6 ounces of ammonium nitrate                    
(33% actual nitrogen) or 12-18 oz. of 10-10-10- per 25 ft. of                   
row. Spread uniformly in a band 14" wide over the row when the                  
foliage is dry. Brush fertilizer off the leaves to avoid leaf                   
burn. For plants in the second year of growth, increase the                     
application rate to 6 to 8 oz. ammonium nitrate or 18-24 oz. of                 
10-10-10- per 25 ft. row.                                                       
                                                                                
* Select a good site for spring flower bulbs. For daffodils                     
dig the soil twelve inches deep in a sunny location. Work in                    
bone meal and peat moss.                                                        
                                                                                
* It's not too late to plant a fall garden. Lettuce, radishes,                  
spinach, turnip, and peas can be started from seed. Chinese                     
cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower transplants will still have                  
time to produce a good harvest. Be extra diligent in watching                   
for pests on these crops.                                                       
                                                                                
* Many plants in the flower border will make excellent house                    
plants this winter. Among the easy-to-maintain indoors, are                     
begonias, coleus, geraniums, and ivy. If they are already being                 
grown in containers, it is a simple matter to bring them in-                    
doors. Start moving them indoors at night when the temperature                  
drops below 60 degrees F to maintain their vigor and flower                     
production. Locate them where they receive sunlight equivalent                  
to what they received out-of-doors for optimum bloom.                           
                                                                                
* Many plants growing in the ground can be successfully dug                     
and placed in pots. However, this is generally more difficult                   
and usually requires a severe pruning to insure survival. Some                  
plants are slow to recover from such treatment and may not give                 
good flowers during the winter.                                                 
                                                                                
* Cuttings from these plants started in late August and early                   
September should make attractive, bushy pot plants before frosts                
kill the parent plant.                                                          
                                                                                
* Plant a winter cover crop to enrich your garden soil. Annual                  
rye, red clover, and hairy vetch are good choices. Plant between                
August 1 and November 1. Sow seeds in unused portions of the                    
garden after the last summer harvest or between the row of your                 
fall crops.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plan changes in your perennial plantings. Autumn is usually                   
the best time for moving and dividing perennials as the gardening               
pace has slowed considerably and it offers the opportunity to                   
add new bulbs to your design. Peonies, Bleeding heart, and Oriental             
poppies resent being disturbed, so plan to work around them                     
without disturbance.                                                            
                                                                                
* Inspect your house plants for signs of insect damage. Pest                    
control is much easier and safer while the plants are outside                   
for the summer than after you bring them in this fall.                          
                                                                                
* Plant bulbs of the Hardy Amaryllis or Magic Lily in August                    
as soon as received at a depth of 5". They will produce foliage                 
in the spring which dies down by late summer. The lily-like,                    
pink flowers borne on three-foot stalks in clusters of six to                   
nine will appear in August. The bulbs will live almost indefinitely             
and prefer not to be disturbed.                                                 
                                                                                
* Keep tall flowers staked and cut out dead stalks.                             
                                                                                
* Keep roots of lilies cool for best growth.  Unless foliage                    
of surrounding plants shades the roots,mulch the ground with                    
grass clippings or similar weed-free material.                                  
                                                                                
* Do not mulch oriental poppies.  They prefer hot, sun-baked                    
ground while "resting."                                                         
                                                                                
* Do not allow phlox to go to seed.  Seedlings do not come true                 
to parent color and may overtake your planting, giving the impression           
that the parent plants have reverted.                                           
                                                                                
* Disbudding chrysanthemums produces larger blooms.  Most mums,                 
except spray types, respond well to disbudding.                                 
                                                                                
* Fressia corms can be planted early this month for December                    
flowering.  Plant 2 inches deep in pots, then place out of doors                
in a shady place.                                                               
                                                                                
* Apples and pears trained as cordons and espaliers and other                   
formal shapes can be summer pruned in early August.                             
                                                                                
* Prop branches of fruit trees that are threatening to break                    
under increasing weight of ripening fruit.                                      
                                                                                
* Fall is the time to rejuvenate or plant home lawns.                           
                                                                                
* Inspect trunks and branches of dogwood for injured bark or                    
fine dust being pushed from burrows in trunk by borers.                         
                                                                                
* Keep newly planted trees and shrubs well watered.                             
                                                                                
* Root cuttings of woody shrubs and evergreens, azaleas, holly,                 
hydrangea, and  verbena should do well at this time of year.                    
                                                                                
* Check for lacewing on azalea, rhododendron and pyracantha.                    
They suck juice from the underside and cause white speckling                    
on upper surfaces.                                                              
                                                                                
* Leaf miner's larvae tunnel inside leaves and produce whitish                  
trails as they move about inside leaf.  Holly, boxwood, and                     
locust are particularly susceptible to damage.                                  
                                                                                
* Water shrubs well deeply once a week during August.  Many                     
plants (camellias, rhododendrons) are starting next season's                    
bloom at this time.  Immature berries of hollies and pyracantha                 
may be lost if too dry.                                                         
                                                                                
* If azaleas look chlorotic (pale green to yellow) check pH. They               
need acid soil as alkalinity locks up soil iron needed for green                
color.  Sulfur reduces pH.                                                      
                                                                                
* Take cuttings of roses to root, 6-9 inches long.  Using a                     
sharp knife, remove all but top 2-3 leaves, insert 4-6 inches                   
down in well-prepared soil in bright light out of the sun.                      
Firm, water well, cover with inverted glass jar.                                
                                                                                
* Remove bedding plants that have definately finished blooming                  
for the season.  Replace with annuals or mums.                                  
                                                                                
* Locate manure to compost for next spring.                                     
                                                                                
* Every weed that ripens seed means more trouble next year. Control             
weeds now.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Herbs can still be harvested and used for a multitude of purposes.            
                                                                                
* Sow annuals for winter flowering indoors if you have a                        
greenhouse or bright southern window.  Calendulas bloom well                    
and keep long.  Browallia, mignonette, ageratum, marigolds,                     
snapdragons and many others are good subjects.                                  
                                                                                
* Go over all the coldframe sashes and greenhouse glazing, replacing            
broken glass, puttying and repainting.                                          
                                                                                
* If you are planning to take some garden plants indoors to                     
provide for early fall bloom, use a sharp knife to root prune                   
them now to a size a little smaller than the pot.  Remove all                   
buds and flowers and cut back the top growth severely.  Water                   
well until ready to lift.                                                       
                                                                                
* Look over the house plants which are summering out of doors                   
to see that they are not suffering for want of water.  Be careful               
not to disturb those now going through their rest periods.                      
                                                                                
* If you do not have a coldframe, now is a good time to plan                    
one.                                                                            
                                                                                
* It is just as necessary to prune vines as other plants.  All                  
unproductive wood should be removed.  This will give room for                   
the more vigorous shoots and promote the general welfare of                     
the plants.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Many self-sown seedlings of Hollyhocks, Larkspur, Columbine,                  
Sweet William, etc. are now appearing.  If the parent plant                     
is not a hybrid, these should be carefully guarded, for here                    
is a way to stretch your garden budget.                                         
1                                                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
                          SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS                              
      CULTURE NOTES GUIDE                                                       
0     Individual plant sheets have been developed to provide an easy to         
      use guide,  a  summary of a wide range  of information concerning         
      the culture,  nutritional value,  harvest,and storage of specific         
      food  crops.    They   are  not  intended  to   be  comprehensive         
      references, and you may need to consult other materials to obtain         
      very detailed information.    In most cases,  though,   the plant         
      sheets should  provide you  with enough  know-how to  get a  crop         
      through from seed to harvest.                                             
0     The following key will help to  explain the various terms on each         
      food crop fact sheet.                                                     
0     ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES                                                 
0     LIGHT:  sunny (requires direct light at least six hours per day;          
              prefers 8-10 hours/day ) sunshine  per day, but probably          
              needs at least 5 hours/day )  prefers shade  ( more than          
              six hours of direct sunlight  may  be  harmful;  prefers          
              filtered  light,  probably  needs  at least 3-4 hours of          
              light per day)                                                    
0     SOIL:   well-drained (water does not stand or remain puddled for          
              more than 24 hours after a hard rain )  deep  ( at least          
              8-12"  of topsoil or loose subsoil; no shallow hardpan )          
              loam ( soil composed roughly  of equal portions  of clay          
              and sand, with a reasonable amount of humus; good garden          
              soils)                                                            
0     FERTILITY:  results  of soil  tests  can be used to indicate the          
              basic  fertility level of soils.   Soil testing does not          
              indicate nitrogen levels due to variability.                      
0                    lbs./acre P O      lbs./acre K  O                          
                     low     0-25 lbs.      0-90 lbs.                           
                     medium  6-85 lbs.     9-212 lbs.                           
                     high    86+ lbs.       213+ lbs.                           
0             acidity or alkalinity of the soil. 7.0 is neutral, below          
              7.0 is acid, above 7.0 is alkaline                                
0     TEMPERATURE: Approximate ranges of daily  mean  temperature  pre-         
                   ferred for optimum growth                                    
0     MOISTURE: Amount  of  rainfall  or  supplemental watering  needed         
              for optimum  growth;  more  for  sandy  soils,  less  for         
              clay average ( roughly  one  inch  of  water  per  week )         
1                                                                               
                                                                                
              moist (roughly 1-2" water per week; soil should  be well-         
              drained)                                                          
0     CULTURE                                                                   
0     PLANTING:  specific information needed to get plants started, such        
              as  when to  seed,  whether to  start plants indoors, best        
              transplant time, etc.                                             
0     SPACING:  optimum distances between plants and rows .                     
0     HARDINESS:  very  hardy perennial (can withstand winter extremes in       
              most parts of Virginia with only slight protection).  Hardy       
              perennial (can withstand winters with protection in               
              colder areas).                                                    
0             hardy annual (can withstand frosts in spring and fall; may        
              need protection from heavy frosts or freezing)                    
0             half-hardy annual (can withstand light frosts, but not heavy      
              frosts or freezing)                                               
0             tender annual (frost will seriously damage plant tissue)          
0             very tender annual (frost will destroy plant tissues; needs       
              warm weather for growth)                                          
0     FERTILIZER NEEDS:  low, medium, or heavy feeder (refers to relative       
              levels  of nutrient uptake from the soil.                         
0     This information can be used to group similar types of plants, so         
      that  fertilizers  may  be  applied to  sections  of  the  garden         
      according to plant needs).                                                
0     CULTURAL PRACTICES:  Gives general  growing  information. Includes        
              proven methods for increasing production and/or decreasing        
              pest   problems.   Unique   growing   suggestions  may  be        
              included.                                                         
0     COMMON PROBLEMS                                                           
0     This section  gives a general list  of the most  common diseases,         
      insects  and  cultural problems  of  the  crop  in the  state  of         
      Virginia.  Identify the cause of the problem, review non-chemical         
      and preventative control information,  then refer to current Pest         
      Management Guides  or contact your  extension agent  for specific         
      chemical control information.                                             
0     HARVESTING AND STORAGE                                                    
0     APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (These figures vary according to the variety,         
              local environmental  conditions,  planting  designs,  and         
              cultural practices.)                                              
1                                                                               
                                                                                
      AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON:  (These figures are  average  ranges.         
              Specific amounts will vary depending on projected  usage,         
              whether fresh  or  processed,  and  according to personal         
              preferences.)                                                     
0     STORAGE: (Optimum  storage  conditions;  gives temperature ranges         
              and % RH - percent relative humidity.)                            
0     PRESERVATION:  ( Suggestions for preserving the crop over an  ex-         
              tended  period.  See  extention   publications   on  food         
              preservation  for specific methods.)                              
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December Press Releases                                                         
                                                                                
Cranberries                               51 lines                              
Caring for Live Christmas Trees           47 lines                              
Minigreenhouse Project for Children       36 lines                              
Decorating with Houseplants               50 lines                              
Gift Plants Continue Giving               54 lines                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
CRANBERRIES                                                                     
                                                                                
     The cranberry is a traditional part of our menu and decora-                
tions during the Christmas holiday season. It is native to the                  
northeastern United States, and its commercial production is                    
confined primarily to this country. Practically the entire crop                 
is consumed in the U.S. with very small quantities being ex-                    
ported.                                                                         
     Cranberry production is a very specialized business. The                   
plants grow only in acid bogs or swampy areas, which are of no                  
value for other agricultural use. Almost half of the worlds'                    
supply is grown in Massachusetts. A few scattered fields are                    
found in Virginia, but there are no really important commercial                 
plantings in the state.                                                         
     Cranberries are not cultivated as are most horticultural                   
crops. They are grown as a solid mass of trailing evergreen                     
vines in a low flat bog, criss-crossed with drainage ditches. The               
thick mass of plants suppresses the growth of weeds.                            
     Although the cranberry is native to the cold northern                      
states, they are not extremely hardy. In their natural locations                
in bogs, the plants are usually covered by water during the                     
winter, which protects them from the cold. The commercial grower                
secures the same result by flooding his planting from November                  
until March.                                                                    
     Another reason why cranberries grow in wet swampy locations                
is that the plants have no root hairs for water intake. The                     
plants absorb water directly through the epidermis or outer layer               
of cells on the root.                                                           
     With such unusual production requirements, you can under-                  
stand why cranberries are not suggested as a crop for home                      
gardeners. In some localities you may be able to pick native                    
berries, but the best way to secure fine flavored fruit is from                 
your local food market.                                                         
     A unique aspect of cranberry production is the grading of                  
the crop. Whereas we handle most fruits with care to avoid                      
bruising, cranberries are deliberately dropped on a hard board                  
to separate the good from the bad berries. When the berries are                 
at their ideal stage of ripeness, they are firm and resilient.                  
The fruit is poured in a thin stream onto a sloping board. The                  
high quality berries bounce over a partition into a container.                  
The green and soft berries do not bounce, but roll down into a                  
bin for low grade fruit and are discarded.                                      
     The delicious unusual flavor of cranberries adds real zip to               
holiday meals. You may start with cranberry juice, cocktail, or                 
salad. Use cranberry sauce, jelly, or relish as a complement for                
meat, fish, or fowl. And close the meal with cranberry pie,                     
pudding, tarts, or cobbler.                                                     
     Cranberries are not only delicious, they are good for you.                 
They contain beneficial levels of vitamin A, ascorbic acid, and                 
thiamine. They also have an energy value of 26 calories per 100                 
grams.                                                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
CARING FOR LIVE CHRISTMAS TREES                                                 
                                                                                
     Many Virginians continue enjoying their Christmas trees                    
long after the holiday season has passed. These persons opt to                  
buy live trees offered by the many garden centers around the                    
state.                                                                          
     If you are planning to buy a live tree for planting after                  
the season, there are certain things that you should remember.                  
Decide ahead of time where the tree will be planted and dig                     
the hole before the ground freezes. (If you live in the moun-                   
tains, this should be done immediately.)  Remember to make the                  
hole larger than the root ball of the tree. A hole two to three                 
feet wide and two to three feet deep should be sufficient for                   
most trees.                                                                     
     Fill the hole with leaves and cover it with plastic. Make                  
certain that the plastic is mounded over the leaves so that rain                
water will not puddle and pull it down. Secure the plastic                      
edges with stakes, stones, or soil and place a board on top to                  
prevent someone from tumbling into the hole.                                    
     The act of moving a live tree from the cold into a warm,                   
dry house is a shock to the tree's system; do it gradually,                     
if possible. Keep the tree indoors for as short a period as                     
necessary, several days rather than several weeks, to prevent                   
the tree from drying out.                                                       
     Water the root ball to keep the roots moist while the tree                 
is indoors. Wrapping the root ball in plastic prevents water                    
from ruining the floor and helps preserve the moisture. But take                
care not to let roots sit in a puddle of water.                                 
     When planting the tree after Christmas, remove the protect-                
ive plastic from around the root ball. Uncover the hole, and                    
remove the leaves. Burlap should be loosened from around the                    
trunk but you do not need to remove it from the roots. You                      
should however make sure that no burlap will be exposed to the                  
air after filling in the hole as it will wick water away from                   
the roots. If the root ball has been wrapped with plastic or                    
vinyl, remove this covering before planting as it will not                      
decompose but will restrict the roots.                                          
     Set the tree so that it will grow at the same level at                     
which it was growing before being removed. Add soil to fill in                  
the hole, firming it with your feet. Soak with several buckets                  
of water. Mound the leaves around the base to prevent the deep                  
freezing of the soil and the drying of the roots. You may find                  
it necessary to thin the twigs and foliage because of the dense                 
outer growth that was created by the shearing.                                  
     If you are thinking of moving one of your own live trees,                  
remember it should be dug with an intact root ball and tightly                  
wrapped in burlap in the fall before the ground freezes.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
MINIGREENHOUSE PROJECT FOR YOUNGSTERS                                           
                                                                                
     As the weather grows colder, youngsters need indoor projects               
to occupy the evenings. Watching their own plants start to grow                 
in a mini-greenhouse can be a good project for youngsters to see                
the development of living things.                                               
     Here are the instructions for a mini-greenhouse. The                       
materials needed are a half-gallon milk carton, a coat hanger,                  
clear plastic or a plastic bag, wire cutters, masking tape, and                 
a few plant cuttings or seeds.                                                  
     First, clean a half-gallon milk carton. Lay it on its side                 
so that the opened spout is up. Cut off the side with the spout                 
to form an open box, and punch holes for drainage along the                     
bottom.                                                                         
     With wire cutters, cut coat hanger wire and bend it so that                
it makes an arch. Fit the two wires into the box - one on each                  
end so they form arches to support the plastic roof. Tape the                   
wires into the corners of the box so they will stand up.                        
     Fill the greenhouse directly with potting soil mix or use                  
peat pots filled with potting soil inside of it. Peat pots,                     
which can be purchased at garden supply stores, make trans-                     
planting easier for the person who is planning to plant the                     
seedlings into another container.                                               
     Once the greenhouse is filled, take the piece of clear                     
plastic or the plastic bag and drape it over the entire box and                 
wires. The wires will hold the plastic up over the box and the                  
plants as they grow. Tuck the ends of the plastic under the                     
box. If you are using a plastic bag, just put the greenhouse                    
into the bag and tie the end.                                                   
     A youngster could use the mini-greenhouse to start plants                  
to use as Christmas gifts. Try using seeds from grapefruits or                  
oranges to start plants for gifts. Or, get cuttings from indoor                 
plants such as ivy or coleus to give. If the mini-greenhouse                    
can be placed in a very sunny window, the young gardener might                  
even be able to use leftover marigold or zinnia seeds and grow                  
enough to create a pot full of flowers to give at Christmas.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
DECORATING WITH HOUSEPLANTS                                                     
                                                                                
     Many genuine plant lovers find the idea of decorating with                 
houseplants distressing since decorating, by definition, means                  
that the plants must be attractive and arranged artfully. The                   
hobbiest's clutter must be eliminated and the near-dead plants                  
removed.                                                                        
     Once people begin to see plants as assets, rather than                     
simply acquisitions, plants actually become fun and rewarding to                
have around. In fact, there are many different ways in which                    
plants can enhance your home.                                                   
     Plants may be used as an architectural or structural                       
element in a room. For example, several large plants can serve                  
as a room divider or a group of hanging baskets can act as                      
curtains in providing privacy at a window.                                      
     Plants also may serve as a form of art. Large plants with                  
distinct or unusual shapes can be displayed in the same way as                  
sculpture. Specimens of candelabra or pencil cacti are particu-                 
larly striking.                                                                 
     Caution must be exercised in selecting plants to complement                
the style of the home and furniture. Putting a cactus into a                    
French provincial living room would be counterproductive. The                   
same plant, however, would be a focal point in a Spanish,                       
Mediterranean, or modern setting.                                               
     An organized arrangement of small plants in a window or on                 
lighted shelves can serve the same function as a painting,                      
enhancing a color scheme and bringing pleasure to the viewer.                   
     Plants can add warmth and coziness to a room by softening                  
the effect of the interior architecture's straight lines. By                    
breaking up larger wall spaces and casting interesting shadows,                 
they can diminish the size of a room and make it more comfortable               
and personal. This effect can be enhanced by using lights on                    
the floor to increase wall or ceiling shadows. Ferns, ficus                     
benjamina, scheffleras, and other finer foliaged plants are                     
particularly useful to those who want to create this feeling of                 
intimacy.                                                                       
     Regardless of the decorating purpose to which you plan to                  
put your plants, there are certain guidelines to remember. Select               
plants that can do the intended job in the environmental condi-                 
tions provided. (Remember that no plant does well for long                      
in the dark.) If the plant doesn't do the job or begins to look                 
bad in a certain location, move it. You would never leave an                    
uncomfortable chair in front of the television. In a similar                    
manner, never leave your plants out of place.                                   
     Become familiar with your plants and give them what they                   
need. Different soils, various types and sizes of containers,                   
temperature, air flow and the amount of sunlight will influence                 
how much water a plant needs. Forget the idea that you can water                
all of your plants every Saturday morning and have them do well.                
Adjust your watering regimen to the individual plant's needs.                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
GIFT PLANTS CONTINUE GIVING                                                     
                                                                                
     Many of you received plants as gifts this season. To                       
assure that the plants will continue to bring you enjoyment, you                
should take certain protective steps.                                           
     Most plants need bright light, but do not place them                       
directly in the sun. Avoid putting potted plants in dry, over-                  
heated rooms. Most plants prefer temperatures between 60 and 70                 
degrees F. Remember to keep plants in locations that are free of                
drafts and where sudden temperature changes are not likely to                   
occur. Be especially careful of plants kept on window sills                     
where temperatures fluctuate widely between daytime and night.                  
     Before watering, stick a finger an inch into the soil. If                  
the soil is almost dry, water the plant remembering to keep the                 
soil moist but not wet. The water should be at or near room                     
temperature when used. The humidity around a plant can be raised                
by setting the pots on trays or pans of gravel and water.                       
     Plant foods are beneficial, but remember that a little                     
fertilizer can go a long way. Many gift plants may not need to be               
fertilized until spring.                                                        
     The special plants of the holiday season - the Christmas                   
cactus, the kalanchoe, and the poinsettia - need special care.                  
The Christmas cactus produces red flowers around Christmas                      
if given proper temperature and light conditions. It requires                   
12 or more hours of uninterrupted darkness and cool temperatures                
for several weeks before the desired bloom date. Although a                     
cactus, it will not tolerate extended dry periods, especially in                
the summer. The Christmas cactus prefers bright light but                       
should not be placed directly in the sun.                                       
     The kalanchoe is a succulent plant with bright orange or                   
red flowers. It should receive the full sun or very bright                      
light and should be watered when the soil is almost dry. The                    
kalanchoe will bloom most readily when it receives the same                     
long-night treatment that you give to the Christmas cactus.                     
     The poinsettia, a native of Mexico, has showy bracts of                    
red, pink, or white. The true flower is the small yellow one in                 
the middle of the bracts. To care for the poinsettia, remember                  
to keep temperatures between 65 and 75 degrees F and the humidity               
at more than 30 percent.                                                        
     If you would like the plant to survive to next year, you                   
should take certain steps. After the bracts and leaves have                     
dropped, start drying the plant by keeping it in a cool (50                     
degree F), dry, light place until May. Water just enough to keep                
stems and roots from becoming too dry.                                          
     In May, prune the stems to about six inches and start                      
watering and fertilizing. Place outdoors in June. Keep the                      
tips pinched off until early September when you bring the plant                 
inside and place it in a sunny window.                                          
     As the poinsettia is a short day plant, be sure it gets no                 
light from sundown to sunup as even a short period of light may                 
prevent it from flowering. The poinsettia requires 14 hours of                  
complete darkness daily from earle October until color shows,                   
which usually is around Thanksgiving. The plant then can be kept                
in the room and enjoyed as part of the holiday decorations.                     
November 1985                                                                   
                                Number of lines   Page                          
Native Trees                       60               2                           
House Plants Need Light            58               4                           
Winter Flowers Indoors             35               6                           
Plants At War                      53               7                           
Protecting Ornamentals             46               8                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
NATIVE TREES                                                                    
                                                                                
One way that often is recommended to reduce maintenance in the                  
home landscape is to select native trees and shrubs. These plants               
usually are more tolerant of local environmental conditions and                 
pests insuring better performance with less care. One difficulty                
in this approach is that many homeowners have problems identify-                
ing the desirable species among the multitude of trees in our                   
forests.                                                                        
                                                                                
Carolina silverbell (Halesia carolina), native to North Carolina,               
can be seen throughout the mountains of Virginia, but it does                   
well throughout the state. Usually considered to be a small tree,               
height between 30 and 40 feet, the species occasionally has                     
reached 80 feet. Its primary value is its clusters of small,                    
white, bell-like flowers borne on year-old growth in late April                 
or early May. These attractive flowers have a subtle beauty that                
is effective for about a week. Their summer foliage, with its                   
dark, yellowish green tone, also is an asset to the landscape.                  
                                                                                
The American yellowwood (Cladrastus lutea) is a native with its                 
showy spring flowers. In late May and early June, these fragrant                
white blossoms hang in clusters between 8 and 14 inches long.                   
They begin flowering when the tree is between 12 and 18 feet                    
tall. The flowers are as noted for their fragrance as well                      
as their beauty. Bees particularly are attracted to them.                       
Unfortunately, American yellowwoods tend to bloom every second or               
third year, so it would be best to combine them with other plants               
that bloom in the same season to assure an annual show. Because                 
of its medium size (30 to 50 feet) and spreading habit, it is                   
a good tree for smaller properties. Its yellow fall foliage and                 
smooth gray bark bring additional interest to the landscape.                    
                                                                                
A group of native trees that should interest homeowners is the                  
serviceberry. Two of the most interesting are the downy service-                
berry or shadblow (Amelanchier arborea), and Allegheny service-                 
berry (A. laevis). Serviceberries bloom in early April with                     
clusters of white flowers on the tops of the branches. They are                 
among the earliest plants to have fruits, blue or black berries                 
ripening in July. The sweet fruit was first used by American                    
Indians. One common name, the pie bush, indicates how the fruit                 
can be prepared. The fruit also is a favorite of some wildlife                  
and can be used to attract songbirds to the garden.                             
                                                                                
Although there are many other worthy native trees, two that are                 
not well known are the spicebush and American hornbeam. The                     
spicebush (Lindera benzion) grows from six to 12 feet tall with a               
normal spread. It is particularly noted for its pungent aroma                   
when any part of the plant is broken.                                           
                                                                                
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), also called blue beech,               
ironwood or musclewood has smooth, thin, dark bluish gray bark                  
that is sinewy, greatly resembling flexed muscles. The wood                     
itself is very hard and heavy. American hornbeam grows to a                     
height of 20 to 30 feet and is best used in natural looking                     
sites.                                                                          
                                                                                
One difficulty in using the trees named in this column is, with                 
the exception of the American yellowwood, they are not commonly                 
found in the nursery. It may be necessary to locate a supplier of               
native trees, or dig them yourself from the wild.                               
HOUSE PLANTS NEED LIGHT                                                        
                                                                                
Different indoor house plants have varying light requirements. To               
grow them successfully, we must know what these requirements are                
and have a basic knowledge of light and its effects on plant life               
in general.                                                                     
                                                                                
Plants are selected as houseplants primarily because most of them               
do not require a lot of light to grow. Many indoor plants are                   
natives of jungles where light reaches them sporadically.                       
However, other house plants, the cacti and succulents for                       
example, come from open arid regions and thrive on intense light.               
                                                                                
Most house plants would be as badly damaged by overexposure as by               
underexposure. When there is too much light, the chlorophyll (the               
green pigment involved in photosynthesis) is broken down and                    
destroyed. The result is a chlorotic plant which is sick and                    
non-vigorous. In fact, it may look as if someone has dumped                     
bleach on it. Those plants that are not receiving enough light                  
have their own difficulties. They tend to become spindly and                    
leggy, don't flower, and may develop a discolored appearance or                 
lose their distinctive markings.                                                
                                                                                
The most accurate way to measure the quantity of light that                     
plants receive is with a light meter which reads in foot-candles.               
Indoor gardeners should take periodic light inventories with a                  
light meter in the various rooms where plants are growing. If you               
don't have one, a camera with a built-in light meter can be used                
to provide a reasonable light intensity estimate.                               
                                                                                
Be sure to clean windows inside and out to provide the most light               
to your plants. Eastern and western exposures provide moderate                  
light, to about 1,000 foot-candles. This generally is ideal light               
for many house plants. Southern exposures are the sunniest,                     
providing light intensities in the thousands of foot-candle                     
range. This may be too bright for tender foliage plants but is                  
great for the light lovers such as jade plants. You can always                  
shade plants with curtains.                                                     
                                                                                
Generally, windows with a northern exposure yield the least                     
light, having intensity readings in the hundreds of foot-candle                 
range. Remember, if light levels are less than 50 foot-candles,                 
it is difficult to even maintain plants for any length of time                  
and impossible to grow them. If the natural light is inade-                     
quate, try artificial sources. You can supplement the number of                 
exposure hours with artificial lighting, but don't leave lights                 
on plants for more than 16 hours. Most plants cannot tolerate                   
24-hour illumination as it upsets their delicate botanical                      
processes. An inexpensive electric timer can insure the right                   
length of time of artificial light.                                             
                                                                                
For maximum usefulness, artificial light sources need to be close               
to the plants. This probably will be no more than one foot away                 
for fluorescent fixtures and a slightly greater distance for                    
incandescent lights since they generate heat. By using multiple                 
fluorescent tubes and placing plants close to them, light                       
intensities of around 1,000 foot-candles can be provided.                       
WINTER FLOWERS INDOORS                                                         
                                                                                
One of the most reliable sources of winter bloom is the Spathi-                 
phyllum. Its white leaf-like flower is quite striking against the               
deep green foliage. It can easily outgrow most home settings,                   
however, as the plant may reach two or three feet in height.                    
                                                                                
The Streptocarpus or cape primrose is a smaller, but actually                   
much showier, plant. It has blossoms in various shades of purple,               
violet and rose, as well as white. A relative of the African                    
violet, it is easy to care for but equally prone to mealybugs.                  
                                                                                
The flame violet or Episcia is a vining relative of the African                 
violet with deep, orange-red blossoms. Although some people                     
report them difficult to grow, you should have little trouble as                
long as you give them plenty of light, and water thoroughly when                
the soil begins to dry.                                                         
                                                                                
There are several Bromeliads which create a showy display of                    
color on coarse, odd-looking plants. These relatives of the                     
pineapple vaguely resemble the severed top of a pineapple fruit.                
The flame sword and the air pine are the most common. Queen's                   
tears bromeliad provides year-round architecturally interesting                 
foliage and periodically rewards your patience with spikes of                   
pink, blue and yellow flowers. Most Bromeliads are easy to grow                 
but bloom only once. Many gradually die after flowering; but some               
put up side shoots that can be repotted for future plants and                   
flowers.                                                                        
                                                                                
There are many flowering plants, such as mums, poinsettias,                     
cyclamen and zebra plants, available from florists throughout the               
winter. Any of these, with skill and luck, can be induced to                    
rebloom after the initial show; but many gardeners find that it                 
simply isn't worth the effort and toss out the plant when it                    
becomes unattractive.                                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
PLANTS AT WAR                                                                   
                                                                                
Chemical warfare has been practiced in the plant kingdom far                    
longer than it has been practiced by man. Canada thistle, yellow                
nutsedge and quackgrass not only do hand-to-hand combat with                    
crops to rob them of water, nutrients and sunlight, they produce                
toxic chemicals that inhibit the other plants' growth.                          
                                                                                
Allelopathy is the term which is used to describe the toxic                     
effect of one plant on another. Toxic chemicals can be released                 
by the roots or leaves of living or dead plants. In some cases,                 
they may be produced by micro-organisms that break down the                     
organic matter.                                                                 
                                                                                
The most common occurence of this characteristic is with the                    
black walnut (Juglans nigra). Since the time of ancient Rome,                   
gardeners have observed that walnut trees are toxic to many other               
plants. Although this toxicity is not fully understood, it is                   
known that a toxic substance called juglone is exuded from the                  
roots of black walnut trees. Not all plants are susceptible to                  
damage. In fact, some seem to have improved vigor when grown near               
a black walnut.                                                                 
                                                                                
Studies show that roots of the tree must have contact with, or be               
very close to, susceptible plants to cause injury. This may                     
include a much larger area, however, than most people expect as                 
the roots of a mature black walnut may occupy an area five or six               
times that of the tree's crown. Even after a walnut tree is                     
removed, the toxic substance will remain in the soil for about a                
year. Although leaves, husks and bark contain juglone, mulches of               
these tree parts are reported not to cause the toxic response                   
that occurs with actual root contact.                                           
                                                                                
Plants which have been recorded as harmed by black walnut include               
tomatoes, potatoes, blackberries, blueberries, rhododendron,                    
azaleas, and mountain laurel. Plants that do as well, or better,                
under black walnuts include Kentucky bluegrass, snap beans, sweet               
corn, red cedars, daffodils and maples. Noticing that the soil                  
under black walnuts is alkaline (the pH may be 0.7 points higher                
than the soil beyond the roots), one researcher suggests that                   
this may influence which plants perform well.                                   
                                                                                
Other researchers are looking at allelopathy as a possible way to               
control weeds. For example, certain selections of rye, wheat and                
barley significantly reduce weed growth, in part by the release                 
of toxic root substances. Therefore, they offer partial control                 
of certain annual weeds when grown as cover crops in fruit                      
orchards. Although research is in early stages, published reports               
indicate a potential for use that some day may be worthwhile for                
consideration by the home orchardist. The use of allelopathic                   
plants will not eliminate the need for herbicides, but it is                    
exciting to know that research is being conducted that may                      
provide another alternative to mechanical or synthetic chemical                 
control of weeds.                                                               
                                                                                
PROTECTING ORNAMENTALS                                                          
                                                                                
Homeowners can take several special actions to protect their                    
trees and shrubs for the winter. Although these actions won't                   
guarantee total absence of damage to the plants, they should                    
limit the severity of the problem.                                              
                                                                                
Any snow that collects on your shrubs should be removed with a                  
broom. Always sweep upward with the broom to lift off the snow.                 
When the branches are frozen and brittle, however, avoid disturb-               
ing the branches. Wait until a warmer day.                                      
                                                                                
Bark splitting is an especially dangerous condition to be guarded               
against on newly planted trees. It may be prevented by wrapping                 
trunks with burlap strips or with commercial tree wrap.                         
                                                                                
If the winter is particularly severe, many plants may show                      
substantial injury. Discolored or "burned" evergreen needles or                 
leaves, dead branch tips and branches, "heaved" root systems and                
broken branches are among the symptoms.                                         
                                                                                
Small evergreens can be protected by erecting wind breaks made                  
out of burlap, canvas, or similar materials attached to a frame                 
surrounding a plant. A complete wrapping of straw and burlap                    
sometimes is used.                                                              
                                                                                
Black plastic should be avoided as a material for wrapping                      
plants. During the day, it allows heat to increase inside and                   
actually increases the fluctuations between day and night                       
temperatures. It also may speed the growth of buds in the spring,               
making them more vulnerable to late frosts.                                     
                                                                                
Since the various boxes, shields and wrappings detract from your                
winter landscape, it might be wise to move sensitive plants to a                
more protected location and replace them with hardier specimens                 
that don't need such protection each year.                                      
                                                                                
Anti-dessicant (anti-dryout) compounds can be used on valuable                  
evergreens to lessen damage during severe freezes. They must be                 
applied at the onset of the coldest weather when plants are                     
unable to take up water from frozen ground. These compounds act                 
as barriers to the movement of water from the plant through                     
the leaves. The protection provided by an anti-dessicant is                     
temporary. After a few days, the film disintegrates.                            
October  1985                                                                   
LANDSCAPING THE FRONT YARD                                                      
                                                                                
A traditional element in the homesites of most Virginians is the                
yard. Whether it is a 15-by-20 foot patch in front of a townhouse               
or an acre of land fenced-off from the rest of a farm, this space               
is set aside for public viewing and should be an attractive                     
display for all who approach it.                                                
                                                                                
When space permits, a lawn becomes the canvas upon which your                   
landscape picture is constructed. As such, it should be open and                
as wide as possible to give the impression of spaciousness to the               
property.                                                                       
                                                                                
The ground should slope down from the house to cause water to                   
move away from the foundation. If possible, the grading should                  
provide gentle slopes which are easy to mow. Banks which exceed                 
one foot of drop for each two feet of horizontal distance will be               
difficult to maintain in sod, hard to mow, and susceptible to                   
erosion. Such as area as this would be better suited to ground                  
covers.                                                                         
                                                                                
Ideally, the house should be framed with trees. Tall species                    
should be located in the back yard to provide a green backdrop to               
the house. Medium-sized trees should be planted toward the sides                
of the front lawn area. This will focus attention on the resid-                 
ence as the most important feature of the landscape picture.                    
                                                                                
A foundation planting of shrubs or small trees is often located                 
around the house to soften its harsh architectural features and                 
to cause it to blend into the landscape. This is particularly                   
effective if used where vertical lines of the building meet the                 
ground at corners and doorways.                                                 
                                                                                
A continuous planting will reduce the apparent height of a tall                 
house. However, a low house, without an exposed foundation, will                
look larger and more impressive if the shrub planting is not                    
continuous, and ground covers are used in one or two places                     
between the corner and the front door.                                          
                                                                                
Use a limited number of species in the foundation planting.                     
Some variation in form and texture is important, but avoid                      
numerous different types, or mixtures of evergreen and deciduous                
shrubs.                                                                         
                                                                                
Select varieties which will be of suitable size when mature,                    
and be sure to provide adequate space for normal growth. Avoid                  
placing large shrubs under windows, as they will need continuous                
heavy pruning, or will grow too tall.                                           
                                                                                
The height of shrubs is very important along the front of the                   
house. Relatively tall ones should be located at the corners, and               
shorter ones on each side of the front door. This will have the                 
effect of funneling attention on the entrance.                                  
Be prepared to renew or improve your landscaping periodically.                  
Most shrubs need to be replaced with young, more desirable                      
specimens about every 15 or 20 years.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
VIRGINIA IS FOR APPLE LOVERS                                                    
                                                                                
Virginia is the fifth largest apple producing state in the United               
States. More than 12 million bushels of apples are harvested                    
each year in our state. Consequently, it is possible for Virgin-                
ians to select high quality apples for a variety of purposes.                   
The key is knowing what varieties to buy and where to find them.                
 Here are some favorites:                                                       
                                                                                
 Red Delicious, the number one apple in the supermarket, is                     
excellent for salads and eating out of hand. Since they are                     
readily available year-round, Red Delicious could be skipped for                
the harder-to-get varieties during the peak harvest time.                       
                                                                                
 Golden Delicious, also widely available in supermarkets, is                    
ranked high for eating fresh and cooking.                                       
                                                                                
 Jonathan is very tart, juicy and firm. It is an excellent                      
choice for snacks, salads and cooking. Although it ripens from                  
early to midseason, it is widely available into the fall.                       
                                                                                
 Stayman, a late ripening apple, is juicy with a moderately tart,               
rich, wine-like flavor. It is good for fresh eating, salads and                 
cooking.                                                                        
                                                                                
 Winesap apples have very firm, tart, juicy fruit which hold                    
their shape well when cooked.                                                   
                                                                                
 Rome Beauty, considered by some to be "the world's best baking                 
apple," is a variety with a slightly tart taste. The fruit                      
has a long storage life and is widely available.                                
                                                                                
 York is also a popular variety with Virginia producers. It's                   
tart, crisp fruit provides good eating out of hand or cooked.                   
                                                                                
 One variety which has gained popularity recently is the Granny                 
Smith. It is an excellent variety that is being planted in                      
Virginia orchards. Locally produced Granny Smiths may not be                    
available in your area yet, but should be within the next few                   
years.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many of the less common varieties are more easily obtained from                 
Virginia apple orchards and their roadside markets than at the                  
local supermarket. A weekend excursion could take you to the                    
orchards for a bushel of apples. Watch for apple cider and                      
pumpkins too, while you are enjoying the fall foliage.                          
                                                                                
In addition to the more popular modern varieties in some of the                 
old orchards on both eastern and western slopes of the Blue Ridge               
varieties such as Arkansas Black Twig, Baldwin, Ben Davis, Esopus               
Spitzenburg, Gano, King David, Grimes Golden, Horse Apple, Maiden               
Blush, Northern Spy, Smokehouse, Winter Banana and Wolf River are               
grown.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many of the old varieties lost favor with the commercial grower                 
because of low productivity, lack of attractiveness, susceptibil-               
ity to insects and disease, and poor shipping quality. For the                  
home gardener, however, these faults are overshadowed by the                    
delightful flavor, rich aroma, and culinary characteristics                     
found in few of the more recently introduced apple varieties.                   
If you find some of these old varieties at a roadside stand, you                
might try them. Each still has a following among apple lovers.                  
                                                                                
When buying apples, the Virginia State Apple Commission points                  
out that the background or "ground color", on varieties that are                
not solid red, should be yellow-green. If too green, the color                  
indicates immaturity. Too yellow of a color indicates an overripe               
apple.                                                                          
                                                                                
Apples with a brownish roughened area on the skin called surface                
russeting make good eating and may be less expensive. Russeting                 
is only a cosmetic defect.                                                      
                                                                                
It usually is more economical to buy apples in large quantities                 
when they are in season. Purchase only what can be used or                      
stored, however. Smaller apples usually will keep longer and have               
less bruising.                                                                  
                                                                                
Apples should be kept refrigerated. Store in perforated plastic                 
bags to allow proper air circulation. Place away from foods with                
strong odors as the flavor will transfer.                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
FALL RASPBERRIES                                                                
                                                                                
With the introduction of some newer varieties, raspberries can be               
treats in both the summer and the fall. In fact, unless your area               
has been caught by an unseasonably early frost, you still could                 
be picking raspberries from your everbearing varieties. One of                  
the best and most frequently grown everbearing raspberries                      
in Virginia is Heritage.                                                        
                                                                                
The so-called everbearing varieties of raspberries actually                     
should be considered two-season bearers as each cane produces                   
the first crop in the fall its first year, and a second crop in                 
the summer of its second year. After the second crop is produc-                 
ed, the cane dies and should be removed. The crown of the plant,                
however, lives for eight or more years and continues to produce                 
new canes each year. This means that after you have completed                   
the June harvest and removed all canes, there still will be many                
new ones that will produce a fall crop.                                         
                                                                                
For those people who find this system confusing, there is                       
another way of pruning that has proven quite successful with the                
Heritage raspberry. It eliminates the need to decide if a cane                  
has completed both crops and should be removed. In this system,                 
Heritage is grown as a fall bearer only and never allowed                       
to set the second crop in the summer.                                           
                                                                                
Canes grow for a season, produce a crop in the fall and are left                
on the plant to help it survive the winter. They are then removed               
in early spring.  The canes can be cut with a rotary mower and                  
all cut material removed from the planting. New canes will grow                 
from the crowns to produce that fall's harvest and the cutting                  
procedure can be repeated the next spring. Although you miss the                
June harvest, the total yield will be higher in the fall than it                
is on plants producing two crops per year, and the maintenance                  
will be reduced greatly.                                                        
                                                                                
If you don't want to miss those June raspberries, you might set                 
aside one part of your Heritage patch for traditional pruning.                  
Or you might grow one of the June bearing varieties such as                     
Latham.                                                                         
                                                                                
October is the time to prepare your soil to plant raspberries                   
next spring. They prefer a pH of 5.8 to 6.5 and a deep sandy-loam               
soil. Converting part of your garden to raspberries could be                    
ideal, but avoid areas where tomatoes, eggplants or potatoes have               
grown. These crops often carry verticillium wilt which lives in                 
the soil many years and is very damaging to raspberries.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
MICE, VOLES OR MOLES                                                            
                                                                                
When we discover that creatures have been eating our plants, we                 
tend to get excited and start looking for ways to eliminate the                 
pests rather than trying to identify and understand them. This                  
can reduce our effectiveness at times.                                          
                                                                                
One case is the mice, vole, or mole dilemma.  Although easily                   
mistaken by the novice, they are not all plant-devouring rodents.               
 In fact, the mole is neither a rodent nor a plant eater. A close               
relative of the shrew, the mole tunnels through your yard in                    
search of grubs or other soil insects.                                          
                                                                                
Pine or meadow voles, often called mice as they are in that                     
family, are more likely the culprits that are damaging bulbs,                   
roots and tree bark. The pine vole and the mole seem to work as a               
team in creating havoc, as the pine vole loves to use the tunnels               
created by moles as a running path for easy access to its dinner.               
The meadow vole, on the other hand, stays above ground and                      
tunnels through leaves, straw, and other debris to reach its                    
favorite food.                                                                  
                                                                                
While moles are a nuisance, making the yard unsightly and                       
difficult to cross in high heels, they do relatively little                     
actual damage to plants with the exception of pushing small                     
perennials out of the ground. Voles however, can do more damage                 
than insects or disease in a fruit orchard.  They have been known               
to girdle and kill a tree in one winter.                                        
                                                                                
To prevent damage this winter, there are several things a                       
homeowner can do. First, eliminate potential homes for the                      
creatures. Moles can be discouraged by reducing the insect                      
population in the soil, usually through the use of soil insectic-               
ides. Traps may also be used to stop the moles. After the moles                 
are gone, their tunnels should be collapsed around fruit trees to               
prevent winter use by the pine voles.                                           
                                                                                
Mulch, stems, leaves, and dead grass should be removed from                     
around the trunks of trees to reduce meadow vole damage. Tree                   
guards are helpful in reducing summer and early fall damage. They               
should be constructed from hardware cloth with no larger than                   
1/4-inch mesh. Guards should enclose the tree trunk and extend                  
from several inches below ground to about 18 inches above the                   
soil's surface. Never use tarpaper or roofing paper as they may                 
damage the tree by lowering its winter hardiness.                               
                                                                                
If a vole problem still develops, it is better for the homeowner                
to use traps rather than poisonous baits, as the latter are                     
dangerous to pets and children. Common household mouse traps                    
baited with apples and placed in the trail system are probably                  
the most effective control. Continue to use the traps for four to               
five days, surrounding your trees at 10 to 20 square foot                       
intervals to get rid of all the voles.                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
EARLY AMERICAN VEGETABLES                                                       
                                                                                
North American Indians were cultivating several common garden                   
crops when Europeans arrived. Corn, beans and pumpkins were                     
among their most important foods. Sunflowers and Jerusalem                      
artichokes also supplemented their diets.                                       
                                                                                
Believed to be a "gift of the gods," corn was of central importa-               
nce for many of the native Americans. Although popcorn and sweet                
corn were known, they were not as important for food crops as                   
field corn or roasting ears.                                                    
                                                                                
Green corn was roasted in the shuck and also was mixed with green               
beans to make succotash. Dried corn was washed in wood ashes and                
quicklime to make hominy, or parched to make it pop slightly for                
easy eating. Ground hominy or dried field corn was used for                     
making unleavened bread or tortillas. It was also mixed with                    
other foods, such as pumpkins, beans, or acorns to make bread.                  
Evidence indicates that sweet corn primarily was grown for                      
special occasions. Interestingly, it was eaten parched rather                   
than fresh.                                                                     
                                                                                
Some methods used by the Indians to insure a successful crop                    
might be of value in today's home gardens. They included planting               
in a shallow pit in windy areas or dry soils to hold moisture,                  
and soaking seeds for two days to hasten sprouting. Interplant-                 
ing with pumpkins to save space may be an asset to some gardens                 
if field corn is planted and allowed to mature before harvest.                  
When such interplanting is tried with sweet corn, most people                   
have to fight the pumpkin vines to get the corn at harvest                      
time.                                                                           
                                                                                
The pumpkin was second only to corn in importance as a food                     
crop to North American Indians. Pumpkins were protected from                    
freezing in early winter by storing them in corn shocks. As the                 
weather got colder, they were sliced into rings and dried over                  
fires. The dried pumpkin could be ground into meal and used for                 
breads. The seeds that weren't needed for planting the next year                
were roasted and eaten.                                                         
                                                                                
The kidney bean, which includes most snap or green beans, was                   
domesticated in Peru before 6000 B.C. and in Mexico prior to 5000               
B.C. Its use spread north from Mexico, as did corn and pumpkins.                
 These three plants became the principle crops in North America                 
in prehistoric times.                                                           
                                                                                
The early colonist found the native Americans planting pole or                  
"half-runner" types of kidney beans. They often were put among                  
the corn plants so they could climb the stalks. This practice                   
not only led to easier bean harvests, it made it possible to grow               
good crops of corn on the same ground for several years in a row.               
The native Americans did not understand why this worked but, by                 
observing the benefits, were able to take advantage of the fact                 
that beans actually improved the soil by helping to extract                     
nitrogen from the atmosphere and storing it in the soil. The                    
oldest known variety of beans, the "White Half Runner," has been                
planted for as long as records exist by mountain residents in the               
Southeastern United States.                                                     
                                                                                
Another crop grown by the North American Indians was the sunflow-               
er. It is the only important crop plant to have actually been                   
domesticated in what is now the United States. All other crops                  
were brought here by native Americans after domestication.                      
Surprisingly, sunflower did not become important as a food plant                
until it was carried to Russia where it was found to be suitable                
for growth in large areas of that vast country.  This led to the                
development of several new varieties.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
PREPARING FOR FROST                                                             
                                                                                
It  may seem a little early to begin worrying about frost, but                  
well-laid plans now may avoid disaster and disappointment                       
later.                                                                          
                                                                                
When the nights begin to reach 55 degrees F, it's time to                       
acclimate your house plants to return indoors.  Move them to a                  
lower light area and bring them in at night.  Most tropical house               
plants can be injured by low night temperatures that are well                   
above freezing. Inspect plants closely for insects and complete                 
any pesticide spraying while the plants are still out-of-doors.                 
                                                                                
If a pot has been in contact with the soil, you may want to soak                
it in a bucket of water for several hours to drown any insects                  
that may have entered the drain hole. Clean the foliage and wash                
your windows to provide maximum light this winter before taking                 
the plants inside.  Remember, that with lower light and cooler                  
temperatures, plant growth will slow down so less water and                     
fertilizer will be required.                                                    
                                                                                
Begonias, coleus, geraniums and impatiens can be potted up and                  
moved indoors for added winter color.  If this is not desirable,                
cuttings can be taken and rooted in a glass of water to make a                  
fresh start of young plants.  Protecting your chrysanthemums,                   
marigolds, and other flowers from the first light frost may                     
prolong their flowering period through the warm Indian summer                   
that usually follows our early freezes.                                         
                                                                                
If there are tender plants, such as tomatoes, in your vegetable                 
garden, that still hold an abundance of immature fruit when                     
frost arrives, plan to cover them during the night.  Start                      
collecting baskets, burlap or canvas sacks, boxes, blankets or                  
buckets to protect them from the frost.  The warm days after the                
frost will mature some of the fruit as long as the plants have                  
this nightly frost protection.                                                  
                                                                                
Summer squash, melons, eggplant, cucumbers, peppers and okra are                
some crops that cannot withstand frost and should be picked                     
immediately prior to heavy frosts. Store the vegetables in a                    
refrigerator until needed for eating or processing.                             
                                                                                
Cool-season crops, such as cabbage, cauliflower, peas, broccoli                 
and Brussels sprouts can withstand some cold; in fact, their                    
favor is often enhanced after a frost.  They cannot stay in                     
the garden all winter, but do not need to be picked immediately                 
when frost comes.                                                               
                                                                                
Kale, spinach, evergreen bunching onions, lettuce, parsley,                     
parsnips, carrots, and salsify are crops that may survive all                   
winter in your garden.  Mulch overwintering vegetables with                     
8 inches of mulch to prevent heaving of the soil.  Most of these                
vegetables can be dug or picked as needed throughout the winter                 
or in early spring.                                                             
                                                                                
The average date of the first killing frost in your areas can be                
obtained from a local Extension agent.                                          
Tom Brunback, Virginia Tech agricultural meteorologist, explain-                
s, however, that although these average dates can be used to                    
determine when the first freeze is expected, weather systems and                
local effects largely determine the exact date.  The first freeze               
of autumn forms when the air is relatively cool the day before.                 
Be wary of cloudy daytime skies that prevent maximum temperatures               
from reaching 65 degrees F.  Freezes are especially likely when                 
these cool days are followed by a clear night with little or no                 
wind.                                                                           
                                                                                
The clear night skies allow heat from the soil surface and                      
plants to escape into space.  Eventually, if there are enough                   
hours of this night time heat loss, plant temperatures will fall                
below freezing, usually just before sunrise.  Since the ground                  
and plant surfaces cool the most, any wind helps mix warmer air                 
from above and thus reduces the risk of a freeze.  Likewise,                    
cloudy skies at night reduce heat loss and freeze risks.                        
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
PLANT HARDY BULBS FOR NEXT YEAR'S COLOR                                         
                                                                                
Hardy bulbs can be planted now to provide color from early                      
spring until the end of summer.  Most people think of fall as the               
time to plant daffodils and tulips.  Certainly these lovely bulbs               
with their spectacular displays should not be forgotten, but the                
wealth of other bulbs can't be ignored.                                         
                                                                                
Winter can be endured more easily if promises of spring are                     
brought by such extra early small bulbs as Glory of the Snow,                   
winter aconite and snowdrops.  With flowers from three to six                   
inches tall, these bulbs grow will in rock gardens or raised                    
beds.  They also naturalize well under leafy trees that allow                   
light early in the season but give shade in the summer.                         
                                                                                
Species tulips, such as the Kaufmannia and Fosterlana, bloom                    
next. Their unusual flower shapes and colors set them apart from                
the later blooming, larger tulips.  Because of their smaller                    
sizes, these tulips also lend themselves to rock gardens, raised                
beds or window boxes that give them special places to show their                
individuality.                                                                  
                                                                                
Hyacinths, daffodils and tulips follow, assuring everyone                       
that spring is indeed here to stay and summer is on the way.                    
                                                                                
Depending on the variety grown, alliums or "flowering onions"                   
may be the next to bloom.  Giant alliums produce flower balls up                
to nine inches across on stalks four to eight feet tall.  They                  
are certainly not an easy plant to use in the flower bed, but                   
their astounding flower can be the spark that ignites a child's                 
enthusiasm for plants.  Other species of small, red, yellow and                 
white flowering alliums (under a foot tall) can also be found in                
most bulb catalogs.                                                             
                                                                                
Another allium with lovely blossoms that often is relegated to                  
the herb garden is chives.  Chives can be a very effective part                 
of the flower border with their pinkish lavender, ball-shaped                   
flowers in early June. The added benefit of snipping leaves                     
throughout the summer flavors soups and salads.                                 
                                                                                
Lilies are a highly diverse group of summer flowering perennials                
that can provide the novice or the experienced gardener with a                  
highly rewarding, continuous show of color from June through                    
October.  Careful selection of varieties not only can provide                   
this prolonged profusion of color, but a diversity in shape and                 
color of blossom and size of plant. Yellows and oranges predom-                 
inate, but whites, pinks and reds are readily available.                        
Although some varieties reach over eight feet tall, the newer                   
hybrids that bloom at between two and three feet easily integrate               
themselves into most flower borders.                                            
                                                                                
Foxtail lilies, which are really an Eremus, make dramatic                       
accents in the early summer, producing tall spikes covered with                 
hundreds of starry bells.  Some species reach as tall as 10 feet,               
so unless you design a giant-sized flower border, be careful to                 
select from the shorter (3-4 feet) species.  Actually grown from                
tubers rather than true bulbs, foxtail lilies are more difficult                
to establish than most of the hardy bulbs but are well worth the                
effort.                                                                         
                                                                                
Another favorite for late summer bloom is the blackberry lily.                  
Actually a member of the iris family, this plant is started from                
division of rhizomes or fleshy underground stems.  In August and                
September graceful sprays of small red-spotted orange flowers                   
appear, producing a thick green capsule type fruit.  Later in the               
fall, the capsules split to reveal clusters of black seed,                      
resembling a blackberry, thus its name. These seed heads are                    
useful for dried flower arrangements.                                           
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
HARDY MUMS FOR FALL COLOR                                                       
                                                                                
Many flower gardeners find the essence of autumn in the diversi-                
ty of their hardy chrysanthemums.  This herbaceous perennial is                 
noteworthy for its wide range of colors, sizes and shapes of                    
flowers.                                                                        
                                                                                
Their usefulness in extending the flower gardening season to the                
first heavy frost can't be matched.  They can be used in borders                
for massing, as accent plants, or even to replant containers that               
were filled with summer annuals.  Their long-lasting cut flowers                
are a welcome bonus after the summer cutting garden has passed                  
its peak.                                                                       
                                                                                
As chrysanthemums bloom during the shorter days of late summer                  
and early fall, their natural flowering period coincides with the               
coloring of autumn foliage.  Their color range often resembles                  
the leaves of a hardwood forest with yellows, rusts, reds and                   
bronze predominating. Whites, pinks and lavenders also are                      
available.                                                                      
                                                                                
Decorative button, pompon, spoon, spider and daisy are only a                   
few of the flower types that are available.  Chrysanthemum size                 
differs among varieties but also can be manipulated by the                      
gardener.                                                                       
                                                                                
If you would like extra large blooms, disbud or remove all of                   
the flower buds on the stem except for the large terminal bud in                
the center of the cluster.  This will greatly reduce the total                  
number of flowers but the one that does open will be much more                  
showy.  This is the method that is used, in combination with                    
careful variety selection, to produce the large mums you see at                 
football games.                                                                 
                                                                                
Many garden centers have a wide array of mums available in full                 
bloom to dress up your autumn landscape.  These mums, grown in                  
gallon containers, can easily be planted anywhere in the garden                 
for instant show.  With care, it even is possible to transplant                 
mums in bloom from one location to another, more permanent spot.                
                                                                                
Dig the plants carefully after thorough watering, retaining as                  
much of the root system as feasible.  Gently loosen a small                     
amount of soil from the outer edge of the root ball and replant                 
in the new location at the same soil depth.  Water thoroughly to                
settle the plants and monitor them for several days.  If needed,                
shade the plants during the hottest part of the day.                            
                                                                                
Some gardeners try planting greenhouse grown mums received as                   
pot plants.  Unfortunately, most of these are not hardy and won't               
survive even the mildest winter.  True hardiness, even for the                  
garden varieties, may be marginal in parts of Virginia.  These                  
mums are best grown as annuals.                                                 
                                                                                
Chrysanthemums are relatively easy perennials to grow.  However,                
careful site and variety selection and proper cultural practices                
are needed to assure maximum autumn show.  Diseases and insects                 
can cause problems--especially stem rots, powdery mildew, aphids                
and spider mites. Should these or other problems occur, consult                 
your local Extension agent for recommended control measures.                    
                                                                                
As you enjoy the chrysanthemums in bloom around your neighbor-                  
hood, take note of your favorites.  Perhaps you can arrange for a               
trade of "starts" next spring when they are divided and thinned.                
Or, at least get the name so you can order it from the catalogs                 
to set in your favorite spot.                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
FALL SOIL MANAGEMENT                                                            
                                                                                
Gardeners often wonder whether to do their plowing or tilling in                
the spring or fall.  Working the soil in the fall has several                   
advantages over the traditional spring plowing.                                 
                                                                                
It allows for earlier planting, since the basic soil preparation                
is already done when spring arrives.  The turning under of large                
amount of organic matter is likely to result in better decomposi-               
tion when done in the fall, as autumn temperatures are higher                   
than those of early spring, and there is more time for the                      
process to take place.                                                          
                                                                                
Insects, disease organisms and perennial weeds may be reduced                   
through burial, or exposure to harsh winter weather.  The                       
physical condition of heavy clay soils may be improved by the                   
alternate freezing and thawing, which breaks tightly aggregated                 
particles.                                                                      
                                                                                
When snow is trapped between the hills of roughly-plowed soil,                  
more moisture is retained than on flat, bare ground.  Incorpo-                  
ration of limestone in the fall gives the mineral time to become                
intergrated into the soil and influences spring plant growth.                   
                                                                                
To prepare for fall tilling, you should check soil fertility and                
pH by having your soil analyzed through a local Extension office.               
This test should be repeated at least once every three years.                   
                                                                                
Soil pH measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the                     
soil. Vegetables vary some in their requirements, but most garden               
crops will do well with a soil pH of 6.2-6.8.  This is a little                 
below neutral or slightly acid (sour).                                          
                                                                                
If soil pH is too high or low, poor crop growth will result,                    
largely due to the effects of pH on the availability of nutrients               
to plants.  A soil test also will give you an idea of the                       
nutrient level in your soil.                                                    
                                                                                
Lime and sulfur are commonly used to change soil pH.  The                       
correct soil pH is essential for optimum plant growth.  Dolomitic               
limestone adds calcium and magnesium as it increases pH.  Sulfur                
acidifies alkaline soil.  The amount to add depends on the                      
current and desired pH.  This is a good reason to have your soil                
checked periodically.                                                           
                                                                                
Wood ashes are often used as a soil amendment.  They contain                    
potash (potassium), phosphate, boron, and other elements.  Wood                 
ashes can be used to raise soil pH with twice as much ash applied               
as limestone for the same effect.                                               
                                                                                
Ashes should not come into contact with germinating seedlings or                
plant roots as they may cause root burn.  Spread a thin layer of                
ashes prior to winter, and incorporate it into the soil.  Check                 
pH yearly if you use wood ashes.  Never use coal ashes or large                 
amounts of wood ash (no more than 20 pounds per 1,000 square                    
feet), as toxicity problems may occur.                                          
                                                                                
Animal manures are commonly used directly as a garden soil                      
amendment both to improve soil structure and increase nutrients.                
The value of manure in terms of the nutrients it contains varies.               
                                                                                
Fresh horse, sheep, rabbit and poultry manures are quite high in                
nitrogen and may even "burn" plants if applied directly to a                    
growing garden.  They are best applied in the fall and tilled                   
under.                                                                          
                                                                                
Cover crops shouldn't be underestimated as a source for inexpens-               
ive soil improvement.  Green manures, or such cover crops                       
as annual rye, ryegrass, and oats, are planted in the garden in                 
the fall for incorporation in the spring.  For best results, seed               
should be sown at least a month before the first killing frost.                 
                                                                                
In a fall garden, plant cover crops between the rows and in any                 
cleared areas.  Cover cropping provides additional organic                      
matter, holds nutrients that might have been lost over the winter               
and helps reduce erosion and loss of topsoil.  Legume cover crops               
can increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil and reduce                      
fertilizer needs.                                                               
                                                                                
A deep-rooted cover crop like buckwheat, allowed to grow for a                  
season in problem soil, can help break a hardpan and greatly                    
improve tilth. Incorporate green manures into the soil at least                 
two weeks before planting vegetables. Do not allow them to go to                
seed.                                                                           
                                                                                
Fall plowing is not recommended for hillside or steep garden                    
plots since the soil, left exposed all winter, is subject to                    
erosion when the spring rains come.  If a winter cover crop is                  
grown to improve soil and prevent erosion, the ground will have                 
to be tilled in the fall to prepare the soil for seed, and again                
in spring to turn under the green manure.                                       
                                                                                
Spring plowing is better for sandy soils and those where shallow                
tilling is practiced.  Generally, most gardens must be disked or                
rotary-tilled in the spring to smooth the soil for planting.                    
However, as research is being done for no-till methods of crop                  
production, the potential for eliminating the heavy work of                     
tilling or plowing looks increasingly bright.                                   
                                                                                
  Planting a Winter Cover Crop                                                  
                                                                                
 A cover crop is a temporary planting made to add organic                       
matter to the soil and improves its physical condition.                         
                                                                                
 A  cover crop can have many benefits for the home vegetable                    
garden.  Cover crops hold nitrogen and other plant nutrient                     
that might be leached away during the winter. Their extensive                   
root systems loosen heavy soils, and the added humus helps aggregate            
soil particles in sandy soils.                                                  
                                                                                
 If you have plenty of garden space, a good plan is to put                      
a third to a half of it into a cover crop each year, then alternate             
the cover crop with the vegetable planting.                                     
                                                                                
 Keep in mind that the different kinds of roots do different                    
kinds of jobs. Fine grass and cloer roots are ideal for developing              
soil crumbs in the upper 6 to 12 inches of the garden. Alfalfa                  
and sweet clover taproots extend deeper. When they die and rot,                 
the roots leave channels for air and water movement.                            
                                                                                
 Annual rye, Abruizzi rye, red clover and hairy vetch are                       
excellent choices for a winter cover. By being good, cool-season                
producers, any of them will grow quickly this fall. They provide                
excellent erosion control soil won't wash away during fall and                  
winter rains. By fertilizing with one pound of 10-10-10 per                     
100 square feet, these cover crops will provide good top growth                 
this fall.                                                                      
                                                                                
 Cover crops can be planted as early as the beginning of                        
August, but should not be planted any later than Nov. 1. The                    
plants should become established before hard freezes stop their                 
growth.                                                                         
                                                                                
 Winter cover crops can even be started where the gardener                      
has fall crops growing. Sow the seed between rows a month or                    
less before the harvest is expected. This way the cover crop                    
gets a good start, but will not interfere with vegetable plant                  
growth.                                                                         
                                                                                
 One problem with cover crops is that the gardeners tend                        
to delay tilling them in the next spring. Consequently, gardeners               
may get a late start in planting. The crop may require mowing                   
before tilling if it has grown large enough to clog up the tines                
of the tiller. Turn over the cover crop as early in Spring as                   
the ground can be worked, and the benefits should outweigh the                  
problems.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
   Gardening:  The Rx for Good Health                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
 It is surprising that in this health-conscious society,                        
people often fail to realize that one of the Nation's favorite                  
pastimes, gardening, is also one of its riches sources of good                  
health - both physical and mental.                                              
                                                                                
 In the garden, you get exercise and fresh air, burn calories,                  
and stretch muscles that otherwise go unused. Pruning, mowing,                  
digging and hoeing add new meaning to the word exercise. As                     
an avid gardener, you will help keep your body in shape as you                  
maintain your lawn and garden throughout the gardening year.                    
                                                                                
 Of course, from the vegetable garden you get highly nutritious                 
produce that can be a great help on a diet. Try nibbling carrots                
straight from the garden. They taste better than candy.                         
                                                                                
 The benefits of gardening as preventive medicine for good                      
mental health are less apparent, but consider how your attitudes                
change as you work outside. Stresses fade as you become absorbed                
in the familiar tasks of planting, cultivating and harvesting. Anger            
can be worked out with the garden hoe or a pair of pruners as                   
you agressively attack an important gardening chore. When the                   
job is done, you feel better and the garden looks better.                       
                                                                                
 The ability to create something beautiful and to maintain                      
order around the home through gardening gives many of us a sense                
of peace and tranquility as we escape from the chaos surrounding                
us.                                                                             
                                                                                
 To insure that we gain these benefits from gardening, however,                 
we must avoid the temptation to take the rules of survival in                   
modern life into the garden with us. The garden is not a place                  
to compete, not even with yourself. Don't strive for perfection,                
nothing in nature is truly perfect.                                             
                                                                                
 There are always insects, diseases, weeds and strange plants                   
in the wrong place. Instead, try to recognize and accept the                    
natural order of perfection that allows plants and animals to                   
survive together. Take time to see the beauty in a spider web                   
or a bird in flight, even if you know it will eat your blue-                    
berries. Settle for a little less imposed perfection and allow                  
your spirit to heal from daily stresses as your garden grows.                   
                                                                                
 If you discover that your garden is more than you can manage                   
in the August heat and gives you no time to savor the rewards                   
of hard work, find easier ways to do the job. If the vegetable                  
garden is too big, plow part of it under and plant a cover crop. If             
there is too much area and parts of the lawn are hard to mow,                   
plant ground covers. If the hedge takes more pruning than your                  
arms can give, consider maintaining it in a natural shape instead               
of a formal one.                                                                
                                                                                
 Plan your garden so that as you grow older, you can continue                   
to gain the satisfaction of caring for plants. Perhaps some                     
beds can be built higher so that bending and stooping can be                    
avoided. Containers can be placed on the patio for vegetables                   
and flowers. At the very least, remember that moderation in                     
the garden is the more productive and healthful approach, and                   
will make your gardening years more fruitful.                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
   Houseplants from the Garden                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
 If you start planning now, the first frosts of Autumn do                       
not have to bring to an end the pleasures provided by your flower               
beds and vegetable gardens. Many plants can be brought inside                   
to provide winter color and, if you have a sunny window or green-               
house, an occasional harvest.                                                   
                                                                                
 If you have plants already growing in containers, it will                      
be a simple matter to bring them indoors. Start moving them                     
indoors at night when the temperature drops below 60 degrees                    
F. to maintain their vigor and flower productivity.  When it                    
is time to leave them indoors, place them where they receive                    
sunlight equivalent to what they received out-of-doors.                         
                                                                                
 Among the plants that are easy to maintain indoors are                         
begonia, coleus, geraniums and ivy. Hanging baskets of these                    
plants thrive in a bright window. Even petunias can be brought                  
indoors and maintained in a southern-facing window.                             
                                                                                
 Some vegetables do well indoors in a southern window, parti-                   
cularly leafy greens such as lettuce, and fast growing crops                    
such as radishes. However, with sufficient light, tomatoes will                 
give fruit throughout the winter. Try small fruited varieties                   
for greatest success.                                                           
                                                                                
 Many herbs also are welcome additions to the winter window                     
garden. Chives, parsley, and thyme will grow well and receive                   
frequent use in the kitchen.                                                    
                                                                                
 Starting new plants from seed may be the best way to introduce                 
such fast-growing annuals as lettuce, marigolds and zinnias                     
to indoor culture. Start several seeds in each pot and remove                   
the weakest ones to achieve proper spacing for the container.                   
                                                                                
 Remember that plants that require full sun in the summer                       
will be equally demanding in the winter, and perform best in                    
a southern window. Be ready to protect them from the cold night                 
temperatures penetrating the glass by drawing a shade or curtain.               
                                                                                
 Experiment with different types of plants and different                        
varieties of the same plant to see what will do best in the                     
winter conditions of your home.                                                 
   Fall Vegetable Gardening                                                     
                                                                                
 By now, most of your spring crops are out of the garden                        
and weeds are beginning to encroach on what once was a productive               
space. Don't yield to the summer doldrums, lay in the sun, and                  
let the weeds take over.                                                        
                                                                                
 Weeds will increase your garden work by providing a home                       
from which insects and diseases can attack your vegetables as                   
well as being the source of a thousand more seeds and weeds.                    
They will gradually make their way to your still productive                     
garden space and reduce the harvest by competing for light,                     
water, and nutrients.                                                           
                                                                                
 These potential problems can be stopped before developing                      
by planting another crop in those empty spaces. These vegetables                
can be harvested at the end of the growing season, just before                  
the first fall frost. Some of the best quality produce comes                    
from the warm days and cool nights of the fall season. These                    
environmental conditions add sugar to sweet corn and crispness                  
to carrots.                                                                     
                                                                                
 Succession plantings of warm season crops (such as corn                        
and beans) can be harvested until the first killing frost. Cool                 
season crops such as kale, turnips, mustard, broccoli, cabbage,                 
and spinach grow well during the fall days and withstand light                  
frosts.                                                                         
                                                                                
 Timely planting is a key to a successful fall garden. To                       
determine the time to plant a particular vegetable for the latest               
harvest in your area, you need to know the average first date                   
of killing frost and the number of days to maturity for the                     
variety you are growing (found on most seed packets). By subtracting            
the number of days to maturity from the first date of killing                   
frost, you can determine the last date to plant. Since crop                     
maturity is slower in the cool temperature of fall and frost                    
could come early, it is wise to allow two additional weeks in                   
figuring a final planting date.                                                 
                                                                                
 Remember to restore fertility to the soil before planting                      
your fall crops by working in a light layer of compost or aged                  
manure or a small application of a complete chemical fertilizer.                
                                                                                
 Dry soil may present a problem with getting a uniform germi-                   
nation from seeds during midsummer. Plant your fall vegetables                  
when the soil is moist after a rain, or thoroughly water the                    
area before you plant. Cover your seeds about twice as deeply                   
as you did last spring.                                                         
                                                                                
 Young plants also need sufficient moisture. Irrigate when                      
necessary, and prevent weed growth by cultivation and mulching.                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
  Late Summer Care of Trees and Shrubs                                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
 Late summer care of trees and shrubs consists more of tasks                    
to be avoided than those that should be done.                                   
                                                                                
 Landscape plants should neither be pruned nor fertilized                       
from now until late fall. Both activities only stimulate a flush                
of growth that will not have time to mature or harden before                    
the first killing frosts. Such succulent, tender growth is easily               
killed and will leave the plant unattractive throughout the                     
winter.                                                                         
                                                                                
 In addition, heavy pruning in late summer is a devitalizing                    
process. It removes much of the plant's reserves, weakens it                    
and makes it more susceptible to winter injury.                                 
                                                                                
 Late summer pruning should be limited to minor corrective                      
pruning of damaged wood. Special attention should be given to                   
avoiding damage to trees and shrubs while maintaining the lawn. The             
tender bark of young plants can be damaged by the nylon threads                 
of various weed-cutting devices. While the damage may hardly                    
be noticeable, it can increase the susceptibility of the plants                 
to insects, disease and winter damage.                                          
                                                                                
 In a similar manner, even mature trees can be damaged and                      
severely weakened by lawn mowers. Perhaps the easiest way to                    
avoid these problems is to control weeds and lawn grass around                  
the base of landscape plants with ground covers such as vinca                   
or ivy, or by using mulch.                                                      
                                                                                
 If a mulch is used, remember that coarse mulches, such                         
as straw, hay or pine needles, may provide winter shelter for                   
mice that can tunnel to the base of the plant and chew the bark. To             
control this, keep the mulch back six inches from the trunk.                    
                                                                                
 Avoid damage from late summer construction projects. Digging                   
a trench for utility lines can be very damaging. If a mature                    
tree loses all roots on one side, it will be severely and probably              
fatally damaged. Unfortunately, it can take months or years                     
for damage to become visible and you may not realize what caused                
the problem.                                                                    
                                                                                
 There are several other construction activities that damage                    
landscape plants. Soil compaction is created by running heavy                   
vehicles in the area of plants. A change in grade can remove                    
soil and roots; or it may accumulate soil around the base of                    
plants and thereby starve the roots for air. Physical damage                    
from running into the plants with equipment is another problem.                 
                                                                                
 Perhaps the most important thing you can do to insure healthy                  
growth during late summer is maintain an adequate water supply. This            
is particularly true for plants that have suffered from construction            
or winter damage, or for those that have recently been trans-                   
planted. Water by soaking the ground slowly and deeply.                         
                                                                                
 However, in heavy clay soil, avoid overwatering. If a plant                    
looks wilted but it has rained or you've watered recently, check                
the soil before you drag out the hose. Water logged soil will                   
deprive the roots of air and lead to a wilted, weak plant.                      
                                                                                
 The hot, dry days of August can cause young plants to give                     
off water faster than the roots can take it up, resulting in                    
wilting. Where feasible, shading the new plants can help correct                
this problem until the roots can develop fully.                                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
   Saving Seeds                                                                 
                                                                                
 Dependable commercial seed growers are the best source                         
of seed for gardening.  They make a business of choosing proper                 
growing regions and knowing the techniques for providing disease-free           
uniform seed.                                                                   
                                                                                
 However, some home vegetable gardeners may want to save                        
the seeds from a variety that is not available commercially,                    
or to perpetuate a disease-resistant variety or one that is                     
well adapted to the locality. It is possible to save the seed                   
in some self-pollinated annuals, such as lettuce, beans, peas                   
and tomatoes. Saving seeds from cross-pollinated crops is not                   
generally recommended for the novice due to the problems with                   
selection, hand pollination, biennial habits and genetic variability.           
                                                                                
 To save seed for beans and peas, allow the seed pods to                        
turn brown on the plant.  Harvest the pods and air dry them                     
for one to two weeks.  Shell the pods and store the seeds in                    
a cool, dry environment in a paper bag.  A cool environment                     
is one that is below 50 degrees.                                                
                                                                                
 To save lettuce seed, cut the seed stalks when they appear                     
fluffy, just before all seeds are completely dried.  The seeds                  
will fall off the stalk and be lost if they are allowed to mature               
on the plant.  Dry the harvested seed stalk, shake the seeds                    
off and store in a cool, dry place.                                             
                                                                                
 To save tomato seeds, pick fruit from the desired plants                       
when it is ripe.  Cut open the fruit and squeeze the pulp into                  
a container.  Add a little water, then let seeds and pulp ferment               
two to four days at room temperature, stir occasionally.  When                  
the seeds settle, pour off the pulp and spread the seeds thinly                 
to dry thoroughly.  Store in a cool, dry place.                                 
                                                                                
 Seed saving exchange clubs are becoming popular with gardeners                 
who enjoy saving and trading seeds.  These exchange make heirloom               
and unusual varieties available to their members.                               
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
December 1985 Question Box                                                      
                                                                                
Flowering plants - Cyclamen, caleolaria, cineraria   37 lines                   
Apple trees from seed                                28 lines                   
Rhododendrons - Fall bloom                           26 lines                   
Why hollies fail to bear                             25 lines                   
Hoya - Inducing flowers                              19 lines                   
Creeping groundcovers                                31 lines                   
Amaryllis                                            17 lines                   
Staghorn fern                                        23 lines                   
Growing vegetables indoors                           48 lines                   
Turf damage by skunks                                25 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I would like a flowering plant for a cool room in my house. Any                 
suggestions?                                                                    
                                                                                
Cyclamen, calceolaria, and cineraria flowers offer a wide range                 
of color during the winter in a cool room. All of these plants                  
like night temperatures from 65 degrees F down to 50 degrees and                
plenty of light.                                                                
                                                                                
Although it is not related to violet, cyclamen is commonly called               
Swiss, Alpine or Persian violet. The flowers may be white with a                
red-violet or purple center or they may be pink, salmon, red, or                
lavender. The unusual flowers consist of oval petals, which are                 
swept back from the center. In some varieties, the petals are                   
fringed. Cyclamen requires frequent light waterings. Be sure that               
the water does not stand on the exposed cormlike structure for                  
this will cause it to rot. When flowering stops, allow the leaves               
to continue to grow until they yellow. Then let the soil dry out                
and once the ground has warmed bury the pot outdoors for the                    
summer. Be sure to bring cyclamen in before the first frost. Once               
indoors, water and feed to generate new growth.                                 
                                                                                
Pocket plant or slipperwort, some common names of calceolaria,                  
refer to it's pouch-shaped flowers. The flowers come in a range                 
of warm colors: yellow, orange, bronze, red, and rose. Some                     
flowers have splotches of one color on a background of another                  
color, such as bronze on yellow. Take care in watering calceo-                  
laria because water will spot the flowers.                                      
                                                                                
Cineraria's daisy-like flowers form a canopy over the foliage in                
a range of colors from white with a dark center to pink, scarlet,               
red, crimson, sky blue or purple. Both cinerarias and calce-                    
olarias benefit from "double potting" in which a small pot                      
is placed inside a larger one. The gap between the pots is filled               
with soil or sphagnum moss which is kept wet so that the inner                  
pot stays moist. Although they are perennials, cinerarias and                   
calceolarias will grow and bloom better if started anew each                    
year. Whether you chose one, two, or all three, purchase a plant                
in bloom so that you can see the color of the flowers.                          
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
Can I start apples from seeds?                                                  
                                                                                
The likelihood of growing a tree which bears quality fruit from a               
seed extracted from an apple is extremely slim as the varieties                 
of apples we enjoy eating result from genetic crossing or                       
selected mutations called sports. The seeds produced from these                 
cultivars do not produce trees or bear fruit which resemble their               
parents.                                                                        
                                                                                
The primary use of seed-grown apple trees is for root stocks for                
grafting known varieties of apples. However if you would like to                
experiment, now is a good time to begin the cold treatment                      
required for apple seeds to germinate in spring.                                
                                                                                
Stratification is the name given to cold storage of seeds to                    
enhance germination. In fact, some seeds will not germinate at                  
all until they receive cold temperatures for a specific amount                  
of time. Apple seeds must be held for 60 to 90 days at 35 to                    
45 degrees F in order for the seeds to germinate. Some nurseries                
plant seeds in the fall so that they naturally receive their                    
chilling requirement. If your soil is not frozen, plant seeds                   
outdoors in shallow (1/2 inch) depressions. In the spring, you                  
will need to break the soil crust over these seeds to allow the                 
seedlings to grow straight. Alternatively, you can stratify                     
seeds in the coldest part of your refrigerator until you are                    
ready for spring planting.                                                      
                                                                                
Apple seedlings that do not grow to a satisfactory  size in one                 
year should be removed. Trees grown from seeds tend to be quite                 
large. Plan accordingly in your landscape.                                      
                                                                                
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Why did my azaleas and rhododendrons bloom last month?  Will they               
bloom again in spring?                                                          
                                                                                
Extended dry periods like the one we experienced this summer will               
cause rhododendrons to go dormant. When the hurricanes affected                 
our weather last month, the deluge of rain caused the rhododen-                 
dron buds to break dormancy and bloom. The bloom last month                     
probably was not a full bloom; that is, the whole flower cluster                
did not open as it does in the spring. Unfortunately, buds that                 
did not open in those clusters will probably be killed this                     
winter because they may not be prepared for cold weather.                       
                                                                                
Because flower buds are initiated in early summer, those florets                
which opened this fall will not bloom again this spring. Thus                   
bloom was sparse this fall and will be sparse in the spring.                    
Unfortunately, there is nothing you can do to prevent this                      
since it is a weather-related problem.                                          
                                                                                
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I looked forward to decorating my home with boughs from my holly                
tree. But it has no berries on it. What could be wrong?                         
                                                                                
There are a number of reasons why hollies fail to produce                       
berries. Hollies are dioecious. That is, the plants have male and               
female flowers on different plants. The berries are produced only               
from the female flowers and it is necessary to have a male plant                
nearby to provide pollination. The female of most varieties will                
flower but will not set fruit if they are not pollinated.                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Bees are the principal pollinators of holly, thus these insects                 
must be present when the flowers open if an abundant crop of                    
berries is to be produced. If insecticides toxic to bees, such as               
those containing carbaryl, were used during flowering, bees in                  
the area may have been killed before pollination consequently no                
fruit set.                                                                      
                                                                                
Late freezes or frost may kill flower buds or flowers of holly                  
before they are pollinated. This often occurs in Chinese hollies                
since they are usually early flowering. The flower buds, which                  
develop late in the summer, may be killed by cold snaps in spring               
thus eliminating the possibility of a berry crop the next summer.               
                                                                                
Hollies occasionally shed their berries in extremely dry periods,               
especially in early summer. Also, about 8 years is required for                 
the plants to become old enough to produce berries.                             
                                                                                
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My neighbor gave me a Hoya cutting. Hers is blooming like mad                   
while mine has never produced a flower. How can I get mine to                   
bloom?                                                                          
                                                                                
Hoya carnosa, or wax plant, produces clusters of waxy-looking                   
pale pink or white flowers however it is rather picky in its                    
bloom requirements. First, the plants are slow to flower often                  
taking 3-4 years to do so. They will  bloom alittle sooner if                   
potbound. Second, they must also have full sun in order to bloom.               
Even if potbound, the hoya won't bloom if grown in shade.                       
                                                                                
Hoya requires fertilization spring through fall, but reduced food               
and water during the winter. The plant needs a winter rest in                   
order to bloom. Avoid high nitrogen fertilizer when the plant                   
should be forming flower buds in late winter. If your plant still               
won't bloom, try shocking it by changing the amount of light and                
water it receives or by slightly raising or lowering the tempera-               
ture, but don't let the plant get chilled. To keep hoya blooming,               
don't pinch off old flower spurs because new flowers grow out of                
these points.                                                                   
                                                                                
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I'm interested in a creeping vine for a naturalized area. I've                  
heard crownvetch described as the "miracle groundcover."  Would                 
this be a good choice?                                                          
                                                                                
Coronilla varia is a hardy perennial which produces a luxuriant                 
mat of foliage and bears pink flowers throughout much of the                    
season. It spreads rapidly by underground stems and may be too                  
vigorous for most gardens. In order to get rid of the plant,                    
all parts must be dug out and herbicides may have to be used. In                
fact, because of its extreme vigor, I would advise against its                  
intended use except in the most out of the way places.                          
                                                                                
While not strictly vines, the following are suggested under-                    
stories that offer flower interest. For sun to partial shade,                   
Hypericum calycinum, or Potentilla x Tonguei are good choices.                  
Hypericum is a semi-evergreen shrub that will grow 12 to 18" high               
with prostrate branches spreading 18 to 24". It is fast growing                 
and spreads from underground runners. Bright yellow flowers cover               
the plant from June to September. For a shorter plant, try                      
potentilla. It only reaches a height of 3" and has a spread of                  
18". Potentilla is covered with crimsoncentered yellow flowers                  
from June until frost. Both plants work well in informal areas.                 
                                                                                
For a shady location, it would be better to plant either Lamium                 
maculatum 'Beacon Silver' or Vinca minor, periwinkle. Lamium's                  
silvery leaves edged in green can brighten a dark spot. Small                   
clusters of pink flowers offer a secondary interest in the spring               
and may sporadically appear again in the fall. Vinca forms an                   
evergreen groundcover 3-6" high and roots along the stem. A                     
multitude of lilac-blue flowers open March through April or May                 
and will appear sporadically throughout the season.                             
                                                                                
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I have received a beautiful potted Amaryllis. I know these bulbs                
can be stored to use again next year. How do I do this?                         
                                                                                
After-bloom care is necessary for next season's flowers on                      
Amaryllis. In general, at least four strong leaves are needed for               
each flower stalk. As flowers fade remove the spent blooms                      
including the seed pod, but leave the stem to wither on its own.                
Locate the plant in a room which is 70 degrees F by day and 60                  
degrees F at night. Keep the bulb well-watered and fertilized                   
with a houseplant fertilizer, such as 5-10-10, weekly until early               
July. Then stop fertilizer application and taper off watering                   
gradually throughout the month. Once the foliage is dry, trim it                
off and store the pots in a dark location until next November                   
when they can be watered and forced into bloom for the holidays.                
                                                                                
Every two or three years, it is best to repot Amaryllis bulbs in                
fresh media and increase the pot size if necessary. If offsets                  
are present, you may pot them individually. Immature bulbs                      
generally require 2-3 years to reach blooming size.                             
                                                                                
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I've had a staghorn fern for several years. At first it grew                    
pretty well, but recently has begun to decline. What is wrong?                  
                                                                                
In the wild, staghorn ferns grow epiphytically, that is, living                 
on the surface of another plant, in the crotches of tree tops.                  
The ferns have two types of fronds: shield fronds and fertile                   
fronds. The shield or basal frond is sterile. It clasps the tree                
bark to anchor the fern and may form a cup in order to catch                    
debris, water, and nutrients. The fertile fronds are the most                   
visible and resemble deer antlers, thus the plants' name.                       
The staghorn fern may be grown in a pot or anchored on a wooden                 
slab like a hunting trophy. If grown in a pot, provide ample                    
humus and keep the cup formed by basal fronds moist. Immerse                    
roots for ten minutes in likewarm water once or twice a week                    
if plant is mounted on a slab of wood. Give staghorn ferns a                    
bright spot out of the sun with cool night temperatures.                        
                                                                                
If the green fronds continually die back, the fern is probably                  
receiving too much heat or hot drafts. If the green fronds dry                  
out and turn brown, the plant is either getting too much sun or                 
inconsistent watering. Be sure to deep water staghorn ferns, but                
allow to dry out slightly before next watering.                                 
                                                                                
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Is it possible to grow vegetables indoors during the winter? I do               
not have a greenhouse, but I am especially interested in tomatoes               
and other salad crops which have little flavor when bought at the               
grocery.                                                                        
                                                                                
A sunny south-facing window is almost a must for indoor vegetable               
growing. Fruiting vegetables such as tomatoes and peppers will                  
also need supplemental light, such as a combination  warm                       
white/cool white fluorescent fixture. Insufficient light will                   
result in tall, spindly plants and failure to flower and set                    
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
The small-fruited varieties of tomatoes such as Tiny Tim, Small                 
Fry and the paste tomato, Roma, may be raised quite satisfactori-               
ly in the home. They will challenge your gardening ability, and                 
supply fruits which can be eaten whole, cooked, or served with                  
salad. The Tiny Tim tomato grows to a height of about 12-15".                   
Small Fry, which is about three feet tall, and Roma will need                   
more space and should be located on a enclosed porch or in a sun                
room. Several new varieties have been developed for hanging                     
baskets. Check catalogs for greenhouse cultivars.                               
                                                                                
Some of the small-fruited peppers may be grown as house plants.                 
Like tomatoes, they prefer warm, bright conditions in order to                  
grow well. If temperatures are kept between 60 and 85 degrees F                 
and light is sufficient, tomatoes and peppers will be ready to                  
harvest about ten to twelve weeks after transplanting. Seed-grown               
plants will take an additional six to eight weeks to bear fruit.                
                                                                                
For a quick-growing crop, try radishes. These must be grown very                
rapidly if they are to be crisp and succulent. Scatter radish                   
seeds on moist soil in a six or eight-inch pot. Cover with 1/4                  
inch of soil and place a piece of glass or plastic wrap over the                
pot to conserve moisture until the seeds germinate. Thin to about               
1 and 1/2 inches apart after the first true leave appear.                       
                                                                                
Carrots are slower growing, but they can be grown in the same way               
as radishes. Use the small-rooted varieties, such as Little                     
Finger, for best results indoors.                                               
                                                                                
Experiment with various types of lettuce. Leaf lettuce and the                  
miniture Tom Thumb butterhead are some to try. Space them                       
according to package directions. Keep lettuce moist and in a very               
sunny spot.                                                                     
                                                                                
Lettuce, radishes and carrots can be grown where the temperature                
is below that needed for tomatoes and peppers. They will produce                
crops when kept above freezing, quite readily in warm locations                 
and more slowly when cool. Take care not to overwater plants when               
the temperature is low.                                                         
                                                                                
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Holes have been appearing in my yard. They are about three inches               
deep. The lawn company says it is not grubs. There are no mole                  
tunnels. What could this be?                                                    
                                                                                
The damage you describe sounds like the digging damage typically                
caused by skunks. Skunks dig cone-shaped holes 3-4" deep in the                 
ground searching for food. Some sod may be overturned in the                    
process especially where grubs have severed the grass blades                    
from the roots.                                                                 
                                                                                
Skunks do like to eat grubs which is one common reason they dig                 
in turf. However, skunks will eat other animal material which is                
high in protein and rich in calories. Some other insects in the                 
soil may have been their objective. Yellow jacket wasp larvae and               
other insects below the soil will attract them.                                 
                                                                                
The broad range of foods eaten by skunks is similar to that eaten               
by raccoons which occasionally dig at lawns. One way to find out                
which animal you are dealing with is to set several pieces of                   
cardboard covered with flour in areas where the lawn is most                    
disrupted. Animals travelling along the route will leave their                  
footprints. A book on animals tracks will let you to compare your               
visitor's tracks with common woodland animals. (Adapted from a                  
column by John K. Arbogast, Roanoke City Extension Agent)                       
November Question Box                                                           
                                                                                
Celery cabbage              16 lines                                            
Ornamental currant          36 lines                                            
Soil acidity                28 lines                                            
Hollow nuts                 40 lines                                            
Sweet gum                   64 lines                                            
Ming aralia                 18 lines                                            
Small aesculus species      36 lines                                            
Wild garden                 34 lines                                            
Spicebush                   30 lines                                            
Fig                         12 lines                                            
                                                                                
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                    
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
I noticed a strange vegetable that looked something like celery                 
in the supermarket. It was called celery cabbage. Can you tell me               
something about how to use and grow it?                                         
                                                                                
Celery cabbage is the most common name, but this green vegetable                
is also called bok-choy or pak-choi. It is a sweetly flavored,                  
lettuce-like vegetable with large crisp leaves. It is used fresh                
in salads, boiled as greens, sauteed, or wokfried.                              
                                                                                
Celery cabbage is in the Brassica family (related to broccoli                   
and cabbage) and requires cool weather during most of its growing               
season. It can be planted in early spring or grown as a fall                    
crop. It can be direct seeded, but in some areas transplants are                
available. Look for a seed source in a catalog which speci-                     
alizes in oriental vegetables. Most varieties mature in 70 to 80                
days.                                                                           
                                                                                
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In Europe I saw some attractive hedge plants called alpine                      
currants. I like currants somewhat, but I'm sure most of the                    
fruit will go to the birds which like them. Will these bushes                   
grow in Virginia?                                                               
                                                                                
In addition to the currants and gooseberries grown principally                  
for their edible fruit, there are several species that are purely               
ornamental. The mountain, or alpine, currant (Ribes alpinum) is a               
native of Europe, but it is grown in this country as well, mostly               
as a hedge plant and for attracting birds. Unlike garden cur-                   
rants, the male flowers and female flowers are on separate plants               
of alpine currants. Because only the female plants produce                      
fruits, some male plants nearby are necessary to insure fruiting.               
Most available cultivars are male clones which produce no fruit                 
but tend to be more rust resistant. Plants grow three to eight                  
feet tall and nearly as wide. They grow best in semishaded                      
locations and are hardy throughout Virginia.                                    
                                                                                
Another ornamental currant is the flowering, or winter, currant                 
(Ribes sanguineum). A native of western North America, it is an                 
attractive shrub, producing pink, red, or white flowers in the                  
spring (depending on the cultivar), and blue-black berries later                
in the season. Flowering currant is hardy only where winters                    
seldom get much below zero. They grow to a height of ten to                     
twelve feet.                                                                    
                                                                                
Be aware that currants are alternate hosts to the white pine                    
blister rust disease and their planting is restricted in many                   
areas of Virginia. In these counties, a permit must be obtained                 
from the Commissioner of Agriculture and Commerce in Richmond                   
before planting. No permit will be issued if the plants are to be               
within 1500' of sizable plantings of ornamental or commercial                   
white pine stands. At present, 33 counties are on the restricted                
list. Contact your extension agent for regulations concerning                   
growing currants in your area.                                                  
                                                                                
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How do I make soil more acid for azaleas and camellias?                         
                                                                                
A number of shrubs which are useful in the home landscape or                    
garden, grow best in an acid soil with a pH of 4.5 to 5.5. Some                 
of the plants which require this low pH are andromeda, azalea,                  
blueberry, camellia, laurel, and rhododendron.                                  
                                                                                
To lower the pH of a soil, first have your soil tested by your                  
extension service to determine its present pH level. If it is                   
higher than pH 5.5, you will need to apply flowers of sulfur or                 
aluminum sulfate to make it more acid. One pound of sulfur or 2                 
pounds of aluminum sulfate per 100 square feet lowers the pH                    
of loam soil about 1 pH value. Work the acidifying material into                
the top several inches of soil and water thoroughly.                            
                                                                                
Sandy soils need only half as much of the acidifying material as                
loam. Therefore, use 1/2 pound of sulfur or 1 pound of aluminum                 
sulfate per 100 square feet for a sandy soil to reduce the pH                   
level 1 pH value. Clay soils need approximately twice as much                   
sulfur or aluminum sulfate as loam to lower the pH. Therefore,                  
use 2 pounds of sulfur or 4 pounds of aluminum sufate per 100                   
square feet to make a clay soil 1 pH value lower (more acidic).                 
                                                                                
After 3 or 4 months, test the soil again for pH. You may need to                
apply more sulfur or aluminum sulfate to secure the desired pH                  
level. Since the procedure of lowering an area's pH takes some                  
time, consider beginning the process now so that your planting                  
bed will have the proper pH at spring planting time.                            
                                                                                
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What causes the nuts on my walnuts and pecans to have no meat                   
inside?                                                                         
                                                                                
Walnut, butternuts, pecans, and hazelnuts that have poorly                      
developed or shriveled and decayed fruit result mostly from                     
problems which began early in the season. At this time of the                   
year, it is difficult or impossible to determine the exact                      
cause, but consider the following suggestions:                                  
Symptom                               Possible Cause                            
1. Fruit absent                       Incomplete pollination due                
                                      to adverse weather during                 
                                      fruit set or lack of a                    
                                      pollinating variety                       
2. Fruit shriveled, but not decayed   Water deficit which could                 
                                      have been due to low soil                 
                                      moisture, crown gall or                   
                                      impaired root system                      
3. Fruit decayed                      a. Insect injury followed                 
                                         by invasion by decay                   
                                         organisms                              
                                         (this would have                       
                                         happpened when the nuts                
                                         were quite small and the               
                                         husk was soft)                         
                                                                                
                                      b. Anthracnose (a fungal                  
                                         disease)                               
                                      c. Bacterial blight                       
                                         (English walnuts are                   
                                         susceptible)                           
                                                                                
If the problem was discovered this fall, next year would be the                 
time to collect specimens. Inspect nuts throughout the growing                  
season for insect injury or disease. Submit specimens to your                   
extension service when symptoms are first noticed.                              
                                                                                
For trees in the home yard, sanitation measures are important.                  
Rake and destroy fallen tree litter before spring arrives.                      
Provide fertilizer in the spring and, where practical, water                    
during dry periods. Water is particularly important for nut                     
development. Consult your extension agent for chemical control of               
insects and fungi if necessary.                                                 
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
This autumn I noticed a tree with 5-pointed, nearly star-shaped                 
leaves which had such beautiful fall color, reds and scarlet. It                
reminded me somewhat of a maple tree, but it is not one that I                  
know. Can you identify this tree?                                               
                                                                                
The sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is one of the most                      
beautiful trees in its fall color. Its leaves turn from a bright,               
shiny green to a gorgeous crimson in autumn. With five to seven                 
lobes and serrated edges, the 5- to 6-inch wide, star-shaped                    
leaves are quite like those of maples. However, sweet gum leaves                
are born on the stems alternately instead of opposite one                       
another, as are maple leaves.                                                   
                                                                                
The fruit of the sweet gum is another distinctive feature of the                
tree. Prickly globes about 1 inch in diameter turn from green to                
brown in the fall. These fruit can be quite a nuisance in areas                 
where people walk, but they are highly sought after as an                       
ingredient in pine cone and seed wreaths and other seasonal                     
arrangements and decorations.                                                   
                                                                                
The bark on older sweet gum trees is deeply furrowed. The twigs                 
of the sweet gum are covered with corky bark that forms wing-like               
ridges similar to those on winged euonymous. The overall shape of               
the tree is pyramidal making it an excellent lawn tree.                         
                                                                                
The roots are fleshy, consequently the tree tends to be somewhat                
difficult to transplant in large sizes. (Transplant sweet gums no               
larger than 1-1/2 to 2 inches in trunk diameter.) Sweet gums tend               
to prefer a moist, slightly acidic, planting site with full sun.                
Avoid using this tree in areas where air pollution is a problem                 
or where the root system will be restricted.                                    
                                                                                
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I have a large ming aralia whose lower branches break off at the                
joints. A new shoot develops and grows in place of the lost one.                
Can you diagnose the problem?                                                   
                                                                                
Ming aralia (Polyscias fruticosa) drops leaves and branches when                
moved to a new environment, or when subjected to drafts. It is                  
also possible that you are feeding the aralia with a high                       
nitrogen product, which produces soft vegetative growth which is                
more prone to mechanical, insect, or disease related injury.                    
A liquid 5-10-10 fertilizer diluted according to label instruc-                 
tions should be applied once a month during the active growing                  
season (Mar. through Oct.) if the ming aralia is grown in a sunny               
location. Fertilization should be less if the plant is being                    
grown in light below 200 ft. candles and should be suspended                    
(Nov. through Oct.) while the plant is dormant. Provide ming                    
aralias with bright light, relative humidity of 50 percent, or                  
higher, and winter temperatures not over 70 degrees F. Water                    
thoroughly once a week when the plant is growing actively,                      
and a little less during dormancy, for a healthier plant.                       
                                                                                
 ----------------                                                               
                                                                                
Do you know of any buckeye (horse chestnut) varieties suitable                  
for a smaller home landscape? I remember these trees fondly from                
my youth, but I remember them as being huge. I would gladly plant               
one or two near my new home if I found one suitable for a                       
suburban-sized yard.                                                            
                                                                                
The Ohio buckeye, Aesculus glabra, grows to be 35-45' in height;                
the yellow buckeye, A. octandra reaches 60-75'; while the common                
horsechestnut, A. hippocastanum is 55-60' in height. Since these                
species are large trees with coarse texture, they are best suited               
to large areas such as parks and arboretums. In addition, the                   
fruit with its prickly husks, and the large leaves create                       
maintenance problems and increase fall cleanup in lawn areas.                   
Another reason few horticulturists recommend certain Aesculus is                
their tendency to develop leaf scorch by mid-summer leading to                  
early defoliation. In addition, the trees are susceptible to                    
pest problems such as powdery mildew.                                           
                                                                                
If you still want to try an Aesculus on your property, the                      
cultivars of Aesculus x carnea are smaller trees with red blooms                
and fewer leaf scorch problems, thus more suitable for specimen                 
and residential use. A. x carnea, also called red horsechestnut,                
is popular in Europe as a landscape tree in the 30-40' range.                   
Red buckeye, A. pavia, and bottlebrush buckeye, A. parviflora,                  
are smaller plants even more suited to small properties. Both                   
grow as clump-forming, multi-stemmed shrubs or small trees (under               
20') with flowering interest.                                                   
                                                                                
I advise you to locate these trees and shrubs on the edge of your               
property to minimize your maintenance duties; but be careful not                
to allow the mature canopy to overlap your neighbors' lawn and                  
create extra work for them. Perhaps an even better use for                      
Aesculus species would be in a wild or natural setting where                    
cleanup could be eliminated altogether. Moist, deep, well-drained               
soil in full sun to partial shade satisfies most species.                       
                                                                                
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I am planning a natural or 'wild' garden. I would like to know                  
where to get some plants without disturbing wild habitats.                      
                                                                                
The best source of native plants for a naturalistic garden is a                 
seedsman or nursery which specializes in such species. Plants                   
should not be collected from the wild. Unless the transplanting                 
is done with extreme care, collected plants are likely to die.                  
Wild plants should be left in their native location for all                     
to enjoy.                                                                       
                                                                                
Select species which are suitable for the soil conditions and                   
exposure of your garden. Do some research to find out whether the               
plants or seeds you desire are adapted to sun or shade, or for                  
moist or dry soils. Your must select species which are adapted to               
your particular garden, or adapt your growing area to fit                       
the plants' needs.                                                              
                                                                                
In caring for a wild garden, attempt to duplicate the conditions                
to which the plants were adapted in their native location. Only                 
moderate amounts of fertilizer are needed. A mulch of pine                      
needles, shredded leaves, peat moss, or similar organic material                
will be beneficial. For best results, pick a site with an                       
irregular terrain and the partial shade of established shrubs and               
trees.                                                                          
                                                                                
Be conservative in the use of wild flowers and native plants. If                
you are offered plants from a friend, gather only the small                     
quantity needed for a special purpose. Handle them carefully to                 
prevent wilting and damage, and get them replanted as soon as                   
possible.                                                                       
                                                                                
Occasionally, attractive wild plants are growing on construction                
sites. If you can get the landowner's permission allowing you to                
remove the plants, you may be able to save a plant with an                      
uncertain fate.                                                                 
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
I recently found a shrub in the undergrowth of a wooded area                    
which has a spicy aroma to its twigs. A friend calls it "wild                   
forsythia". What can you tell me about this bush? Is it ever                    
cultivated?                                                                     
                                                                                
Spicebush, sometimes called "forsythia of the wilds", technical-                
ly, is Lindera benzion. The shrub which grows from 6-12 feet in                 
height, when not crowded by other plants, is valuable as an                     
ornamental. In the early spring, the limbs are covered with tiny                
yellow blossoms (hence the name wild forsythia). In the fall,                   
the leaves turn a brilliant yellow especially when grown in full                
sun.                                                                            
                                                                                
The sweet fragrance of the leaves and the bark helps to identify                
the shrub. Smooth, deep green leaves produce a sweet, lemony                    
fragrance when crushed. The twigs and bark bear an especially                   
spicy scent, as do the red berries that are produced in fall. All               
plant parts have been used in potpourri.                                        
                                                                                
Spicebush can be difficult to transplant from the wild because of               
its coarse fibrous roots. Transplanted shrubs are slow to                       
re-establish themselves. If you wish to put one in your land-                   
scape, obtain a container grown nursery plant. Plant it in moist,               
well-drained soil where it will receive sun at least part of the                
day. In sunny spots, it will become a dense shrub with spring and               
fall interest.                                                                  
                                                                                
A taller Oriental species of Lindera can occasionally be found in               
garden centers. Japanese spicebush (L. obtusiloba) can be trained               
as a shrub or small tree (up to 20'). In fall, its deep yellow                  
leaves and shiny red fruits make it a desired ornamental.                       
                                                                                
 -----------                                                                    
                                                                                
Is possible to grow figs in Virginia?                                           
                                                                                
Fig production in Virginia is limited mainly to the warm coastal                
areas.  The plants are easily injured by cold and cannot be grown               
successfully without protection where winter temperatures                       
frequently drop below 20 F. Figs require a minimum of care and                  
are included in home plantings in the Tidewater area. Two                       
varieties of figs are recommended for planting in Virginia,                     
Celeste and Brown Turkey. Both are good for eating fresh when                   
fully ripe, and are excellent for preserving. A fair crop of                    
fruit may be expected the second year after planting. A single                  
plant will usually produce enough fruit for an entire family.                   
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, Extension                       
Technician Horticulture, working with Diane Relf, Home Horticul-                
ture Extension Specialist. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has               
been developed for agent use in preparing the radio and newspaper               
features and is a monthly section of HortFacts.                                 
                                                                                
I already have apple trees growing on my land.  I would like to                 
try pears if they are no more work.  Are they?                                  
                                                                                
Pears are fine trees for home fruit planting.  One good feature                 
of pears is that they are not commonly damaged by insects and                   
diseases.  They can be grown quite easily with the same spray                   
program used on apples.                                                         
                                                                                
Fire blight, a bacterial disease, is the one serious problem of                 
pears in the Eastern states.  It is very destructive on suscepti-               
ble varieties, but many varieties available are quite resistant                 
to fire blight.  Select from Moonglow, Magness, Orient, Seckel or               
Keiffer.                                                                        
                                                                                
Pears are long lived and hardy.  Dwarf trees will begin to bear                 
in two or three years, and the standard sizes in five to seven                  
years.  Dwarf pears grow well along a fence or wire trellis like                
grapes.  The dwarf or standard trees are excellent for training                 
as espalier trees against the side of a house or garage.                        
                                                                                
Fall is an ideal season for planting pears.  The best time is                   
about a month after the average date of the first frost in your                 
area.  Like many other types of fruit, pears are mostly self-unf-               
ruitful.  Plant two or more different varieties to provide                      
cross pollination for good fruit set.                                           
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
With all the rain we've been getting, some of my shrubs are                     
beginning to sprout and the dogwoods look like they're ready to                 
bloom.  I know if a cold spell hits these plants are in trouble.                
Should I wrap them in burlap or something?                                      
                                                                                
Under normal conditions, the active growth of most shrubs ends                  
during September.  In October and November when cold and freezing               
weather occurs, they move into their dormant condition.  During a               
warm and rainy fall, shrubs may be stimulated into renewed growth               
in late September and October instead of becoming dormant.  When                
exposed to a quick and severe drop in temperature tender new                    
shoots and buds may be seriously damaged.  But if cold weather                  
occurs gradually, shrubs develop a satisfactory degree of                       
dormancy and survive the winter well.                                           
                                                                                
In some cases renewed growth is accompanied by flowering which                  
should not have occured until next spring.  If the buds merely                  
swell up but do not open, they may return to a dormant condition                
and bloom next year.  The flowers which open this fall will, of                 
course, not bloom again next spring.  Most of the flower buds on                
your trees will not open in the fall. You should have a good                    
number left for next season if they escape damage by cold this                  
winter.                                                                         
                                                                                
You may wrap your shrubs in burlap to give them some protection.                
This may reduce damage by desiccation, but will probably offer                  
very slight protection from severe cold temperatures.  Broad-leaf               
evergreens benefit most from this practice; needle bearing                      
species should fare well without protection.                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
My bunches of grapes never sweeten up in storage.  I am careful                 
to pick the fruit before frost but I am not pleased with the                    
flavor.  What can I do?                                                         
                                                                                
Grapes are different from most fruits because they do not mature                
and improve in quality after harvest.  They must develop all of                 
their sugar and fine flavor while still on the vine.  Color is a                
poor index of maturity in bunch grapes.  Many varieties change                  
color long before they are fully ripe, and practically all                      
varieties become sweeter and less acid as they mature.                          
                                                                                
For table grapes, maturity is usually determined by taste or by                 
the color of the seeds, which changes from green to brown.                      
Truly, the best way to determine when they are fully ripe is to                 
pick a few berries and taste them for sweetness.                                
                                                                                
Although the highest quality fruit may be obtained by harvesting                
fully ripened clusters, it is sometimes necessary to harvest the                
crop before the fruit is fully mature to prevent loss.  Where the               
growing season is short, a freeze or frost may damage the crop.                 
You are correct in harvesting before the cold damages the fruit,                
but the flavor of these grapes will never be quite as good.                     
                                                                                
 -----------------                                                              
                                                                                
Our budget does not allow us to buy trees from a garden center. -               
Can we move some trees from our woods into the yard?                            
                                                                                
Many native trees can be used for landscaping if care is taken in               
transplanting them. Most plants that are dug from the wild are                  
best transplanted in early spring before growth starts. This                    
requires that they be identified in a dormant condition. People                 
who can identify the plants only when they are in leaf or flower                
should mark plants during the growing season and move plants the                
following spring.                                                               
                                                                                
It is usually better to move small plants, because, despite                     
careful digging, only a small percentage of the roots will remain               
unharmed.  Trees that develop a tap root such as oaks and nut                   
trees, are particularly difficult to transplant and should                      
only be moved as very young plants.   Be sure to bring a large                  
root                                                                            
ball with the tree.                                                             
                                                                                
Despite the fact that the trees are native, some require careful                
site selection. Try to duplicate, as closely as possible, their                 
natural growing environments.                                                   
                                                                                
Unless small trees are transplanted, they will require extensive                
top pruning, too. First, the lower branches that interfere with                 
mowing can be removed. Next, branches that come out at very                     
narrow angles should be eliminated. Attention should be given to                
the spacing of branches and symmetry. Thinning of the twigs on                  
the trunk and larger branches will help compensate for the loss                 
of roots. The practice of removing the tops of trees should be                  
avoided.                                                                        
                                                                                
Young trees should be watered through the first and second                      
growing seasons. Pests and weeds must be controlled.  Wrap the                  
trunk with burlap, kraft paper or vinyl tree guards for the                     
winter to prevent sunscald and provide rodent protection.                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Why do I get conflicting advice from different so-called "garden                
experts"?  Even things I read often contradict one another.                     
                                                                                
Most horticulturists are quite sincere when they offer advice on                
growing different plants. Usually these cultural methods are                    
based on their own experience. Sometimes even expert gardeners                  
forget that conditions can vary considerably from one garden                    
to another. Some soils are heavy; others are sandy. Light,                      
moisture content and pH may vary between locations. The growing                 
environment can change quite radically from garden to garden even               
in the same neighborhood.                                                       
                                                                                
Temper what you read and hear before you go "all out" in your own               
garden. Ask your local extension agent for his/her advice. But                  
remember, you may need to do a little experimenting in your                     
specific growing environment to be successful with your planting-               
s.                                                                              
                                                                                
 --------------------                                                           
                                                                                
Grass does not grow well under my shade trees. What can I try                   
instead?                                                                        
                                                                                
It is generally best to avoid setting plants too close to trees                 
with roots near the soil surface, such as most maples. Few plants               
can successfully compete with such trees for the moisture and                   
nutrients they must have. If you wish to eliminate the grass and                
try a gound cover under the tree, a shade tolerant, trailing vine               
would be a good choice. The plants can be set some distance away                
from the tree trunk and in time the vines will cover most of the                
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
Periwinkle (Vinca minor), Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus                      
quinquefolia), Boston Ivy (P. tricuspidata), Japanese spurge                    
(Pachysandra terminalis),and Carpet bugle (Ajuga reptans) could                 
adapt to the site. Prepare the soil by adding a layer of organic                
matter (such as leafmold or peat moss) and incorporating a                      
granular fertilizer. To keep the plants healthy, be prepared to                 
fertilize several times each year.                                              
                                                                                
 --------------------                                                           
                                                                                
When I lived in Tennessee, several mountain stewartia grew in our               
yard.  They are such beautiful trees, especially in the fall.                   
Will they grow here?                                                            
                                                                                
Mountain stewartia (Stewartia ovata) is a native plant from                     
Tennessee to Florida, but it will do well in Virginia.  It is a                 
very fine specimen tree which is attractive in all seasons.  The                
simple leaves (2 - 5" long) are dark green in the summer and                    
beautiful orange or red in the fall.  Even after leaf drop, the                 
trees retain their ornamental appeal.  The bark, which is deep                  
brown, flakes off revealing light green patches.                                
                                                                                
Mountain stewartia may be grown as a large shrub or small tree.                 
At maturity it will stand between 10 and 15' high, but it will                  
remain bushy with spreading branches.  In summer you will see 4"                
white flowers with purple stamens which form small seed capsules                
in the autumn.                                                                  
                                                                                
Though a lovely landscape plants, stewartias have not been                      
popular in the nursery trade because they are difficult to                      
transplant.  Relocating these trees must be done when the tree is               
small (under 5' tall) in the early spring.  Moist acid soil                     
(pH 4.5 to 5.5) is necessary.  Use plenty of leaf mold or peat                  
moss in the planting hole.  Mountain stewartia would fit in well                
near blueberries, rhododendrons, and other ericaceous plants.                   
                                                                                
Mountain stewartia likes sun, but it does best if it is shaded                  
during the hottest part of the day.  These trees require little                 
maintenance and are practically free of pests.  Two other                       
cultivated stewartias may be more easily found in nurseries:                    
Korean stewartia (Stewartia koreana), a hardy, pyramidal shaped                 
tree, and Japanese stewartia (Stewartia pseudo - camellia), which               
can grow to 60'.  The Japanese stewartia has smaller flowers and                
beautiful, red flaking bark.                                                    
                                                                                
________________________                                                        
                                                                                
Some of my onions are rotting in storage.  What can I do?                       
                                                                                
To have onions that keep well, you must plant one of the brown                  
storage-type varieties such as Ebenezer, Stuttgarter, or Yellow                 
Globe Danvers.  The Bermuda and White types will not keep as well               
as these brown varieties.                                                       
                                                                                
To have your brown onions keep during the fall and winter, they                 
must be harvested at the right stage of maturity and stored                     
properly.  Onions should be harvested when about two-thirds of                  
the tops have fallen over.  Unfortunately, in many parts of                     
Virginia this was a very rainy period, and many onions were                     
harvested in very moist conditions or later than they should have               
been.                                                                           
                                                                                
Careful handling to avoid bruising helps control storage rots.                  
In dry weather, onions may be pulled and left in the field for                  
several days to dry.  Then cure in a well ventilated attic or                   
porch for one to two weeks out of direct sun.  Tops may be                      
left on or cut off; but, leave at least one inch of the top when                
storing.  Thorough curing will increase storage life.                           
                                                                                
Store in shallow, slatted trays not over 2 or 3 onions deep in a                
cool, dark, dry basement room.  Ideal storage conditions are                    
temperature at 32 degrees F and relative humidity of 65-70%.                    
Sort your onions every week or 10 days, and discard any that                    
become soft or start to rot.  The important thing is for the                    
onions to stay dry in a cool, dark place.  Under such conditions                
your onions should keep until midwinter or later.                               
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
Rabbits nibble on my fruit trees during the winter.  What do you                
recommend to prevent their damage?                                              
                                                                                
Rabbits are responsible for the loss of thousands of young fruit                
trees each year.  Perhaps the most satisfactory method of                       
preventing rabbit damage is the use of a mechanical guard.                      
                                                                                
Galvanized screen or "hardware cloth" with a 1/4" mesh is                       
frequently used.  A roll 36" wide may be cut lengthwise forming                 
two 18" strips.  By cutting these strips into pieces 14" long,                  
guards 14 by 18" are obtained.                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Roll or bend the strip around the trunk of the tree so that the                 
long side is up and down the trunk and the edges overlap.  Twist                
a small wire loosely about the center to prevent the strip from                 
unrolling.  Push the lower edges well into the ground.  This                    
metal guard will last indefinitely and can be left in place all                 
year.                                                                           
                                                                                
Other methods of rabbit control have been successful.  Ordinary                 
whitewash has given good results in some instances.  A repellent                
wash recommended by the USDA, containing equal parts of fish oil,               
concentrated lime sulfur, and water is used by some commercial                  
growers.  Also, rabbit repellents under various trade names are                 
available.  All these materials may be applied with a paint brush               
to the trunk of the tree from the ground up into the scaffold                   
limbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
I am considering planting a windbreak of those quick-growing,                   
hybrid poplars.  What can you tell me about these trees?  How                   
fast will they grow, and how wide do they get?                                  
                                                                                
Extensive advertising campaigns have been used to promote sales                 
of hybrid poplars.  Their primary use is for a quick growing                    
timber tree, but they may be used in the home landscape on a                    
limited basis.                                                                  
                                                                                
In your situation, you could use hybrid poplars if the windbreak                
is located away from buildings and valuable landscape plants.                   
The trees tend to be weak wooded.  Falling branches could injure                
other property.                                                                 
                                                                                
Hybrid poplars are not considered a long-lived tree.  Few live to               
be over 40 years old.  An ideal landscape use of these trees                    
would be to plant them as a nurse windbreak.  That is, plant                    
several rows of poplars first, then plant several rows of more                  
desirable windbreak species a few years later.  The poplars will                
protect the more valuable trees from wind as they become establi-               
shed.  When the other trees reach sufficient height and the                     
poplars begin to lose vigor, remove the poplars.                                
                                                                                
Hybrid poplars will grow from 45 to 60 feet tall if given plenty                
of growing room.  In the forest or as a hedge where they are                    
planted close, they can reach 80 to 90 feet in height.  Trees can               
grow up to 10' per year in optimal conditions.  Varieties                       
developed for shade trees can spread to 30-35' in diameter.                     
Screening cultivars will grow about 10' wide.  To attain maximum                
growth, the trees need to be watered, fertilized, and kept free                 
from grass and weed competition.  Use mulch and cultivation                     
equipment to keep the trunks free from weeds.  Do not use                       
herbicides as they can injure the trees.                                        
                                                                                
Rooted cuttings or small trees adapt best when spring planted.                  
They prefer a site with partial to full sun and well-drained                    
soil.                                                                           
                                                                                
Hybrid poplars are prone to winter injury.  In young trees, the                 
entire above ground portion can die back.  Fortunately, poplars                 
have a natural tendency to sprout from the roots and the tree may               
not be lost entirely.  Where there is shallow topsoil and hard                  
compacted subsoil, sprouts may appear yearly.  Prune back sprouts               
each fall.                                                                      
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                    
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
 -----------------------                                                        
                                                                                
Can I dig up my chives and parsley and grow them indoors in                     
winter, or do I need to start from seed?                                        
                                                                                
To provide chives and parsley for winter use you may transplant a               
few clumps into five or six inch pots and grow them on a sunny                  
window sill. Use a light potting soil such as you would use for                 
your flowering house plants. Water at weekly intervals with a                   
soluble house plant fertilizer to promote vigorous growth.                      
                                                                                
Since chive bulbs multiply rapidly, clumps need to be divided                   
every two or three years to prevent excessive crowding. Dividing                
your plants now will benefit them and provide you with winter                   
herbs.                                                                          
                                                                                
Parsley is a biennial which ordinarily produces leaves during the               
first season, followed by flowers and seeds the second year. If                 
you pot up some of your plants this fall, they will continue to                 
produce leaves during the winter. They will not produce flower                  
stalks because they must go through a cold dormant period to                    
cause young flowers to be formed in the crown of the plant.                     
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
Could you suggest some nut trees which will shade my yard as well               
as produce a crop in Virginia?                                                  
                                                                                
Pecans are suitable for home planting if you select varieties                   
which are adapted for your locality. Paper-shell pecans such as                 
Stuart and Desirable may be grown in southeastern Virginia. These               
require a long growing season to allow the kernel to attain plump               
size and fill the nut. The hardy northern pecans are divided into               
two groups: 1) Colby and Posey, 2) Major Giles and Perugue. These               
varieties are somewhat smaller than the southern types, but will                
produce edible nuts during the shorter growing season of the                    
Piedmont and Mountain areas. At least one from each group should                
be planted to insure cross-pollination.                                         
                                                                                
Walnuts can also be grown in Virginia if you select the hardy                   
Carpathian or Persian types. These are similar to the commercial                
types of English walnuts which are grown in California, but are                 
more tolerant of cold climatic conditions. Colby, Hansen, Helmle                
and McKinster are suggested varieties.                                          
                                                                                
Chinese Chestnuts are resistant to the blight which killed the                  
American species many years ago. Although the nuts are not                      
identical to those from native trees, they are an acceptable                    
substitute if you like chestnuts. Choose from the varieties                     
Orrin, Crane, Nanking, Abundance and Meiling. However, be aware                 
that the flowers can have a very unpleasant odor.                               
                                                                                
To ensure pollination and fruit set, plant two or more varieties                
of each type of nut. Select a deep, well-drained site to promote                
vigorous growth and long life. The best time to plant is about a                
month after the first killing frost, once the leaves have fallen                
from the trees. Apply a two-inch mulch of sawdust, peat moss, or                
other organic material around the trunk to conserve soil moisture               
and help reduce weed competition to the newly planted trees.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
We have a hillside which I would like to make into a rock garden.               
Many rocks are already exposed. Please give me some pointers.                   
                                                                                
A rocky hillside or ledge may be made into a rock garden with a                 
minimum of work. For the best effect, at least half of the                      
surface should be made up of exposed rocks. If more rocks are                   
needed than are already present, use weathered native stone.                    
Place the rocks in a natural position with the strata in the same               
plane as existing material. The rocks you use should be large and               
well imbedded in the soil.                                                      
                                                                                
Plan your rock garden for easy maintenance. Place some large,                   
relatively flat stones throughout the garden on which you can                   
walk and stand to weed and set out new plants.                                  
                                                                                
Good soil drainage is essential in rock gardens. Most suitable                  
plants need adequate moisture, but they cannot tolerate poor                    
drainage and wet feet. Provide an adequate depth of good soil for               
your plants in the pockets between the rocks. If the soil is                    
poor, add leaf mold, or shredded peat moss and some dried manure.               
                                                                                
Autumn is a good time to set out bulbs and perennials in rock                   
gardens. Your planting should be completed by about the time of                 
the average first frost date to allow the plants or bulbs to send               
out new roots and become established before the ground freezes.                 
Apply water as needed during the fall and early winter to keep                  
the soil moist. Use a mulch of straw, shredded leaves or similar                
material to provide winter protection and conserve soil moisture.               
                                                                                
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
Our lawn has many shade trees and I have been saving the leaves                 
through the winter to mulch my gardens for many years. Storage                  
space is at a premium now that we have a boat. Would compost work               
as well as a mulch, and what is the best way to compost leaves?                 
                                                                                
Although you will derive greater benefits by using leaves as a                  
mulch, composting them will reduce their volume to a manageable                 
level. Compost is excellent material to improve the soil in the                 
flower or vegetable garden, but it does not act as effective-                   
ly in weed control as leaves. And, of course, it does involve the               
additional work of building a compost pile.                                     
                                                                                
To make compost, assemble your leaves, lawn clippings and other                 
plant material in a six to eight inch layer. Apply one cup of                   
ground limestone, and one cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer per square                 
yard of organic litter, and cover with about one-half inch of                   
soil. Make as many layers as necessary to utilize the leaves you                
have available. Leave the pile concave on top to collect rain to                
supply the necessary moisture. During dry spells, water the pile                
to keep the contents moist.                                                     
                                                                                
Decomposition will proceed very slowly during the winter but will               
be quite rapid next spring. Turning the pile over once a month                  
will speed the process. Compost made this way should be ready to                
use by midsummer next year. Shredding the leaves with a commer-                 
cial shredder or lawn mower before building the compost pile will               
lessen the time required to break-down the leaves. The composting               
would be complete in several months and be ready for spring use.                
                                                                                
 -----------------------                                                        
                                                                                
I have peanuts growing in my garden. I have never grown them                    
before. When are they ready to dig and eat?                                     
                                                                                
The peanut crop should be harvested about 60 days after flowering               
when the plants turn yellow, or are killed by frost. When ready                 
to harvest, the inside of the shell should be brown and the                     
seedcoat will be light pink, unwrinkled, and very thin. The                     
inside of the pods will begin to develop dark-colored veins. If                 
harvested early, the seed will not have developed their maximum                 
size in the pod. Over-mature pods will break off the vine during                
the digging operation.                                                          
                                                                                
Lift the plants carefully with a garden fork and shake off the                  
loose soil. Cure the peanuts on the vine, or pulled off in trays,               
in a warm, airy place. About 4 to 8 weeks will be needed to dry                 
the nuts before roasting, depending on the temperature and                      
relative humidity of the air.                                                   
                                                                                
Roast unshelled or shelled peanuts on a cookie sheet for about 30               
minutes in an oven preheated to 300 degrees F. Stir frequently to               
avoid scorching. The nuts should be poured out of the hot pan as                
soon as they are removed from the oven. It is better to roast                   
peanuts for too short a time than to have them overcooked. When                 
properly roasted, the skin slips easily and the kernel is light                 
brown.                                                                          
                                                                                
Shelled, roasted peanuts should be stored in tight containers in                
a refrigerator. For long storage, place them in a freezer at 0                  
degrees F or lower.                                                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Should I cut off the fronds of my asparagus?  If so, when?                      
                                                                                
After harvest is over, asparagus spears should be allowed to                    
grow. Asparagus has an attractive, fern-like foliage that makes a               
nice garden border. Some gardeners prefer to support the growing                
foliage with stakes and strings to keep them tidy. In high-wind                 
areas, it is a good idea to plant the rows parallel to the                      
prevailing winds so that the plants support each other to some                  
extent.                                                                         
                                                                                
In all asparagus plantings, cut the foliage down to 2" stubs                    
after frost, when the foliage yellows, but before the red berries               
fall off. A 4-6" mulch of compost, manure, leaves or other                      
material added at this time will help control weeds and add                     
organic matter and nutrients.                                                   
_______________________                                                         
                                                                                
How and when should I plant hyacinths?  Are they perennials?  Are               
they hardy?                                                                     
                                                                                
Hyacinths grow from bulbs which must be planted in the fall. They               
are easy to plant and require very little maintenance. They are                 
hardy perennials, and will continue to bloom for several years,                 
although the quality of the flower decreases each year in many                  
areas. Plant hyacinth bulbs when the soil temperature has fallen                
to 60 degrees F. In northern climates that generally occurs from                
late September to early November. In the South, the bulbs can be                
planted through December.                                                       
                                                                                
Hyacinths prefer partial shade. Avoid planting them in areas                    
which receive direct midday sun. Good drainage is essential.                    
Break up and loosen the soil to a depth of 10 inches. If the soil               
is mostly clay, mix in an organic material such as peat moss or                 
compost in amounts up to 50 percent in volume.                                  
Plant hyacinths, tulips and other large bulbs 8 inches deep (from               
ground level to the base of the bulb). Space them 6 inches apart.               
Once the bulbs are in position, cover them with about 3 to 4                    
inches of soil and water the area. Add  the remaining soil and                  
water again.                                                                    
                                                                                
Fertilization improves bulb performance and encourages longevity.               
Two fertilizing methods are recommended. One utilizes a sulfur                  
coated, slow release complete fertilizer incorporated into the                  
rooting area at the rate of one rounded tablespoon per square                   
foot. A single application will nourish the bulbs throughout the                
fall, winter and spring. The other method is an application of                  
8-8-8 (one level tablespoon) or 10-10-10 (one rounded teaspoon)                 
fertilizer per square foot in the fall. Apply again in the spring               
when the first shoots break through the ground.                                 
                                                                                
Many gardeners prefer to use bone meal as a slow release source                 
of phosphorus for their bulbs. This works very well used at the                 
rate of one teaspoon incorporated into the planting hole of each                
bulb.                                                                           
After planting, cover the area with a 3-inch layer of organic                   
mulch. Keep the soil moist, particularly during dry spells.                     
                                                                                
Avoid the temptation to plant hyacinths in stiff rows and stark                 
geometric patterns.                                                             
They look best when nestled among shrubbery or interplanted in                  
clumps with other bulb flowers. Since they grow about 10 inches                 
tall, they are especially effective in combination with daffodils               
and tulips. If hyacinths are to be used in borders, plant them                  
two or three rows deep, rather than in a single row. Mix and                    
match colors for maximum effect.                                                
                                                                                
 -------------------------                                                      
                                                                                
What should I do with empty pesticide containers?                               
                                                                                
Dispose of empty pesticide containers in the manner specified on                
their labels. Generally the recommendation is either to burn the                
container, or throw it away with trash destined for a sanitary                  
landfill.                                                                       
                                                                                
Some states have special chemical dumps for pesticides; however,                
Virginia does not have such dump sites.                                         
                                                                                
Containers designed to hold liquids should be rinsed with a small               
quantity of water. The rinse water should be poured into a spray                
tank and used.                                                                  
                                                                                
Containers designed to hold dry formulations should be burned,                  
one at a time, in a location where the smoke can not reach                      
desirable plants, people and animals. In many cases this may be                 
impossible. If so, containers should be thrown away following the               
EPA procedures below for bags of chemicals. Never burn aerosol                  
cans; they can explode.                                                         
                                                                                
The EPA suggested procedures for homeowners to dispose of small                 
quantities of waste pesticides are as follows:                                  
                                                                                
Liquid formulations in quantities of less than 1 gallon should be               
left in the original container. Make sure the cap is securely in                
place to prevent spills or leaks. Wrap in several layers of                     
newspaper and secure. The package should then be placed in a                    
trash receptacle for routine collection with municipal refuse.                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
Dry formulations in quantities of one bag or less (up to 10                     
pounds) should be secured to prevent leaking. This can be done by               
wrapping in paper or placing the package in a tight carton or                   
bag, and taping or tying it closed. Once secured, the package                   
should be placed in an appropriate trash collection receptacle.                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
Small quantities of pesticides, when handled as described above,                
do not present a hazard to trash collectors or to the environ-                  
ment. A properly operated sanitary landfill presents a large                    
dilution factor and provides sufficient containment to negate any               
hazardous effects the product may present. One should be aware of               
local ordinances and sanitary landfill rules before disposing of                
pesticides.                                                                     
                                                                                
These are the federal EPA guidelines and not those of the                       
Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. Although they seem                      
reasonable for most situations, there can be exceptions which                   
warrant further guidance. If in doubt contact your local exten-                 
sion agent, or call the Virginia Department of Agriculture and                  
Consumer Services (804/786-3798), the Virginia Department of                    
Health,  Bureau of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management (804-                   
786-1754), or the EPA (800/424-9346).                                           
                                                                                
(Excerpted from an article by Michael J. Weaver, Extension                      
Pesticide Information Coordinator)                                              
                                                                                
 -----------------------                                                        
                                                                                
Little by little, my lawn is being taken over by moss. What can I               
do to stop it?                                                                  
                                                                                
The presence of moss in a lawn indicates a basic fault in the                   
lawn environment; it rarely invades a healthy lawn. Moss is                     
usually associated with low fertility, poor subsurface drainage                 
and high soil acidity; but improper watering, too much shade,                   
soil compaction, or a combination of any of these factors can                   
lead to moss encroachment. The environmental problem must be                    
diagnosed and corrected in order to eliminate moss growth.                      
                                                                                
Lack of fertility is the most common cause of moss invasion. A                  
regular balanced fertilizer program will go a long way toward                   
preventing moss. Aerating the soil, incorporating coarse organic                
matter, and liming also discourages moss.                                       
                                                                                
Algae is another type of plant that may be found growing in moist               
areas under trees where it is often mistaken for moss. Typical                  
forms of algae are the green slimes on the trunks of trees and                  
flower pots, and the green scum on pond water. Algae is colony of               
fresh water plants with no true roots, stems or leaves. Like                    
moss, algae will return if the causal factor, usually poor                      
drainage, is not corrected.                                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
This material was prepared by  Virginia Nathan, an Extension                    
Technician, working with Diane Relf. The Virginia Gardener Question             
Box has been developed for agent use in preparing the radio                     
and newspaper features and is a monthly section of HortFacts.                   
                                                                                
Our new home does not have a root cellar like I am used to.                     
I need some tips on storing my cabbages and root vegetables                     
here.                                                                           
                                                                                
Modern homes do not have the desirable storage places which                     
were formerly available in most town and country homes. If you                  
look around however, and do a bit of innovating, you may find                   
you can locate some good storage facilities.                                    
                                                                                
Cool damp cellars are fine for beets, carrots, white potatoes,                  
and winter type cabbage. The room should be dark. Be sure to                    
provide ventilation to avoid a musty condition. If your basement                
is quite cool, preferably below 40 degrees, your stored crops                   
may last for several months. A dry, unheated basement may be                    
used by covering your produce with slightly damp peat moss or                   
a loose plastic covering to reduce water loss.                                  
                                                                                
If a suitable place is not available in the house, you may store                
your root crops, potatoes and cabbage in an unheated garage                     
or tool shed. The temperature will remain at a more uniform                     
low level if the building is insulated. Place the produce in                    
barrels or boxes to exclude light, but do provide some ventilation.             
The use of peat moss, sawdust, or plastic will help reduce water                
loss as suggested for basement storage. As the temperature gets                 
colder in early winter you may need to add insulation to avoid                  
damage by freezing.                                                             
                                                                                
A small but practical pit-type storage can be made at the edge                  
of the garden from a wooden barrel or metal drum. Lay the container             
on its side and make a hole several inches square at the top                    
of the solid end to provide the needed ventilation. Cover with                  
a piece of quarter inch hardware cloth wire screen to exclude                   
mice. Make a cover which fits tightly over the open end. Cover                  
your barrel-type pit storage with several inches of straw, coarse               
dry weeds, corn stalks, or other material. Then add several                     
inches of soil. Dig this soil from around your pit storage to                   
provide extra drainage during rainy periods. In very cold weather,              
additional insulation in the form of corn stalks or evergreen                   
boughs may be needed to prevent freezing of the crops.                          
                                                                                
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
The flowers of the potted hydrangea which I planted outdoors                    
several years ago have changed to pink. Originally they were                    
blue. I hear this has something to do with the soil. Can you                    
explain?                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Flowers of Florist House hydrangea, and Blue hydrangea have                     
pink or blue color depending on the pH level of the soil. Soil                  
pH is a measure of the degree, or strength, of the acidity or                   
alkalinity level in a soil. It is measured on a scale of 0 to                   
14;  7 is nuetral. Any number below 7 indicates that a soil                     
is acid (sour); any number over 7 indicates that a soil is alkaline             
(sweet). Florist and Blue hydrangeas, grown on fertile, well-drained            
soils, with a pH level of 6.5 or 7.0 will have pink flowers.                    
On acid soils with a pH 5.0 to 5.5, the flowers will be blue.                   
                                                                                
Generally blue flowers can be secured by applying an acid forming               
soil additive. These additives usually contain aluminum or sulfur.              
If you prefer the pink color, you can make the area more basic                  
by using ground limestone. Because different soil types react                   
differently to soil additives, a soil test will help you determine              
the correct amount to use on your hydrangeas.                                   
                                                                                
It's easy to collect soil samples and have them tested. Contact                 
the Cooperative Extension Service in your county for details.                   
The results you receive will advise you how to adjust the acidity               
level of the soil.                                                              
                                                                                
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
When do I harvest and how do I preserve gourds?                                 
                                                                                
Decorative gourds should be picked when fully mature but before                 
frost to reduce the possibility of spoilage during or after                     
curing. When ripe, the stem will turn brown and start to shrivel.               
The rind should be hardening, but the skin will still be tender.                
Cut the fruits from the vines with pruning shears, leaving a                    
short section of the stem attached. This stem may drop off when                 
the gourd dries but will be attractive if it remains on the                     
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
Gourds must be handled with care to avoid bruises and scratches                 
which may lead to rotting. Wipe each fruit with a cloth dampened                
with rubbing alcohol to remove dirt and decay organisms. If                     
the gourds are quite dirty, they may be washed in warm soapy                    
water. Rinse in clean water to which a household disinfectant                   
has been added. Dry each fruit carefully with a soft cloth.                     
                                                                                
The gourds should be cured for about a week in a well-ventilated                
porch, garage or shed. Place the fruit one layer deep in shallow                
slatted trays or on an open shelf. During the first week of                     
curing, the skin will become quite hard and tough. Turn the                     
gourds each day and discard any that shrivel or develop soft                    
spots.                                                                          
                                                                                
An additional period of about three weeks is needed for complete                
drying. During this time the gourds may be stored in shallow                    
wood or cardboard trays in a well-ventilated room, attic or                     
garage. If no other suitable location is available, they may                    
be placed under a bed or chest. Continue to inspect the fruit                   
every few days to remove any which shrivel or show evidence                     
of decay. Gourds should not be stored in a damp basement, a                     
closed, heated room or in tight, unventilated containers. Such                  
conditions will encourage the development of mold and rot.                      
                                                                                
Well-cured, decorative gourds usually retain their attractive                   
color for at least three or four months. A protective coating                   
of shellac, floor wax or furniture wax will enchance their appearance           
and prolong their life.                                                         
                                                                                
__________________________                                                      
                                                                                
When should I order peony roots?  I do not want them to dry                     
out before I plant them. Also are they only for sunny spots?                    
And do I have to work on the soil?                                              
                                                                                
Peony tubers should be ordered now for planting in September.                   
Purchase large healthy divisions with three roots and three                     
to five buds. The roots should be nearly one inch thick at the                  
top and four to six inches long. Divisions with only one or                     
two buds will take an extra year or two before they reach the                   
age of flowering.                                                               
                                                                                
Locate your peonies in the sun. Although peonies will grow in                   
spots that are shaded 2 or 3 hours each day, they will not produce              
large flowers. When grown beneath trees or shrubs, the roots                    
of the larger plants take up water that the peonies need. Also                  
remember to plant peonies where they will be sheltered from                     
strong winds which may blow down the heavy blossoms.                            
                                                                                
Peonies need carefully prepared beds because they remain in                     
place for many years. Prepare the soil 2 to 4 weeks before planting             
time, so that it will settle thoroughly by the time you plant.                  
Spade organic matter compost, well-rotted manure, or peat moss                  
into the soil. Dig a hole 18 inches across and 18 inches deep                   
for each tuber. Space the holes so that the plants will be at                   
least 3 feet apart. Refill the hole about half full of soil                     
mixed with a handful of 10-6-4 fertilizer. Leave the rest of                    
the soil at the side until planting time.                                       
                                                                                
Start planting about a month before the average first frost                     
date in your area. Be sure to get all the tubers planted by                     
the time the first killing frost occurs so the roots will be                    
established before the soil freezes.                                            
                                                                                
Plant a garden peony tuber with the uppermost eye no more than                  
2 inches below the ground surface. Put a little soil around                     
the tuber and water thoroughly. Then fill the hole with the                     
remaining soil, and press it down firmly. Water again to settle                 
the tuber.                                                                      
                                                                                
Mulch peonies in both winter and summer. Winter mulch prevents                  
alternate freezing and thawing that pushes plants out of the                    
soil. Summer mulching discourages weed growth. Use one to two                   
inches of straw or peat moss as mulch. Add a layer of evergreen                 
boughs for winter protection.                                                   
                                                                                
 ------------------                                                             
                                                                                
This is my first year trying to grow watermelons. My vines are                  
full of fruit which are still quite small. Do you think these                   
melons will ripen? I have used black plastic to cover the soil.                 
                                                                                
Watermelon is a very tender crop requiring a long, hot growing                  
season. The plants appreciate full sun, uniform soil moisture,                  
and one or two side dressings of fertilizer during the season.                  
                                                                                
A mulch is beneficial to keep soil moisture up and weeds down.                  
Black plastic mulch may accelerate the crop by warming the soil                 
early in the season, but don't forget to remove the polyfilm,                   
or cover it with organic mulch later in the hottest part of                     
the summer. Plastic mulch alone may cause soil temperatures                     
to rise too much and overheat the roots. If you choose to keep                  
the black plastic in place, check periodically to insure that                   
the soil remains moist beneath the plastic. You may need to                     
cut holes in the plastic to aid water infiltration.                             
                                                                                
Breeding advances in resistance and compact habit have brought                  
watermelon production into the realm of more home gardeners.                    
Smaller fruited, earlier, and even seedless cultivars are now                   
available.                                                                      
                                                                                
With watermelons, more warm days mean more fruit set. When few                  
hot days and warm nights remain, remove all blossoms to hasten                  
fruit maturation. Larger, uniform, quick-to-develop fruits grow                 
when only one or two melons are left on the vine. If size is                    
not important, plants can be allowed to set more fruit. Most                    
large-fruited varieties produce one or two melons per vine. Smaller             
cultivars set more, smaller fruits.                                             
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
Would you set me straight on the terminology associated with                    
perennials?  There are herbaceous perennials, hardy perennials,                 
bulbs, etc. What separates one from the other?                                  
                                                                                
A perennial is a plant that normally lives three years or more                  
in a given locale. Many perennials, once planted, will return                   
every year for a life time or more. Peonies are a good example                  
of very long-lived perennials; while lupines are short lived                    
and may only persist for four or five years.                                    
                                                                                
Some perennial plants must be treated as annuals when they are                  
grown beyond their native climatic requirements. The plants                     
can either be grown and enjoyed for one season, or they can                     
be lifted in fall and stored until next summer. For example,                    
dahlia tubers are often treated either way.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
Herbaceous perennials are those with non-woody growth that usually              
dies back to the ground each winter. Black-eyed Susans and daylilies            
are typical examples of herbaceous perennials.                                  
                                                                                
Woody perennials are those plants with trunks or stems that                     
persist through the winter. They develop new spring growth on                   
those stems rather than from the root system. Most of our flowering             
shrubs like lilac and forsythia are in the woody perennial group.               
                                                                                
Plants with hardy bulbs or corms, such as daffodils, crocuses                   
and tulips are both herbaceous and perennial. Ordinarily, they                  
are considered in a group of their own because of their special                 
pattern of growth. Many plants with hardy underground storage                   
roots are long-lived perennials.                                                
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
I would like to use my cold frame to keep greens growing for                    
fall and winter. How do I begin?                                                
                                                                                
Late summer and early fall is a good time for sowing some cool                  
weather crops in cold frames. If provided with adequate moisture                
and fertilization, most cool-season crops will continue to grow                 
through early winter in the protected environment of the frame. De-             
pending on the harshness of the winter and whether or not additional            
heating is used, your frame may continue to provide you with                    
fresh greens, herbs, and root crops throughout the cold winter                  
months.                                                                         
                                                                                
In summer extreme heat and intensive sunlight can damage plants.                
This can be avoided by shading with lath sashes or old bamboo                   
window blinds. Ventilation is most critical. The sash should                    
be raised to prevent the buildup of extreme temperatures inside                 
the frame. Watering should be done early in the day so that                     
plants dry before dark to help reduce disease problems. Lower                   
or replace the sash on evenings when frost threatens.                           
To increase the use of your cold frame, you may convert it to                   
a hotbed. For a manure-heated bed: dig out to 2' feet deep,                     
(deeper to add gravel if increased drainage is needed). Add                     
an 18" layer of strawy horse manure, then cover with 6" of good                 
soil. For an electric-heated bed, dig out area 8" or 9" deep.                   
Lay down a thermostatically-controlled electric cable (available                
at garden supply stores) in 6-8" wide loops, evenly spacing                     
the cable but never crossing itself. Cover the cable with 2"                    
of sand or soil. Add a layer of hardware cloth to protect cable                 
and over with 4-6" of good soil.                                                
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
Can I move cherished perennials now while they are in full leaf? We             
are moving and I want to take these plants to my new garden.                    
                                                                                
Whenever you move plants it is difficult not to disturb or lose                 
some of the root system. The larger the plant, the greater the                  
possibility of disturbing the balance between the amount of                     
leaf area and the amount of roots needed to support those leaves.               
Ordinarily, try to move plants before they put on too much growth               
or before the leaves are out.                                                   
                                                                                
You can, however, move most perennials in leaf if you are extremely             
careful and take extra care after they are transplanted. Be                     
sure to move large root balls with plenty of soil attached.                     
Pay close attention to watering and drainage during establishment.              
A layer of organic mulch will benefit the plants greatly at                     
this time. Be sure to replant the perennials at the same depth                  
they were in their last location.                                               
                                                                                
_________________________                                                       
                                                                                
A neighbor showed me a copy of a computer planned garden done                   
by the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. How can I have                   
one done?                                                                       
                                                                                
Computer-assisted garden planning is available through your                     
local extension agent. Two different methods are currently being                
employed to produce a personalized computer planned garden.                     
                                                                                
At some Virginia Cooperative Extension offices, your local agent                
will actually do a garden plan through his office computer.                     
You will be asked to supply information on the size of your                     
garden, its orientation to the sun (which direction is North),                  
the cultural methods you use (hand tools, rototilling, tractors,                
etc.), the number of adults you wish to feed with your garden,                  
and the crops you wish to grow.                                                 
                                                                                
Other VCES offices are using the publication 426-490, THE GARDEN,               
to gather your garden information for computer planning. Information            
collected on this form is processed at Virginia Tech. The results               
are then returned to you or your agent.                                         
                                                                                
It is a good idea to contact your local extension agent now                     
to make a plan for next year's garden. The computer plan you                    
receive will help you compare your present garden layout to                     
the computer's suggestions. It will also help you plan any changes              
you wish to implement.                                                          
                                                                                
Be sure to ask your agent how to have your soil tested at the                   
same time. The computer plan and soil test results you receive                  
will help prepare you for next growing season.                                  
                                                                                
 ---------------------                                                          
                                                                                
What can you tekk me about milorganite?                                         
                                                                                
The Massachusetts Cooperative Extension Service monthly newsletter,             
Greenflash, provided this information on milorganite in their                   
June 1985 issue.                                                                
                                                                                
Milorganite is sewage sludge that has been processed so that                    
it can be sold as fertilizer. It has about 5% nitrogen (N),                     
2-5% phosphoric acid (P2O5), up to 2% potash (K) as well as                     
small amounts of other elements.                                                
                                                                                
In addition, high levels of cadmium, a heavy metal, have been                   
found in milorganite. Cadmium is toxic to humans. As a result                   
it is recommended that milorganite be used only with ornamental                 
plants (non-food plants) to eliminate the risk of consuming                     
fruits or vegtables that have taken up cadmium from the soil.                   
                                                                                
One problem with the recommendation to use milorganite for ornamental           
plants is that it assumes that no food plants will ever be grown                
where those ornamental plants are now growing. Cadmium is not                   
very mobile. It will not move in or leach out of the soil. In                   
other words, if you apply milorganite to your soil, there will                  
be cadmium in that location for many, many years, if not forever.               
                                                                                
You must also consider the hazard of ingesting cadmium in the                   
process of working with the milorganite. This is particularly                   
of concern if young children are playing or gardening in the                    
area with the milorganite.                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Monthly Notes July 1986                                                         
                                                                                
* Turning cabbage a quarter to a half turn if they start to crack               
will reduce water uptake. Or, use a shovel to cut through the                   
roots on one side of the plant. If that doesn't work, better                    
harvest them.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Plant Chinese cabbage in July about 90 days before the average                
date of the first fall frost in your locality. This will allow                  
crisp, firm heads to form in the cool days of early autumn.                     
                                                                                
* Fall is the best time to grow Brussels sprouts, since their                   
flavor is enhanced by a mild frost. Sow seeds directly in the                   
garden early in the month, or set out transplants. Brussels                     
sprouts are heavy feeders, so make monthly applications of                      
5-10-10 from the time the plants are 4" tall. Apply at a rate of                
1/2 cup per square yard.                                                        
                                                                                
* Strawberries need summer care. If you have your plants in                     
hills, pick off all runners. But if you planted a matted row,                   
encourage the runners to root and grow until the row is 2 feet                  
wide.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Store pesticides in a safe place in their original containers,                
away from children and pets. Use pesticides carefully in your                   
garden. Read the labels and follow the directions. The warnings                 
and precautions are for your protection.                                        
                                                                                
* Dry flowers now for use in arrangements next winter. Early                    
season blooms are better for this purpose than those that develop               
in late summer. Flowers for drying should be cut during midday,                 
in the late bud or early bloom stage.                                           
                                                                                
* Mulching herbs during hot weather protects the plant roots                    
and helps keep them healthy. Perennial herbs also need mulch                    
in the fall for protection from winter thaws and freezing.                      
                                                                                
* Japanese beetle traps should be placed at some distance from                  
the plants they are meant to protect. If placed nearby, beetles                 
lured by the trap will feed heavily on plants attractive to                     
them in the vicinity of the trap.                                               
                                                                                
* Hot, dry weather brings out the red spiders. Inspect roses,                   
evergreens, and marigolds, especially for signs of pale green                   
coloration. Hold a white sheet of paper underneath some foliage                 
and briskly tap it. Tiny, crawling mites will appear on the                     
paper if they are present. Severely infested annual plants may                  
be removed from the garden and destroyed. Others should be                      
chemically treated. If infestation is light, mites may be                       
discouraged by direct needle-like spray from the water hose.                    
                                                                                
* Moss in shady areas of lawns is a common problem brought on                   
by poorly-drained, compacted soil. Opening the soil with an                     
aeration machine allows more air and fertilizer to reach plant                  
roots.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Get a second bloom from faded annuals by cutting them back                    
to half their height; then fertilize with 1/2 cup 5-10-10 per                   
square yard of planted area, and apply a generous layer of                      
mulch.                                                                          
                                                                                
* If your annuals are dead, pull them out and add them to                       
the compost pile. You can replant beds with hardy annuals or                    
biennials, such as pansies, calendulas, globe thistle, or sea                   
pinks.                                                                          
                                                                                
* The soil in container grown vegetables and flowers can dry                    
out very quickly especially on a concrete patio in full sun.                    
Daily watering may be necessary. However, the soil should not be                
soggy or have water standing on top of it. Apply water until it                 
runs out the drainage holes. Clay pots have additional evapora-                 
tion from the sides and watering must be done more often. Small                 
pots dry out quicker than large window boxes. Check your contain-               
ers at least once a day and twice on hot, dry days. Feel the soil               
to see whether or not it is damp.                                               
                                                                                
* Protect plants in containers from very high heat caused by                    
light reflection from pavement. Move them to a cooler spot or                   
shade them during the hottest part of the day. Plants may be                    
moved to a more sheltered location during severe rain or wind                   
storms or as protection from the first fall frosts.                             
                                                                                
* July is a good time to begin looking for native and wild plants               
from which you can collect seed pods to use this fall and                       
winter. Be on the lookout for such material as dock, dried corn                 
tassels, and seed pods from locust, redbud, chaste tree, yellow                 
poplar and cattails.                                                            
                                                                                
* Chinese cabbage, if you are not familiar with it, does not                    
taste at all like regular cabbage. Its pleasant piquant taste                   
and texture are well-suited to salads and to cooking. Lightly                   
steamed and buttered Chinese cabbage is a delicacy. The best                    
planting time for Chinese cabbage is after July 1; plants will                  
mature when days are becoming progressively shorter and cooler.                 
Plants will head rather than shooting up flowers.                               
                                                                                
* July is an excellent month to root cuttings of such houseplants               
as coleus, fuchsia, geranium, gynura, poinsettia, shrimp plant,                 
Swedish ivy, wandering jew, wax plant, and other plants with                    
succulent (non-woody) stems.                                                    
                                                                                
* Continue to make successive plantings of crops like beans,                    
beets, cabbage, and sweet corn, to provide a continuous harvest                 
until fall. A small garden will produce a large quantity of                     
vegetables if replanting is done throughout the summer.                         
                                                                                
* Tall flowers should be staked to prevent damage by wind. Use                  
stakes which are large enough to support the plant but are not                  
too conspicuous. Use soft twine or the easy-twist tape and wire                 
ties.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Water early in the morning so that the least amount of water                  
will be lost to evaporation. This is particularly important                     
if you use overhead sprinklers. Morning watering is preferred                   
to evening watering as this allows an opportunity for the leaves                
to dry completely. Wet leaves at night encourage disease buildup.               
                                                                                
* Sidedress crops like corn and cabbage with 2 pounds of 5-10-5                 
per 50 feet of row about a month after growth starts. Scatter                   
the fertilizer between the rows and scratch into the soil with                  
a rake. If your garden is on an infertile sandy soil, sidedress                 
all of your vegetables to promote vigorous growth.                              
                                                                                
* Implement all the best cultural practices to reduce pest                      
problems but be prepared to spray as needed to control insects                  
and diseases. Some spraying or dusting usually is necessary to                  
insure the production of healthful, high-quality vegetables.                    
                                                                                
* Stop vine crops from taking over your garden or lawn by                       
pinching off the fuzzy growing tips. This also directs the                      
plant's energy into ripening fruit rather than producing more                   
vine.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Keep peas, beans, and berries cool while you pick them by                     
spreading a damp cloth over your harvest basket.                                
                                                                                
* Harvest your vegetables at the peak of maturity. One of the                   
most important advantages of the home garden is the opportunity                 
to have high quality vegetables. Don`t allow them to become                     
too old before you pick them. Harvest summer squash when about                  
6 inches long. Pick sweet corn just before it is to be used. If                 
it is held under warm conditions, the sugar changes to starch                   
and the corn is much poorer in quality.                                         
                                                                                
* Fireblight on apple and pear trees can be identified by looking               
for  blackened twigs and branches. The disease will spread                      
and kill the tree if not controlled. Remove all blighted twigs,                 
cutting below the infected area. Disinfect pruning tools after                  
each cut to prevent spread. Dip blades in a solution of 1 part                  
household bleach to 9 parts water.                                              
                                                                                
* Water your plants several hours before applying pesticides,                   
especially during dry weather. Drought-stressed plants have                     
less water in their plant tissues, and the chemicals that enter                 
the leaves will consequently be more concentrated and may burn                  
the leaves.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Light sprinkling is often harmful, especially on lawns. Proper                
watering means soaking. Soak the soil to the bottom of the                      
roots. Investigate automatic watering devices.                                  
                                                                                
* Now is the time to begin to sow cover crops between rows and                  
in vacated beds. Sow clover, rye and vetch. These, dug under                    
later, will return humus and nitrates to the soil.                              
                                                                                
* If the Sweet peas are heavily mulched, their roots will be kept               
cooler and their season prolonged. Use rough plant litter or                    
grass clippings. A little shade at midday will help to maintain                 
the quality of the flowers and prolong the season.                              
                                                                                
* When growth has stopped and vanished foliage indicates a                      
dormant condition, dig up a good root each of Bleedingheart,                    
Anchusa, Oriental Poppy. Cut these long roots into 1-2 inch                     
pieces and plant them in a mixture of sand and rich loam. Keep                  
the area fairly moist and soon tiny leaves will shoot up. The new               
plants will be ready for permanent quarters in the spring.                      
                                                                                
* Many plants are easily increased by layering. Verbenas, pinks                 
euonymus, pachysandra, ivy, daphne, climbing roses, in fact, all                
the things with reaching runners will probably take root if                     
fastened down on soft earth with a wire and covered with some                   
good soil.                                                                      
                                                                                
* For the largest flowers, the main stems of the dahlias should                 
be kept free of side shoots. In larger varieties, a single stalk                
is the best. Some sort of adequate support must be provided to                  
prevent storm breakage. Water well.                                             
                                                                                
* Cutting flowers is best done with a sharp shears or knife,                    
taking care to avoid injury to the growing plant by having tools                
sharp. A special pair of cutting scissors may be bought which                   
holds the cut-off stem, allowing the removal to be a one handed                 
operation. It is best to carry a bucket of water to the garden,                 
rather than the familiar cutting basket. A slanting cut will                    
expose a larger absorbing surface and will prevent the base of                  
the stem being sealed by resting upon the bottom of the vase.                   
                                                                                
* Ornamental kales and cabbage are among the showiest of all                    
winter plants and as the weather cools, the color intensifies.                  
Transplants of these improbably beautiful winter ornamentals are                
available at garden centers and nurseries now.                                  
                                                                                
* Clean greenhouse walls and under benches. Wash empty pots.                    
Change soil in benches. Spray to eliminate disease next winter.                 
                                                                                
* Sow seeds of hollyhocks, English daisies, foxgloves, violas,                  
Canterbury bells and Sweet Williams for next year`s bloom.                      
                                                                                
* Root holly, azalea, and camellia cuttings in a sand and peat                  
moss mixture, set in a cool, shady location. Ivy and periwinkle                 
can be rooted now to fill in any bare spots in your beds. Don`t                 
allow cuttings to dry out.                                                      
                                                                                
* During the hot dry summer set out a container of water to                     
attract birds to your garden.                                                   
                                                                                
* In response to the trend toward smaller gardens, new climbing                 
roses are being bred. The new climbers grow only 6 to 8 feet                    
tall and need little or no pruning. Look for cultivars such as                  
'Swan Lake' (creamy white), 'Spectra' (gold with red flush) and                 
'Rosarium Uetersen' (deep pink).                                                
                                                                                
* High temperatures accelerate respiration and evaporation from                 
cut flowers. Your refrigerator may be used to temporarily hold                  
floral arrangements if the temperature is no less than 40                       
degrees F, and if no fruit is stored in the cooler. Temperatures                
below 40 degrees F and ethylene gas given off by ripening fruit                 
can injury the petals of many flowers.                                          
                                                                                
* A cool basement will also work for temporary flower storage.                  
Remember to mist arrangements several times a day.                              
                                                                                
* Gerbera flowers (African daisy) can last up to two weeks in a                 
vase if the water is kept clean. Since gerbera stems are hairy                  
and easily dirty the water, do not immerse them more than a few                 
inches. Change the water every two days.                                        
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant bearded iris using the vigorous ends                    
of the rhizomes. Discard the old center portion. Cut the leaves                 
back to about 8" long. Do not worry about wounding the roots;                   
wounding actually encourages flowering.                                         
                                                                                
* In dry times, trees may shed up to 10% of their leaves to                     
reduce water loses through transpiration. This leaf loss causes                 
little or no harm.                                                              
                                                                                
* Inner leaves and twigs of trees normally drop from lack of                    
sunlight, but clusters of leaves attached to short twigs may                    
result from insect or squirrel activity. Girdling insects make                  
shallow, encircling depressions, while twigs broken by squirrels                
have diagonally several ends.                                                   
                                                                                
* Ripening grape clusters may be covered with brown paper or                    
polyethylene bags, or nylon netting to reduce bird damage. If                   
bags are used, make ventilation holes in the bottom of the bags.                
                                                                                
* Blueberry bushes also need to be covered with plastic netting                 
or fine cloth (tobacco cloth) to control birds. When harvesting                 
blueberries, remember to allow berries to remain on the plants                  
for 3-5 days after they turn blue. Waiting several days allows                  
berries to reach their maximum sugar content.                                   
                                                                                
* Gardeners in the mountainous regions of Virginia start planting               
fall vegetables this month. Request publication 426-334 Fall                    
Vegetable Gardening from your extension agent or The Virginia                   
Gardener for guidelines on planning and planting fall crops.                    
                                                                                
* In summer, dry soil may make working the soil difficult and                   
inhibit seed germination. Plant your fall vegetables when the                   
soil is moist after a rain, or water the area thoroughly the day                
before you plant. Seeds may be planted in a shallow trench to                   
conserve moisture. Cover the seeds about twice as deeply as you                 
do in the spring. Early maturing varieties are best for late                    
plantings.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Continue attracting insect eating birds to the garden area by                 
providing them a fresh water source.                                            
                                                                                
* Bromeliads are being promoted as new indoor plants. They are                  
ideal in the home because they tolerate low light conditions.                   
                                                                                
* Check the soil moisture of container grown vegetables and                     
flowers daily. As the temperature rises, some plants may need                   
water twice daily.                                                              
                                                                                
* Petunias vary their growth habit according to temperature and                 
daylength. At temperature of 62 degrees F and below, petunias                   
will be branched, bushy, compact and multiflowered. From 63 to                  
75 degrees, daylength affects their growth habit. If plants                     
receive less than 12 hours of sunlight at these temperatures,                   
petunias will be single stemmed and have only a single flower.                  
Over 75 degrees F, daylength has no effect and plants will always               
be tall, leggy and bear few flowers.                                            
                                                                                
* To encourage petunias to branch, pinch them at planting time                  
and again in mid-July. During July, cut them off about 3" to 4"                 
above ground level. Weed, fertilize and clean up around them. The               
next pinching should take place in mid-August, and the last,                    
during early September.                                                         
Monthly Notes June 1986                                                         
                                                                                
* Plants may wilt from a lack of oxygen rather than a lack                      
of water. When the soil is compacted, the plant's tender feeder                 
roots and root hairs suffocate. The problem is compounded when                  
the well-meaning gardener assumes that the wilting is a sign of                 
water stress and immediately irrigates. Well-aerated soil,                      
enriched with organic matter, allows both air and water to                      
circulate freely about the root system for a vigorous plant.                    
                                                                                
* For very efficient, steady feeding of vegetables sink a                       
large can or bucket with many holes in its sides into the soil                  
and fill it about 2/3 full of rotted manure or compost; rain                    
or occasional watering will keep a rich supply of nutrients                     
seeping out to feed plants in a circle several feet wide.                       
                                                                                
* Divide spring and early summer flowering perennials. Instead                  
of severing the clump in half, try jiggling the roots apart                     
with two, sharp, spading forks. This takes more time, but consid-               
erably less root area is lost during division.                                  
                                                                                
* Stop cutting asparagus in mid or late June when the spears                    
become thin. Allow the tops to grow during the summer to store                  
food in the roots for the crop next spring.                                     
                                                                                
* As soon as the last cutting of asparagus is made, remove all                  
the weeds from the bed and fertilize with a 10-10-10 formula at                 
the rate of 3 pounds per 50 foot row.                                           
                                                                                
* To prevent overwatering of plants in containers without drain                 
holes, stick two or three plastic straws vertically down into the               
layer of gravel or rocks at the bottom of the pot before plant-                 
ing. Then cut them off just above the soil surface after plant-                 
ing. This will allow evaporation of excess moisture in the                      
drainage layer.                                                                 
                                                                                
* If in clay pots, plunge house plant pots to the rim in a                      
partially shaded flower bed or border for the summer. If in                     
glazed or plastic containers, remove the pot.                                   
                                                                                
* Energy Reporter - The Citizens' Newsletter of the Federal                     
Energy Administration says that, "a tall evergreen hedge north                  
of your home can cut heating bills by 34% in windswept regions                  
or by 10% in sheltered areas." As costs go up, this figure must                 
increase.                                                                       
                                                                                
* To get faster growth from your trees and shrubs, mulch is                     
better than grass or ground covers. In three experiments across                 
the country, researchers have shown that a variety of trees and                 
shrubs including dogwood, forsythia, Burford holly, Japanese                    
black pine and cottonwood had growth reduced significantly by                   
both ground covers and grasses.                                                 
                                                                                
* According to tests conducted by VA Tech Department of Human                   
Nutrition and Foods, microwave-blanched vegetables have less                    
flavor and poorer color and texture than vegetables blanched                    
with hot water or steam.                                                        
                                                                                
* Before pouring gasoline into the fuel tank of your lawn mower,                
garden tillers or other equipment, be sure to turn off engine                   
and allow to cool 5 minutes.                                                    
                                                                                
* Do not allow children to ride or drive riding lawn mowers. They               
are more dangerous than they appear. Always disengage the mower                 
blades and set the brake before getting off for any reason.                     
                                                                                
* Remove old flower heads from bedding plants to prolong the                    
period of bloom.                                                                
                                                                                
* Remove foliage from spring bulbs after it turns yellow and                    
begins to dry. Set out bedding plants in space previously                       
occupied by foliage, using care not to damage bulbs.                            
                                                                                
* Lacebugs feed on azaleas, pyrcantha and other woody plants                    
causing a gray, blanched or stippled appearance on the upper                    
surface of the leaves.                                                          
                                                                                
* Watch for and control blackspot and powdery mildew on rose                    
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Continue plantings of warm season crops such as beans, squash                 
and tomatoes. Toward the end of the month, start seeds of Chinese               
cabbage and cauliflower for fall harvest.                                       
                                                                                
* Yellow flowered perennials which abound this month include: St.               
John's Wort (Hypericum); Evening Primrose (Oenothera); yellow                   
loostrife (Lysimachia punctattta).                                              
                                                                                
* For hanging baskets in a cool shady location, select trailing                 
tuberous begonias, fuchsias, ferns, English ivy, impatiens or                   
fiberous rooted begonias in combination with trailing plants.                   
                                                                                
* When trimming grass with a power tool using rapidly spinning                  
monofilament line, be careful around young trees and shrubs.                    
Tender bark can easily be damaged, opening the tree to insect and               
disease problems.                                                               
                                                                                
* House plants may be kept in good condition for several weeks                  
while one is on vacation by using clear plastic bags as miniature               
greenhouses. Simply soak the pot thoroughly, allow to drain, then               
place the potted plant into a plastic bag. Tie the opening                      
tightly. By inserting two or more sticks in the soil before the                 
bag is put on, one may support the plastic-like tent and prevent                
it from resting on the plants. Plants, such as African violets,                 
that are apt to develop mildew should have a few air holes for                  
air circulation.                                                                
                                                                                
* When going on vacation, arrange for someone to mow your lawn                  
and harvest your garden.                                                        
                                                                                
* Spring flowering shrubs such as deutzia, weigela, vibrunum                    
and forsythia, should be pruned as soon as they complete bloom.                 
                                                                                
* Additional pruning may be required this month on fast-growing,                
narrow, leaf evergreens such as junipers and yews as well as                    
plants such as privet to maintain a desirable shape during the                  
growing season.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Many garden plants will appreciate a sidedressing of 5-10-10                  
at the rate of 1 lbs per 100 ft of row applied 4 to 6 weeks                     
after plants are established. Avoid sidedressing tomatoes,                      
eggplants and peppers until they have set their first fruit.                    
                                                                                
* Keep a close eye on the quality of your spring crops. Hot                     
weather causes lettuce to bolt and become bitter. Plant a warm                  
season crop as soon as the spring vegetables are removed.                       
                                                                                
* Drying grass clippings from your lawn before using them as                    
mulch keeps them from packing down, fermenting and smelling. If                 
you spray your lawn with weed killers, compost the clippings                    
before using them in the garden.                                                
                                                                                
* Rock gardens can be an interesting and challenging hobby for                  
the gardener.  A few perennials species that can be used success-               
fully are: Ajuga, Thrift, Sedum, Creeping Phlox, and Violas.                    
These can be planted in either spring or early fall, although                   
spring planting requires more attention to regular watering.                    
                                                                                
* Mid-to-late June is an excellent time to take softwood cuttings               
of shrubs to start new plants.  Some examples are spirea,                       
boxwood, and azalea.                                                            
                                                                                
* When you buy nursery stock that is container grown, check the                 
root ball and make sure its not bound too tightly.  As big mass                 
of circling roots will stay that way, even after it is in the                   
ground.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Large mesh wire has many uses in the garden: for a tomato                     
cage, as a compost bin, to hold down black plastic, to hold                     
mulches in place, or to use as a half-cylinder with plastic over                
it as a small greenhouse.                                                       
                                                                                
* If you don't have much landscaping space, consider using some                 
of the many available dwarf varieties.  These are plants that                   
have slow growth and stay small, so there is little pruning                     
maintenance.  There are numerous evergreens and flowering trees                 
and shrubs to choose from.                                                      
                                                                                
* When selecting a window box, it is best to use a wooden box.                  
Metal ones are more likely to overheat if sitting in the hot                    
summer sun.  Also the wooden boxes allow for drainage, whereas                  
the metal ones often do not. The color of the box also should be                
considered:  dark ones get warmer than light-colored boxes.                     
                                                                                
* Watch for insects now and keep to spray schedule on those                     
plants which need it throughout the summer.                                     
                                                                                
* Plant tropical water-lilies early in summer.                                  
                                                                                
* Rambling and climbing roses should be pruned immediately                      
after blooming.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Weed cultivation is important for a number of reasons:  it                    
conserves moisture, conserves nutrients in the soil, and helps                  
prevent the spread of disease and insects.                                      
                                                                                
* For hot summer months, mulch can be especially beneficial for                 
conserving water.  For the vegetable garden, leaves are a good                  
mulch material.  For ornamentals, pine needles or bark do the                   
best job.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Spread organic mulch in the garden once the soil has warmed and               
seedlings are about six inches tall.                                            
                                                                                
* Take care that newly planted materials receive a thorough                     
soaking each week.  Soak, do not sprinkle.  Mulch to conserve the               
moisture.  It is helpful to make a well for the water to collect                
in when mulching around trees.                                                  
                                                                                
* A sundial should be set on June 15th.  Place it so that the                   
shadow falls on 12:00 o'clock at exactly noon on this date.                     
                                                                                
* After your vegetable garden is well established, it is best to                
water it thoroughly once a week rather than a light watering                    
everyday.  That way, a deeper root system is encouraged which                   
will later help the plants tolerate dry weather.  Generally, an                 
application of one inch of water to the surface will wet soil to                
six or eight inches deep.                                                       
                                                                                
* A method of composting for limited space is to put all of the                 
compost materials (leaves, soil, weeds, kitchen garbage, and                    
manure) in a large polyethylene bag, moisten thoroughly, tie the                
top tightly and leave it out in the sun.  Kick the bag around                   
occasionally and let in fresh air every 2 weeks.  Before long you               
will have a convenient bag of well-rotten compost.                              
                                                                                
* Birds will generally not be scared away by scarecrows.  Try                   
instead tying pieces of glass, colored cloth, or tin to loose                   
strings so the wind can blow them and slash them together.                      
Random motion is the key to alarming the birds away from the                    
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If you plant your Easter lily outdoors, it may flower again in                
late August.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Many of the weeds which occur in lawns are indicator plants                   
which signal poor growing conditions for turf grass.  Ground ivy,               
chickweed and violets often sprout up in places too shady for                   
most turf grasses. Sorrel, daisies and dock indicate a change to                
an acidic condition due to poor aeration and drainage, and lack                 
of humus.  Wild mustard, morning glories and quack grass warn of                
crusty soil and possible hard pan development.  The presence of                 
moss tells of soil compaction, poor drainage or fertility, or                   
excessive shade.  Before you begin weed control, consider                       
correcting the factors favorable to the weeds.                                  
                                                                                
* Lawn clippings return valuable nutrients especially nitrogen to               
turf grass.  Rake up grass clippings only when the grass has                    
grown unusually tall between mowings.                                           
                                                                                
* June is a great time to clean out the greenhouse.  Discard dead               
or diseased plants and old potting soil.  Good sanitation is                    
necessary to control greenhouse pests.                                          
                                                                                
* Remove crusted mineral salts from clay pots by soaking pots in                
water for a few days.  Start with hot water and renew the hot                   
bath several times. Scrub off heavy salt buildup with steel wool                
and dish detergent. Sterilize pots before reuse by soaking them                 
for ten minutes in a solution of 9 parts water to 1 part bleach.                
To reduce salt buildup on clay pots, wipe them weekly with a                    
cloth soaked in white vinegar.                                                  
                                                                                
* Pinch off faded magnolia flowers to stimulate new growth and                  
thicken the crown.                                                              
                                                                                
* The best time to harvest most herbs is just before flowering,                 
when their leaves contain the maximum essential oils.  Cut herbs                
early on a sunny day.                                                           
                                                                                
* Strawberries picked early in the day keep best.  Do not wash or               
stem berries until ready to use.  Store berries in covered                      
containers in the refrigerator.                                                 
                                                                                
* Only the uppermost ear or two develops to maturity in sweet                   
corn.  Any undeveloped lower ears can be picked just after the                  
silk appears and used in stir-fry vegetables, salads, or pickled.               
                                                                                
* Broken branches and suckers of tomato plants will often root if               
stuck into loose, moist soil.                                                   
                                                                                
* A new edible green called 'Tyfon' has been developed by                       
crossing turnips with Chinese cabbage.  Tyfon is frost tolerant,                
quick growing and capable of generating a second cutting in 3-4                 
weeks.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Identify garden pests before you attempt to control them.  If                 
you decide to use a chemical control, read the label carefully to               
be sure the chemical is compatible with the plant.  Make sure you               
apply the proper amount at the proper time.  Consult with your                  
local extension agent if you have questions about pesticides.                   
                                                                                
* Protect yourself, your family, and your pets from contact with                
pesticides.  Wear protective clothing and spray only on calm                    
days.  Wash your hands and clothing thoroughly after using garden               
chemicals.                                                                      
                                                                                
* To protect the bees which pollinate many of our crop plants,                  
spray in the evening after bees have returned to their hives.                   
                                                                                
* Heavy rains encourage slug problems.                                          
                                                                                
* Japanese beetle traps are most effective in neighborhoods where               
most residents use them.  An isolated trap or two can actually                  
draw the insects to your yard.  Traps should be placed at least                 
25' from fruit trees and roses to lure the pests away from                      
treasured plants.                                                               
                                                                                
* The same effect is true with the use of milky spore (Bacillus                 
popilliae). If your neighbors also apply the soil treatment                     
it will be most effective.  Otherwise Japanese beetle larvae                    
hatching in other yards will reinfest your property.                            
                                                                                
* Complaints and inquiries about questionable gardening advertis-               
ements can be sent to The Garden Writers Association of America                 
(GWAA) Horticultural Advertising Ethics Committee.  Mr. Jack                    
Siebenthaler, Chairman of the Ethics Committee, can be contacted                
at P.O. Box 6524, Clearwater, FL  33518.                                        
May Notes                                                                       
                                                                                
* When you visit gardens and arboreta, take your camera and                     
note pad with you. Now is the time to plan for changes you will                 
make in your landscape to add spring glory.                                     
                                                                                
* Raised beds warm up faster in the spring, provide good drainag-               
e, help protect soil structure, and may be built at a height for                
working without bending. But they dry out faster so don't forget                
to water.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Don't be surprised if variegated hosta has green leaves when                  
grown in the sun. The best variegated color pattern is secured                  
on plants in a semi-shady location.                                             
                                                                                
* Grass clippings can be used as a mulch in flower beds and                     
vegetable gardens if allowed to dry well before use. Fresh, damp                
grass clippings will mat and may attract pests. Never use                       
clippings from a lawn that has been treated with a herbicide.                   
                                                                                
* Put your tools away at the end of the day; clean them and                     
hang them up, if possible. Keep the cutting edge sharp for easier               
use.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Don't spray on a windy day. Not only is pesticide wasted,                     
it may endanger other crops or you.                                             
                                                                                
* Recycle your kitchen scraps in a compost trench to avoid                      
attracting birds or animals to your compost pile. Dig the trench                
between garden rows, covering each addition with garden soil. The               
material will enrich your soil as it breaks down.                               
                                                                                
* Four to five layers of newspaper will serve as an effective                   
mulch in the garden. Cover with sawdust or soil to reduce the                   
white glare and prevent it from blowing away.                                   
                                                                                
* Frequent picking of cucumbers, summer squash, beans, peas,                    
lettuce, and greens while they are small and tender will improve                
the quality of the produce and increase the yield of each plant.                
                                                                                
* Trellis and stake downwind from the prevailing winds so plants                
will lean against the supports when the wind is blowing.                        
                                                                                
* Drive stakes when you plant tomatoes or cucumbers. If you                     
try to install stakes later, you may damage the plant roots. Tie                
the plants with a soft material such as stockings or worn bed                   
sheets which will not cut into the stems.                                       
                                                                                
* Sprinkle seeds evenly by putting them in a small shaker. A                    
set of caps for seed sprouting jars will let you choose one                     
with appropriate-sized holes for the seeds you use. The problem                 
of sowing fine seed too thickly can be reduced by mixing them                   
with sand.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Stay out of the garden when foilage is wet. Walking through                   
a wet garden spreads disease from one plant to another.                         
                                                                                
* Moles feed on white grubs and in their feeding ruin the                       
lawn. Moles can be eliminated by eliminating the grubs. Consult                 
your extension service for current recommendations.                             
                                                                                
* Newly set plants should be protected from cutworms with                       
collars.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Flea beetles can severely damage newly set plants. Protect                    
plants with carbaryl as soon as these small shiny, black, hopping               
insects are noted.                                                              
                                                                                
* Move your house plants outdoors when the night temperatures                   
stay above 60 degrees. Avoid sun burning the foliage by moving                  
the plants gradually from the relative darkness of the house                    
to their summer location. Start by putting them in a well-shaded                
location and progressing to increasingly lighted areas.                         
                                                                                
* After planting seed from this year's packets, store leftovers                 
in a tightly sealed jar in the refrigerator. Add a dessicant                    
such as a layer of tissues in which 2 tablespoons of powdered                   
milk have been wrapped to absorb excess moisture from the air.                  
                                                                                
* A fern that is exceptionally tolerant of the dry air of the                   
home is the mother fern (Asplenium bulbiferum) so-called because                
it produces plantlets on its fronds. It does well at 30% humidit-               
y. For homes with 50% humidity, button ferns (Pellaea rotundi-                  
folia) are an excellent choice.                                                 
                                                                                
* Amaranth is an excellent substitute for cooked spinach accordi-               
ng to USDA tests. It does best in midsummer heat and harvestable                
leaves are produced in just 30 days from sowing.                                
                                                                                
* When planting shrubs on a steep slope, be sure to mulch or                    
use an erosion control netting if grasses or ground covers are                  
not already present. Digging planting holes and watering the                    
new plants will result in erosion problems on bare soil.                        
                                                                                
* Don't overwater your lawn this summer. Too much water leaches                 
out nitrogen, encourages a number of weeds and brings on disease                
problems.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Gladiola bulbs may be planted now.                                            
                                                                                
* Set out marigolds, petunias, ageratums and fiberous begonias.                 
All are good border plants.                                                     
                                                                                
* Prune forsythia, lilacs and other spring flowering shrubs                     
immediately after bloom.                                                        
                                                                                
* Deep transplanting is good for tomatoes. Tomato plants can be                 
set so deep in the ground that only a little tuft of leaves shows               
above the surface, after removing all leaves that would be                      
under the soil. New roots will sprout along the stem. Don't try                 
deep transplanting with other vegetables or flowers.                            
                                                                                
* When planting large-seeded lima or butter bean seed in heavy                  
soils, it may help germination to plant the seed on edge, facili-               
tating the emergence of the large cotyledons or seed leaves. On                 
light sandy soil, this is of dubious value because such soil                    
offers little resistance to sprouts.                                            
                                                                                
* When thinning beans, watch for "Snake Heads", seedlings which                 
have lost one or both of their cotyledons and produce poor weak                 
sprouts and "Bald Heads", seedlings which have the growth point                 
damaged so severely that they can't develop. Both types of                      
seedlings will be weak and delayed in growth and should be                      
removed.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Plant ground cover under shade trees that don't allow enough                  
sunlight to sustain grass. Periwinkle, English ivy, and liriope                 
are a few ground cover plants that grow well in shade.                          
                                                                                
* Consider planting some ornamental gourds in the garden this                   
year. After harvest in the fall, wash and dry thoroughly and                    
paint with clear shellac. Place in a basket or bowl and you'll                  
have an attractive centerpiece for Thanksgiving.                                
                                                                                
* Poison ivy leaves vary in shape and grow in threes. It is                     
dangerous all year round as you can get an irritation from the                  
leaves, roots, berries, and even smoke from burning the vines.                  
Learn to know the leaves, so you may guard against it. If you                   
think you may have come in contact with it, wash immediately with               
soap and water and remove any clothes that may have the oil on                  
them. Prevention is the best medicine for this ailment.                         
                                                                                
* Water newly planted trees and shrubs unless there is considera-               
ble rainfall. Mulch to conserve moisture and control weeds.                     
                                                                                
* Pinch back annuals which need to be trained for bushiness when                
4 to 6 inches high. Some of these are zinnias, petunias and                     
salvia.                                                                         
                                                                                
* When you remodel the kitchen, save a section of the old cabinet               
and use for a potting bench. It provides a comfortable working                  
height and storage below for pots, media, tools, etc.                           
                                                                                
* Set petunia plants among the fading tulips to offset the                      
unsightly wilting leaves. You can tie leaves in gentle knots to                 
hide them, but don't cut the tulip leaves until they have dried                 
completely.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Introducing your children to gardening can be a rewarding                     
experience for the entire family. Give them a small plot of                     
their own with full sun, good soil and drainage. Geraniums and                  
begonias from pots are easy for little hands to handle and                      
marigolds, radishes, and favorite vegetables can be added. It's                 
a pleasant and productive way to spend time together.                           
                                                                                
* 35 of the 39 snakes found in Virginia are beneficial to the                   
farmer and gardener. They eat insects and rodents. Of particul-                 
ar value is the large black rat snake, which consumes mice, rats,               
and other small mammals.                                                        
                                                                                
* Avoid using peat moss as a mulch. It tends to form a tight mat,               
virtually impermeable to light rain once it becomes dry. It is                  
best mixed in with soil as a conditioner.                                       
                                                                                
* Impatiens is the most satisfactory annual for use in shade.                   
Begonia, coleus, ageratum, salvia, and vinca prefer light shade                 
(5 to 6 hours of sunlight).                                                     
                                                                                
* Remember, insecticides such as Malathion cannot be used as                    
preventatives, but are only effective if they come in contact                   
with the insect. Use all pesticides with caution. Always read and               
follow the directions on the label.                                             
                                                                                
* Houseplants in containers without drainage holes are poor                     
candidates for outside. A good rainstorm may drown and rot them.                
All plants perform better in containers with drainage holes.                    
                                                                                
* Vacation hint:  Sink houseplants, pots and all, in the soil in                
a shady area of the garden. Mulch to reduce the need for frequent               
watering.                                                                       
                                                                                
* If you are building a home on a wooded lot, save young,                       
vigorous trees. They will adapt to changes in their environment                 
better than older trees. Trees that once grew in shade and are                  
suddenly exposed to increased sunlight, wider temperature                       
fluctuations and drying winds may not survive.                                  
                                                                                
* Red and silver maples, willows, poplars and elms often clog                   
septic lines. Plant these species well away from waterlines and                 
sewers.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Lace bugs, tiny fly-like insects with lacy wings, weaken                      
rhododendrons, azaleas and mountain laurel by sucking out                       
cellular fluids. Since these insects prefer hot, dry conditions,                
plants grown in semishade are less susceptible.                                 
                                                                                
* Large plate glass windows are apparently invisible to birds.                  
Hang small mobile twists of reflective ribbon or hanging baskets                
in front of the glass to prevent crashes.                                       
                                                                                
* Most evergreens have many roots near the soil surface. Avoid                  
deep cultivation that might wound roots.                                        
                                                                                
* If an old tree shows signs of advanced rotting, remove it                     
before it becomes a safety hazard.                                              
                                                                                
* Algae and lichens are primitive plants which grow nearly                      
anywhere there is adequate moisture. Although they are often                    
found growing on tree trunks, algae and lichens generally do not                
harm trees; often they indicate stressful conditions such as soil               
compaction, poor drainage or insufficient fertilizer.                           
                                                                                
* Divide indoor plants when new growth starts in spring. Root                   
cuttings during spring and summer when the plant is actively                    
growing.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Watering with soaker hoses or drip irrigation will deter the                  
spread of black spot in roses.                                                  
                                                                                
* Where earwigs and sowbugs are a problem, try trapping them with               
rolled up newspapers which have been moistened with water. The                  
insects will hide in the papers by day. Gather up the traps and                 
dispose of them frequently.                                                     
                                                                                
* To better evaluate your gardening successes, keep weather                     
records along with garden records. The most important items to                  
report are daily minimum and maximum temperatures, precipitation                
and cloud cover, and frost occurrences.                                         
                                                                                
* A rain gauge can be constructed from a large can and a plastic                
straw. Mark the straw in inches and fractions. After removing the               
lid from the can, set it out to collect rainfall. After a                       
rain, insert the straw to the bottom of the can and put your                    
finger over the opening. Withdraw the straw and hold it up to the               
light to read the amount of rainfall.                                           
                                                                                
* In clay soils, improve drainage for trees by planting on the                  
"high side."  Build up the area around the rootball with good                   
draining soil. Alternately lay draintile from the bottom of the                 
planting hole to a ditch or gravel drain constructed below the                  
planting hole.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Thin peaches four to six inches apart for large, high quality                 
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Lawns maintained at the correct height resist disease and weed                
infestation. Kentucky blueglass and tall fescue should be kept                  
between 2-3" in height. Mow frequently removing one third of the                
blade at each cutting.                                                          
                                                                                
* Creeping red fescue may be used for turf in shady, drought                    
prone areas. Keep this grass at 2 - 2 1/2 inches in height.                     
                                                                                
* Plan vegetable gardens with nutrition in mind. Compare the                    
nutritional values of your crops with the amount of space                       
allotted them. For example, your family will get more vitamins                  
and minerals from a block of spinach than from an equal amount of               
lettuce.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Lettuce, tomatoes, beans and peas are self-pollinating annual                 
vegetables from which seed can be easily saved. Make sure the                   
plants are open-pollinated (not hybrids) or next year's plants                  
will not likely grow like the parent plants. Write the Virginia                 
Gardener or your extension agent to request publication 426-316                 
for seed saving tips.                                                           
                                                                                
* Toads eat cutworms and other insect pests. Give them a home in                
your garden by placing inverted clay flower pots in shady spots.                
Make sure to chip out a piece of the pot rim to give the toads an               
entrance to their home.                                                         
April Notes                                                                     
                                                                                
* Remove sticks, rocks and other debris from your lawn to prevent               
damaging your lawnmower or injuring yourself when mowing. Check                 
your lawnmower and other lawn-care equipment in preparation                     
for the coming season.                                                          
                                                                                
* Start herb seeds indoors in moist medium. Place in bright,                    
indirect light and move to a sunny window when germination                      
begins. When the seedlings are 2-3" tall, transplant into peat                  
pots for the garden or into clay pots for use on your terrace                   
or balcony. Some herbs early grown from seed include chives,                    
sage, sweet marjoram, basil, summery savory, dill and parsley.                  
                                                                                
* To extend the blooming period of gladiolus, plant early, middle               
and late-season selections each week until the middle of June.                  
Choose a sunny location and plant the corms 4-6" deep and 6-8"                  
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Put a birdhouse in the garden to attract insect-eating friends.               
                                                                                
* Measure the rainfall with a rain gauge posted near the garden                 
so you can tell when to water. You can buy one or make one by                   
sinking a can partway into the ground and marking off its                       
interior in inches. The garden needs about one inch of rain per                 
week from April to September.                                                   
                                                                                
* Scatter annual poppy seeds in flower borders. The fine seeds                  
need no covering. The plants grow rapidly and provide colorful                  
flowers in early summer.                                                        
                                                                                
* Make a plot layout of your flower borders. This is a very                     
essential but easily neglected chore. With an accurate plot                     
plan, you will know where to locate the spring flowering bulbs                  
you plant next fall. Also, it will make your spring and summer                  
gardening easier. You will be able to correctly identify the                    
plants in your border and plan for continuous blooming by setting               
young annuals between bulbs and early flowering perennials after                
their blooms have faded.                                                        
                                                                                
* Before planting bare-root shrubs and trees, soak the roots in                 
water overnight.                                                                
                                                                                
* Interior latex type paint may be used on the trunks of newly                  
planted trees to prevent sunburn. This material is easy to apply                
and will gradually weather away and allow the bark to become                    
resistant to exposure to the sun.                                               
                                                                                
* If you are interested in exchanging seeds and cuttings of                     
less available crops, you may wish to contact one of those organ-               
izations interested in preserving the variety and quality of                    
our food crops. The Seed Savers Exchange (Kent Whealy, R.R. 2,                  
Princeton, MO 64673) which provides for exchange of vegetable                   
seed also maintains an Heirloom Seed Bank, and a Growers Network                
to multiply special collections of vegetables. The North American               
Fruit Explorers (Ray Walker, Box 711, St. Louis, MO 63188)                      
has a scion exchange and fruit testing programs.                                
                                                                                
* Aphids on your roses will cause deformed, inferior flowers. If                
aphids are noticed, contact your extension agent for an approved                
insecticide that you can spray.                                                 
                                                                                
* In the Piedmont and Mountain regions, this is the time to set                 
out cool-weather vegetables such as broccoli, brussel sprouts,                  
cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, and onions. When the danger of                   
frost has passed, transplant tomatoes, peppers and eggplant.                    
                                                                                
* Some shrubs grow best on acid soils with a pH of about 5.0.                   
These include andromeda, azalea, blueberry, camellia, mountain                  
laurel, and rhododendron. At a higher pH value these shrubs may                 
become yellow and make very poor growth.                                        
                                                                                
* Many herbs are excellent for natural appearing rock gardens                   
or formal plantings with brick pathways. These herbs do well                    
in sandy soil and are partial to full sun locations: creeping                   
thyme, sage, santolina and garlic.                                              
                                                                                
* Blue amaryllis (Hippeastrum procerum) and green amaryllis                     
(H. calyptrata) present a rewarding challenge to patient gar-                   
deners. Seeds are available from selected mail order seed                       
companies and bloom in about 5 years.                                           
                                                                                
* For a handsome addition to your herb collection, try lovage                   
(Levisticum officinale) a hardy perennial with a sharp but sweet                
celery flavor. Leaves can be used sparingly in soups and salads;                
stems can be blanched or eaten raw; and seeds can be added to                   
candies, bread, and cakes.                                                      
                                                                                
* Tree seedlings can have a strong start in quart or half-gallon                
milk cartons. Remove top and bottom and stand on a frame covered                
with 1/4" mesh hardware. Fill with a mixture of peat moss,                      
perlite and vermiculite. As the tap root grows through the bottom               
of the milk carton tube and mesh, it is "air pruned" forcing the                
development of fibrous side roots.                                              
                                                                                
* The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station reports that                  
larger plants with more flowers can be grown in a soil mix                      
consisting of 1 part sphagnum moss, 1 part peat moss, 2 parts                   
perlite, and 2 parts compost than with 4 other commonly used                    
mixes. Sphagnum moss is reported to increase aeration and                       
water-holding capacity and to suppress soil-borne diseases.                     
                                                                                
* For faster growth of vegetables in containers, use black                      
plastic pots to warm the soil---81 degrees on sunny days compared               
to 72 degrees for the same mixes in clay or white plastic pots.                 
                                                                                
* In a sunny location with poor soil, plant nasturtiums for                     
a colorful show. They require warm soil to sprout and start                     
blooming in about 50 days. Too much water and fertilizer produces               
excess leaves and few flowers.                                                  
                                                                                
* For easier watering of tomatoes and other large vegetables,                   
plant a gallon can with holes punched in the bottom nearby.                     
Watering through the can keeps water off the top of the ground                  
and puts it near the roots where it's needed.                                   
                                                                                
* Plant clematis in locations which receive at least 6 hours                    
of sunshine a day. Use organic mulch or ground cover to shade                   
roots and keep them cool. Plant in rich, well-drained loam.                     
                                                                                
* Plant dahlia tubers as soon as danger of frost is passed. Stake               
at the time of planting to avoid injury to tubers.                              
                                                                                
* Many popular perennials can be divided now including: phlox,                  
fall asters, shasta daisies, baby's breath and liriope. Set                     
up a plant exchange with friends and neighbors to share the                     
excess.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Prune spring blooming shrubs such as forsythia, weigelia and                  
early spirea after they have completed flowering.                               
                                                                                
* Thin young fruits of apples, pears, and peaches to insure                     
larger, healthier fruit. Thin within 25 days of the peak bloom,                 
leaving 4 to 6 inches between fruit.                                            
                                                                                
* Cut flower stalks back to the ground on daffodils, hyacinths,                 
and other spring flowering bulbs as the flowers fade. DO NOT                    
cut the foliage until it dies naturally.                                        
                                                                                
* Don't be too anxious to move your houseplants outdoors. Even                  
a good chill can knock the leaves off of tender plants.                         
                                                                                
* For hot weather color, select one of the following: Gloriosa                  
Daisy, Madagascar Periwinkle, Ornamental Peppers, Mexican Zinnia,               
Amaranthus `Joseph's Coat'. Plant after all danger of frost                     
is past and plan for color until winter arrives.                                
                                                                                
* A popular gift plant at Easter, the Easter lily needs bright,                 
indirect light. Avoid direct sunlight. Keep the soil moist. It                  
can be planted in a sunny spot in the garden after danger of                    
frost is over, where it will bloom next year.                                   
                                                                                
* Do not cut the leaves of spring flowering bulbs, but let them                 
brown naturally, then cut off. The leaves are necessary to                      
produce strong bulbs capable of reflowering.                                    
                                                                                
* Don't overpot African violets. They bloom better in small pots.               
                                                                                
* If wisteria does not bloom, it needs careful pruning to correct               
the condition. Prune long, straggling canes and all dead wood.                  
Root pruning sometimes helps, too.                                              
                                                                                
* Did you know that you can get a free soil test?  Mailing                      
cartons and instructions are available at your extension office.                
                                                                                
* Control insect pests before they become unmanageable. Spray or                
dust tent caterpillars while they are still small.                              
                                                                                
* The lawn mower blade should always be sharp so as not to tear                 
the grass. If you sharpen the blade at home, be sure to balance                 
it too. Place the center hole of the blade on a screwdriver                     
handle held upright in the vise. Check to see if it balances. If                
not, sharpen the heavier side some more until the blade balances                
on the handle.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Once the snow melts and the surface is dry, established                       
but uneven lawns will benefit from being rolled. Depressed areas                
may be filled with sifted topsoil. Fill in the sparser areas by                 
sowing new seed.                                                                
                                                                                
* Raspberry canes can be pruned and thinned now. Removal of                     
excessive canes at ground level will improve air circulation and                
light penetration for heavier fruiting. All dead tips of the                    
canes should be cut off.                                                        
                                                                                
* Do not fertilize azaleas and camellias until they have finished               
blooming. They should be pruned, if necessary, after blooming                   
also.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Plant cold frame plants outdoors now.                                         
                                                                                
* April is a good time to clean up plants and flower beds. Pick                 
out dead leaves and twigs and prune dead limbs.                                 
                                                                                
* Grape vines with excessive vegetative growth generally have                   
less high quality fruit. In early spring, prune out the canes                   
with the fewest buds to allow light, moisture and air circulation               
within the plant to improve the quality and quantity of the                     
fruit.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Plant strawberries if you haven't already. Place straw around                 
established plants as a mulch, after weeding and fertilizing the                
bed.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Do not mow the lawn until it has grown at least 2 inches. The                 
roots are being renewed in the spring and grass needs vigorous                  
top growth initially.                                                           
                                                                                
* Label the clumps of daffodils that are too crowded, as over-                  
crowding inhibits blooming. Dig up and separate in July.                        
                                                                                
* The best time to plant shrubs and trees is on a windless,                     
cloudy day.                                                                     
                                                                                
* When pruning forsythia do not cut ends of the twigs. It is best               
to thin out the old branches as close to the ground as possible.                
This should be done immediately after blooming.                                 
                                                                                
* Fill the bare spots in the flower bed with moss roses (Portula-               
ca) and feed regularly to encourage blooms into the summer.                     
                                                                                
* When planning your vegetable garden, consider that vegetables                 
need at least 6 to 10 hours of sunlight in order to develop                     
properly. Most vegetables, such as tomatoes, squash, eggplant,                  
and peppers need full sun.                                                      
                                                                                
* When weather is wet or cold, allow about twice the germination                
time listed on the seed packet. If there is no sign of growth                   
after this time, dig around a little to check for sprouted seeds.               
If you find no signs of life, the seed has probably rotted and                  
you will need to replant.                                                       
                                                                                
* The date of the last killing frost in your area can be used to                
calculate the approximate earliest and latest planting date for                 
spring crops. VCES publication #426-331, Vegetable Planting Guide               
and Recommended Planting Dates can be used to determine planting                
dates and the average length of harvest for each crop. Harvest                  
dates are particularly important if you also plan on having a                   
fall garden.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Have you taken soil tests of your gardens, lawn, orchard and                  
berry patch in the past year?  Don't guess about fertilization.                 
Soil analysis will help you base fertilizer and lime applications               
on the present condition of the soil and the nutrients needed by                
your plants. Contact your local extension agent for instructions                
for sampling soil.                                                              
                                                                                
* Over or under fertilization can weaken or kill plants. Nitrogen               
deficiency is characterized by stunted, yellowing leaves near the               
bottom of the plant and slow, stunted growth. Over application of               
nitrogen may cause leaf tip burn or all vegetative growth (no                   
flowers or fruit).                                                              
                                                                                
* Harden transplants by decreasing water, fertilizer, and growing               
temperatures. Transplant on a shady day, in late afternoon or in                
early evening to reduce transplant shock. Water with a half-stre-               
ngth fertilizer solution. For a few days after transplanting,                   
protect the plants from wind and sun by placing a piece of                      
newspaper or cardboard on their south sides, or by covering with                
jugs, baskets, or flower pots. Water the plants once or twice                   
during the next week.                                                           
                                                                                
* Quality bedding plants are sold already hardened off. Woody and               
yellow plants are overhardened and will be slow to resume growth.               
                                                                                
* Plant Swiss Chard for a constant harvest of greens from spring                
until fall.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Delay mulching to allow soil to warm deeply, but act before                   
weeds become established.                                                       
                                                                                
* If fruit trees are lacking pollinators nearby, cut bouquets of                
blossoms from good pollinators and place them in pails under                    
blossoming trees. Make plans to plant pollinating varieties this                
fall.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Moles are tunnelling insect eaters particularly attracted to                  
grubs. When bulbs are missing, or shrubs have root damage, look                 
for voles or field mice to be the culprits. These rodents often                 
use mole tunnels as their runs.                                                 
                                                                                
* Estimate your grass seed needs at 2-3 lbs of bluegrass seed or                
4-8 lbs. tall fescue per 1000 square feet. Remove debris, level                 
and firm soil before seeding. Cover seed by raking the area                     
lightly.                                                                        
                                                                                
* The last Friday in April is National Arbor Day - plant a tree,                
or support an organization which does.                                          
                                                                                
* Once new growth begins on trees and shrubs, cut back twigs                    
affected by winterkill to green wood.                                           
                                                                                
* For more compact pyracantha bushes without the risk of losing                 
the crop of berries, pinch back new growth now.                                 
                                                                                
* Prune roses to buds which point outward to encourage good air                 
and sunlight penetration. Dark-colored canes indicate dead wood.                
Cut back an inch below these darkened areas. If no live buds are                
left, remove the entire cane or branch.                                         
                                                                                
* Wild greens are often best in early spring when their flavor is               
mild. Common weeds that are edible include: pigweed, mustard,                   
purslane, lambs quarter and dandelion greens. Harvesting these                  
plants from your garden plot will benefit you doubly.                           
                                                                                
* When iris leaves appear thin and limp, check for borers. These                
grub-like insects can ruin an entire planting if not detected and               
eradicated early.                                                               
                                                                                
* When chrysanthemums show signs of life, dig up and divide large               
plants. Discard woody portions and replant divisions 12-15"                     
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
* To ensure the dahlia tubers you plant have survived storage,                  
sprout them indoors in a warm, lit spot.                                        
March Notes                                                                     
                                                                                
* Plant roses and bare-root shrubs while they are still dormant,                
about 4 weeks before the average date of the last frost.                        
                                                                                
* Buy some new perennials for your flower border. Spring is                     
a good time to renew and add variety to your landscape. Visit                   
a local garden center or secure catalogs from your favorite                     
nursery.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Cannas for early flowering may be started in boxes or large                   
pots in a warm cellar or enclosed porch. Cut the rhizomes into                  
pieces of convenient size and plant in a soil mixture containing                
adequate sand for good drainage. The developing plants are tender               
to cold and may be set in the garden about a week after the                     
average date of the last frost in your area.                                    
                                                                                
* Complete the pruning of shrubs, ornamental trees and fruit                    
trees before growth starts, except for spring flowering shrubs.                 
Prune those which bloom in spring as soon as they finish flower-                
ing.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Repot houseplants that have grown too large for their con-                    
tainers. Cut back leggy plants to encourage compact growth. Root                
the cuttings in moist media to increase your supply of plants.                  
                                                                                
* Don't plow your garden when the soil is wet. It will form                     
clods which are difficult to break up and interfere with cultiva-               
tion during the summer.                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't rush to remove mulch from perennials and strawberries.                  
Leave it over your plants to protect them from later cold spells.               
When plants start to grow, the mulch must be removed to allow                   
leaves to develop in the light. If leaves develop under the                     
mulch, they will become etiolated and yellow from lack of                       
chlorophyll, and may be burned and die when they are exposed to                 
the sun.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Shrubs and trees in the home landscape break up sound waves                   
and reduce the nerve-shattering noise of modern society. Plant                  
some new shrubs and trees this spring to improve the beauty                     
and ambience of your home.                                                      
                                                                                
* Apply a liberal side dressing of 5-10-5 fertilizer on your                    
asparagus bed and around your rhubarb plants. Use about 4                       
lbs. per 100 sq. ft. and scratch it into the top 2 inches of                    
soil. Renew the organic mulch to a depth of about 1 inch to help                
conserve soil moisture during the summer.                                       
                                                                                
* Unsterilized soil may contain organisms that cause damping off,               
a disease that can make young seedlings wither and die suddenly.                
Use a sterilized potting mix in clean pots or flats.                            
                                                                                
* Prune evergreen shrubs before growth starts.                                  
                                                                                
* Boxwood should be pruned by thinning out the top half of the                  
plant and cutting back the branches to retain desired height.                   
                                                                                
* Trees and shrubs which are making weak growth should be                       
fertilized to stimulate more attractive development. About a                    
month before your average last frost apply approximately 1 cup of               
5-10-5 to shrubs 4-8 feet tall. Use more or less with different                 
sized plants. On trees, apply 2 lbs. of 5-10-5 for each inch                    
diameter measured at 3 feet above the ground. Apply uniformly                   
over root zone and water in thoroughly.                                         
                                                                                
* Seed root crops such as carrots, beets, radish and parsnips                   
in your garden.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Start transplants indoors of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant.                 
                                                                                
* Use crabgrass killer before forsythia blooms fade.                            
                                                                                
* When spring-flowering bulbs complete their flowering cycle,                   
fertilize with a little super phosphate or bonemeal to ensure                   
quality blooms next year. Remove the bulb foliage only after                    
it dies naturally.                                                              
                                                                                
* Many annual flowers are very frost hardy when plants are small                
including alyssum, California poppy, candytuft,larkspur, pansy &                
viola, phlox, pinks, Shirley poppy, snapdragon, stock, and sweet                
pea. Seeds can be sown as soon as the soil has thawed.                          
                                                                                
* Divide and transplant perennials such as ajuga, Shasta daisies,               
daylilies, liriope, and oxalis. Rework beds before planting,                    
adding organic matter and fertilizer.                                           
                                                                                
* Greenhouse-grown plants, even hardy kinds, should be acclimati-               
zed before transplanting to the garden in the early spring to                   
minimize the chance of frost injury.                                            
                                                                                
* Spring applications of pesticides should be made on peaches,                  
apples, and pears. Correct timing for spraying depends on the                   
stage of development of flowers. Request a spray schedule from                  
your local agent.                                                               
                                                                                
* Cover old stumps with soil to hasten decay.                                   
                                                                                
* Do not add lime to area for potatoes. The lower pH helps                      
control scab.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Mulches can change soil temperature. Black plastic warms the                  
soil and should be applied before planting. Organic materials                   
delay the sun's penetration thereby keeping the soil cooler. App-               
ly organic mulches after plants are 3-4 inches tall and soil is                 
warm.                                                                           
                                                                                
* A child's first garden should include sunflowers from seeds.                  
The large seeds sprout quickly and dependably and the strong                    
seedlings can push their way through crusted soil. If you are                   
shooting for record sunflowers, your plants will need to top 20                 
feet in height with seed head diameters of 2 feet to be in the                  
running.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Propagate deciduous shrubs such as forsythia and winter jasmine               
now by ground layering.                                                         
                                                                                
* Wait until the weather warms to start putting houseplants                     
outside.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Don't plant more flowers and vegetables than you can maintain.                
Instead, take time to enjoy the spring bulbs and other flowers.                 
                                                                                
* If you haven't done it already, check stored tools and outdoor                
furniture for signs of rust. Remove any surface rust with steel                 
wool and paint with rust-inhibitive paint.                                      
                                                                                
* Rejuvenate your liriope by using a lawn mower to cut back the                 
old foliage to a height of 2 to 3 inches. Avoid mowing too                      
closely and thereby damaging the crown of the plant, as that is                 
where the new growth emerges.                                                   
                                                                                
* Check the average date of the last frost in your area before                  
beginning spring gardening chores. Your county extension agent                  
can give you this information.                                                  
                                                                                
* When buying transplants of flowers and vegetables, choose those               
plants with a compact, bushy form and bright green leaves. Young,               
healthy plants with no flowers or flower buds will adapt more                   
easily and overcome the shock of planting much faster.                          
                                                                                
* Parsley is extremely rich in vitamins A and C. Start some seeds               
indoors now for later transplanting to a sunny corner of the                    
vegetable garden.                                                               
                                                                                
* Houseplants can be watered more frequently with the onset of                  
spring and new growth.                                                          
                                                                                
* Seeds of some annuals such as verbenas, snapdragons and                       
petunias that take 70 to 90 days to bloom should be started                     
indoors in early spring.                                                        
                                                                                
* Variegated plants can help add the illusion of light to a                     
dark area. Shade-loving groundcovers such as variegated liriope,                
ivies, euonymus, and hosta can be very effective for this.                      
                                                                                
* This is the time to start resurrecting the lily pool. Drain and               
clean the pool before growth begins. Plant new hardy water                      
lilies early.                                                                   
                                                                                
* Apply a pre-emergence herbicide before lawn weeds get started.                
These types of chemicals work by preventing the seed from                       
germinating. Therefore, it is important that the herbicides be                  
applied in early spring, before growth of the weed seedlings.                   
Check with your local extension agent for specific recommen-                    
dations.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Don't overexert those underworked winter muscles as you begin                 
your spring gardening. Bend at the knees and lift with your                     
legs, not your back.                                                            
                                                                                
* Hedges can receive their first pruning this month. As you                     
prune, be sure to leave the base of the plant wider than the top.               
This allows sunlight to get to the bottom of the plant, creating                
a full, dense hedge.                                                            
                                                                                
* You may wish to try some new, unusual vegetables in your garden               
this year. A few that can grow successfully in this area are bok                
choy, Jerusalem artichoke, kohlrabi, leeks and horseradish. For                 
planting and harvesting tips, call your extension agent.                        
                                                                                
* Towards the end of the month, plant onion sets, potatoes, peas,               
radishes, asparagus, carrots, turnips, leaf lettuce and other                   
cold-hardy vegetables.                                                          
                                                                                
* Turn the compost pile and add manure.                                         
                                                                                
* Garden magazines are a convenient source for gathering new                    
information. The cost is low, the information up-to-date, and                   
they're delivered to your door.                                                 
                                                                                
* If weeds occur in bulb beds do not remove them by cultivation,                
but pull them by hand so that the bulbs and roots will not be                   
disturbed.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Pick a permanent spot for herbs in the garden. Many of them                   
will come up year after year.                                                   
                                                                                
* When a blanket of snow insulates the lawn, temperatures at                    
ground level may rise to above freezing. Snow mold fungi which                  
appears as a white cottony growth on grass blades thrives at                    
temperatures between 32 and 65 F. To reduce possible snow mold                  
damage, remove heavy snow accumulations in shady areas. If you                  
cannot physically remove the snow, spread ashes or dry peat moss                
on the snow. The dark colored material will absorb solar radiati-               
on and melt the snow faster.                                                    
                                                                                
* Take care to keep off soft and soggy lawns. Lime spreaders,                   
wheelbarrows and other equipment will leave compaction marks.                   
Seed new lawns and do repairs after the land has drained.                       
                                                                                
* Do not spade clay soil when wet. Hard clods will form and                     
interfere with plant emergence and growth.                                      
                                                                                
* Trees which bleed such as birch and maple should not be pruned                
until after their leaves are fully developed.                                   
                                                                                
* Hostas, liriope, daylilies, dicentra, Shasta daisies and coral                
bells are some perennials which can be divided before growth                    
starts.                                                                         
                                                                                
* To extend the asparagus harvest, remove the mulch from only                   
half the bed at first. The sunlight will encourage these plants                 
to sprout more quickly. In 2 or 3 weeks when shoots appear in the               
mulched half, carefully remove the remaining mulch.                             
                                                                                
* When sowing seeds for transplants, leave about 1/4" of space                  
between seeds to allow them to grow adequately and to discourage                
damping-off fungus.                                                             
                                                                                
* The flavor and quality of the new white and yellow varieties of               
beets are similar to the traditional red cultivars.                             
                                                                                
* The Waterlily Society has been formed by a group of                           
aquatic plant lovers. For further information, write them at                    
Box 104, Lilypons, MD 21717.                                                    
                                                                                
* Topiary is the art of clipping and trimming a plant into                      
unusual designs. Forms for indoor typiary can be purchased or                   
shaped by hand from galvanized wire. One media mix for topiary                  
forms is 1 part peatmoss to 1 part potting soil surrounded by                   
sheet moss. Plants such as English ivy and creeping thyme work                  
well for this use.                                                              
                                                                                
* Crabapples, valued for their beautiful spring blossoms and                    
attractive fruit, are members of the rose family. Along with many               
of their relatives, many crabapples are susceptible to diseases                 
such as scab, cedar-apple rust, powdery mildew, and fire blight.                
All of these diseases shorten the life span of the trees and                    
diminish their ornamental qualities. You will want to plant                     
disease-resistant cultivars of crabapple such as 'Ames White',                  
'Autumn Glory', 'Baskatong', 'Beauty', 'Coral Cascade', 'Evelyn',               
'Harvest Gold', 'Molten Lava', 'Red Snow', 'Robinson', 'Tina',                  
or 'Wies'.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Boxwood may be moved now; do not plant them deeper than they                  
were previously planted. Trim and fertilize established boxwood                 
before new growth starts, but do not cultivate under boxwood                    
since their roots are shallow and may be damaged.                               
                                                                                
* After pussywillow catkins have passed their prime, prune the                  
plants drastically to encourage long branches and large catkins                 
for next year.                                                                  
                                                                                
* If your outdoor space is limited, consider gardening without a                
garden. Tomatoes, peppers, lettuce and many other vegetables do                 
well when grown in containers. Barrels, window boxes, cut off                   
milk jugs, almost anything providing good drainage will do as                   
long as it is deep enough to support the plant. Minimum depths                  
for some container-grown vegetables:                                            
 4"-lettuce, radishes, beets, low growing herbs                                 
 6"-chard, turnips, short-rooted carrots                                        
 8"-eggplant, peppers, bush cucumbers                                           
10"-cauliflower, broccoli                                                       
12"-tomatoes, long-rooted carrots                                               
FEBRUARY NOTES                                                                  
                                                                                
* Planning pays off in the intensively cultivated vegetable                     
garden. If you are a novice vegetable gardener, request Publicat-               
ion 836, "Guide to the Beginning Gardener" from your local                      
extension agent. If you are more experienced but have specific                  
questions, there are over 80 fact sheets available to assist you.               
                                                                                
* Plan on hanging a few vegetables this spring, not for criminal                
offense, but for a convenient harvest on your porch or deck. Bush               
cucumbers, small tomato varieties, even lettuce and spinach                     
can be grown in hanging baskets. Many herbs including chives,                   
parsley, and thyme are well-suited to baskets.                                  
                                                                                
* Something new --- True Potato Seed (T.P.S.) are exactly                       
what they are called, true seed (not seed pieces from the tuber)                
for producing a potato crop. The variety Explorer represents                    
a significant breakthrough in potato breeding. Watch for it in                  
catalogs.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Water shrubs in your landscape if the soil is dry. Evergreen                  
plants transpire water from their leaves whenever air temperature               
is above 40 degrees F.                                                          
                                                                                
* Shrubs for spring planting should be ordered now. Bare root,                  
deciduous types should be planted while still dormant, about                    
1 month before the average date of last frost in your area. Hardy               
container-grown and balled and burlapped shrubs may be planted                  
anytime except during severe cold weather.                                      
                                                                                
* Time to transplant deciduous native plants if the ground is                   
not too wet or too frozen.                                                      
                                                                                
* Don't remove your mulch too early. A warm day may make you                    
think spring is almost here but there may be more cold weather                  
yet to come.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Bring branches of spring flowering shrubs and fruit trees                     
indoors to force into bloom. Within about 3 weeks, their flowers                
bring a promise of spring.                                                      
                                                                                
* Don't start your vegetable and flower plants indoors too                      
early. Six weeks ahead of the expected planting date is early                   
enough for the fast-growth species. Eight weeks allows enough                   
time for the slower-growing types.                                              
                                                                                
* Prune shrubs and trees on warm days this month after the                      
coldest weather is past in your area. In the cooler mountain                    
areas of Virginia wait until late February. Wait until early                    
summer to prune your spring flowering shrubs in order to get                    
maximum blossoms.                                                               
                                                                                
* Work the area for early spring garden crops as soon as pos-                   
sible. Apply lime if your soil tests indicate a need. Peas,                     
onions, and Irish potatoes can be planted before March 1 in                     
eastern Virginia.                                                               
                                                                                
* Fruit trees such as peaches, pears, apples and plums can be                   
sprayed with dormant oils to reduce insect problems.                            
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and grapes in late February or early March                  
after the worst of the winter cold is passed but before spring                  
growth begins.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Order gladiolus corms now for planting later in the spring                    
after all danger of frost has passed. Locate in full sun in                     
well-drained soil.                                                              
                                                                                
* Bare-rooted trees and shrubs can be planted in late winter                    
while still dormant. Prune off dead or damaged roots and plant                  
in a hole large enough to accommodate root spread in a natural                  
shape. Prune top to compensate for loss of roots.                               
                                                                                
* Kerosene heaters in a small home greenhouse may damage plants                 
from the fumes produced.                                                        
                                                                                
* Root pruning will enhance success of transplanting trees and                  
shrubs if you can wait until next year to move them. This spring                
use a sharp spade to cut a circle 8 inches deep around the                      
plant. (Distance from the trunk will depend on plant size.) New                 
roots form inside this circle during the growing season and can                 
be moved to the new location next spring.                                       
                                                                                
* On mild, sunny days be sure to ventilate cold frames and green-               
houses.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Onion seeds for transplants can be sown indoors early this                    
month.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Order your vegetable and annual flower seeds now while you                    
still have a selection.                                                         
                                                                                
* Remove honeysuckle and other weedy vines from deciduous plants                
while the plants are still leafless. It's easier to distinguish                 
between the weeds and desired plants.                                           
                                                                                
* Gardening in a raised bed improves drainage and gives an                      
earlier start in areas with cold, wet soil.                                     
                                                                                
* If your soil dries out extra fast in the summer, you may                      
experiment with gardening in a depression. Prepare soil in a hole               
or trough several inches below the surface of paths to reduce                   
evaporation and make watering easier.                                           
                                                                                
* Tired of Christmas poinsettia? Don't feel guilty if you toss                  
it out. It, like the Christmas tree, has its seasonal symbolism                 
that many of us prefer to keep intact.                                          
                                                                                
* Use some of the coldest days of February to sit by a fire and                 
read a good gardening book. It will give you ideas and inspira-                 
tion for the spring.                                                            
                                                                                
* Pressed flowers collected last summer or pictures from your old               
garden catalogs can be used to add a romantic floral touch to an                
old-fashioned valentine.                                                        
                                                                                
* Make labels for this spring's garden.  Plastic milk jugs or                   
bleach bottles cut in strips 1 inch by 6 or 7 work well. Use                    
permanent ink markers to write on them.                                         
                                                                                
* Grape vine pruning can be made into attractive wreaths decorat-               
ed with hearts or birds nests as a valentine gift or made into a                
heart shape over a wire frame.                                                  
                                                                                
* Wash your house plants and your windows occasionally to get the               
maximum light to the leaves. Showers for your plants will also                  
help reduce pests such as spider mites.                                         
                                                                                
* If you have seed left from last year, test for germination by                 
placing 10 or 20 in a moist paper towel and covering with                       
plastic. If seed germination is poor, order new seeds - the                     
smallest investment in your gardening budget.                                   
                                                                                
* Check any vegetables you have in storage. Use or dispose of                   
any that show signs of shriveling or rotting.                                   
                                                                                
* Ever wonder why apricots don't set much fruit in Virginia? It                 
is because of the warm days in February or March that encourage                 
the apricot to break dormancy and bloom - only to be followed by                
more freezing weather that knocks the fruit off.                                
                                                                                
* If a warm weekend shows up, consider working an area in the                   
garden for early spring planting. But check the soil first; it                  
should be dry enough to crumble in your hand before you work it.                
                                                                                
* For those who enjoy growing annual herbs but are frustrated by                
the number of extra seed in each packet, make a thoughtful gift                 
for friends or co-workers. On a card draw a design for a small                  
herb garden, then divide the seed from the packet into small                    
envelopes such as a stamp collectors use. Tape the seed to the                  
garden plan and offer a few cultural hints.                                     
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of "heaving" amoung your perennials and small                 
shrubs. The freezing and thawing of the ground can force shallow-               
rooted plants out of the soil. Replant any that have been                       
"heaved" and mulch with 2 inches of organic material to reduce                  
soil temperature fluctuation.                                                   
                                                                                
* In most of Virginia it's too early to start all but your                      
slowestgrowing seed (such as onions), but it's not too early to                 
start getting ready. Gather and wash seeding flats. Treat with a                
1:10 bleach solution to kill micro-organisms. Collect "pots"                    
for transplanting seedings such as styrofoam cups, 3-inch deep                  
bands cut from quart milk jugs, etc.                                            
                                                                                
* Start building up your supply of gardening aids such as plastic               
milk jugs for hot caps and orange juice cans to make guards to                  
stop cut worms.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Cold winds this month should remind you to order evergreen                    
windbreaks. Some suggestions: American arborvitae, Austrian                     
pine, Canadian hemlock, white spruce.                                           
                                                                                
* For cut flowers this summer, order phlox, daisies, dahlias,                   
cosmos, asters, gladiolus, and lilies.                                          
                                                                                
* Prune fruit trees and shade trees as buds begin to swell. For                 
disease and insect control, cut out dead wood and dispose of the                
prunings.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Apple and pear trees are best trained with a modified central                 
leader. Prune to maintain a pyramidal shape--wide at the bottom,                
gradually tapering toward the top. Order publication 426-841 for                
complete instructions.                                                          
                                                                                
* Peaches grow best when maintained with an open center (no                     
central leader). Keep three or four strong scaffold branches                    
evenly distributed around the trunk. Limbs which branch out at a                
60 degree angle are preferred, but spreaders can be used to                     
widen narrow crotch angles.                                                     
                                                                                
* Prune grapes, roses, bush fruits, foliage shrubs, and shrubs                  
which flower in summer while dormant but after the coldest part                 
of winter.                                                                      
                                                                                
* Branches of forsythia, pussy willow, quince, spirea, and                      
dogwood can be forced for indoor bloom. Make long, slanted cuts                 
when collecting the branches and place them in a vase of water.                 
Change the water every four days.                                               
                                                                                
* Bring some apple, cherry, and peach boughs indoors for forcing.               
While the color of fruit blossoms are somewhat pale when forced                 
they hint of the spring show ahead.                                             
                                                                                
* Incorporate any organic matter which you spread on the garden                 
this fall as soon as the soil is thawed and drained.                            
                                                                                
* For an early crop, sow spinach seed in well-drained soil which                
was turned over in autumn. Cover lightly with strawy manure.                    
                                                                                
* Pinch off early buds from developing pansies to encourage                     
plants to branch and form more buds.                                            
                                                                                
* Watch for signs of growth in spring bulbs. Start removing mulch               
gradually when foliage is 1" high. Cloudy days are best best for                
the intial exposure of the leaves as strong sunlight can burn                   
tender foliage.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Fertilize fruit trees as soon as possible after the ground                    
thaws but before blossom time.                                                  
                                                                                
* If bird feeding has been a favorite activity this winter,                     
order trees and shrubs which provide cover and small fruits for                 
your feathered friends. Consider species such as crabapple,                     
hawthorn, holly, dogwood, and pyracantha which help lure hungery                
birds from cultivated fruits, if planted on the opposite side of                
the yard.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Check valuable trees and shrubs for silvery gray, foamy-looking               
tent caterpillar egg masses and bag worms. Remove egg cases to                  
reduce the number of destructive pests this spring.                             
                                                                                
* As a mid-winter project grow plants from fruit seeds. Oranges,                
grapefruits, lemons, tangerines, and pomegranates may have viable               
seed. Try germinating them in a light potting soil mixture                      
containing half peat moss. Keep seeds well watered and in a                     
warm location. If seedlings fail to appear in six weeks, try                    
again.                                                                          
                                                                                
* Citrus plants grown from seeds generally will not produce                     
flowers or fruit, but they will have attractive shiny-leaved                    
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Blueberries are self-sterile. Be sure to plan for more than                   
one variety to achieve pollination necessary for fruit. High                    
bush blueberries make attractive ornamental hedges with bright                  
red fall color.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Design a flower bed for a shady area. Plan to try impatiens,                  
foxgloves, rosy vinca, begonias,and browallia.                                  
January Notes                                                                   
                                                                                
* Give your holiday gift plants the best care so you can retain                 
their original, attractive appearance. Keep them cool with a                    
temperature of 70 degrees F. during the day and 60 degrees at                   
night. Set the pots on crushed stone or gravel in a pan of water                
to maintain higher humidity.                                                    
                                                                                
* Recycle your holiday decorations. Greenery used in ornaments                  
can be used again in the garden. Wreaths and branches stripped                  
from Christmas trees make excellent mulch for protecting newly                  
planted ornamentals. Remove the material in the spring and                      
compost it.                                                                     
                                                                                
* Move garden ornaments such as urns or jars into the garage                    
or basement to prevent damage during the cold winter season.                    
                                                                                
* Keep all outdoor containers turned upside down during the                     
winter so water will not collect in them and freeze causing                     
breakage. If containers are too large to move, cover them with                  
wood or other sturdy material to prevent water collection.                      
                                                                                
* Avoid heavy traffic on the dormant lawn. Dry grass is easily                  
broken and the crown of the plant may be severely damaged or                    
killed.                                                                         
                                                                                
* When salt is needed to melt ice on walks and drives, spread                   
it carefully to avoid severe damage to nearby lawns and shrubs.                 
Damage to needle-type evergreens will be evident next spring by                 
copper and yellow tones. Damaged deciduous plants will have                     
bronze or reddish leaves.                                                       
                                                                                
* Turn and prune house plants regularly to keep them shapely.                   
Pinch back the stems of house plants as needed to promote                       
balanced growth.                                                                
                                                                                
* During the winter most houses are too dry for house plants.                   
Humidity may be increased by placing plants on trays lined with                 
pebbles and filled with water to within one half inch of the base               
of the pot. If you heat with wood, keep a pot of water on the                   
stove. The added moisture will be healthier for you as well as                  
your plants.                                                                    
                                                                                
* If you have some time this winter, paint the handles of garden                
tools red. This will preserve the wood and make the tools easier                
to locate next summer when you lay them down in the garden or                   
on the lawn.                                                                    
                                                                                
* Overhaul your garden sprayer, inspect leather washers and                     
plunger and replace any worn parts (after thoroughly oiling                     
new leather). It may be difficult to locate some exact parts                    
for your model sprayer. By starting now, you'll have them by                    
gardening season.                                                               
                                                                                
* When reviewing your garden catalogs for new varieties to try,                 
an important consideration is improved insect and/or disease                    
resistance over older plants. Watch also for drought-tolerant                   
plants.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Don't let snow build up on the branches of your shrubs as                     
the weight will distort and break them. Use care in brushing                    
it off to avoid damage.                                                         
                                                                                
* House plants and holidy gift plants should not be placed on                   
top of the television. It is too warm a location and in most                    
homes too far from windows to provide adequate light.                           
                                                                                
* Check all of your plants closely for insect infestations. Pests               
are sometimes brought in on gift plants and those that were                     
present in small numbers before the holidays, may have multiplied               
under neglect.                                                                  
                                                                                
* Plan your herbaceous flower beds now so you can make changes                  
early in the spring. Many perennials will need to be divided.                   
Perhaps you can arrange to trade with friends and neighbors.                    
Designate location in the bed for summer flowering annuals to                   
fill in color between your spring perennials and fall chrysanthe-               
mums.                                                                           
                                                                                
* Review your vegetable garden plans. Perhaps a smaller garden                  
with fewer weeds and insects will give you more produce.                        
                                                                                
* Start planning now for next year's holiday gifts and decora-                  
tions. Record those items you wished you had this year (dried                   
flowers, herbs, pickles and preserves) and make sure you plant                  
them for next year.                                                             
                                                                                
* Before ordering your spring seed, do a "rag doll" germination                 
test on those seeds left over from last year's order. Roll 10                   
or 20 seeds in a damp paper towel, keep moist in a warm location.               
On most crops, germination of viable seed will occur within a                   
week. If half the seeds germinate and you have enough left to                   
plant twice as many as you usually do, you should get an adequate               
crop. Otherwise, order more seed. It's a small investment to                    
insure success.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Don't wait too late in the winter to order seed. Many varieties               
sell out early.                                                                 
                                                                                
* Remember, trees and shrubs have an economic value. If killed                  
or damaged by ice or accident, they may be covered by homeowner's               
insurance or they may be a legitimate loss on your taxes.                       
                                                                                
* Do-it-yourself landscaping projects have a high priority these                
days. They provide savings in more ways than most people realize:               
(1) they enhance property value; (2) they can reduce the cost                   
of heating and cooling bills; (3) they save the actual out-of-                  
pocket expense of contracting to have the job done; (4) they                    
provide indirect savings on taxes (for example, someone in the                  
30% tax bracket would have to earn $430 to have enough after-tax                
cash to pay $300 for a job done around the home); (5) home                      
landscaping is great preventative therapy and improves one's                    
mental health.                                                                  
                                                                                
* For an interesting ornamental plant and a culinary addition,                  
buy a plump unshriveled ginger root at the grocery store and                    
plant in a light sandy soil just under the surface in a 6" to 8"                
pot. Place in a warm sunny window and keep damp until shoots                    
appear. Increase water and fertilize monthly with high phos-                    
phorus. Harvest your crop in about 8 months, saving a piece to                  
replant.                                                                        
                                                                                
* For tips on being a smart mail-order shopper and a list of                    
95 mail-order nurseries, send a self-addressed business sized                   
envelope with 37 cents postage to The Complete Guide to Gardening               
by Mail, Mail Order Association of Nurserymen, Inc., 210 Cart-                  
wright Blvd., Massapequa Park, NY 11762.                                        
                                                                                
* Look at your landscape. Do you need evergreens to protect                     
your privacy, reduce street noise, block the glare of street                    
lights? Order plants now and in February for March planning.                    
                                                                                
* In warmer parts of the state, tuberous begonias and caladiums                 
can be started indoors now. In mountain areas, start next                       
month. Set root starts in pots or shallow boxes of rich soil (1/3               
sand, 1/3 peat, 1/3 loam). Cover with one inch of mixture. Keep                 
moist, not wet, in good light at 65 degrees F. Transplant to                    
larger pots in 6 weeks and set outside in ground after all danger               
of frost.                                                                       
                                                                                
* Bring in bulbs of narcissus, and hyacinths started in pots                    
last fall for late winter indoor blooms.                                        
                                                                                
* Use care in putting wood ashes on the garden. They are alkaline               
and too much will raise the soil pH higher than optimum.                        
                                                                                
* One solution to the deer problem found effective in Louisiana                 
is rotten eggs. A mixture of 12-18 eggs in 5 gallons of water                   
sprayed over an acre emits enough odor to repel deer but not                    
offend the gardener.                                                            
                                                                                
* For added security around the home, plant thorny shrubs on                    
property lines and under windows. Some very thorny ones to                      
consider include pyracantha, tri-foliate orange, Rosa rugosa,                   
or thorny elaeagnus.                                                            
                                                                                
* Late winter (February and March) is the time to prune many                    
deciduous trees. Look over your plants now for dead, dying,                     
or unsightly parts of the tree; sprouts growing at or near the                  
base of the tree trunk; crossed branches (disease organisms                     
enter the tree through the abraded area where branches rub to-                  
gether); and V crotches. As the tree matures, V crotches become                 
increasingly susceptible to splitting. If possible, remove one                  
side of the crotch while the plant is young.                                    
                                                                                
* The 1986 edition of the American Rose Society's Handbook for                  
Selecting Roses is now available. More than 1000 roses are                      
listed alphabetically with color, classification, and a rating                  
as to how well they grow. There is also a section listing high                  
rated roses for easy reference or choice. To obtain your copy,                  
send 60 cents and a stamped, self-addressed envelope to: The                    
American Rose Society, Department US, P.O. Box 30,000, Shreves-                 
port, LA 71130.                                                                 
                                                                                
* For easier lawn maintenance, eliminate the hard to mow spaces.                
Put the bird bath in a flower bed or surround it with ground                    
cover. Eliminate acute angles. Combine single trees or shrubs                   
into a large planting connected with ground.                                    
                                                                                
* Do some reading on trickle irrigation this winter. It will                    
save you time and water and increase your garden yield.                         
                                                                                
* Watch for The Virginia Gardener on television this spring. A                  
weekly series of two-minute programs will be seen on cable                      
stations throughout the state during the 1986 growing season.                   
                                                                                
* After-bloom care is necessary for next year's flowers on                      
amaryllis. In general, at least four strong leaves are needed for               
each flower stalk. Keep the plant growing strongly until mid-July               
before allowing it to go dormant.                                               
                                                                                
* Every two or three years it is best to repot amaryllis bulbs in               
fresh media and increase the pot size is necessary. if offsets                  
are present, you may pot them individually. Immature bulbs                      
generally require 2-3 years to reach bloom size.                                
                                                                                
* Start ageratum, baby's breath, begonia, statics, pansy, sweet                 
pea and snapdragon seed indoors this month.                                     
                                                                                
* On warm days, check if any perennials have been heaved by                     
freezing and thawing of soil. Firmly press down any which have                  
lifted and cover with at least 2" of organic mulch.                             
                                                                                
* There are many prescriptions to keep deer from nibbling                       
ornamentals: fencing, plastic netting, repellants, sprays, hot                  
pepper sauce, egg whites, human hare, lion or tiger manure, even                
rock music. Try a few to find out what works for your uninvited                 
pruners.                                                                        
                                                                                
* Stamp down snow near young trees to discourage mice from                      
nesting under the snow around them.                                             
                                                                                
* Bring house plants which normally thrive on the north side of                 
the house to east windows, while allowing the plants from the                   
east more sun on the south. Also, give the plants that usually                  
are set on the tables away from direct light a short midwinter                  
visit to one of the less exposed windowsills. When extremely cold               
nights prevail, draw the window shades at night or slip lengths                 
of protective cardboard between plants and the glass. Move the                  
tenderest plants away from the window panes on the coldest                      
nights.                                                                         
                                                                                
* If you are considering installing supplemental lighting for                   
your indoor plants, the 48 inch, 40 watt fixture with two                       
fluorescent tubes is the industry standard. Spare parts are                     
readily available and high production assures lower costs for 48                
inch than for other size tubes. Use one cool white and one warm                 
white tube to obtain a light mix most beneficial to plants.                     
                                                                                
* Fluorescent tubes lose intensity with age. If your are using                  
quite a few fluorescent lamps, change a few tubes at a time to                  
avoid plant damage by the sudden increase in light intensity.                   
                                                                                
* Spend a cold evening in front of the fire going through seed                  
catalogs to decide what you are going to plant in this year's                   
garden.                                                                         
                                                                                
* Analyze last year's planting records, and fertilizeing and                    
spraying calendar. Make notations to reorder successful varieties               
as well as those you wish to try again.                                         
                                                                                
* If you potted bulbs of daffodils, crocus, tulips, or hyacinths                
in fall, bring them indoors now to force them into bloom. Place                 
pots in a window that receives direct sunlight for at least a few               
hours each day. Allow soil to dry partially between each water-                 
ing.                                                                            
                                                                                
* Tree branches that have grown so much as to cast excess shade                 
over flower plantings should be cut off in winter when, in                      
falling, they can do no damage to the bed.                                      
                                                                                
* Continue harvesting the carrots, parsnips, turnips, and                       
horseradish you left in the garden in the fall.                                 
                                                                                
* Thin leaved plants seem most sensitive to transplant shock. If                
a plant wilts after repotting, encase the entire plant in a                     
plastic bag. Twist the bag shut and punch two or three holes in                 
it. Allow the plant to recuperate in this protected environment                 
for two or three days. Resist the urge to water a wilted plant if               
the soil is moist.                                                              
                                                                                
* Winter is the time to apply miscible oil sprays to kill                       
over-wintering mites, aphids, and scale. Use on deciduous plants                
and hardy evergreens but not on needleleaf species.                             
                                                                                
* Spray miscible oils when temperatures are above 40 degrees F                  
but not within 24 hours of a freeze. Because oil kills insects by               
suffocation, avoid spraying on windy days to ensure that all                    
surfaces of the plant are covered.                                              
                                                                                
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
Press Releases July 1986                                                        
                                                                                
Growing Onions                             62 lines                             
A Close Look at the Garden                 82 lines                             
Renovating Strawberries                    60 lines                             
Harvesting Vegetables                     120 lines                             
Geraniums                                  75 lines                             
                                                                                
                                                                                
Growing Onions                                                                  
                                                                                
Several different types of onions grow well in Virginia home                    
vegetable gardens.                                                              
                                                                                
The Egyptian onion, also known as the walking onion or tree                     
onion, is a perennial onion. It bears flowers on tall stalks,                   
which are later followed by small bulb-like structures called                   
bulbils. These tiny bulbs can be eaten, or may be replanted to                  
increase the size of the onion patch. If the plants are left                    
unattended, the stalks bend to the ground, the bulbs root                       
and seemingly "walk" through  your garden.                                      
                                                                                
Egyptian onions require little care and will grow almost any-                   
where. The best time to plant them is from the middle of August                 
to November so the plants can get a good start before winter. For               
best results, the ground should be prepared by mixing in generous               
quantities of compost.                                                          
                                                                                
All parts of the Egypian onion are edible at some time. The top                 
bulbs can be used cooked or raw for flavoring. Once dried, they                 
keep very well. The new green tips can substitute for chives. The               
white lower stalks can be chopped raw in a salad. Even the                      
coarser stalks can be added to a favorite stew.                                 
                                                                                
Another perennial onion is the Welsh onion. This onion produces                 
no true bulbs, but the leaves and stems are used for flavoring.                 
Compared to common onions, the flavor is quite mild and sweet.                  
Welsh onion seed can be planted in rows or beds in spring. They                 
will usually thrive in ordinary soil.                                           
                                                                                
Shallots can be used like green onions, or they can be allowed to               
mature into dry bulbs. As with other onions, there is no need to                
worry about light frosts on shallots. They are quite hardy and                  
resistant to cold.                                                              
                                                                                
In most of Virginia, shallots are planted in spring. In warm                    
areas, you may plant them in fall for winter and spring harvest.                
Bury the clove to half its depth, then firm the soil around it                  
making sure the top remains uncovered. Place the cloves at four                 
to six inch intervals in rows that are nine inches apart. After                 
five or six shoots have developed, mulch with straw, leaves, or                 
dry, unfinished compost. Too heavy a mulch will encourage onion                 
maggots and root rot. If grown in a well-drained, sunny location,               
shallots should not suffer from pest or disease damage.                         
                                                                                
Leeks are low in calories and care, and high in vitamins and                    
flavor. Leeks have a long history of being grown in Europe,                     
but they are not as popular in the United States.                               
                                                                                
Like shallots, leeks are generally grown from seeds. Because                    
they have a long growing season (four to five months), they                     
should be sown as early in spring as possible. In the colder                    
parts of the state it is beneficial to start seeds indoors. The                 
plants are very hardy; they can be harvested well into winter.                  
                                                                                
Although the leek is a member of the onion family, it does                      
not develop a true bulb; it grows straight from the neck to                     
the root. The white stems grow to be two inches thick and between               
six and eight inches long, with large, flat, grey-green tops                    
over a foot high. Leeks grow in just about any climate, but                     
require high fertility.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
A Close Look at the Garden                                                      
                                                                                
Somewhere between the first burst of enthusiasm in the spring                   
and the heat of July, many gardeners tend to lose track of their                
gardens. After the initial soil preparation and sowing of seed,                 
they quit looking to the earth and see only the products from                   
the garden.                                                                     
                                                                                
Believing well-laid plans were properly implemented in the                      
spring, most gardeners are ready to reap the harvest. Rarely do                 
they review those plans to verify their effectiveness. To become                
a more effective gardener, make notes throughout the growing                    
season. At different times of day, take a note pad to the garden.               
Look and record what you see.                                                   
                                                                                
Look at the soil. A key to successful gardening is well-prepared                
soil rich in organic material. Does the soil dry too fast or stay               
water-logged for long periods of time? Has it developed a rich,                 
crumbly texture that makes it a pleasure to work? If it hasn't                  
reached the ideal condition, then there is more work to do.                     
                                                                                
If you have not had a soil test in several years, contact your                  
local Extension agent and do one now. If lime is required to                    
raise the pH, it should be applied in the fall to affect the                    
next year's garden. Till two inches of compost or four to six                   
inches of organic material into your garden this fall. Don't                    
leave it on the surface until spring, as that will slow down                    
the warming of the soil and will not enrich it as much as it                    
could were it tilled in.                                                        
                                                                                
Last spring when you planted the garden, there were no leaves                   
on the trees. Notice now where their shadows fall. Are any                      
of the taller vegetables casting shade on others? Design next                   
year's garden now to provide at least between six and eight                     
hours of full sun to the fruiting crops. Plan for leafy greens                  
in the semi-shade and tall crops and trellises to the north                     
end of the garden to reduce shading.                                            
                                                                                
After watering, the soil should be moist to a depth of at least                 
eight inches to insure deep root penetration. This requires                     
approximately one inch of water. If, your soil is not damp                      
at root depth, evaluate your watering technique.                                
                                                                                
A handheld hose delivers water at such a high rate that it                      
creates runoff before water can penetrate deeply. This partially                
can be overcome by burying a gallon can full of holes near larger               
plants such as tomatoes, and filling it with water for slow                     
seepage.                                                                        
                                                                                
Unfortunately, a greet deal of sprinkler water is lost to                       
evaporation and muddy pathways. Consider a trickle irrigation                   
system where the water removed from the soil by plants is                       
replaced daily. Most home systems will last about three years,                  
reduce water use and significantly increase yield.                              
                                                                                
Much of the work on the garden can be reduced by the proper                     
use of mulch. A good mulch such as leaves or straw helps maintain               
soil moisture, while a poor one such as fresh sawdust or peat                   
crusts and reduces water penetration. Avoid using grass clippings               
from lawns that have been treated with weed killer.                             
                                                                                
The bottom line of success in the garden for most of us is the                  
genuine satisfation we gain from producing some of our food.                    
If your yield is not what you expect, look over your garden                     
practices. If the peppers and tomatoes are vigorous but have no                 
fruit, you may have overfertilized with nitrogen. Low cucurbits                 
yields may be traced to poor bee pollination, perhaps due to                    
indiscriminate use of carbaryl insecticide which kill bees                      
as well as pests.                                                               
                                                                                
If the lettuce is bitter and your broccoli in bloom, you just                   
waited too late to harvest and they succumbed to summer heat.                   
Poor corn development may result from planting in single rows                   
instead of blocks of four or more rows to insure good wind polli-               
nation.                                                                         
                                                                                
If squash is woody, tomatoes rotting on the vine, and green                     
beans too old to snap, you probably planted too much. Reduce                    
the size of the garden and plant flowers, or invite friends                     
over to help with the harvest. Either way, you add a new dimen-                 
sion to the joy of gardening.                                                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
Renovating Strawberries                                                         
                                                                                
Renovation of the strawberry patch is greeted with less enthu-                  
siasm than many other tasks in the garden. One has the feeling                  
that to delay the renovation will somehow lengthen the year's                   
harvest another day or another week. The best time to get your                  
berries ready for good yield next year, however, is to start as                 
soon as this year's harvest is complete.                                        
                                                                                
If your strawberry planting has made vigorous growth and is                     
free of weeds, it is a relatively simple task to rejuvenate it.                 
Remove the mulch and clip the tops of the plants to about one                   
inch above the crowns with a scythe or mower. Be careful not                    
to cut into the crown (the heavy growth point) at ground level.                 
If the crown is damaged, the plant may not recover.                             
                                                                                
If insects and foliage diseases are prevalent, dispose of the                   
leaves and mulch material. Apply a quickly soluble nitrogen                     
fertilizer such as nitrate of soda at the rate of 1/2 to 3/4                    
pounds per 100 feet of row to encourage vigorous top growth.                    
If nitrogen of soda is not readily available, you can substitute                
three pounds of 5-10-5 or 1.5 pounds of 10-10-10 fertilizer                     
per 100 square feet broadcast over the entire planting. Rototill                
or dig between the rows to incorporate the fertilizer and mulch                 
into the top few inches of soil.                                                
                                                                                
If the matted row is quite thick, the plants may require thin-                  
ning. After new foliage appears, thin the plants to six to eight                
inches apart leaving the strongest, most vigorous plants. Keep                  
the planting cultivated throughout the summer and irrigate when                 
necessary during dry periods to keep plants growing vigorously.                 
Fertilize again in the fall and renew mulch after freezing                      
weather begins.                                                                 
                                                                                
Early next spring, it would be a good idea to start a new                       
strawberry patch so that you can turn the one you renovated this                
year into a fall garden or plant a cover crop in its place. Two                 
really good harvests are about all you can expect from one patch                
so it's nice to have another one ready.                                         
                                                                                
Some people report maintaining the same patch for many years.                   
Either they have been incredibly fortunate with insects and                     
disease and have the most unbelievable soil in the area, or they                
have become accustomed to poor quality and low yield, and                       
forgotten that things can be much better.                                       
                                                                                
Don't try to scavenge plants from last year's beds to start                     
a new patch. Old plants will likely infest the bed with red                     
stele or other diseases and insects. Instead, order disease-free                
plants and experiment with new varieties.                                       
                                                                                
If your strawberry harvest comes from a strawberry jar, crock,                  
raised pyramid or other container, it is equally important to                   
renovate it and insure vigorous growth for next years. Try the                  
"hill" system of culture for such containers. Select the most                   
vigorous plants and remove all others that developed over the                   
last year. Keep all runners removed so that all of the plant's                  
energy goes into development of the primary plant. Use hand                     
shears to remove last year's foliage one inch above the soil                    
level to eliminate insect and diseases that they may harbor.                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
Harvesting Vegetables                                                           
                                                                                
Does a vine-ripened, home-grown tomato look different from a                    
hot-house produced, grocery-store tomato? With tomatoes, it may                 
be easy to tell when fruit is ripe, but for a beginning gardener,               
telling when to harvest produce may be difficult. Sometimes, as                 
much produce is lost due to improper harvesting as due to                       
insects. Here are descriptions of harvesting techniques for some                
common home grown vegetables.                                                   
                                                                                
Green or Wax Snap Beans--Pick when the pods are full size. The                  
newer varieties can be delayed until the beans are full size as                 
long as the pods are still tender. They should break off easily                 
with a "snap" when ready for harvesting. The seeds should not                   
cause the pods to bulge.                                                        
                                                                                
Pole and Half Runner Beans--Harvest as snap beans when young and                
stringless or shell beans when mature.                                          
                                                                                
Lima Beans--Pods should be green with swellings to show the                     
beans inside. Open a pod or two; beans should be plump but still                
green or gray-green (not white). Pick often to prolong picking                  
season.                                                                         
                                                                                
Sweet Corn--Harvest while the husk is still dark green. Kernels                 
should be full size and yellow or white to the tip of the ear,                  
but still in the soft, `milk stage' of growth. Corn is sweetest                 
just as the silk blackens. Remember that corn matures very                      
rapidly in hot weather and that it should be refrigerated                       
immediately after picking to prevent the sugar from turning to                  
starch.                                                                         
                                                                                
Cucumbers--Those of moderate size are best. Yellowing indicates                 
old age. Don't allow old cucumbers to remain on the vine because                
they will keep the vine from bearing more cucumbers. Harvest                    
while young and green when the seeds are soft. To use cukes for                 
sweet pickles, harvest when two to three inches long; for dills,                
five to six inches; and for slicing, six to eight inches.                       
                                                                                
Muskmelons--They develop the best flavor when they ripen in                     
warm, dry weather. They may taste more like cucumbers if they                   
mature in cool, rainy weather. Pick them at "full slip" stage                   
when the stem separates readily from the fruit. Fully ripe                      
melons are sweetest. As the melon ripens, the netting becomes                   
more prominent and the background color changes from a light                    
green to a tan or yellow cast. After harvesting, the fruit can be               
held at room temperature for one to three days until the blossom                
end softens.                                                                    
                                                                                
Okra or Gumbo--The best quality is when the pods are two to                     
three inches long. They may have to be harvested daily to get                   
the quality size. Pick within a few days after the flower                       
petals have fallen whether pods are to be used or not. If pods                  
are allowed to ripen, the plant ceases to produce.                              
                                                                                
Eggplant--Harvest when the fruits are large and shiny and an                    
even deep purple color. Keep mature fruits picked off and plants                
will produce over a long period of time. Fruit in which the                     
seeds have turned brown are of poor quality and past the edible                 
stage. To tell if the fruit is mature, press the side of the                    
fruit slightly. If the indentation remains, it is mature.                       
                                                                                
Potatoes--Dig them whenever tubers are large enough to eat.                     
Dig only what will be used immediately, because they keep better                
in the soil than in a warm house or basement. Harvest when the                  
tops have died down but before the first heavy freeze. When                     
digging, avoid skinning and injury. Avoid long exposure of                      
potatoes to light.                                                              
                                                                                
Tomatoes--Harvest them when fully vine-ripened and dark red.                    
Regardless of the state of maturity, picked tomatoes should be                  
put in the shade, not the sun. Light is not necessary for                       
immature tomatoes to ripen. Sun causes uneven ripening and                      
abnormal color formation. To obtain good color and flavor, hold                 
partly riped fruit at 70 degrees F then place in the refriger-                  
ator. Pick some green tomatoes and store in a cool (about 55                    
degrees F), moist, dark place before the first killing frost.                   
Ripen by putting them in a location that is 70 degrees F.                       
                                                                                
Cabbage--Harvest anytime after a firm head develops. If some                    
plants can't be harvested after they reach full maturity, bend                  
them to the ground on one side and break part of the roots to                   
reduce the possibility of head splitting from excess water                      
intake. If heads have not split, they can be stored for long                    
periods at tempertures of 32 to 45 degrees F.                                   
                                                                                
Broccoli--Cut while clustered flower heads are firm and green.                  
Take heads with leaves and 5 or 6 inches of stem (also edible).                 
Don't damage short side branches; they will produce smaller                     
heads if left to grow.                                                          
                                                                                
Brussels sprouts--Twist or snap off sprouts when they are firm                  
and still deep green (usually about the time lowest big leaves                  
start to yellow). Harvest lowest sprouts first. Upper ones will                 
continue to enlarge to harvesting size. The flavor of Brussels                  
sprouts improves after exposure to frosts.                                      
                                                                                
Cauliflower--As soon as blossom heads (farmers call them curds)                 
begin to form, pull the upper outer leaves over them to shade                   
from the sun. This blanching process gives a white curd. Inspect                
from time to time and cut off curd when the flower sections begin               
to separate.                                                                    
                                                                                
Kale--Cut off outer leaves from plants as needed. In thinning,                  
pull smaller plants and use (but don't eat roots).                              
                                                                                
New Zealand Spinach--Pinch off or cut with a sharp knife 2 to 3                 
inch lenths of tender stem tips with leaves. New shoots will grow               
to replace them.                                                                
                                                                                
Turnips and rutabagas--Pull young plants with tiny roots to thin                
rows and give growing room to the remaining plants. Eat thin-                   
nings, tops and all. At 2-inch diameters, roots are tastiest,                   
and tops are still good as greens. At 3 inches and above, roots                 
are still good and store a little better. Late planted rutabagas                
can stay in the ground until needed.                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
Geraniums                                                                       
                                                                                
For over 300 years, gardeners have enjoyed the continuously                     
renewing color of geraniums in the garden. Bright colors, perky                 
flower heads, and contrasting foliage have made them increasingly               
popular. Geraniums come in every flower color, except blue and                  
yellow. Their diversity of flower form and color, growth habits,                
and garden requirements make them highly adaptable for home                     
gardeners.                                                                      
                                                                                
Zonal Geraniums                                                                 
                                                                                
So-called because many of them have zones or patterns in the                    
center of the leaves, these are the ones most people recognize                  
as geraniums (even though they're not geraniums to the botanist,                
but Pelargoniums). Varieties with self-branching habit and                      
compact growth make tidy, well-shaped plants with a show of                     
color all summer long. Some of the varieties have unusually dark                
green foliage which makes a particularly striking contrast to                   
the colorful flower heads held above the foliage. Semi-double                   
flower types are highly desirable because they resist weather                   
damage well and are not as subject to shattering as are singles.                
                                                                                
Many of the new zonal geranium varieties (Pelargonium hortorum)                 
have been bred for free flowering, earliness, compactness and                   
self-branching characteristics making them particularly good                    
plants for every geranium use, from planting beds to container                  
plants for porch and patio.                                                     
                                                                                
Ivy Leaf Geraniums                                                              
                                                                                
Ivy-leafed geraniums have been developed from Pelargonium                       
peltatum. In Europe, over 45% of all geraniums produced are ivy                 
geraniums. Ivy geraniums bear semi-double flowers in colors                     
from white through all the pastels of pink to red. Plants are                   
particularly valuable for use in container plantings, hanging                   
baskets and window boxes where their flowering character provides               
soft effects. Traditionally, they've been used alone, but in                    
recent years the trend has been to combine them with other                      
flowers such as bachelor buttons and ageratum in mixed plantings.               
The key to these plantings is fullness--one or more kinds of                    
flowers for a vertical line, lower growing plants for mass, and                 
trailing varieties such as ivy geraniums to drape over container                
edges for softness and color.                                                   
                                                                                
Ivy geraniums prefer full sun and an eastern exposure where                     
temperatures generally remain below 80 degrees F, but can grow                  
well and bloom in dappled shade where temperatures go higher. For               
container plantings, top dress with a slow-release fertilizer to                
provide nutrient needs. Water is critical in container plantings,               
even more so in hanging baskets where all parts of the container                
are exposed to air movement.                                                    
                                                                                
Cascades                                                                        
                                                                                
Breeding work has brought about a new class of geraniums called                 
cascades. Cascade varieties are the ultimate container plants                   
so heavily covered with blooms that the foliage becomes hidden by               
the blossoms. Cascades are very popular in Europe where they are                
widely used for balcony plantings, window boxes and other                       
container plantings. They also make outstanding ground cover                    
plantings where you want bloom all summer long. Use them on                     
slopes or in ground beds.                                                       
                                                                                
Plant in full sun for the most bloom, but cascade geraniums are                 
also delightful in partial shade or dappled shade. Plants bloom                 
well even if exposed to four hours of full shade per day. The                   
plants are self-branching; each one becomes a mound of color,                   
flowing over the edges of containers to soften the lines and                    
enhance the plantings. The plants are also self-cleaning, which                 
means that spent flower heads drop away when finished blooming.                 
Varieties range in height from tall (24 inches) to very compact                 
kinds which may not exceed 12 inches in length. Fertilize and                   
water regularly to produce a great crop.                                        
                                                                                
Press Releases June 1986                                                        
                                                                                
Tomato Problems Caused by Culture or Environment    60 lines                    
Pinching and Disbudding Flowers                     52 lines                    
Garden Construction on a Budget                     65 lines                    
Iris Care                                           69 lines                    
Plants Have Many Roles                              72 lines                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tomato Problems Caused by Culture or Environment                                
                                                                                
Bossom End Rot. If your tomatoes appear to be inedible because                  
of large, dark, leathery areas on the end of the fruit where the                
blossom was, the problem may be blossom end rot. This is a                      
physiological problem associated with a water/calcium imbalance                 
in the plant. It is not caused by a fungus. Fungicides, there-                  
fore, will not correct the problem, although they may protect                   
the fruit from secondary fungi.                                                 
                                                                                
Blossom end rot occurs when there are dramatic fluctuations in                  
the amount of moisture the plant can absorb. These fluctuations                 
may be caused by heavy rainfall, drought or root injury. A lack                 
of calcium in the soil increases the severity of the problem.                   
                                                                                
To prevent blossom end rot, make sure the soil has sufficient                   
calcium. A standard soil test will indicate whether sufficient                  
calcium is present. Next, make sure your tomatoes receive a                     
constant, but not excessive supply of water. Adding organic                     
matter to the soil prior to planting will help, as will a layer                 
of mulch placed around the tomatoes.                                            
                                                                                
Always practice shallow cultivation in order to avoid injuring                  
tomato roots. Avoid applications of high nitrogen fertili-                      
zer, which promotes rapid growth. Superphosphate fertilizers                    
like 4-12-4, 5-20-5, and others are much better and contain                     
calcium, which may reduce blossom end rot.                                      
                                                                                
If your tomatoes develop blossom end rot, don't be too discour-                 
aged. The condition should correct itself when moisture fluctau-                
tions cease. Tomatoes which have blossom end rot may be usable.                 
Simply cut out the affected area if it is not too large.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Tomato Leaf Roll. Another tomato problem brought on by enviro-                  
nmental conditions is tomato leaf roll. The symptoms of this                    
nonparasitic disease usually begin with curling up of the                       
bottom leaflets. This curling may become so severe that the leaf                
margins touch or even overlap. Once the leaves are curled, they                 
will not unfold. Affected leaves will be firm and leathery.                     
                                                                                
Several conditions contribute to the development of tomato leaf                 
roll. Tomato plants that are severely pruned or have their root                 
system damaged by deep cultivation or moisture extremes are                     
likely to develop leaf roll. The condition is common following                  
heavy rains which keep the soil waterlogged. Some tomato varie-                 
ties are more susceptible to leaf roll than others.                             
                                                                                
Since tomato leaf roll is a nonparasitic disease, there is no                   
disease organism involved; therefore, pesticides will not prevent               
leaf roll of tomato plants. The problem can be avoided to a                     
great extent by planting tomatoes in well drained soil. However,                
the problem may develop during periods of heavy or prolonged                    
rain, regardless of soil condition.                                             
                                                                                
Tomato leaf roll does not normally affect the growth of the                     
plant. Tomato plants showing the condition should produce a                     
normal crop. Fruits may develop sunscald if the leaf roll is                    
severe and exposes them to full sunlight. Overall, tomato                       
leaf roll is nothing to worry about.                                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
Pinching and Disbudding Flowers                                                 
                                                                                
The training of the annual flowers in your garden can be as                     
fascinating as the pruning of your shrubs. In fact, it may be                   
more rewarding because you will see the results of your effort                  
within a very short time.                                                       
                                                                                
One of the first training operations is to pinch back the main                  
stems of your plants to encourage bushy growth. This should be                  
done with annuals such as petunia, snapdragon and zinnia.                       
                                                                                
Pinch off an inch of the top of the stem when the young plants                  
are 4 to 5 inches tall. This will cause side branches to develop                
on the lower part of the stem. To obtain very dense, bushy                      
plants, pinch back a second time when the laterals attain a 4                   
or 5 inch length. The double pinching of annual flowers will                    
produce a compact plant with many blooms. This procedure will                   
give large numbers of flowers for arrangements in the home, or a                
mass of blooms in the flower bed or border.                                     
                                                                                
Another type of training which you might want to practice is                    
disbudding. Remove all buds as they develop except the one at                   
the top. When you allow only the top bud to grow, it receives                   
all the food from the leaves on that stem and becomes a large                   
fine flower. This is the way to produce superior specimens for                  
flower shows.                                                                   
                                                                                
Disbudding is easy. While flowering stems are developing look                   
for the buds that form in the angles of the leaves along the                    
side of the stem. When these become large enough to be seen                     
easily, remove them by bending them to the side and snapping                    
them off at the base. Inspect your plants every few days because                
these lateral buds grow very fast during the early summer.                      
                                                                                
Pinching and disbudding are especially useful practices for                     
raising large chrysanthemums. As a rule the plant should be                     
pinched only once, and only two or three stems allowed to grow                  
on each plant. Remove all other lateral branches as they develop.               
                                                                                
To secure long-stemmed, exhibition type chrysanthemums you                      
should tie the two or three stems of each plant to separate                     
stakes or vertical string supports. Be sure to watch for buds                   
along the side of stems and remove them as soon as possible.                    
                                                                                
Roses should also be disbudded. As the stems develop, remove all                
side buds when they become about a half inch long. You will have                
fewer roses on your bushes, but the ones you do have will be                    
large beautiful specimens.                                                      
                                                                                
Remove all faded flowers from annuals and roses as soon as they                 
die. This will cause plants to continue to bloom throughout                     
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Garden Construction on a Budget                                                 
                                                                                
Many gardeners feel caught in a classic approach/avoidance                      
conflict. On the approach side, there are many projects to make                 
the yard more attractive, easier to care for, and more useful                   
for entertaining friends or just relaxing. On the avoidance side,               
money is often tight, and projects cost money.                                  
                                                                                
Of course, staying home and building a patio is cheaper than a                  
family vacation. But if you can't afford either one this year,                  
you need to learn the fine art of scrounging.                                   
                                                                                
A primary requirement for good scrounging is an active imagina-                 
tion. You've got to see possibilities in things others have                     
thrown or might throw away; might give away if properly asked;                  
or, as a last resort, might sell cheaply.                                       
                                                                                
Among the most familiar recycled materials found in the home                    
garden are railroad ties, broken concrete, salvaged timbers,                    
scrap lumber, slab wood, and used brick. With more imagination,                 
old tires, wire cable spools, wooden crates and pallets can be                  
used effectively. Some materials can be obtained for the hauling                
and others for a small investment, while others are lucrative                   
businesses for someone. Each has merits and drawbacks to be                     
considered.                                                                     
                                                                                
Railroad ties, about 6 x 8 inches of rough timber 8 feet long,                  
are usually pressure treated with creasote. They can be toxic to                
plants unless weathered for several years. The condition of the                 
tie and the type of wood varies, as does the cost. Ties are                     
especially good for low walls, such as raised beds, steps and                   
curbing. Treated timber, about 4 x 4 inches and larger, generally               
can be found in better condition and with a greater choice of                   
sizes than railroad ties. However, prices are much higher.                      
                                                                                
Scrap lumber from construction projects, demolitions or similar                 
sources is usally free but may be difficult to work with due to                 
varying sizes, nails, and chemical treatment. Avoid wood treated                
with pentachlorophynol (Penta), a wood preservative, as it                      
remains quite toxic to plants for many years. Penta is no longer                
being used to treat new wood but you may find it on some recycled               
lumber.                                                                         
                                                                                
If you live near a timber area, slab wood (the bark and timber                  
left after cutting a round log into a square beam), can be had                  
for free or up to about $8 a pickup load. What you don't burn to                
heat your house, can be used to build raised beds, rustic sheds,                
fences, and other structures.                                                   
                                                                                
Broken concrete, in sizes approximately 4 inches thick by 12                    
inches wide by 24 inches long, can be stacked for garden walls.                 
Leave pockets for plants spaced along the wall. For patios, odd                 
shapes of concrete result in a flagstone appearance and lend                    
themselves well to interplanting. An acid stain will give                       
concrete a more stonelike appearance.                                           
                                                                                
Used bricks can be less expensive and more attractive than new                  
ones in a rustic garden setting. Beware of using brick from                     
the inner layers of thick brick walls or from buildings that                    
have burned. They may not be weather resistant and you may end                  
up with a "brick dust" patio.                                                   
                                                                                
As your scrounging experience grows, so will your imagination                   
and quick eye. There are even stories of one gardener who used                  
bed springs to trellis his cucumbers.                                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
Iris Care                                                                       
                                                                                
Bearded iris in the perennial border should be divided and                      
replanted in midsummer. The best time is immediately after the                  
blooming season is completed. The operation may be delayed until                
fall, but summer is preferred by most growers. When clumps                      
are divided at this time, the new plants will become well                       
established before winter and be ready to produce a fine crop of                
flowers next spring.                                                            
                                                                                
The bearded iris has a fleshy rhizome or stem which grows along                 
the surface of the soil. New side buds are developed each year                  
until a large network of branched rhizomes is established. If                   
large blooms are desired, the plants should be divided and                      
replanted every three to five years, depending on the density of                
the clump.                                                                      
                                                                                
In preparing to replant bearded iris, cut the leaves back to                    
about six inches. Then, with a pointed shovel dig around all                    
sides of the plant and lift the entire clump out of the ground.                 
Wash away the soil. With a sharp knife cut off the short side                   
branches which have a cluster of leaves at the end. Discard the                 
old center portion of the clump.                                                
                                                                                
Inspect each rhizome for signs of insect feeding or decay. The                  
most serious insect pest of iris, the iris borer, are often                     
found at this time. Check the rhizome for the 1 1/4 inch long,                  
pinkish larvae with a row of black spots down the sides, and                    
check the soil for the inch-long borer pupae. Destroy any that                  
are found. Rhizomes infested with borers may also be infected                   
with bacterial soft rot. Remove diseased areas with a knife. If                 
extensive rot is present, discard the entire rhizome.                           
                                                                                
Replant the new divisions after cutting the roots back to about                 
two inches. Plant in well drained soil and cover about one inch                 
deep. In heavy or poorly drained soils the top of the rhizome                   
should be exposed to reduce the possibility of rot.                             
                                                                                
After the planting operation is completed, apply a side dressing                
of 5-10-5 fertilizer at the rate of about two pounds per 100                    
feet of row. Scratch the fertilizer into the top inch of soil and               
water thoroughly. Apply a very light mulch of sawdust or peat                   
moss to help conserve soil moisture. Do not use a heavy mulch                   
which may increase the possibility of rhizome rot. Additional                   
water may be needed every two weeks during periods of drought.                  
                                                                                
After the ground has frozen, apply additional mulch. This will                  
conserve moisture and help to prevent the alternate freezing and                
thawing of the soil that may push plants out of the ground.                     
                                                                                
Irises grown from divisions should bloom the next spring after                  
planting. For a quick flower display, plant three individual                    
rhizomes 8 to 10 inches apart. But remember, the more closely                   
together iris rhizomes are planted, the sooner they will need to                
be divided.                                                                     
                                                                                
The same planting procedure is suggested for dwarf and interme-                 
diate bearded irises. Try some of these shorter types to add new                
interest to the garden. Dwarf varieties bloom in early spring,                  
followed by the intermediate and then the tall types. Some of                   
the intermediate varieities produce a second crop of flowers in                 
the fall.                                                                       
                                                                                
You might also consider planting some of the crested irises.                    
This is a dwarf type which is related to the bearded iris. The                  
plants grow to a height of six to nine inches, and are ideal for                
the rock garden or low border. This type received its name from                 
the crest of tissue along the falls (flower petals oriented                     
downward) in place of the beard.                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Plants Have Many Roles                                                          
                                                                                
Plants do a lot for people...they clean the atmosphere, modify                  
climate, abate noise, inhibit glare and control erosion. In                     
addition, many are lovely to the eye and tasty to eat.                          
                                                                                
Plants clean and purify existing air as well as manufacture                     
oxygen. Each person requires 30 to 60 pounds of clean air to                    
breathe each day. Ornamental plants provide clean air in four                   
ways: First, their "manufactured" air created through photosyn-                 
thesis dilutes polluted air and increases the ratio of "clean                   
to dirty" air.                                                                  
      Second, moisture that plants give off traps airborne                      
particles and acts as a filter for some pollutants. A single,                   
mature apple tree gives off 300 gallons of water per day.                       
      Third, hairy leaves and stems of many plants trap airborne                
particles and hold them until they are washed to the ground by                  
rain. In one large city, the dust count on the down-wind side of                
a heavily planted area measured 75 percent lower than a similar                 
count on the up-wind side.                                                      
      Fourth, trees can slow the air movement sufficiently for                  
heavier dust particles and pollutants to settle.                                
      Additionally, Fumes and odors can be masked by plants with                
particularly fragrant blooms or foliage.                                        
                                                                                
By modifying the intensity of sunlight and by wind and humidity                 
control, plants can have a significant impact on the temperature                
around the home. The shady area under trees is cooler because of                
both an increase in moisture and a decrease in direct solar                     
radiation.                                                                      
                                                                                
Trees not only give off moisture, but the leaf canopy tends to                  
prevent moisture-laden air from moving away. This moist air is                  
more difficult to heat than dry air and can help reduce the                     
temperature near the tree.                                                      
                                                                                
Trees are also effective at shielding something from the sun's                  
radiation. Leaves, twigs and branches absorb part of the radia-                 
tion, transmit a smaller portion, and reflect the rest.                         
                                                                                
There are several more ways plants can modify the climate. One                  
important way is to use trees that are deciduous (those which                   
lose their leaves in the winter) in landscaping, to reduce both                 
heating and cooling bills. Trees planted so that they reflect the               
sun away from the house and shade it during the summer help keep                
the house cool. In the winter, when they have lost their leaves,                
the sun is able to reach the house and warm it.                                 
                                                                                
Noise can be reduced with properly placed ornamental plantings.                 
Trees, shrubs, vines and turf absorb noises. Plant parts break                  
up sound waves, changing their direction and reducing their                     
intensity. Densely growing plants are best for sound control but                
the width of the planting is critical. To effectively screen                    
highway noises, plantings would have to be 25 to 35 feet thick.                 
Plant sounds, such as rustling leaves, help conceal or disguise                 
offensive noises.                                                               
                                                                                
Glare from car headlights can be annoying. Control of such glare                
can be achieved by placing buffer plantings between the light                   
source and the room. Place them close to the house to be most                   
effective.                                                                      
                                                                                
A secondary source of glare, such as reflected sunlight from                    
pavements, can be reduced by plants too. Plants, even in tubs or                
containers, can be used to visually "break up" or soften a                      
reflective surface. The light is reflected to the plant, which                  
softens it by diffraction before it reaches the viewers' eyes.                  
                                                                                
Finally, erosion control is an important role for plants. Trees,                
shrubs, vines, ground covers and grasses help prevent serious                   
erosion by intercepting and breaking the impact of raindrops and                
by holding the soil in place with their roots.                                  
May 1986 Press Releases                                                         
                                                                                
Identifying Pests                                 66 lines                      
Flowering Tobacco                                 38 lines                      
Summer Blooming Perennials                        79 lines                      
Trellis for Efficiency                            54 lines                      
Protecting Shade Trees from Construction Damage   64 lines                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Identifying Pests                                                               
                                                                                
A variety of insects live in home vegetable gardens in the                      
state. Although some are beneficial, such as lady bug beetles,                  
and praying mantis, many cause damage and  frustration to the                   
gardeners  as they attempt to get rid of them.                                  
                                                                                
Chemical insect controls are most effective when the correct                    
insecticide is applied properly to the insect it was meant to                   
control. Gardeners need to be able to identify the insects. Here                
is a description of some of the most common garden pests to help                
in identification:                                                              
                                                                                
Aphids or plant lice are small, soft-bodied sucking insects                     
usually found in large numbers on the undersides of many vege-                  
table plant leaves. They vary from gray to green, brown, yellow                 
or black in color. As the aphid sucks the juices from the plant,                
curling, wilting or even stunting may occur.                                    
                                                                                
Striped and spotted cucumber beetles feed on cucumber, squash,                  
melon, and related plants. The beetles first attack more mature                 
plants. Beetles may carry bacterial wilt disease which often                    
causes the plant's death. Both beetles are yellow and under 1/2"                
in length; one has black stripes, the other black spots. Late in                
the season, beetles may be found inside blossoms.                               
                                                                                
The cutworm is a familiar sight; it rolls up into a "ball" when                 
disturbed. Its damage is most conspicuous when young plants are                 
cut off at the soil surface. Weedy gardens tend to add to cutworm               
problems. The caterpillars, the larvae of night flying moths,                   
vary in color-green to brown to black and generally are soft-                   
bodied, smooth and cylindrical.                                                 
                                                                                
Although the Mexican bean beetle resembles one of the helpful                   
lady beetles, it is not beneficial. These yellowish to copper                   
colored beetles with black spots can be found on beans along with               
their fuzzy yellow larvae. The primary symptom is skeletonization               
of the leaves; however, the insects will attack young pods and                  
stems if the leaves are tough or already have been destroyed.                   
                                                                                
Colorado potato beetles defoliate potatoes, eggplants and                       
tomatoes. The beetles feed first on tender foliage. After                       
mating, females lay masses of yellow eggs on the undersides of                  
leaves. The larvae are brick red in color and have a slug-like                  
appearance. They also feed on the leaves, often leaving nothing                 
but a bare stalk.                                                               
                                                                                
The tomato hornworm is a large green caterpillar with white                     
markings. The hornworm has a spike-like projection on one of the                
last abdominal segments, hence its name. The tomato hornworm                    
feeds on tomato leaves and green fruit, causing early defoliation               
and deformed fruit. Many times gardeners see a hornworm with a                  
number of white projections on its back. These are the cocoons of               
a small parasitic wasp that is part of the natural control                      
complex for caterpillars, such as the hornworms. Hornworms with                 
cocoons on them should be left in the garden. The insect is                     
already declining and the wasps which hatch can control other                   
caterpillars.                                                                   
                                                                                
Cabbage loopers often go unoticed because their coloring is                     
similar to that of their host plants. They feed on cabbage and                  
related crops, including broccoli, cauliflower and kale. These                  
green worms first feed on the outer leaves, but gradually work                  
their way to the inner parts of the plant. A person may have                    
been surprised to find one or two in the water after cooking a                  
head of broccoli.                                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
Flowering Tobacco                                                               
                                                                                
Plant breeders look for garden flowers that will stay in bloom                  
for several weeks despite summer heat and humidity. They have a                 
good prospect in the dwarf, day-blooming, fragrant nicotiana.                   
The old style tall flowering tobacco was treasured for its                      
evening frangrance but it didn't have a great deal else to                      
offer. Tall spikes of flowers remained closed until dusk and the                
colors were rather muddy. The spindly spikes could be wrecked by                
wind and rain.                                                                  
                                                                                
New dwarf nicotianas grow to a height of only 15 to 18 inches,                  
branch at the base to form multiple flower spikes and are day                   
blooming. Their delectable fragrance, is noticeable from several                
feet away on calm, humid days. If there are hummingbirds anywhere               
in the neighborhood, they'll be visiting the nicotiana.                         
                                                                                
So many of the tubular, starpointed blossoms are borne on each                  
plant that the breeders have had to select for a "self cleaning"                
habit. Spent blossoms of the new varieties are shaken off by the                
gentlest breeze.                                                                
                                                                                
Rain or shine, the color impact of nicotianas is extraoridinary;                
weather that fades, beats down, or blemishes other summer flowers               
fazes the new nicotianas little. Dwarf nicotianas bloom early and               
continue blooming all summer long. Rosy pink, deep rose, white                  
and crimson colors are available.                                               
                                                                                
Despite its tiny seeds, nicotiana is easy to grow from seed if                  
sown in warm soil in the garden. Make a short "nursery row",                    
water it thoroughly and top with a shallow layer of potting soil.               
Do not cover the seeds; they need light to sprout. Sprinkle                     
daily with a fine mist. If necessary, transplant the seedlings                  
while they are small; they recover quickly.                                     
                                                                                
Nicotianas prefer full sun but will tolerate light shade. Plant                 
them behind brightly colored low growing flowers, around trees                  
or shrubs, or in medium sized containers.                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Summer Blooming Perennials                                                      
                                                                                
Daylilies                                                                       
                                                                                
The bright orange daylily that blooms along roads and on rail                   
road banks is a showy summer perennial. Plant breeders have                     
"tamed" or "changed" the color, and your garden may have yellow,                
orange, maroon, or pinkish daylilies. Many nursery gardeners grow               
only daylilies. A single mature plant may have over 50 blossoms                 
and by choosing only four of the many varieities, you can have                  
blooms all summer.                                                              
                                                                                
Divide large daylily clumps as soon as they have finished                       
blooming. They like full sun or partial shade, but are content                  
with only four hours of sunlight a day. Some daylilies grown                    
only 2 feet tall; others show their flowers on 4 foot stems.                    
Select a variety whose height and color fit into your border                    
plan. Plant them in large clumps next to shrubbery or wherever                  
you need lots of green foliage. Daylilies grow in practically all               
types of soil, but bloom more if you mix organic matter or                      
compost into the soil when you plant them.                                      
                                                                                
Gaillardia                                                                      
                                                                                
Gaillardia, also known as blanketflower, has blooms of rich                     
yellow with red centers. The cut flowers keep well and can be                   
used for corsages.                                                              
                                                                                
Gaillardia is easily divided in the spring and thrives in any                   
soil except heavy clay. Since it blooms from June until after                   
killing frosts, it can be planted in front of iris for a nice                   
display. The many soft, hairy leaves tend to hide the iris after                
it has finished blooming. With a height of up to 3 feet, gaillar-               
dia can be planted in the middle of the flower border. A low-                   
growing form under 1' in height is now available.                               
                                                                                
Coreopsis                                                                       
                                                                                
Coreopsis is a popular yellow daisylike flower, sometimes called                
tickseed. Coreopsis blooms from June until frost. The leaves are                
narrow and light green, and the yellow flowers are from 2 to 3                  
inches across. The flowers are on long, graceful stems, making                  
them attractive for indoor use. Continual removal of the faded                  
flowers before seeds form assures a supply of coreopsis blooms                  
all summer.                                                                     
                                                                                
It is best to divide the old, crowded plants in early spring and                
to reset them about 3 feet apart. All coreopsis asks is plenty of               
sunlight and good soil.                                                         
                                                                                
Shasta Daisy                                                                    
                                                                                
Shasta daisy is a friendly neighbor for coreopsis. It, too, has                 
daisylike flowers and blooms freely, giving many blossoms that                  
fit into any summer flower arrangement. Shasta daisy is related                 
to fall mums; new varieties are double and look much like                       
chrysanthemums.                                                                 
                                                                                
Sun and good soil keep shasta daisies content. Divide crowded                   
plants in early spring and reset them near the middle of the                    
flower border since the plants grow to a height of about 2 feet.                
Bugs and diseases seldom bother shasta daisies.                                 
                                                                                
Phlox                                                                           
                                                                                
Phlox means flame in Greek. No doubt the bright red heads of                    
the standard variety are the reason for its name. Phlox is found                
in many perennial gardens, probably because the large clusters of               
showy flowers come in many colors, and cultivars vary in height                 
and time of bloom. A planting with colors graded from light                     
pink to dark red is most striking. The blooms can also be used                  
for cut flowers.                                                                
                                                                                
Phlox is best planted in groups in beds along driveways and paths               
and in front of shrubbery. They are hungry plants and need plenty               
of moisture and good rich soil. If set too close together, phlox                
may be attacked by mildew. Spray any mildewed plants with                       
fungicide. If necessary, divide phlox in September and reset the                
outer sections of the old plants.                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
Trellis for Efficiency                                                          
                                                                                
One of the surest ways to increase the efficiency of your garden                
space is by growing highly productive vining crops and maintaini-               
ng them on a trellis.                                                           
                                                                                
Some vines climb by spiraling around supports and twining around                
any object small enough to embrace. Others have short tendrils                  
that cling to supports and, if trained occasionally, will grow                  
up alongside a post or within a cage. Others are so heavy and                   
have so few tendrils that they need frequent training; if left                  
to their own devices, they would lie about on the ground.                       
                                                                                
The climbing habits of a vine determine the kind of support                     
needed. Climbers or twiners include pole or runner beans,                       
asparagus beans and most of the flowering vines. Clingers                       
include tall varieties of green peas, gourds, and sweet peas. The               
heavy vining vegetables are cantaloupe, pumpkin, squash and                     
watermelon.                                                                     
                                                                                
The simplest and least expensive support for twining vines is a                 
6 to 7 foot high frame. Provide top and bottom stringers of                     
heavy guage wire or crossbars of lumber. Lace strong twine                      
vertically and train the tendrils as soon as they are long                      
enough to twine around two or three times. Only occasional                      
training will be needed to assist wayward tendrils the rest of                  
the season.                                                                     
                                                                                
Clinging vines can get by with shorter supports, five to six feet               
in height. Disposable netting stretched over a vertical frame                   
works very well and requires less maintenance than chicken wire.                
                                                                                
Semi-permanent trellises with sturdy posts and crossbars or wire                
stringers placed every foot or so are needed for heavy fruited                  
vines. Any wood used on semi-permanent trellisses should be                     
construction grade salt-treated lumber. Gardeners with untreated                
lumber on hand can treat their wood with copper napthenate, a                   
preservative that is not toxic to plants.                                       
                                                                                
Although trellising may be more work initially than growing the                 
bush varieities, the advantages make it ultimately worthwhile.                  
The yield per square foot is much higher than that of bush                      
varieties, sometimes as much as double. Many vining varieties                   
yield up to 4 weeks longer than bush varieties eliminating the                  
need to replant for fall harvest. The produce is easier to                      
harvest, especially for someone who finds kneeling and stooping a               
challange.                                                                      
                                                                                
Since foliage dries out faster with the good air circulation                    
around a trellised crop, disease is less of a problem. When                     
spraying or dusting does become necessary, it is easier to                      
thoroughly cover both sides of the leaf. And as a final benefit,                
you don't have to watch where you put your feet as you make your                
way through the garden.                                                         
Protecting Shade Trees from Construction Damage                                 
                                                                                
Nearly everyone recognizes the value of trees in providing                      
shade, ornament, and protection to building sites, city streets,                
and roadsides. All too frequently, however, the trees that make                 
a site attractive are damaged or killed during construction work                
by carelessness or inadequate protection. Frequently, it is                     
possible to repair such damage or to restore a tree's health,                   
but it is always better and usually more econimcal to prevent                   
damage than to correct it. Before beginning actual construction,                
it is worthwhile to give careful thought to the protection of                   
trees on the site.                                                              
                                                                                
A basic way to lessen construction damage to trees is to reduce                 
traffic as much as possible around the construction site. Talk                  
this over with your contractor before construction begins.                      
Establish definite traffic patterns and fence off trees, if                     
necessary. Locate areas where soil and building materials are                   
stockpiled well away from the drip line of the trees you want to                
save.                                                                           
                                                                                
When you install temporary or permanent driveways or traffic                    
lanes, cut nearby tree roots cleanly. Cleanly cut roots will                    
heal better and new roots will develop. Sometimes it is necessary               
for traffic to pass temporarily near trees. In this case build a                
bridge to keep the weight of heavy vehicles off the soil. Place                 
railroad ties on the ground and place steel plates over the ties                
for a temporary equipment bridge.                                               
                                                                                
Cut-and-fill damage can injure trees just as much as compaction.                
The symptoms of the two problems are almost identical: early leaf               
drop in fall, twig die-back, and leaf dwarfing. In most cases,                  
injury and death occurs more rapidly from cut-and-fill damage.                  
Fill that covers the root system of a tree will smother it by                   
cutting off the air supply and, sometimes, the moisture that the                
tree must have to survive.                                                      
                                                                                
If you want to place fill dirt over existing root systems you                   
will need to install 4 to 6 inch standard agricultural field                    
drain tile in a pattern with 8 radials extending from 1 1/2 -2'                 
from the trunk to beyond the drip line. Cover the tile with 6 to                
8 inches of coarse 1/2 to 3 inch stone. Use creek gravel, not                   
crushed limestone which is commonly used for road work. Crushed                 
limestone can harm trees by raising the soil pH. The fill                       
soil should be porous as possible or amended with sand or                       
organic materials. Sandy soil permits much more natural drainage                
of air and water than clay, which packs more easily. Two or                     
three inches of sandy soil can be filled over a root system                     
without harming the tree, while 2 to 3 inches of clay soil                      
filled over a root system may kill the tree.                                    
                                                                                
Removing soil from underneath a tree canopy can seriously damage                
roots and may even impare the stability of the tree. If you need                
to lower the soil level near trees leave the largest possible                   
area at the original soil level. Build a retaining wall around                  
the undisturbed soil or gradually taper the soil level between                  
the different heights. Plant the exposed soil in grass or                       
groundcover to prevent erosion.                                                 
                                                                                
There are no shortcuts to tree protection. You may save time and                
avoid mistakes if you obtain competent assistance before you make               
plans for construction operations or before you treat trees that                
have suffered from widespread construction damage. Sometimes it                 
may be desirable to consult the extension service first.                        
                                                                                
April 1986 Press Releases                                                       
                                                                                
Spinach                             30 lines                                    
Annual Vines in the Landscape       49 lines                                    
Nasturiums                          42 lines                                    
Trickle Irrigation                  78 lines                                    
Minimum Chemical Gardening          70 lines                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
SPINACH                                                                         
                                                                                
Spinach is one of our most important crops for use as greens. It                
is an easy and quick vegetable to grow in the home garden during                
cool spring or fall weather.                                                    
                                                                                
Spinach is hardy and will withstand frost as low as 10 or 12                    
degrees below freezing. It may be planted a month or more before                
the average last frost date in your locality. Spinach is best as                
a spring or fall crop as seeds do not germinate well in warm                    
weather and plants bolt in the heat of summer.                                  
                                                                                
Spinach does not grow satisfactorily during continually wet                     
weather. If your soil is somewhat heavy, plant on low ridges to                 
provide extra drainage. Sow seeds 1/2" deep, 2-4" apart in rows                 
12-18" apart. In wide beds plant seed 4" apart in all directions.               
Crowding can stress plants and encourage early development of                   
flower stalks. Thin plants to about four inches apart in the row.               
                                                                                
Be sure to plant spinach on a fertile loam soil to ensure rapid                 
growth. The entire plant is cut when the desired size is reached                
in about 40 to 50 days after planting. Or outside leaves can be                 
harvested from the time the plant has 6-8 leaves until just                     
before the flower stalks develop.                                               
                                                                                
There are two common types of spinach: the savoyed or crumpled                  
leaf varieties used mostly for fresh market, and the smooth leaf                
varieties used commericially for canning. Long standing or slow                 
bolting strains should be planted as these go to seed slower than               
other types providing a longer harvest period.                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
ANNUAL VINES IN THE LANDSCAPE                                                   
                                                                                
Annual flowering vines are useful for many locations around the                 
home. They add new interest to the landscape when grown on a                    
fence, arbor or trellis. They grow rapidly to form an attractive                
mass of foliage and flowers.                                                    
                                                                                
Annual vines climb by twining around a support, or by clinging                  
with tendrils. They may be used to provide shade along a porch,                 
give new charm to a fence or add color and new appeal to the                    
side of the garage. Wooden lattice, woven wire fencing, or                      
string is all that is needed.                                                   
                                                                                
Morning glory is one of the most colorful vines you can plant.                  
Brilliant flowers are available in white and shades of blue                     
and red. The flowers are four to five inches across and are borne               
freely on vines which may grow to a height of 12 to 15 feet tall.               
Morning glories grow best on a well drained soil in a warm sunny                
location. Avoid rich soil and excessive fertilization which                     
produces vigorous vines with few flowers. Start seeds indoors in                
four inch pots, and plant outdoors two or three weeks after the                 
average last frost date in your area. Soaking the seeds in water                
overnight will speed germination. Be careful when choosing a                    
location for morning glory vines. The plants self sow readily and               
you will get volunteers in the following year.                                  
                                                                                
Vine-forming nasturtium cultivars grow four or five feet tall.                  
They bloom profusely, producing fragrant flowers in shades of red               
and yellow. The plants perform best in well drained soil of                     
average or low fertility. In rich soil, they will produce mostly                
leaves and very few flowers. The canary creeper is closely                      
related to the nasturtium. This tender vine grows to a height of                
about eight feet. Yellow flowers have two large fringed petals,                 
three smaller ones, and a green spur.                                           
                                                                                
Scarlet runner bean is an edible ornamental suitable for trellis-               
ing. Rosy scarlet flowers top long twining vines. The purplish                  
pods are ornamental and can be shelled for cooking purposes. A                  
white runner bean, `White Dutch' can be found in some seed                      
catalogs.                                                                       
                                                                                
Gourds have rather inconspicuous flowers, but produce colorful                  
fruit which are ornamental on the vine during late summer. The                  
fruit may be dried for fall and winter arrangements in the home.                
                                                                                
Avoid planting Japanese hops vines. These grow rapidly, reseed                  
prolifically, and may become a weed which is difficult to                       
control. Some people are sensitive to the prickly leaves of this                
plant, which may cause unsightly red welts.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
NASTURTIUMS                                                                     
                                                                                
Nasturtiums originated in the high Andes mountains of Peru and                  
are therefore, an important native flower of the western hemi-                  
sphere. They need plenty of light to produce good flowers                       
in shades of yellow, orange, red and mahogany. Double flower                    
cultivars are available.                                                        
                                                                                
Nasturtiums grow rapidly and come into bloom in about six or                    
eight weeks from seed, quicker than most other annual flowers.                  
Plant them after the danger of frost is past. Sow nasturtium                    
seeds in soil of below average fertility to encourage slow growth               
and abundant flowering. Rich soils will produce lush green plants               
with few blooms. These excellent plants are almost pest free                    
except for occasion aphid infestation.                                          
                                                                                
A unique feature of nasturtiums is that some parts of this                      
ornamental plant are edible. The young flower buds and unripe                   
seeds have a pleasant pungent flavor. Young leaves have a peppery               
flavor and may be used in sandwiches and salads. The flowers may                
be used as an edible garnish.                                                   
                                                                                
The low bushy type nasturtiums grow to a height of one or two                   
feet. They are fine as edging plants or massed in the flower                    
border. The flowers are produced freely and are useful in small                 
and medium sized arrangements.                                                  
                                                                                
The climbing type nasturtium rapidly grows to a height of six to                
eight feet, and will quickly cover a fence or lattice. This vine                
climbs by twining around its support; therefore, you will need                  
to provide string, wire, or a trellis for climbing nasturtiums.                 
Climbing types may also be used to hang down from a window box                  
or trail along a bank or stone retaining wall. Vining varieties                 
prefer shade from the midday sun.                                               
                                                                                
The canary creeper is closely related to the nasturtium. When                   
planted in a semi-shaded location with a rich moist soil, this                  
vine will grow to a height of six to ten feet. The leaves are                   
somewhat similar to maple but more deeply notched. The pale                     
yellow flowers about one inch across display two large and                      
three small petals, and a green spur. From a distance they look                 
like small canary birds.                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
TRICKLE IRRIGATION                                                              
                                                                                
The greatest interest in trickle irrigation usually occurs about                
July when the novelty of moving sprinklers and hoses about the                  
garden has worn off and the impossiblity of watering and harvest-               
ing in the garden at the same time has made itself clear. But                   
now is the time to plant and install your trickle system while                  
you are planting the garden.                                                    
                                                                                
Trickle irrigation involves frequent, sometimes daily, applica-                 
tions of small amounts of water to replace water in the soil as                 
it is used by plants. This is done by using a system of "remit-                 
ters" or hoses to slowly apply water under low pressure to the                  
plant root zone.                                                                
                                                                                
There are a number of advantages to trickle irrigation over                     
traditional watering systems:                                                   
  considerably less water is required to meet the plant's needs                 
for optimum growth.                                                             
  since the plant is never put under water stress, its production               
is increased, sometimes by as much as 100%.                                     
  since only a fraction of the soil is wetted, only that directly               
around the plant roots, the garden is accessible at all times.                  
  since you are not watering pathways and non-production areas,                 
fewer weeds are encouraged to grow; thus there are less weeds to                
control.                                                                        
  the foliage will not be wetted by a trickle system so disease                 
problems will be reduced.                                                       
  water soluble fertilizer can be applied through the trickle                   
irrigation, making the job easier and reducing the chances of                   
fertilizer burn on foliage and stems from sidedressing.                         
  since water is applied slowly, it puts less of a strain on the                
water system in dry periods particularly if you are on a well or                
spring.                                                                         
  the trickle irrigation system can be automated by the use of a                
simple timer and solenoid valves so you don't have to worry                     
about watering if you're gone for a few days.                                   
                                                                                
There are some problems associated with trickle irrigation that                 
you should be aware of in considering a system:                                 
 clogging. The holes that allow water to seep from the hose to                  
the soil are extremely small. Particles in some water such as                   
fine sand, algae, and mineral salts that build up due to evapora-               
tion can clog these holes. Chemical treatments or filters may be                
required to correct these problems.                                             
 run-off. Fine textured soils such as clays may not absorb water                
fast enough to prevent puddling and run-off. Sandy soils and                    
medium textured soils are usually best for trickle irrigation.                  
 sloped terrain. Steep slopes in the garden may result in 50%                   
more water being applied at the lower end than the upper end of                 
the hose. Terracing or raised beds will help this.                              
                                                                                
There are a number of commercially available emitters with                      
different application rates. Complete kits to set systems for a                 
backyard garden (usually 30x50) can be purchased.                               
                                                                                
A system generally consisits of a main line to carry water from                 
the house to the garden. A 1/2" diameter black polyetheylene                    
pipe will work. At the end of this pipe at the garden site, a                   
flow regulating valve is inserted with plastic adaptors to                      
control the amount of water delivered. A 1gpm (gallon per                       
minute) flow-regulating valve will supply enough water in 1 hour                
for a 1000 sq.ft. garden.                                                       
                                                                                
A 1/2" black plastic pipe is then continued across the garden as                
a header. Commercial emitters are attached to the header with                   
appropriate adaptors to carry water directly to the base of the                 
plant. The emitters or hose is most effectively placed under the                
soil surface or beneath mulch material.                                         
                                                                                
The rate and frequency of application will depend on the type of                
system installed, total application will be approximately 57                    
gallons of water per day (400 gal/wk) for a 1000 sq. ft. garden                 
as compared to the recommended one inch or 625 gallons per weeek                
(89 gal/day) with the traditional watering system.                              
                                                                                
(Agents: For additional information see 442-031 Trickle Irri-                   
gation for Home Gardeners)                                                      
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
MINIMUM CHEMICAL GARDENING                                                      
                                                                                
Public concern over the use and misuse of pesticides has led                    
increasing numbers of home gardeners to seek means of "natural"                 
pest control. Although some people do not have the time or                      
knowledge to practice all the available alternative methods                     
for controlling pests, there are many cultural practices which                  
will help reduce losses.                                                        
                                                                                
Soil conditions affect pest populations. Maintain a slightly acid               
soil (around pH 6.5). Appropriate pH allows vegetable plants to                 
have acess to all the necessary soil nutrients and provides a                   
suitable environments for earthworms and microorganisms.                        
                                                                                
Follow recommended fertilizer practices. Supplement fertilizers                 
with organic material or compost to help assure that all trace                  
elements are available, as well as major nutrients. "Feed" the                  
soil, not just the plants; providing and appropriate environment                
for all soil life will result in healthier plants which are more                
resistant to pests and diseases.                                                
                                                                                
Rotate your garden plot, if you can. Use related crops in one                   
site only once every three or four years.                                       
                                                                                
Use interplantings as opposed to solid plantings of a crop. This                
can slow the spread of diseases and pests, giving you more time                 
to deal with them.                                                              
                                                                                
Thin young plants to a proper standard. Overcrowding causes weak                
growth and subsequent insect and disease problems.                              
                                                                                
Keep down weeds and grass. They often harbor pests and compete                  
for nutrients and water.                                                        
                                                                                
Use a mulch to reduce soil splash, which brings soil borne                      
diseases into contact with lower leaves.                                        
                                                                                
Water in the morning so that plants have time to dry before the                 
cool evening. Drip irrigation prevents foliage from getting wet                 
at all when watering. For  plants susceptible to fungus infec-                  
tions leave extra space between them to allow for good air flow;                
orient rows so that prevailing winds will help foliage dry                      
quickly after a rain or watering.                                               
                                                                                
Select disease-resistant varieties and plant crops that are                     
suited to the soil and climate. If you do plant vegetables or                   
fruits that are not normally grown in your area, do your best to                
provide necessary conditions. Use certified seed and plants                     
if available.                                                                   
                                                                                
Remove infected leaves from diseased plants as soon as you                      
observe them. Dispose of severely diseased plants before they                   
contaminate others. Clean up crop refuse as soon as you are                     
finished harvesting.                                                            
                                                                                
Time plantings in such a way that the majority of your crop will                
avoid the peak of insect infestations. Keep a record of the                     
dates and conditions under which disease and insect problems                    
occur.                                                                          
                                                                                
Take advantage of the biological control already taking place in                
your garden by encouraging natural predators. Learn to recognize                
the eggs and larvae of the beneficial insects and avoid harming                 
them.                                                                           
                                                                                
The most effective and most important of all practices is to                    
observe what is going on in the garden. Many serious disease or                 
insect problems can be halted or slowed down early by the                       
gardener who knows what to look for and regularly visits the                    
garden for the purpose of trouble-shooting.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
March 1986 Press Releases                                                       
                                                                                
Strawberries                    70 lines                                        
Dahlia Culture                  66 lines                                        
Herb Gardening                  54 lines                                        
Grow Your Own Figs              67 lines                                        
Container Gardening             54 lines                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Strawberries                                                                    
                                                                                
Delicious strawberries can be grown in the home garden. Strawber-               
ries will produce more fruit in a small space than almost any                   
other berry crop. Twenty-five plants are enough for a row                       
approximately 40 feet long. They should produce 25 or more quarts               
of berries next spring if planted this year.                                    
                                                                                
Select several varieties to give early, midseason and late                      
harvest. Earlidawn is one of the best very early varieties as                   
its blossoms are somewhat tolerant to cold. Catskill and Pocahon-               
tas are fine for midseason. Surecrop and Redchief will supply                   
large crops of late fruit. Marlate is popular since it bears a                  
week or more after the other late varieties. Everbearing varieti-               
es produce fewer berries which are generally of lower quality,                  
but new varieties are beginning to show promise.                                
                                                                                
You will find strawberries are an easy crop to raise on fertile,                
well drained soil with a pH between 5.7 and 6.5. Fertilization                  
is seldom necessary on good soils supplied with organic matter.                 
Where a soil analysis indicates the need, about 1 lb. per 100' of               
row of a complete fertilizer, such as 10-10-10 or 10-6-4,                       
should be cultivated into the soil before planting.                             
                                                                                
Strawberries should be planted in the spring 3 or 4 weeks                       
before the average date of the last frost in your locality. Set                 
the plants from 12 to 24" apart, in rows 3 to 3 1/2 feet apart.                 
Set each plant so that the base of the central bud is at the                    
soil level. If set too low, soil may wash over the crown during                 
a rainstorm and smother the plant. If set too high, the top part                
of the roots will be exposed and the plant will make poor growth.               
Spread the roots out and firm the soil about them to eliminate                  
air pockets in the soil.                                                        
                                                                                
Pick off any flowers which develop during the first summer. The                 
plants need to use all of the food produced for the formation                   
of runners which will produce fruit next year. Even if you left                 
the flowers and secured a few berries this year, they would be                  
small and of poor quality.                                                      
                                                                                
Within a few weeks after planting, your strawberry plants will                  
start to develop runners. If allowed to grow without interference               
they will form a matted row about two feet wide. If you choose to               
allow your plants to grow in a matted row, begin with a wide                    
spacing -- 24" between plants.                                                  
                                                                                
Alternatively, you may wish to try the  hill system or the spaced               
row system of training. In the hill system of training, plants                  
are spaced 12" apart in the row but runners are removed as soon                 
as they start developing. Larger crowns with extra large berries                
develop with this system. Many homeowners prefer the hill system                
as plantings are easier to cultivate. When using the spaced row                 
system, plants are set 18 to 24 " apart. Runners are set 6 to 12"               
apart until the desired stand is established. All late forming                  
runners are removed as they appear. Spaced rows produce large,                  
uniform plants.                                                                 
                                                                                
Keep weeds and grass pulled from your strawberry bed. Perform                   
this job regularly, at least ever two weeks in new beds. Cultiva-               
tion must be shallow to prevent root injury. A light mulch (1-2")               
of straw, wood chips, or pine needles will help conserve soil                   
moisture and suppress weeds.                                                    
                                                                                
Your strawberries must continue to grow vigorously during the                   
summer and fall to develop large crowns with flower buds for the                
crop next summer. Apply water during dry periods. If the foliage                
becomes somewhat light green in late summer, broadcast 1 lb. of                 
10-10-10 per 100' row in late August or early September. Brush                  
the fertilizer off the plants to avoid foliage injury.                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Dahlia Culture                                                                  
                                                                                
The dahlia is an ideal flower for the home garden. It grows                     
vigorously and produces an abundance of beautiful flowers. The                  
blooms are excellent for arrangements, and for exhibition                       
purposes.                                                                       
                                                                                
Dahlias are now available in many sizes and shapes. Try some                    
of the new and attractive forms which have a wide range of                      
colors. Get catalogs from seedsmen who handle this plant, or                    
check with your local florist or garden center to be sure they                  
plan to have some of the new varieties this year.                               
                                                                                
Single dahlias look like large daisies with eight white or                      
colored petals. Collarette varieties are similar to the singles,                
but have an extra row of short petals around the center disc of                 
the flower. Orchid-flowered dahlias have very graceful form with                
eight petals curled into attractive pointed tubes.                              
                                                                                
New colors and forms are available in the double varieties. The                 
large decorative types have flowers which are eight to 12 inches                
across. Ball dahlias have compact round flowers from four                       
to six inches in diameter. Pompon types resemble small ball                     
dahlias, two inches or less in diameter. The cactus varieties                   
are very attractive and are particularly useful in flower                       
arrangements.                                                                   
                                                                                
Dahlias can be propagated by seed but plants from seed frequently               
do not come true to variety. Seeds which are produced in large                  
quantities by the single-flowered varieties are usually sold as                 
annual mixtures. Double-flowered varieties rarely produce                       
reliable seed. Tuberous root divisions give the showiest blooms.                
                                                                                
Dahlias grow best in a deep, fertile, well-drained soil in a                    
sunny location. Tubers should be spaced three or four feet apart                
if large exhibition flowers are desired. For small flowers in                   
beds or for cutting, plants may be about two feet apart. The                    
cluster of tuberous roots may be separated and planted at about                 
the time of the last killing frost. Root divisions should be                    
placed on their side about five inches deep. Cover with about two               
inches of soil and fill the remainder of the hole as the shoots                 
develop.                                                                        
                                                                                
For large blooms, allow only one stalk per root to develop.                     
Remove all small weak sprouts. When the shoot is about six inches               
tall, pinch back to about the third set of leaves to promote                    
branching. Only four main branches should be allowed to develop                 
on large flowering varieties. As the stems grow they should be                  
tied to a stake to prevent breakage. Disbudding may be practiced                
to secure large blooms for exhibition purposes.                                 
                                                                                
Seeds of the small varieties are sown early indoors in a light-w-               
eight medium. They will germinate in 10 to 15 days at 70 degrees                
F. Transplant young plants into individual pots after the third                 
true leaf develops. Plant in the garden after danger of frost has               
past.                                                                           
                                                                                
Adequate moisture must be provided to promote vigorous growth                   
and flower production in dahlias. A mulch of 1 or 2 inches of                   
peat moss or sawdust will help conserve soil moisture during dry                
periods. Eliminate all weeds which would compete with the plants.               
Fertilize at planting time with 1/2 cup per plant of a 5-10-5 or                
10-10-10 fertilizer dug into the soil. Faded flowers should be                  
removed to encourage continuous blooming. Gardeners should be on                
the lookout for damage by Japanese beetles; treat if necessary.                 
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Herb Gardening                                                                  
                                                                                
Herbs may be grown in the home garden to provide seasoning for                  
food, flavoring for cool drinks, and scents and decorations for                 
the home. Plants are quite free from damage by diseases and                     
insects. A few short rows in the vegetable or flower garden will                
provide an adequate supply for the average family.                              
                                                                                
A well-drained, fertile soil with pH 6.0 to 7.0 is best for                     
herbs. Apply two pounds of 10-10-10 or four pounds of 5-10-5                    
fertilizer per 100 square feet, and disc or rototill into the                   
soil when the garden is prepared for planting.                                  
                                                                                
For small seeded herbs, sow seeds directly into peat pots filled                
with seed-starting media about six weeks before the last frost                  
date. Large seeded varieties may also be started by this method,                
or sow seed directly into the garden about one week before the                  
average date of the last frost in your area. Sow the seeds thinly               
in a shallow furrow and cover with soil equal to about four times               
their largest diameter.                                                         
                                                                                
Control weeds during the growing season to eliminate their use                  
of water and nutrients which are needed by your herbs. A one inch               
mulch of shredded leaves or other loose organic material will                   
conserve soil moisture and help control annual weeds. Irrigation                
may be necessary for young plants during periods of drought.                    
                                                                                
Parsley and chives should probably be the first choices for the                 
herb garden. Short rows of each will produce an ample supply for                
culinary use during the summer. Plants of these two herbs can                   
also be grown in pots to provide succulent green sprigs through-                
out the year.                                                                   
                                                                                
Spearmint is an easily grown perennial which spreads by rhizomes                
underground. Mint seeds are very small and often have low                       
germination rates. It would be easier to acquire a start of                     
spearmint from a friend with an herb garden. Use caution in                     
where you plant any mint as they tend to be very invasive. Some                 
people prefer to grow them in containers that have been buried                  
partially in the ground.                                                        
                                                                                
Sage and thyme are perennials which will give repeated crops of                 
leaves for seasoning meats, dressing and soups. Fennel is                       
possibly more like a vegetable than an herb. Its bulb-like base                 
is used raw or cooked as a salad. Basil and borage planted for                  
their aromatic leaves may be included as attractive plants in                   
a flower border. Leaves of the nasturtiums give a peppery                       
flavor to a cold meat sandwich. All these herbs are easily                      
started from seed.                                                              
                                                                                
Many other types of herbs are available for gardeners who wish                  
to grow them. Consult your favorite garden catalog for descripti-               
ons and sources of seeds.                                                       
                                                                                
Grow Your Own Figs                                                              
                                                                                
The fig was one of the most important fruits for people of early                
civilizations which developed around the Mediterranean Sea. It                  
seems to have been introduced into Greece at lease eight centur-                
ies B.C. The fig is mentioned in numerous places in the Bible,                  
and was eulogized by many early Greek writers. At one period, the               
fruit was so highly prized in Greece, that its export was                       
forbidden by law.                                                               
                                                                                
Fig shrubs or trees grow to a height of 12 to 30 feet. A member                 
of the mulberry family, it is closely related to the common                     
indoor plant, the rubber plant. Figs are useful as ornamental and               
fruit bearing plants for the home garden. They can be planted                   
in protected locations in eastern Virginia and only the hardiest                
varieties should be used.In the areas where low temperatures                    
occur in winter, soil may be mounded up around the plants to a                  
height of 18 inches. If the top is killed back by cold, new                     
shoots will develop from the protected basal portion of the trunk               
and branches.                                                                   
                                                                                
There is considerable variation in hardiness of the common fig.                 
Some varieties are only slightly more resistant to cold than                    
orange trees. Mature trees of a few varieties will survive                      
winters in which the temperature may occasionally drop to nearly                
zero. Celeste is a popular variety. Its fruit is medium to                      
small sized, firm, juicy, sweet, and of excellent quality. Brown                
Turkey, although less vigorous than Celeste, is also an acceptab-               
le variety for home gardeners in eastern Virginia. The fruit is                 
medium to large and of good quality, though fruit is subject to                 
cracking in wet weather.                                                        
                                                                                
The fig tree is somewhat unusual in that it normally produces                   
two crops each year. The first crop is borne near the end of                    
branches which grew during the previous summer. The second crop                 
develops on new shoots of the current seasons growth.                           
                                                                                
Young trees one or two years old, and 18 to 36 inches tall,                     
should be selected for planting. Set the trees in early spring                  
about one month befor the average date of the last frost in your                
area.                                                                           
                                                                                
Figs grow best on a relatively heavy soil. Grass and weeds should               
be controlled for a distance of several feet around the trunk by                
cultivation or the use of mulch.Fertilizer or manure should be                  
used very sparingly around figs. If too much nitrogen is used,                  
the shoots will be more tender to the cold, and the fruits more                 
susceptible to splitting and souring.                                           
                                                                                
Figs should be harvested when they become soft, just before full                
ripeness. Firm, immature fruits do not develop their normal                     
flavor. Over-ripe figs may develop a sour odor because of                       
the fermentation of the juice.                                                  
                                                                                
Figs are more difficult to harvest than most other fruits.                      
Cotton gloves should be worn to protect hands from the irritating               
latex which exudues from the fruit and branching during the                     
picking operation. Figs require a rather strong twisting motion                 
to lossen the fruit from the stem.                                              
                                                                                
Figs may be eaten fresh, canned, or dried. The fruit is a                       
popular delicacy which may be used in salads, cakes or candies.                 
From a nutritional point of view, the fig is a beneficial                       
fruit because it contains useful quantities of protein, carbohyd-               
rates, calcium, phosphorus, and iron. It also supplies vitamins                 
A, B, and C.                                                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Container Gardening                                                             
                                                                                
Even without a lot of land, home vegetable gardeners can produce                
a bountiful crop by container gardening. A window sill, patio,                  
balcony or doorstep can provide sufficient space for a productive               
container garden.                                                               
                                                                                
Almost any container can be used for plants as long as: 1) it is                
big enough to support the plants when they are fully grown; 2)                  
it will hold the potting media; and 3) it provides adequate                     
drainage. Examples are barrels, flower pots, cut off milk and                   
bleach jugs, recycled plastic coolers, window boxes and hanging                 
baskets.                                                                        
                                                                                
Containers should not be made of wood treated with creosote or                  
pentachlorophenol wood preservatives which may be toxic to plants               
and harmful to the gardener. Containers should have holes in                    
the bottom for drainage and be supported above the ground so that               
the plant roots do not stand in water. Most plants need containe-               
rs at least six inches deep.                                                    
                                                                                
A lightweight potting mix should be used in the containers. Most                
garden soil cannot be used because it is too heavy. The particles               
in garden soil are very small and become compacted in the contai-               
ner when it is watered. Media used in containers must be porous                 
because roots require both air and water.                                       
                                                                                
A packaged potting soil available at local garden centers                       
containing equlal parts of peat moss and perlite or vermiculite                 
is good to use because it is lightweight and sterile. Or gar-                   
deners can mix their own using this formula: for one bushel of                  
media, mix together half a bushel of #2 size vermiculite or                     
perlite; half a bushel of peat moss; five tablespoons ground                    
limestone; two tablespoons superphosphate; and eight tablespoons                
5-10-5 or 6-12-6 fertilizer.                                                    
                                                                                
Try dwarf and miniature varieties of vegetables in containers.                  
Or grow vegetables that occupy little space, such as carrots and                
radishes, and crops that continue to bear over a period of time,                
such as tomatoes and peppers.                                                   
                                                                                
The amount of sunlight that the garden spot receives may deter-                 
mine what crops can be grown. Generally root and leaf crops can                 
tolerate partial shade; but vegetables grown for their fruits,                  
such as tomatoes and peppers, need at least five hours of full                  
sunlight a day.                                                                 
                                                                                
Vegetables grown in containers can be attacked by the various                   
types of insects and diseases that are common to any vegetable                  
garden. Plants should be inspected periodically for the presence                
of foilage and fruit-feeding insects as well as the occurrence                  
of diseases. Plants grown in containers need the same care as                   
those in a garden and give the gardener a lot of the same                       
satisfactions.                                                                  
                                                                                
February 1986 Press Releases                                                    
                                                                                
Stems of Flowering Shrubs for Winter Decoration      52 lines                   
Pruning Summer Flowering Shrubs                      37 lines                   
Cabbage                                              53 lines                   
Planting Early Vegetables                            54 lines                   
Houseplants from Groceries                           37 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Stems of Flowering Shrubs for Winter Decoration                                 
                                                                                
     The stems of many types of flowering shrubs and trees may be               
used for beautiful winter arrangements. Those brown stems on your               
forsythia and other spring flowering shrubs will burst into bloom               
if you bring them into the house, unless they bloomed extensively               
last fall as they did in many parts of the state. Branches which                
have been out in the cold all winter are ready to break dormancy.               
Indoors they will bloom in a relatively short time once exposed                 
to warm temperatures.                                                           
     Do not be afraid that you will damage your shrubs by the                   
removal of a few stems. The cutting of branches from vigorous                   
shrubs is a beneficial part of the pruning operation. This will                 
help to renew the growth, and keep the bush in a well-proportion-               
ed form.                                                                        
     When cutting stems for indoor use, select those with                       
well-spaced side branches. Make a slanting cut at the base and                  
place the stem in a container of cool, fresh water. Remove any                  
buds or leaves from the part which will be under the water.                     
Place the dormant branches in a warm, well-lighted room until the               
flowers appear.                                                                 
     Open, spreading growth produces the best cut stems. The best               
branches can be secured from shrubs located on the edge of an                   
open lawn area or in a wide mixed border planting. Shrubs in the                
foundation planting which are heavily pruned will not provide                   
attractive, well-shaped branches.                                               
     Many types of flowering shrubs and trees add interest                      
and beauty to your landscape and supply branches for decorative                 
use. If you don't have them already, plant some of the following                
kinds this spring:                                                              
     Forsythia is one of the most popular spring flowering shrubs               
with bright yellow flowers which appear before the foliage.                     
     Winter Honeysuckle is a medium-size spreading shrub which                  
produces fragrant white flowers in April. The berries are                       
attractive to birds.                                                            
     Fragrant Viburnum is a tall, erect shrub which has fragrant                
pink to white flowers in late March.                                            
     Japanese Andromeda is a tall, compact, bushy evergreen shrub               
with white, urn-shaped flowers in sprays resembling Lily-of-the--               
Valley in late April.                                                           
     Mountain Andromeda is a medium-size, compact, slow growing                 
shrub which produces white flowers in upright open panicles.                    
     Pussy Willow has large silky gray buds which add unique                    
interest to early spring flower arrangements.                                   
     Fruit trees of many types can provide branches for early                   
spring forcing. The flowers of cherry, pear and plum are white.                 
Apple and peach flowers have attractive pink tones.                             
     Red Maple produces interesting stems when the small flowers                
develop and the young leaves first appear.                                      
     Horse Chestnut branches have showy flowers and attractive                  
young foliage.                                                                  
     For especially attractive arrangements, try mixing some of                 
the branches from different plants.                                             
                                                                                
Pruning Summer Flowering Shrubs                                                 
                                                                                
     Before the first signs of spring arrive, there are some                    
chores that the home gardener should do. Pruning of summer                      
flowering shrubs is one of those tasks.                                         
     The blooms of summer flowering shrubs develop on new wood;                 
therefore, in early spring, before the new growth begins, these                 
shrubs should be pruned. Here are suggestions on how to prune                   
some of the common summer flowering shrubs.                                     
                                                                                
Butterflybush--Cut the stems to the ground every year to promote                
new growth and produce large flower stalks.                                     
                                                                                
Crepe myrtle--Prune to control the shape and produce flowers. If                
this plant isn't pruned, it will produce small flowers or no                    
flowers at all. Heavy pruning is needed for vivid flower dis-                   
plays.                                                                          
                                                                                
Hydrangea--Prune back to a few buds to promote new growth. Cut                  
out crowded stems as necessary.                                                 
                                                                                
Magnolia--Cut back the tips of new shoots when necessary to shape               
the plant. Do not prune the branches except when a poorly shaped                
or damaged plant must be reshaped.                                              
                                                                                
Hypericum St. Johnswort--Thin crowded branches and cut other                    
branches back, leaving about two buds on each branch.                           
                                                                                
Spirea--Some common summer flowering types are Anthony Waterer,                 
Bumalda, Japanese and Billiard. Remove crowded stems as necessary               
and cut other stems back to a few buds. Remove the seed pods when               
they form.                                                                      
                                                                                
Sumac--The common types are staghorn and smooth sumac. Prune the                
stems to the grounds to promote new growth. Sumac can be trained                
to grow as a tree when only one stem is allowed to grow.                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Cabbage                                                                         
                                                                                
     Remember cabbage when you start planning your spring                       
garden. This crop grows best during cool, humid weather. Well-                  
hardened plants will survive temperatures as low as 20 degrees                  
Fahrenheit.                                                                     
     You need not worry much about frost with this crop. Cabbage                
plants may safely be set in your garden about a month before the                
average date of the last frost in your area. Sow seeds indoors                  
about six or eight weeks earlier, to produce the young plants you               
need.                                                                           
     The edible part of cabbage is an enormous terminal bud,                    
composed of large leaves in a compact head. It is rich in                       
vitamins C and A, and quite low in calories. Cabbage is an                      
excellent food because it provides roughage to aid digestion, and               
in the raw form, it is a good cleanser for teeth and gums.                      
     Consider the different types of cabbage when you order your                
seeds. Popular green varieties are available for early, midseason               
and late maturity. Also try the red or purple types which will                  
add new interest when used for cole slaw or salad.                              
     Are you familar with the savoy cabbage? This type has                      
puckered or wrinkled leaves. The head does not become as hard as                
the green or red types. Savoy cabbage has a pleasant mild                       
flavor when served raw or cooked.                                               
     In selecting varieties of cabbage, look for those which are                
resistant to yellows. This fungus disease lives over winter in                  
the soil and is easy to control if you rotate crops and select                  
resistant varieties.                                                            
     Six to a dozen plants should give a family all the early                   
cabbage they need. Follow this with successive plantings of seeds               
to provide a continuous supply during the summer and fall.                      
     Promote vigorous growth with adequate water, and mulch to                  
conserve soil moisture. Do not allow the soil to become dry when                
the plants approach maturity. If you apply water, or have a good                
rainstorm after a drought, your cabbage heads may split open. To                
reduce splitting cut the roots on one side of the plant with a                  
sharp spade.                                                                    
     Cabbages may be harvested for home use over a period of                    
several weeks. Trim them carefully, leaving as many green leaves                
as possible. These outer leaves are the most nutritious.                        
     Cabbage may be served in many ways to tempt the appetite. In               
the raw form it is delicious as cole slaw, or when mixed with                   
apples and raisins as a combination salad. As a cooked vegetable,               
cabbage may be boiled, stuffed, or used in soup. It is a particu-               
larly tasty dish when combined with cheese in a casserole.                      
     One type of cabbage which may not be successful if planted                 
now is the Chinese cabbage. If sown in the spring for a summer                  
crop, the temperature may get too high before a good head is                    
formed and the plants may go to seed rather than make good heads.               
Chinese cabbage should be planted in midsummer about 90 days                    
before the average first fall frost date. It will then form crisp               
firm heads which may be used as coleslaw, salad, or boiled.                     
                                                                                
Planting Early Crops                                                            
                                                                                
     It is time to plant early vegetables in your garden. You may               
sow the hardy types about a month before the average last frost                 
date in your area. It is late already in some parts of Virginia.                
     To promote vigorous growth, apply a liberal application of                 
5-10-5 fertilizer when you plow your garden. Broadcast about four               
pounds per 100 square feet and disc it into the top five inches                 
of soil before planting.                                                        
     Do not cover seeds too deeply in your early plantings. The                 
soil is cool and moist and the seeds need only a light covering.                
A depth of two or three times their longest dimension is plenty.                
     Lettuce is one of the best early crops. Try Salad Bowl if                  
you have not selected it before. It is a leaf lettuce which grows               
very well even after warm weather arrives. Great Lakes is a                     
dependable lettuce of the solid, crisp-head type in areas where                 
spring is long and cool. However in much of Virginia it is very                 
difficult to get a good yield on crisp-head types of lettuse due                
to the heat. If you have had trouble producing a headed lettuse,                
you should also include a few plants of Buttercrunch. This is an                
All America Selection of the Bibb type which has thick, tender,                 
delicious quality in  a loose head. The Cos or Romaine type                     
lettuce are also quite heat tolerant and produce an attractive                  
elongated head.                                                                 
     Include a few radishes in your early garden, but not too                   
many. They will be ready to eat in about four weeks, but will                   
become quite sharp in flavor as soon as warm weather arrives.                   
     Secure some onion sets or small plants from your local                     
garden center of seed source. They will grow rapidly and soon be                
ready for use as early green onions. Silverskin is a mild white                 
variety which is ideal for this purpose.                                        
     Nothing surpasses the delicious sweet flavor of early green                
peas, fresh from the garden. Try Alaska or Greater Progress. All                
of these will be ready to pick in about 60 days. Wando matures                  
about a week later but will tolerate warm weather better than                   
most other peas. Also consider the edible-podded peas for an                    
early crop. The snow peas can be sown at the same time as other                 
green peas; however, the snap peas such as Sugar Snap will                      
germinate better if the soil has warmed slightly.                               
     For early greens, plant mustard. Tendergreen and Southern                  
Giant Curled varieties will be ready to harvest in five or six                  
weeks. Kale is another crop for greens which should be in your                  
early garden. Dwarf Blue Curled Vates is ready to harvest in                    
about eight weeks.                                                              
     Broccoli is an easy crop for the home garden. You will need                
to spray or dust a few times to control the green cabbage worms.                
Premium Crop is fine for the early crop because it tolerates                    
heat. Be sure to include early cabbage in the spring garden.                    
Plant yellows resistant varieties such as Stonehead. You will be                
able to harvest either broccoli, or cabbage about eight or nine                 
weeks after you set the plants in your garden.                                  
     For the latest suggestions on varieties, contact the                       
Extension Agent in your county for a copy of publication 426-480                
"Vegetables Recommended for Virginia."                                          
                                                                                
Houseplants from Groceries                                                      
                                                                                
     When you bring home produce from the grocery, you may very                 
well have purchased items which may be used to produce house-                   
plants. You and your children can gain some horticultural                       
knowledge by growing fruit and vegetable plants from kitchen                    
wastes.                                                                         
     Carrots produce graceful fern-like leaves. To start a carrot               
plant, cut a 1/2 inch section from the top of a carrot. Plant it                
in moist sand with the uppermost part exposed. Small leaves will                
soon appear if the carrot start is kept moist.                                  
     Pineapples can be started somewhat like carrots. Cut off                   
the part containing the top green leaves with one inch of solid                 
fruit attached. Place the basal part which includes the fruit                   
into water leaving the leaves exposed to the air. When roots                    
develop, transplant to a pot with well-drained potting soil.                    
Cover the plant with a plastic bag for three weeks to help it                   
acclimate to its new environment.                                               
     Sweet potatoes produce viny stems somewhat similar to                      
philodendron. Develop this plant by putting a sweet potato root                 
in a container of water leaving the top 1/3 exposed to the air.                 
The vines which grow can be trained on a stake or small trellis.                
     Try planting grapefruit, orange, lemon, or tangerine seeds.                
As soon as the seeds are removed from the fruit, plant them                     
in a soil mixture which contains 50% sphagnum peat moss. Keep                   
these seeds damp, warm, and in a bright but indirect light and                  
watch for plants to grow.                                                       
     Avocado pits are often rooted for indoor plants. After                     
cleaning off the pit, insert three or four toothpicks 1/2 inch                  
into the pit at its midpoint. Space the toothpicks evenly around                
the seed since they will support the the pit in a container of                  
water. Balance the pit over a glass of water, placing the                       
wider of the ends in the water. If kept in a warm, well-lit                     
environment a root will appear in 3-4 weeks followed by leaves.                 
After four leaves are present, transplant to a deep pot contain-                
ing potting media.                                                              
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
January Press Releases                                                          
                                                                                
Assessing the Winter Landscape                     52 lines                     
Container Media                                    52 lines                     
Seed Storage                                       51 lines                     
Coping with the Catalog                            16 lines                     
Reading the Seed Packet                            56 lines                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
ASSESSING THE WINTER LANDSCAPE                                                  
                                                                                
     Winter is an "in-between" time for gardeners. It is the                    
time to take stock of last year's landscape and plan improvements               
for the next year. As you consider changes in your landscape,                   
take time to study the winter view from your favorite window and                
consider ways to enhance it.                                                    
     Three of the most prominent features of the winter landscape               
are the silhouettes of the trees and shrubs, the colors of the                  
bark, and the red and orange fruit on many species.                             
     The leafless silhouettes of trees and shrubs are individual                
to each species and can be used effectively to improve your                     
winter landscape. The convoluted branches of the hazel cultivar                 
"contorta" make an interesting pattern against a fence, while                   
the horizontal branches of the flowering dogwood can add an                     
oriental style to your garden. (A cultivar is a variety which                   
has evolved through horticultural efforts, rather than through                  
natural means.)                                                                 
     The bark of trees and shrubs now attracts attention. The                   
brightest reds and corals of the winter twigs are found among                   
the species of shrub dogwoods, particularly the cultivar                        
"sibirica."  Yellow colors can be found on the shrub dogwood                    
cultivar "flaviramea" and the kerria cultivar "aureo-vittata."                  
     Athea varieties of kerria are noted for their green winter                 
twigs, along with the trifoliate orange and the different types                 
of brown. However, the most striking of the barks is the white                  
of the trunks on branches of the white bush and sycamore. The                   
pink tones of a winter sunset on the white bark of sycamore                     
almost make me forget what a nuisance this tree can be the rest                 
of the year.                                                                    
     For red fruit throughout much of the winter, two good                      
selections are the autumn olive and the possum haw. The autumn                  
olive has silvery red fruit that 25 species of birds enjoy. The                 
possum haw is heavily covered with large red fruit about the                    
size of cherries.                                                               
     Many other trees and shrubs brighten the winter landscape                  
with their fruit. Washington hawthorn has an abundance of shiny                 
red corymbs of fruit. The Lalandei firethorn is one of the                      
hardiest and showiest of the firethorns, with scarlet red fruit                 
covering the shrub well into January.                                           
     If you bundle up against the cold and go outside, you can                  
explore more closely your winter landscape. Examine closely the                 
twigs around you to be awed by nature's complex protection of                   
life at rest. Each dormant bud that will become next year's                     
leaf or flower is sheltered by bud scales that protect it from                  
dry air which would wither it during the cold winter months.                    
     Look also at the bark. Discover the "wings" on the sweet                   
gum and the winged euonymus. Notice that the bark on the birch                  
and sycamore is not smooth but is exfoliating; that is, shedding                
off in long strips or flaking off in irregular patches.                         
     Visit arboreta or nurseries during this "in-between" season                
and gather more ideas for a year-round landscape.                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
CONTAINER MEDIA                                                                 
                                                                                
     Did you ever consider why we have different mixtures of                    
soil and other materials for use in growing and propagating                     
house plants?  Why not use good old garden soil instead of                      
bothering with all these special combinations?                                  
     The big problem with indoor plants is soil aeration, which                 
is related to drainage. Most garden soils contain so much fine                  
silt or clay that they pack down and provide poor aeration and                  
drainage when used in pots. To correct this problem you need to                 
mix sand and peat moss with your soil.                                          
     A good general purpose mixture for house plants, or the                    
seedlings you will raise next spring, is one part each of soil,                 
shredded peat moss, and coarse sand. Add one-half part of dried                 
manure to improve the nutritional level.                                        
     Any mixture which contains soil should be sterilized to                    
kill insects, nematodes, disease organisms, and weed seeds. This                
may be accomplished by baking in the oven at 180 degrees for 30                 
minutes or by using a soil fumigant following the instruc-                      
tions on the package.                                                           
     You can avoid the need for sterilization by using a peat                   
moss and vermiculite mixture. Mix equal parts of shredded peat                  
moss and No. 2 horticultural grade vermiculite. Add a cupful of                 
ground limestone and a cupful of 5-10-5 fertilizer per bushel.                  
This mixture is excellent for growing seedling plants. You may                  
provide a more enduring nutrient supply for potted plants by                    
adding six quarts of dried manure per bushel of the above                       
mixture. This mixture may be used without sterilization.                        
     An now, let's discuss the mixtures you need for plant                      
propagation by cuttings. This is a quite different situation,                   
because the cuttings need moisture from a well aerated medium,                  
but practically no nutrients. You need sand, peat moss, vermicu-                
lite or perlite as a propagating medium.                                        
     You should consider the characteristics of these materials                 
to appreciate why they are so useful for the gardener. Sand is                  
excellent because of its good aeration and lack of nutrients,                   
but it has very low water holding capacity. The addition of                     
peat moss or vermiculite will provide the needed water retention.               
     Peat moss is partially decomposed swamp vegetation. It has                 
a high water holding capacity and usually contains one to three                 
percent nitrogen. It may be acid or alkaline, depending on the                  
source. Peat is useful as a mulch or as a medium for rooting                    
cuttings when mixed with sand, vermiculite, or perlite.                         
     Vermiculite is a heat expanded mica which is very light in                 
weight and has a high water holding capacity. It is an excellent                
material for rooting cuttings when mixed with sand or peat moss.                
When seeds are planted in heavy soils, they may be covered with                 
vermiculite to promote improved germination and easy emergence.                 
     Perlite is a heat expanded volcanic lava. The small sharp                  
particles are very light because of small trapped air pockets. It               
is useful as a propagation media when mixed with peat moss or                   
vermiculite.                                                                    
                                                                                
                                                                                
SEED STORAGE                                                                    
                                                                                
     Are those seeds any good which you had left over after                     
planting your garden last spring?  Most packets now cost 25                     
cents or more, compared to a dime only a few years ago. So, it                  
would be a nice saving if you could plant this spring those                     
which you did not use last year.                                                
     Many kinds of garden seeds remain viable for several years.                
Therefore, check your supply carefully before you make out your                 
new order.                                                                      
     The germination percentage you secure from old seeds                       
depends in part on the conditions under which they are stored.                  
The best way to keep most seeds from year to year is in a tight                 
jar in your home refrigerator. We appreciate that such space                    
usually is not available.                                                       
     The second choice is to store your seeds in a tight con-                   
tainer in a cool basement. Seeds may lose viability quite                       
rapidly in the warm temperatures of the average home.                           
     In general, garden seeds may be divided into three groups,                 
in terms of their longevity. Short life span seeds should give                  
satisfactory germination for one or two years. Medium life span                 
seeds usually will remain viable for three or four years. Long                  
life seeds should grow after storage of five to six years and                   
sometimes longer.                                                               
     Accurate information on the longevity of flower seeds is                   
hard to find. Based on limited observations, the following                      
should be considered as short ife span seeds:  astor, candytuft,                
cleome, columbine, honesty, kochia, phlox, salvia, strawflower,                 
and vinca.                                                                      
     Some of the more common flowers with long life seeds are                   
alyssum, calendula, centaurea, coreopsis, cosmos, marigold,                     
nasturtium, nigella, petunia, salpiglossis, scabiosa,                           
schizanthus, sweet pea, verbena, viola, and zinnia.                             
     Most vegetable seeds have rather long life, but there are a                
few important exceptions. For example, corn, leek, onion, and                   
parsnip seeds have short life spans. Those with medium longevity                
include beans, beet, carrot, Swiss chard, mustard, pepper,                      
pumpkin, and tomato. The seeds of other commonly grown vege-                    
tables will usually grow quite well even when five or more years                
old.                                                                            
     You may test the germination of your seeds by placing a                    
definite number on moist blotter paper in a dish or pan covered                 
with plastic or glass to maintain a high humidity. Place your                   
seed containers in a warm location and count those which germi-                 
nate in 10 to 14 days. From these figures you can easily deter-                 
mine the percentage germination and adjust the thickenss of                     
planting accordingly.                                                           
     Plant your old seeds more thickly than you do fresh ones. If               
the seeds are at or beyond the above suggested ages, plant                      
them about twice as thick as usual. Scatter them in a band in                   
the row rather than in a narrow dense line.                                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
COPING WITH THE CATALOG                                                         
                                                                                
     If you are like me, you can easily be overwhelmed by the                   
beautiful pictures in the catalog.                                              
     Best defense is a good plan. Look and dream, write down                    
what looks good, check it against last year's notes (what did                   
well) and extension agent's recommendations.                                    
     Test last year's seed for germination by placing 10-12                     
seeds between moist blotter or paper towel in warm location. The                
seed should germinate in 5-7 days if it's still good.                           
     Decide how much space you can really take care of.                         
     Then start making a list and refining your plan. Look for                  
disease resistance and drought resistance.                                      
     Only experiment with a few new things each year.                           
     Make your "final" list then talk to friends and neighbors.                 
Maybe you can share some seed.                                                  
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
READING THE SEED PACKET                                                         
                                                                                
     To the beginning gardener, reading the packets in a seed                   
display may seem a bit like reading a horticultural textbook.                   
Most seed packets contain a wealth of information if you know                   
what to look for and understand the terminology.                                
     A gardener who picks up a packet of tomato seeds may be                    
confronted with a description like "Small Fry VFN Hybrid A.A.S."                
It is important that the gardener decipher this code if he is to                
determine if that variety is the one to use.                                    
     Each variety is unique from the others that grow the same                  
crop. And often, one variety will be far more satisfactory for                  
your purposes than another. "Small Fry VFN Hybrid A.A.S." is a                  
determinate variety (with stems growing a predetermined length)                 
of tomato well-suited to certain culture, producing small, one-                 
inch diameter fruit. "Sweet 100 Hybrid" produces a smaller                      
fruit on a vigorous indeterminate vine that requires staking.                   
"Better Boy VFN Hybrid" may produce tomatoes up to 1 1/2 pounds                 
on large vines. So, the choice is yours.                                        
     Notice also the letters and words following the variety                    
name. Many of today's seeds are hybrids. This is a plant result-                
ing from crossing two plants of the same type to produce a                      
plant with a desired characteristic for one or more traits, such                
as height, fruit size, and flower color.                                        
     Hybrids usually are more vigorous, uniform in growth and                   
productive than non-hybrids. Also, they do not come true from                   
seed in the next generation. That is, the plants resulting from                 
the seed that you buy will have known characteristics but if you                
try to save seed from those fruits and raise additional plants,                 
they will be entirely different.                                                
     The letters VFN are codes to represent disease resistance.                 
(V = verticillium wilt, F = fusarium wilt, N = nematodes.)                      
Tomato varieties coded with these letters are less susceptible                  
to those specific problems. Always look for varieties which are                 
resistant to diseases. This will reduce your work and increase                  
your yield in the garden.                                                       
     The letters A.A.S. indicate that the variety was awarded a                 
medal for outstanding performance in variety trials nationwide                  
by the All-America Selections Committee. Although some varieties                
marked A.A.S. may not do well in Virginia, most will perform                    
superiorly.                                                                     
     Another item to watch for on the seed packet is the date. It               
should be clearly stated that the seed was packed for the                       
current growing season. Old seeds cannot be guaranteed to have                  
as high a germination rate, particularly if they were stored                    
improperly.                                                                     
     All packets will give some indication of the quantity of                   
content. The weight is far less useful than the number of seeds                 
or the amount of garden space that can be planted from that                     
packet. Information on timing the planting and spacing after                    
thinning or even drawings to help you identify the seedling when                
removing weeds add to the value of the packet.                                  
     After buying seeds, try storing them in a small file labeled               
with the date to plant them. After labeling the plants in the                   
garden with variety and date planted, return the empty packet to                
the file as a handy reference.                                                  
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
July 1986 The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                    
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan, Horticulture                     
Extension Technician, working with Diane Relf, Extension Special-               
ist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener Question Box has                   
been developed for agent use in preparing radio and newspaper                   
features.                                                                       
                                                                                
                                                                                
Summer Pruning Black Raspberries                     14 lines                   
Foliar Fertilization                                 28 lines                   
Succession Planting                                  21 lines                   
Water Conservation in the Garden                     46 lines                   
Temperature and Its Affect on Garden Plants          48 lines                   
Surfactants                                          73 lines                   
Potato 'Fruits'                                      14 lines                   
Tomato - Fruit or Vegetable                          42 lines                   
                                                                                
                                                                                
I have been watching a neighbor pruning the tops of her black                   
raspberries. I have never pruned my berry bushes like this. Is                  
it something new I should be doing?                                             
                                                                                
Tip pruning, also called summer topping, is practiced in July                   
and early August. It encourages branching in some brambles.                     
Black raspberries can be summer topped when the new shoots are                  
about 24" high; purple raspberries, when about 30" high. Red                    
raspberries should not be summer topped.                                        
                                                                                
Summer topping consists of removing the top three to four inches                
of the new shoots by snapping them off with the fingers or                      
cutting them with shears or a knife. Where trained to supports,                 
let new shoots grow six to eight inches taller before topping.                  
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
What can you tell me about the fertilizers you are supposed                     
to spray on your plants?                                                        
                                                                                
Under normal growing conditions, plants absorb most nutrients                   
from the soil. However, some nutrients can also be absorbed by                  
the leaves if a dilute solution is sprayed on the leaves. Care                  
must be taken that the concentration of nutrients is not too high               
or the leaf will be injured.                                                    
                                                                                
Foliar feeding can be useful when: 1) insufficient fertilizer                   
was used before planting; 2) a quick growth response is wanted;                 
3) micronutrients (such as iron or zinc) are unavailable to the                 
plant; or 4) the soil is too cold for the plants to extract or                  
use the fertilizer applied to the soil. Foliar applied nutrients                
are absorbed and used by the plant quite rapidly. Absorption                    
begins within minutes after application and, with most nutrients,               
it is completed within 1 to 2 days.                                             
                                                                                
Foliar nutrition can be a supplement to soil nutrition at a                     
critical time for the plant, but not a substitute. At transplant-               
ing time, an application of phosphorus spray will help in the                   
establishment of the young plant in cold soils. For perennial                   
plants, early spring growth is usually limited by cold soil, even               
when the air is warm. Under such conditions, soil microorganisms                
are not active enough to convert nutrients into forms available                 
for roots to absorb; yet, if the nutrients were available, the                  
plants could grow. A nutrient spray to the foliage will provide                 
the needed nutrients immediately to the plants, allowing them to                
begin growth.                                                                   
                                                                                
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I have a very small area for gardening. Now that some crops like                
peas and radishes are over, can I replant these areas in other                  
vegetables?                                                                     
                                                                                
Succession planting is an excellent way to make the most of a                   
intensive garden. To obtain a succession of crops, plant some-                  
thing new in the spots vacated by spent plants - corn after                     
peas is an example of succession planting.                                      
                                                                                
Planting a spring, summer, and fall garden is form of succession                
planting. Cool season crops (broccoli, lettuce, peas) may be                    
followed by warm season crops (beans, tomatoes, peppers),                       
and, where possible, these may be followed by more cool-season                  
plants, or even a winter cover crop.                                            
                                                                                
Starting seeds indoors for transplanting is an important aspect                 
of this type of gardening. To get the most from your garden plot,               
a new crop should be ready to take the place of the crop being                  
removed. Several weeks may be gained by having 6" transplants                   
ready to go into the vacated area. Don't forget to recondition                  
the soil for the new plants.                                                    
                                                                                
 ----------                                                                     
                                                                                
It's been too dry for the garden plants but water is expen-                     
sive. I have already mulched. What else can I do to conserve                    
moisture for my plants?                                                         
                                                                                
Shading and the use of windbreaks are other moisture-conserving                 
techniques you should try. Plants that wilt in very sunny areas                 
can benefit from partial shade during the afternoon in summer.                  
Small plants, in particular, should be protected.                               
                                                                                
Air moving across a plant carries away the moisture on the leaf                 
surfaces, causing more water to be needed by the plant. In very                 
windy areas the roots often cannot keep up with leaf demands, and               
plants wilt. Temporary or permanent windbreaks can help tremen-                 
dously.                                                                         
                                                                                
In areas prone to drought, remember to look for drought-resistant               
varieties when buying plants or seeds.                                          
                                                                                
During those times when cultural practices simply aren't enough,                
when rainfall is sparse and the sun is hot, watering can benefit                
your garden with higher yields, or may save the garden altogether               
in severe drought years. By knowing the critical watering                       
periods for specific vegetables, you can reduce the amount of                   
water you add. In general, water is most needed: 1) during the                  
first weeks of plant development; 2) immediately after trans-                   
planting; and 3) during the development of storage organs which                 
are eaten. Specifically, make sure lettuce and cole crops have                  
ample water during head development. Beans and peas need water                  
when the pods are filling. The critical watering periods for                    
cucumbers, squashes, melons, tomatoes, eggplants and peppers are                
during flowering and while the fruits develop. Corn benefits from               
from moisture when silking and tasseling, and at ear development.               
                                                                                
If water supplies are short, you may want to consider using                     
'gray water', water recycled from household uses on your garden.                
A few rules should be observed:                                                 
    1. Apply gray water to the soil, not to plant leaves.                       
    2. If water is used from the bathtub or washing machine,                    
use mild, biodegradable soaps. Omit softeners and bleaches.                     
Never use borax-containing products such as washing soda, in                    
water intended for the garden because of the danger of boron                    
toxicity.                                                                       
    3. It is preferable not to use kitchen waste water that                     
contains grease, harsh cleaners or non-biodegradable detergents.                
    4. Never allow any water which has run through the toilet                   
to enter a gray water irrigation system. Organisms from human                   
wastes can contaminate food products.                                           
                                                                                
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How does temperature effect growth of vegetables and flowers?                   
                                                                                
Temperature affects the productivity and growth of a plant,                     
depending upon whether the plant is a warm or cool season                       
crop. If temperatures are high and day length is long, cool                     
season crops such as spinach will flower. Temperatures that are                 
too low for a warm season crop such as tomato will prevent fruit                
set. Adverse temperatures also cause stunted growth and poor                    
quality vegetable production; for example, bitterness in lettuce                
is caused by high temperatures.                                                 
                                                                                
Sometimes temperatures are used in connection with daylength to                 
manipulate the flowering of plants. Chrysanthemums will flower                  
for a longer period of time if daylight temperatures are 59                     
degrees F.                                                                      
                                                                                
Temperatures alone also influence flowering. Daffodils are forced               
to flower by putting the bulbs in cold storage in October at 35                 
to 40 degrees F. Cold temperatures allow bulbs to mature. The                   
bulbs are transferred to the greenhouse in midwinter where growth               
begins. The flowers are then ready for cutting in 3 to 4 weeks.                 
                                                                                
Thermoperiod refers to a daily temperature change. Plants respond               
to and produce maximum growth when exposed to a day temperature                 
that is about 10 to 15 degrees higher than a night temperature.                 
This allows the plant to photosynthesize (build up nutrients) and               
respire (break down) during an optimum daytime temperature and to               
curtail the rate of respiration during a cooler night. Tempera-                 
tures higher than needed cause increased respiration, sometimes                 
above the rate of photosynthesis. This means that the products of               
photosynthesis are being more rapidly used than they are being                  
produced. For growth to occur, photosynthesis must be greater                   
than respiration.                                                               
                                                                                
Too low temperatures can  produce poor growth. Photosynthesis is                
slowed down at low temperatures. Since photosynthesis is slowed,                
growth is slowed, and this results in lower yields. Not all                     
plants grow best under the same temperature range. For example,                 
snapdragons grow best at nighttime temperatures of 55 degrees F                 
and poinsettias at 62 degrees F. Florist cyclamen does very well                
under very cool conditions while many bedding plants prefer a                   
higher temperature.                                                             
                                                                                
However, in some cases, a certain number of days of low tempera-                
ture are needed by plants in order to grow properly. This is true               
of crops growing in cold regions of the country. Peaches are a                  
prime example: most varieties require 700 to 1,000 hours below 45               
degrees F but above 32 degrees F before they break their rest                   
period and begin growth. Lilies need 6 weeks of temperatures at                 
33 degrees F before blooming.                                                   
                                                                                
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Some pesticide labels mention that a surfactant should be added                 
when mixing them. What is this and what is its purpose?                         
                                                                                
When added to a pesticide, a surfactant reduces the surface                     
tension between two unlike materials, such as a spray film and a                
solid surface. For example, by adding a surfactant to a sprayer,                
oil and water will mix and can be sprayed on plant surfaces. With               
increasing emphasis on safe application of pesticides, such                     
factors as droplet size, spray pattern, and pesticide drift have                
focused more attention on surfactants to give ideal coverage                    
for pesticides.                                                                 
                                                                                
Surfactants include: activators, compatibility agents, defloccu-                
lators, detergents, dispersants, emulsifiers, foam and drift                    
suppressants, and spreading, sticking and wetting agents. These                 
materials are added to a spray mix to help keep the pesticide                   
in suspension; improve cohesiveness and dispersion of the spray;                
and increase the wetting (or coverage) of the leaves, fruits, and               
stems.                                                                          
                                                                                
Many surfactants act as spreading, sticking and wetting agents.                 
They are most useful when spraying the hard-to-wet foliage of                   
such plants as azalea, boxwood, camellia, carnation, conifers,                  
euonymus, gardenia, gladiolus, holly, iris, narcissus, peony,                   
rose, and yew. Whether a spray rolls off or sticks to a plant                   
surface depends on the physical and chemical properties of the                  
spray mixture and the physical properties of the surface itself.                
If the surface tension of the mixture is high, or if the plant                  
surface is waxy, the spray droplets will roll off. The list                     
below contains examples of surfactants and their purposes.                      
                                                                                
Spreader or Film Extender (spreader-activator)  A spreader is a                 
substance that, when added to a pesticide mix, increases the area               
that a given volume of spray will cover and improves contact                    
between the pesticide and the plant surface. A spreading agent                  
builds spray deposits and improves weatherability. Most wettable                
powder insecticides benefit from the addition of a spreader.                    
                                                                                
Sticker or Adhesive   A sticker is a material that, when added to               
a spray mix or dust, improves the adherence (tenacity) to a plant               
surface rather than increasing the initial deposit. Commercial                  
sticking agents are oily in consistency and increase the amount                 
of suspended solids retained on plant surfaces by coating the                   
particles in a resin or varnish-like film. Most fungicides,                     
especially wettable powders, benefit greatly from the use of                    
stickers. Stickers may be judged in terms of resistance to wind                 
and water, length of adherence, and mechanical or chemical                      
action.                                                                         
                                                                                
Wetting Agent  A wetting agent is a material that, when added to                
a pesticide, lowers the interfacial tension between a liquid and                
a solid; in this case, a plant surface. The effectiveness is                    
measured by the increase in spread of a liquid over a solid                     
surface and the ability of the spray film to make complete                      
contact with it. When a wetting agent reduces surface tension,                  
spreading naturally occurs.                                                     
                                                                                
The pesticide label should state whether a surfactant is needed                 
or should be added to a spray mix for certain applications and                  
should indicate restrictions in the selection of compatible                     
surfactants. In many cases, surfactants have been designed speci-               
fically for use with fungicides, insecticides, or herbicides.                   
Although choosing an effective surfactant to accompany a specific               
pesticide is no simple task, the label will state whether a                     
surfactant is needed and the brand that should be used.                         
                                                                                
All commercial spreading, sticking and wetting agents should be                 
mixed strictly according to label directions. Adding more                       
surfactant than recommended may cause excessive runoff, resulting               
in a poor spray deposit and reduced pest control. In general, if                
the spray mix contains one or more pesticides produced or                       
formulated by the same company, use a surfactant sold or recom-                 
mended by that company. Surfactants are sold separately from                    
pesticides and are not subject to EPA registration.                             
                                                                                
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Why do my potato plants have little tomatoes on them?                           
                                                                                
Frequently gardeners observe small green fruit on potatoes, and                 
think they have a freak plant which will have tomatoes on top                   
and potatoes underground. This is not the case. Fruit formation                 
on potatoes is a normal occurance which should cause you no                     
concern.                                                                        
                                                                                
Potatoes and tomatoes belong to the same botanical family and                   
have similar fruits. On potatoes fruits remain relatively small                 
and green, and are of value only as a means of securing seeds,                  
if you are trying to breed a new variety. On tomato plants                      
fruits become large and fleshy, turn color when ripe, and are one               
of our most important vegetables.                                               
                                                                                
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Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable?                                             
                                                                                
Tomato is actually a fruit, a berry, and a vegetable. It is a                   
fruit because it develops from the pistil or center part of the                 
flower, which usually contains the seeds. It is a berry type of                 
fruit because it is soft and succulent all the way through. And                 
it is a vegetable because of the way it is used in our diet.                    
                                                                                
A vegetable is any edible part of a plant which you want to call                
a vegetable. It sounds crazy, but consider some different parts                 
of plants which are edible, and which we call vegetables.                       
                                                                                
Carrots, beets, turnips, and sweet potatoes are roots, which are                
also considered vegetables. In asparagus we eat fleshy stems. The               
potato also is a stem, but a specialized underground stem which                 
stores food reserves. (The eyes of the potato are buds at nodes                 
which the growing points located on stems. Roots do not have                    
nodes.)                                                                         
                                                                                
Many of the vegetables we eat are leaves for instance kale,                     
spinach, and leaf lettuce. In celery we eat mostly the stalk or                 
petiole of the leaf. This is not the stem. The stem is the small                
hard basal portion from which the long celery leaves arise.                     
                                                                                
In cabbage and head lettuce we eat enormous terminal buds which                 
develop on the top of short stems. The bud is, of course,                       
composed of many tightly folded leaves, but the whole thing is a                
bud. In Brussels sprouts we eat small side or lateral buds.                     
                                                                                
With shelled beans and peas, we eat seeds. While in the snap                    
beans and edible podded peas we eat the entire fruit with the                   
immature seeds inside. In sweet corn, the principal edible part                 
is the seed.                                                                    
                                                                                
There are many vegetables which actually are fruits such as                     
cucumber, okra, pumpkin, squash, and pepper. Technically musk-                  
melon and watermelon also fall into this catagory even though in                
our diet we think of them as fruits. In some cases we cut the                   
fruit open and discard the seeds for example muskmelon and                      
pumpkin. In many other cases, when the fruit is consumed when                   
quite young, we eat the seeds also, as in cucumbers, okra, and                  
summer squash.                                                                  
June 1986 The Virginia Gardener Question Box                                    
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
Dioecious Landscape Trees                          14 lines                     
Yam or Sweet Potato?                               32 lines                     
Choosing a Garden Sprayer                          79 lines                     
Perking Up Early Vegetables in an Organic Garden   24 lines                     
Petunia Groupings                                  15 lines                     
Lady's Mantle - Perennial Border Plant             14 lines                     
Japanese Clethra                                   26 lines                     
Chinese Scholar Tree                               12 lines                     
Why Radishes Go to Seed                             9 lines                     
Lath House Construction                            38 lines                     
                                                                                
                                                                                
Which trees are separated by sexes?  Do I always want both male                 
and female ornamentals in my yard?                                              
                                                                                
Persimmon, holly, ash, most maples, box elder, yew, cottonwood,                 
ginkgo, juniper, and some others are dioecious; that is, they                   
have male and female flowers on different plants. In the land-                  
scape, it is important to plant both sexes in order to produce                  
fruit or ornamental berries on persimmon and holly. Most others                 
are attractive in either sex with the exceptions of cottonwood                  
and ginkgo. Female cottonwoods produce fluffy "cotton" tufted                   
seeds. Many homeowners find this  fiber a nuisance and look for                 
male trees sold as "cottonless cottonwoods." Also avoid female                  
ginkgos which produce large, malodorous, fleshy, naked seeds                    
which resemble plum-shaped fruit. You would not want these                      
in your yard. Luckily, male clones are sold at most nurseries.                  
Before purchasing ginkgos, make sure the nursery guarantees only                
male plants.                                                                    
                                                                                
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What is the difference between yams and sweet potatoes?                         
                                                                                
Sweet potatoes are not true yams--they belong to the morning                    
glory family (Convolvulaceae), while true yams belong to the                    
Dioscoreaceae family which grow only in the tropics. The true                   
yam is rarely available anywhere in the U.S. even though some say               
a few may be found in the extreme southern part of the United                   
States.                                                                         
                                                                                
The term "yam" is used here as a trade name that refers to the                  
moist flesh type of sweet potato. The department of Agriculture                 
designates sweet potatoes as 'dry flesh' or as 'moist flesh'                    
according to the sensation experienced in the mouth during the                  
eating of cooked sweet potatoes. (The terms do not refer to the                 
actual moisture content of the potato.)                                         
                                                                                
Yam seems to sound better on restaurant menus and yams with ham                 
goes better in supermarket advertising especially around the                    
holidays. But chances are very good that the yams you eat are                   
really sweet potatoes.                                                          
                                                                                
Plant traditional vining type sweet potatoes in raised ridges, in               
light, deep, loose soils. Ridges permit fast growth of smooth,                  
properly shaped roots and make digging easier. Set plants when                  
danger of killing frost has passed. Leave 6 to 8 inches between                 
them and 3 feet between rows. Some varieties require only a foot                
of row space because they are the new "vineless" type.                          
                                                                                
Harvest before frost--handle roots carefully to prevent cuts,                   
bruises and broken roots. Use sweet potatoes soon after harvest.                
Either cook the potatoes and freeze them, or cure the roots                     
thoroughly at 75 to 80 F. and store in a well-ventilated location               
at 50 to 60 F.                                                                  
                                                                                
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What should I look for in choosing a garden sprayer or duster?                  
                                                                                
Before choosing a sprayer, consider how it will be used. The size               
of your yard and the type of spraying jobs to be done will help                 
you determine which sprayer is best for your needs. Choose a                    
sprayer that applies the spray with the right pressure, in the                  
right amount and pattern, and right on target. This will insure                 
complete converage of plants without waste.                                     
                                                                                
One of the most popular tools for applying pesticides is the                    
compressed-air sprayer. Highly versatile, it is ideal for almost                
any yard and garden spraying. You can also use it to control                    
crawling insects in and around your home. Compressed air sprayers               
are available in capacities from one to five gallons. In select-                
ing the sprayer that is the right size for you, remember that 1                 
gallon of water weighs 8 pounds. Therefore, a 5 gallon sprayer                  
weighs 40 pounds. Can you carry it?                                             
                                                                                
Compressed air sprayers give you control over the spray in these                
five important ways:                                                            
1. You mix the spray concentrate exactly as recommended for                     
best results.                                                                   
2. You control the pressure--high for a penetrating mist on                     
leafy plants; low for a coarse non-drift spray, ideal for                       
lawn weeds.                                                                     
3. The on-off control is instant, so you spray just to the                      
point of run-off without drenching or waste.                                    
4. With a long hose and extension, you can easily spray on                      
target to cover the entire plant and reach under leaves                         
where insects settle and some plant diseases begin.                             
5. You control the spray pattern--mist or coarse, close-up                      
or long range. Adjustable nozzle allows you to effectively                      
control different types of problems.                                            
                                                                                
Gardeners find added convenience in cordless electric sprayers.                 
With virtually the same performance as a compressed air sprayer,                
the cordless electric sprayer has an adjustable, nozzle, spray                  
extension and instant on-off control. Its lightweight and compact               
design make it easy to use and carry anywhere. A self-contained                 
battery supplies power for up to 45 minutes on an overnight                     
charge, more than enough for most lawn and garden spraying jobs.                
                                                                                
If trees need protection, a slide-type trombone sprayer sprays at               
high pressure to reach trees as high as 25 feet. The nozzle also                
adjusts to a fine spray good for low growing plants such as                     
flowers, vegetables, and shrubs. The sprayer draws the spray                    
material from a separate container such as a bucket.                            
                                                                                
For those with small gardens or patio plants, a hand sprayer with               
a one or two quart container is convenient and effective. These                 
sprayers develop pressure high enough to break up the spray                     
material into fine droplets. This is essential for enveloping the               
entire plant. Make sure the nozzle is adjustable, and the spray                 
can be directed under the leaves for complete coverage.                         
                                                                                
If you have a really large yard or garden, you might appreciate                 
the ease and big capacity (10 to 50 gallons) of a power sprayer.                
With power supplied by either a gas engine or electric moter, the               
power sprayer's high pressure assures extra range as well as                    
thorough coverage. Models are available that attach to lawn                     
tractors. Special accessories are also available further increas-               
ing this sprayer's convenience and versatility.                                 
                                                                                
The hose-end sprayer is a bottle with hose attachments which                    
holds liquid pesticides. The pesticide is mixed with water in a                 
certain ratio as the water flows out of the garden hose. These                  
devices are inexpensive and serve the purpose quite adequately;                 
however, it may take some figuring to get the appropriate ratio                 
of pesticide to water. An adjustable nozzle is a good feature. An               
antisiphon device should be part of a hose-end sprayer because if               
there is drop in your water pressure, the chemicals can be sucked               
up into your water system. The extra price you may have to pay                  
for this safety feature will be well worth the peace of mind.                   
                                                                                
A duster is a handy applicator for homeowners who prefer using                  
dust formulations to protect their plants and flowers. Be sure to               
choose a duster that has a long extension and adjustable nozzle.                
This will allow you to put the dust right where it is needed,                   
especially under leaves. (Adapted from article by extension                     
agents Michael L. Henry and Richard A. Nunnally)                                
                                                                                
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I plant radishes every year. Except for the first harvest in                    
spring, I seldom get any more with good roots. What am I doing                  
wrong?                                                                          
                                                                                
You are doing nothing wrong for your radishes. High tempertures                 
and long days tend to stimulate vegetative growth and seed stalk                
development at the expense of root development. The best roots                  
are formed under moderate to cool temperatures. Therefore, avoid                
late spring and summer plantings of this cool season crop.                      
                                                                                
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I am trying to produce an organic garden this year. However, the                
vegetables in my neighbor's garden look better. Is there any way                
I can perk up my crops?                                                         
                                                                                
Organic gardeners may notice that in early spring their crops                   
may not be as green or growing as well as their neighbors' who                  
are using synthetic granular or liquid fertilizers. This is                     
mainly due to the fact most organic sources of nitrogen are being               
released very slowly because the microorganisms that are respons-               
ible for this process are not very lively under cool soil                       
conditions. Increasing soil temperatures by using raised beds or                
black plastic will help; but since your crops are already                       
planted, this is not a solution applicable to this growing                      
season.                                                                         
                                                                                
What you may want to do now is add a few teaspoons of a soluable                
nitrogen source about one or two inches from the base of each                   
plant. If you do not want to give your plants a dose of synthetic               
fertilizer, here are a few fast-acting organic sources to use:                  
dried blood, fish emulsion, manure tea. It is easiest to use                    
liquid sources of nitrogen. If applying dry fertilizer, make                    
small slits or poke holes into the soil about 2-3 inches deep.                  
When making holes for fertilizer, try not to cut or disturb the                 
plant roots.                                                                    
                                                                                
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I read about single, double, multiflora and grandiflora petunias                
... what does it all mean?                                                      
                                                                                
Seed breeders use these terms to help lump similar varieties of                 
petunias into groups. Most petunias have "single" blossoms. This                
means they have only one layer of petals. "Double" blossoms have                
two or more layers of petals. Some fancy double varieties have                  
waved and frilled petal margins and resemble powder puffs.                      
                                                                                
Multiflora petunias have many medium sized blossoms. These                      
varieties withstand heat and humidity well. You can buy double or               
single multifloras.                                                             
                                                                                
Grandiflora petunias have large, rather ornate blossoms but not                 
as many as the multifloras. Varieties come in single or double                  
blossom forms and in compact or spreading varieties.                            
                                                                                
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What is a good plant to use as a border for a perennial bed in                  
the mountainous region of Virginia?                                             
                                                                                
One of the prettiest plants for edging borders is Lady's mantle,                
Alchemilla vulgaris. A perennial clump-forming herb. Lady's                     
mantle grows to 8 inches in height. It has soft gray-green leaves               
which appear early in spring and persist until late autumn.                     
In summer, it bears clusters of tiny greenish-yellow flowers on                 
10-inch forked stems.                                                           
                                                                                
A. vulgaris is easy to grow in a cool, moist climate. Plants seed               
very freely; fading flower heads should be removed promptly to                  
limit its spread. Alpine alchemilla (A. alpina), a smaller                      
species, has deeply serrated, silvery foliage, and forms dense                  
mats rather than clumps.                                                        
                                                                                
 ---------------                                                                
                                                                                
Is there a tall shrub with fragrant flowers and showy bark that                 
can grow in a shady spot in my landscape?                                       
                                                                                
Shrubs or trees with ornamental bark as well as flowers are                     
certainly not as common as the discriminating gardener would                    
like. One suggestion is Japanese tree clethra (Clethra barbinerv-               
is).                                                                            
                                                                                
Like its popular but much smaller American relative, summersweet                
or sweet pepperbush (C. alnifolia), this 15-20 foot shrub or                    
small tree produces an abundance of long-lasting 4-6 inch racemes               
of anise-scented white flowers in summer. These are unique being                
carried horizontally instead of upright. A more important feature               
which makes C. barbinervis attractive in all seasons is its                     
smooth, rich brown bark.                                                        
                                                                                
Japanese clethra withstands considerable shade and is pest-free                 
if not deprived of moisture. Ideal for the border or corner of a                
foundation planting, it deserves to be used more widely.                        
                                                                                
Cinnamon clethra (C. acuminata) is another American clethra. It                 
would be a useful tall shrub or small tree for landscapes in the                
higher elavations of Virginia if the soil is gravelly. It also                  
has fragrant, white flowers and ornamental bark. The bark is                    
shiny cinnamon brown. Since cinnamon clethra is a native to the                 
Southeast, it would work especially well in a naturalist landsca-               
pe.                                                                             
                                                                                
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While in Washington, D.C. last fall, I noticed some interesting                 
street trees with fruit that looked like a string of green jelly                
beans. Could you tell me more about this odd tree?                              
                                                                                
Chinese scholar tree (Sophora japonica), also called Japanese                   
pagoda tree (although it is native to China and Korea) is a                     
versatile and handsome summer-flowering tree. This temperate                    
zone member of the pea family, hardy to -20 degrees F, rivals its               
many tropical relatives in floral beauty. In addition, it thrives               
in hot, dry, infertile situations making it an exceptionally good               
city tree Fine specimens can be seen on the steets of Washington.               
                                                                                
S. japonica grows to 40-60 feet with a round top. An unusual                    
feature is the shiny green color of young branches. Glossy,                     
locust-like, ferny foliage gives open shade that does not deter                 
lawn grass planted beneath it. Large (15"), creamy flower                       
clusters are showy from July into August Pale green seed pods                   
persist into winter.                                                            
                                                                                
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I've been considering adding a lath house to my home grounds. Do                
you think a homeowner can actually get much use out of these                    
wooden structures?                                                              
                                                                                
The lath house is once again becoming a feature of fine gardens.                
But it is appearing in new forms, and is often multi-functional.                
Originally a simple shelter for summering indoor plants, it now                 
may be an elaborate "outdoor living" structure, a combination                   
conservatory and recreation center.                                             
                                                                                
On smaller properties, a lath house adjoining the patio or                      
attached to the home, garage, greenhouse, wall, or fence, is an                 
esthetically pleasing as well as space-saving solution. "Half-                  
and-half" designs, with part lath and part solid roof, or roofed                
with alternating wide and narrow lath, are another new approach.                
                                                                                
Then there is a Southern idea, now increasingly seen in more                    
Northward: the lath house that becomes a greenhouse in winter.                  
Usually this structure is attached to the home, so an open door                 
or window can supply at least enough heat for cool-growing                      
plants. Polyethylene sheeting, or sash covered on both sides with               
plastic, is tacked on in the fall.                                              
                                                                                
Some tips on design and construction of a lath house:                           
   1) standard 1-1/2 to 2 inch lath, spaced a lath width apart,                 
gives ample shading for many plants, with bamboo or reed shades                 
or vines to provide more shade if needed;                                       
   2) a concrete foundation is best for permanence in large                     
structures; plus a cement, stone, or gravel floor that can be                   
damped down for humidity-loving plants;                                         
   3) quite a few woods will serve for corner posts, studs and                  
beams when treated with wood preservative. Use 2 x 4's or larger                
for joists if you plan to hang plants. Roof beams can be steamed                
into curved shapes for a contemporary design.                                   
   4) a roof overhang will provide midday shade for a foundation                
planting.                                                                       
   5) a "sun wall" can be created using concrete blocks; ornamen-               
tal blocks such as those cast with a central open cloverleaf                    
design store heat from the day and are decorative as well.                      
May 1986 Virginia Gardener Question Box                                         
                                                                                
Care of Potted Geraniums                    22 lines                            
Hints for Novice Landscapers                20 lines                            
Fragrant Flowers                            19 lines                            
Avoid Soil Damage                           14 lines                            
Thinning Fruit in the Home Orchard          60 lines                            
Interplanting in the Vegetable Garden       44 lines                            
Reducing Water Needs in the Garden          38 lines                            
Trees to Avoid                              98 lines                            
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I have been given a potted azalea. How should I care for it? Can                
I plant it outdoors in summer?                                                  
                                                                                
Indoor azaleas require full sunlight to remain healthy. A night                 
temperature of 60 degrees will prolong bloom. Keep the soil                     
constantly moist. If the leaves should turn yellow, the soil is                 
not acid enough. Use an acid fertilizer sold especially for                     
azaleas. Do not use softened water as it may have too high                      
pH. When repotting, use a mixture high in acid peat moss.                       
                                                                                
Azaleas can be planted, pot and all, in a shady spot in the                     
garden during the summer months. Examine them frequently and keep               
them watered during dry periods. Greenhouse azaleas are not                     
hardy, and need to be brought indoors before freezing weather.                  
                                                                                
Azaleas need a cool rest treatment before they are forced into                  
bloom. Place the plants in a room with a temperature between                    
35-50 degrees F and filtered light. During this rest period,                    
flower buds will develop. Then place in a well lighted warm (65                 
F) room around January 1 and the plant will bloom. Unless you                   
have the proper growing conditions for the azalea, you should not               
attempt to carry the plants over.                                               
                                                                                
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Our family (two adults, two young children) has just moved into                 
our first home. We will be planting the yard ourselves to save                  
money. What hints do you have for novice landscapers?                           
                                                                                
A sucessful landscape should be able to age and mature with a                   
family. Don't plan a landscape whose use will remain static                     
because it will not function as a family's needs change. A plan                 
for a very young family calls for inexpensive plantings. There                  
should be open areas in which children and pets can play. As a                  
family reaches its middle years, more extensive and expensive                   
plantings can be put in. The children's play area can serve other               
functions; for example, a sand box area can be converted into a                 
lily pool. As the children grow up they require less play area                  
and less parental supervision; providing both a place and time                  
for more sophisticated landscaping. With the approach of retire-                
ment years, the landscape should become one of low maintenance.                 
Mature trees and shrubs will carry the landscape theme. High                    
labor areas such as flower beds should be minimized. Ramps and                  
walks may replace steps.                                                        
                                                                                
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What I enjoy best about a garden are the sweet scents. Please                   
give me some suggestions for fragrant flowers.                                  
                                                                                
Gardens appeal to several of our senses: touch and smell as well                
as sight. The following list contains flowers noted for their                   
pleasant fragance.                                                              
                                                                                
Fragrant annuals: Alyssum, Nicotiana (flowering tobacco),                       
Dianthus (pinks), Stock, Heliotrope, Petunias, Mignonette (herb),               
Phlox, Nasturtiums, Sweet peas.                                                 
                                                                                
Fragrant perennials: Southernwood, Lily-of-the-Valley, Dianthus                 
plumarius (Grass Pink), Dictamnus albus (Dittany or Gas Plant),                 
Galium odoratum (Sweet woodruff), Hesperis matronalis (Sweet                    
Rocket), Hosta plantaginea grandiflora (Funkia or Big Plantain                  
Lily), Heliotropium arborescens, Monarda didyma (Bee Balm),                     
Peony, Phlox paniculata (Phlox), Rose species, Valeriana officin-               
alis (Common Valerian), Viola cornuta (Tufted Pansy, Horned                     
violet), Viola odorata (Sweet Violet), Lavandula vera (True                     
Lavender).                                                                      
                                                                                
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When does cultivating or hoeing the garden damage the soil the                  
least?                                                                          
                                                                                
Cultivation is best done when the soil is somewhat moist, but not               
wet. Working wet soil will change the structure, especially in                  
heavy soils. When it is too dry, weeds are difficult to pull and                
hoeing is also harder. A day or two after a rain or irrigation is               
probably the best time to cultivate. If you have a choice,                      
remember that the work will be much more pleasant in the cool                   
temperatures of early morning or evening. On hot summer after-                  
noons, you are likely to fatigue more easily, get a sunburn, or                 
suffer from sun poisoning, sunstroke or worse. Wear protective                  
clothing if you must work when it's hot, and stop frequently for                
rest and refreshment.                                                           
                                                                                
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Is thinning of peaches, plums and apples recommended in a home                  
orchard? If so, how do I do it quickly? Is there a chemical I                   
can use?                                                                        
                                                                                
Quite frequently, peach and apple trees set more fruit than                     
they can mature to a desirable size. By thinning (removing excess               
fruit), this difficulty can be overcome. Thinning not only allows               
for an increase in size of the remaining fruit on the tree, but                 
also improves fruit color and quality, reduces limb breakage, and               
promotes general tree vigor. Thinning induces regular annual                    
bearing in certain apple varieties, such as Golden Delicious,                   
Yellow Transparent, and York Imperial, which otherwise have a                   
tendency to bear heavy crops every other year. Perhaps one of the               
greatest benefits from thinning fruits is that it permits more                  
thorough spraying or dusting for effective disease and insect                   
control.                                                                        
                                                                                
Peach thinning is a standard practice in commercial orchards.                   
Experimental results indicate that the sooner peach trees are                   
thinned after bloom, the earlier the ripening and the larger                    
the fruits at harvest. It is doubtful that final size of the                    
fruits of any variety will be greatly increased by thinning                     
if it is delayed much after the pits begin to harden. It is                     
generally recommended that peaches be spaced 6 to 8" apart.                     
When thinning by hand, grasp the stem or branch firmly between                  
your thumb and forefinger and pull the fruit off with a quick                   
motion of the second and third fingers.                                         
                                                                                
Many growers use the pole method of thinning peaches. A 4 or 5'                 
section of bamboo or other light wood is used. A piece of 3/4"                  
garden or spray hose about 15" long is forced tightly onto the                  
end of the pole, leaving some 8 to 10" of the hose extending                    
beyond the end of the pole. A snug fit is necessary so the hose                 
will remain in place while being used.                                          
                                                                                
Many modifications of this tool are used. One of the most                       
common is a 30" section of plastic pipe, 1" in diameter. Remove                 
peaches by striking the limbs about 18" from their tips with the                
flexible part of the hose, using sharp, firm blows. This dislodg-               
es any loosely attached fruits. With a little practice, you                     
should be able to remove individual fruits by this method.                      
                                                                                
Apples should be thinned as soon as possible after the fruit                    
has set. If full benefits are to be obtained, thinning should                   
be completed within 20 to 25 days after full bloom. In hand-thin-               
ning apples, use the same general technique used in hand-thinning               
peaches. A distance of 6 to 10" between fruits is recommended.                  
With varieties of Delicious apples, where greater size of                       
individual fruits is important, the greater spacing is preferred.               
The center apple of a cluster is usually the largest and the best               
apple to leave.                                                                 
                                                                                
Thinning plums is usually limited to the large Japanese varie-                  
ties. The primary concern here is to facilitate insect and                      
disease control. Plums are usually thinned by hand to about 4"                  
apart.                                                                          
                                                                                
Chemical sprays are used by many commercial growers to thin                     
apples and peaches. If you wish to use them in your planting,                   
contact your local Extension Agent for recommendations.                         
                                                                                
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Twice now I have tried to cover a very visible slope in my yard                 
with groundcover plants; twice now I have failed, ending up with                
weeds. I need some pointers. These plants are expensive.                        
                                                                                
Selection of a ground cover will depend upon the area where it                  
will be used. Is it in sun, partially or deeply shaded?  Soil                   
conditions must be studied.  Some ground covers prefer a moist                  
soil, rich in organic matter while others will adapt to dry,                    
sandy situations.  Give consideration to color, texture, height                 
and habit as well, since some ground covers tend to grow rampant-               
ly.                                                                             
                                                                                
One problem that limits the use of ground covers is the cost of                 
installation since large numbers of small, individual plants are                
required. In addition, a well prepared planting bed is essential                
to the establishment of ground covers and can be costly and                     
time consuming.                                                                 
                                                                                
Significant maintenance is necessary for the first one to three                 
years or until the ground cover becomes established. They require               
cultivation to control weeds and other plant invaders; fertiliza-               
tion to encourage fast, vigorous growth to achieve good cover;                  
irrigation in times of dryness; and disease and pest control.                   
When these maintenance considerations are ignored, the progress                 
toward achieving a good ground cover planting is disappointing.                 
                                                                                
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Please explain  the word "interplanting" as used in gardening                   
magazines.                                                                      
                                                                                
Growing two or more types of vegetables in the same place at the                
same time is known as interplanting. Proper planning is essenti-                
al to obtain higher production and increased quality of the crops               
planted. This technique has been practiced for thousands of                     
years, but is just now gaining widespread support in this                       
country.                                                                        
                                                                                
To successfully plan an interplanted garden the following factors               
must be taken into account for each plant: the length of the                    
plant's growth period, its growth pattern (tall, short, below or                
above ground), possible negative effects on other plants (such as               
the allelopathic effects of sunflowers and Jerusalem artichokes                 
on nearby plants), preferred season, and light, nutrient and                    
moisture requirements.                                                          
                                                                                
Interplanting can be accomplished by alternating rows within a                  
bed (plant a row of peppers next to a row of onions), by mixing                 
plants within a row, or by distributing various species througho-               
ut the bed. For the beginner, alternating rows may be the easiest               
to manage at first.                                                             
                                                                                
Long season (slow maturing) and short season (quick maturing)                   
plants like carrots and radishes, respectively, can be planted at               
the same time. The radishes are harvested before they begin to                  
crowd the carrots. An example of combining growth patterns is                   
planting smaller plants close to larger plants, (radishes at the                
base of beans or broccoli). Shade tolerant species like lettuce,                
spinach, and celery may be planted in the shadow of taller crops.               
Heavy feeders, such as cabbage family crops, should be mixed with               
less gluttonous plants. Root, leaf, and soil-building crops                     
(legumes) may be mixed to take advantage of available nutrients.                
                                                                                
Interplanting can help keep insect and disease problems under                   
control. Pests are usually fairly crop-specific; that is, they                  
prefer vegetables of one type or family. Mixing families of                     
plants helps to break up large expanses of the pest-preferred                   
crop, helping to contain early pest damage within a small area,                 
thus giving the gardener a little more time to deal with the                    
problem. One disadvantage is that when it does come time to                     
spray for pests, it's harder to be sure that all plants are                     
protected.                                                                      
                                                                                
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I have sandy soil in my garden. What do I do to keep from                       
having to water so often?                                                       
                                                                                
Addition of organic matter is the first step in improving                       
the moisture conditions in your garden. The moisture-holding                    
capacity of sandy soils is improved by additions of organic                     
matter. Though most soil water in sandy soil is available to                    
plants, it drains so quickly that plants are unable to reach                    
water after even a few days following a rain. Humus in sandy                    
soil gives the water something to cling to until it is needed by                
plants.                                                                         
                                                                                
Mulching is a cultural practice which can significantly decrease                
the amount of water that must be added to the soil. A 6-8"                      
organic mulch can reduce water needs by as much as 1/2 by                       
smothering annual weeds (which take up and transpire moisture)                  
and by reducing evaporation of moisture directly from the soil.                 
Organic mulches themselves hold some water and increase the                     
humidity level around the plant. Black plastic mulch also                       
conserves moisture but may increase soil temperatures drama-                    
tically during the summer (to the detriment of some plants and                  
the benefit of others) if not covered by other mulch materials or               
foliage.                                                                        
                                                                                
Shading and the use of windbreaks are other moisture-conserving                 
techniques. Plants that wilt in very sunny areas can benefit                    
from partial shade during the afternoon in summer. Small plants,                
in particular, should be protected. Air moving across a plant                   
carries away the moisture on the leaf surfaces, causing more                    
water to be needed by the plant. In very windy areas the roots                  
often cannot keep up with leaf demands, and plants wilt. Tempor-                
ary or permanent windbreaks can help tremendously.                              
                                                                                
During those times when cultural practices simply aren't enough,                
when rainfall is sparse and the sun is hot, watering can benefit                
your garden with higher yields, or may save the garden altogether               
in severe drought years.                                                        
                                                                                
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Would it help my houseplants if I used the potting soil sold in                 
the stores? I've not had great luck with potted plants but I'd                  
hate to throw money away.                                                       
                                                                                
The potting soil or media in which a plant grows must be of good                
quality. It should be porous for root aeration and drainage but                 
also capable of water and nutrient retention. Most commercially                 
prepared mixes are termed artificial which means they contain no                
soil. High quality artificial mixes generally contain slow                      
release fertilizers which take care of a plant's nutritional                    
requirements for several months.                                                
                                                                                
Many commercial soil mixes are well formulated for plants grown                 
in containers. However there are also many cases in which the                   
potting soil is appropriate for pot plants, containing tii much                 
well decomposed organic material and very little drainage                       
material. If you have alot of plants and the space to do the                    
mixing you may save a few dollars and some headaches. If not,                   
you should purchase a small quanity of the potting soil to                      
determine its suitablity before making a large investment.                      
                                                                                
Most mixes contain a combination of organic matter, such as                     
peat moss or ground pine bark, and an inorganic material like,                  
washed sand, vermiculite or perlite. Materials commonly used for                
house plants are the peat-lite mixtures, consisting of peat moss                
and either vermiculite or perlite.                                              
                                                                                
The following materials will make two bushels of mix:                           
		1 bushel shredded peat moss                                                   
		2 bushels perlite or vermiculite                                              
		1/2 cup finely ground agricultural lime                                       
		1/3 cup 20% superphosphate                                                    
		1/2 cup 8-8-8 or similar analysis mixed fertilizer                            
		1 level teaspoon chelated iron                                                
                                                                                
Artificial mixtures are usually very low in trace or minor elem-                
ents, therefore, it is important to use a fertilizer that                       
contains these trace elements.                                                  
                                                                                
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There are alot of weedy trees I would rather not plant. What                    
trees would you avoid in your yard?                                             
                                                                                
When selecting a tree to plant in your yard it is nice to know                  
exactly what you are getting. Many homeowners plant a sapling,                  
enjoy it for a few years, and then discover some serious disad-                 
vantages when the tree reaches an effective height.                             
                                                                                
Following is a list of trees which you should know something                    
about before you plant them in your yard:                                       
                                                                                
Acer negundo (Box Elder) This tree has weak wood, is short-                     
lived and is susceptible to box elder bugs.                                     
                                                                                
Acer saccharinum (Silver Maple) One of the worst trees available                
because of its brittle wood and tendency to become hollow and                   
hazardous. Its shallow surface roots can ruin sidewalks and                     
driveways, clog up septic systems, and prevent turfgrass growth.                
Also susceptible to insects.                                                    
                                                                                
Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven) A weed tree that sprouts                   
up everywhere and has a disagreeable odor. It is outlawed in                    
some cities.                                                                    
                                                                                
Albizia julibrissin (Mimosa) Susceptible to Mimosa Wilt (root-                  
fungus) and has weak, fast growth.                                              
                                                                                
Betula papyrifera (White Clump Birch) Authorities say it isn't                  
likely to do well where the mean July temperature is above 70                   
degrees F. It is pretty but short-lived.                                        
                                                                                
Betula pendula (European White Birch) This birch is susceptible                 
to insects and much environmental stress.                                       
                                                                                
Catalpa sp. All Catalpas have messy flowers and seed pods.                      
                                                                                
Ginkgo biloba (Gingko) Do not plant the female Ginkgo. It's                     
fruits have a very offensive odor.                                              
                                                                                
Juglans nigra (Black Walnut) The tree roots produce a toxin that                
is harmful to certain other plants and anthracnose will defoliate               
it during August and September. The wood is valuable though.                    
                                                                                
Laburnum anagyroides (Golden Chain Tree) This tree is subject to                
much environmental stress.                                                      
                                                                                
Malus species (Crabapple) Most varieties are defoliated by scab                 
diseases every year. The fruits can be messy.                                   
                                                                                
Melia azedarach (Chinaberry) This tree has weak wood, seeds                     
that are a pest and many suckers.                                               
                                                                                
Morus species (Mulberry) Mulberries have messy fruit.                           
                                                                                
Paulownia tomentosa (Empress Tree) Its pretty flowers become                    
thousands of seeds which sprout everywhere.                                     
                                                                                
Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) Leaves and seeds from this tree                
are messy; it has brittle wood and surface roots. Anthracnose, a                
late spring blight which occurs most years will attack it.                      
                                                                                
Populus species (Lombardy poplar, white or silver poplar, hybrid                
poplars, cottonwood) These trees have brittle wood and surface                  
root systems, but their main problem is that they are very                      
susceptible to canker diseases which disfigure and usually kill                 
them. Some also have messy flowers or send up suckers from their                
roots. The Lombardy poplar is very short-lived. Note that the                   
tulip poplar (or Yellow Poplar) is not a poplar, but rather a                   
magnolia. While it does have brittle wood, it is a pretty good                  
tree.                                                                           
                                                                                
Prunus serotina (Black Cherry) Has objectionable fruit; is                      
susceptible to insects and attracts many birds.                                 
                                                                                
Robinia pseudoacacia (Black Locust) It is good for fence posts                  
and firewood, but not for landscaping. It has brittle wood, is                  
susceptible to cankers, and leaf miners render it unattractive by               
summer.                                                                         
                                                                                
Salix species (Willows) These trees have very brittle wood and                  
are susceptible to canker diseases. Their roots will clog sewer                 
and drain pipes. Some are attractive on large lots.                             
                                                                                
Sorbus species (Mountain Ash) Does best in cool climates. Subject               
to damage from sawflies, borers, scale, and fire blight.                        
                                                                                
Ulmus americana (American Elm) Until Dutch elm disease can be                   
controlled, this long time favorite should not be planted.                      
                                                                                
Ulmus pumila (Siberian Elm) Its brittle wood will result in                     
severe damage in ice storms, and its seeds and suckering habit                  
make it a pest. Also very short-lived. Note that the Chinese elm                
(Ulmus parvifolia) is often confused with the Siberian Elm, but                 
is far superior.                                                                
                                                                                
Fruit trees (and fruit trees that only flower) These are often                  
subject to Japanese beetle infestation. Fruit trees require a                   
genuine commitment; don't try to get into them halfway.                         
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
                                                                                
The Virginia Gardener Question Box March 1986                                   
                                                                                
Blueberry culture                               50 lines                        
'Bleeding' of grape vines                       14 lines                        
Repotting houseplants                           34 lines                        
Using manure in the garden                      28 lines                        
Black raspberry renovation                      45 lines                        
Bleeding heart                                  30 lines                        
Rhubarb culture                                 79 lines                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
I enjoyed picking blueberries at a farm in the country. What                    
would I need to do to grow my own?                                              
                                                                                
Many home gardeners have been successful with blueberry plantings               
in Virginia. Although they may be grown in any area where native                
blueberries, azaleas, mountain laurel, or rhododendrons do well,                
they have a better flavor when grown where nights are cool during               
the ripening season.                                                            
                                                                                
Set blueberry plants in early spring, about 3 or 4 weeks before                 
the average date of the last frost. Plants are usually placed                   
every 4' in rows 6' apart. Blueberries should be planted where                  
they have full sunlight most of the day, and far enough from the                
roots of trees to avoid competition for moisture and nutrients.                 
The plants are shallow-rooted and must either be irrigated or                   
heavily mulched. Adequate drainage must be provided, because                    
blueberry bushes cannot tolerate wet feet.                                      
                                                                                
Blueberries grow best is porous, moist, sandy soils high in                     
organic matter with a pH range of 4.0 to 5.2. Have a soil test                  
made. If your soil is not acidic enough for blueberries, work                   
materials such as peat moss, oak leaves, pine needles, or sulfur                
into the area where the plants are to be set. This should be done               
6 months to a year before planting. Once the proper acidity is                  
established, it must be maintained through the annual use                       
of an acid fertilizer.                                                          
                                                                                
Blueberries are very exacting in soil and moisture requirements,                
but require little protection from insect and disease pests.                    
Birds are by far the greatest pest in the blueberry planting.                   
Covering the bushes with wire cages, fish or plastic netting, or                
tobacco cloth, is perhaps the best method of bird control.                      
Aluminum pie tins suspended by a string or wire above the bushes                
have been used successfully to keep the birds away.                             
                                                                                
Cross pollination is necessary for a good crop of blueberries. To               
provide for adequate cross pollination, two or more varieties of                
blueberries should be planted. The following varieties suggested                
for planting in home gardens in Virginia ripen over a 6 to 8 week               
period, beginning in early June and continuing through July. All                
are vigorous and productive under good growing conditions, and                  
produce berries of large size and good quality: Earliblue (not                  
recommended for planting in western Virginia), Ivanhoe, Blueray,                
Bluecrop, Jersey, Berkeley, Herbert and Coville.                                
                                                                                
The VCES publication 426-840 discusses the culture of small fruit               
crops in detail. You may request this bulletin by contacting your               
local extension agent.                                                          
                                                                                
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When I was pruning my grape vines, a strange thing happened. A                  
clear fluid began oozing out of the cuts. Is this harmful to                    
the plant?                                                                      
                                                                                
"Bleeding" of grape vines is normal if you prune vines after they               
have started growing. Pruning during dormancy does not usually                  
cause bleeding, but it can occur if a couple of warm days come                  
along right after pruning. Bleeding is not harmful to your vines,               
so don't worry about it.                                                        
                                                                                
If you want good size and quality fruit, you must prune your                    
vines annually. The best time to prune is while the vines are                   
dormant. Avoid heavy pruning in the middle of the summer as it                  
weakens the vines and encourages late growth that may not survive               
the winter.                                                                     
                                                                                
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When should I repot my houseplants and how should I go about it?                
                                                                                
Foliage plants require repotting when their roots have filled                   
their pot and are growing out the bottom. Spring is the best                    
time to transplant as the weather is ideal to help the plant                    
recover from transplant stress. The pot selected for repotting                  
should be no more than two inches larger in diameter than the pot               
the plant is currently growing in, as an oversized pot will cause               
water logging of the soil and actually stunt growth. The pot                    
should have at least one drainage hole.                                         
                                                                                
Most plants are removed easily from their pot by holding the                    
container upside down and knocking the edge against any solid                   
object. Hold your hand over the soil, placing the plant between                 
the fore and middle fingers. Never try to pull the plant out of                 
the pot by its stem. If the plant has become root bound, it will                
be necessary to cut and unwind any roots that circle the pot                    
base, otherwise these roots will never develop normally. If the                 
old soil surface has accumulated a salty crust, the top inch                    
should be carefully removed.                                                    
                                                                                
Potting media used should be coarse enough to allow good drainage               
yet have good water retention capabilities. Media should be                     
moistened before you begin repotting as many potting soil mixes                 
contain peat moss which sheds moisture for a time before it                     
absorbs water. Begin repotting by placing a small amount of fresh               
media in the bottom of the pot. Set the rootball in the middle of               
the new soil. Fill soil around the sides between the rootball and               
pot. Do not add soil above the original level on the rootball,                  
unless the roots are exposed, or it has been necessary to remove                
some of the surface soil. Firm or settle the soil by tapping the                
pot against a table top and gently press the soil with your                     
fingers. Do not pack the soil. Make sure you leave space between                
the soil level and the top of the pot to allow for watering.                    
                                                                                
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Does all manure work in the garden? Aren't some strong enough to                
burn the plants? What about dog and cat droppings and the stuff                 
they sell packaged at the garden center?                                        
                                                                                
All manure is not alike. Manure from horses, cattle, pigs,                      
sheep and even pets has different properties. Before using any                  
type of manure, it is best to know the type and check with your                 
extension agent to find out if, how, when and how much to apply.                
                                                                                
Fresh sheep, rabbit and poultry manure have a very high nitrogen                
content, and so must be well rotted before using on a garden.                   
This means storing or composting the manure a year or so before                 
using it on a garden. Horse and cattle manure can be composted,                 
or applied to the garden in the fall to give it some time to                    
break down. Some garden centers offer sterilized bags of manure,                
but this form of fertilizer can become quite expensive if you are               
amending a large garden.                                                        
                                                                                
Roundworm, an intestinal parasite of pigs, is found in some                     
swine manure. Because of this parasite, some people neglect                     
using swine manure, but humans have rarely been infected with                   
roundworms traced to the use of pig manure in their gardens.                    
Simple hygiene--cleansing of hands after working in the garden                  
and washing of harvested crops--should eliminate any problems.                  
                                                                                
Dog and cat manure should be avoided because it could contain                   
parasite eggs and/or larvae which can infect man. Dogs may                      
harbor roundworms, while cats can be host to toxoplasmosis, a                   
protozoan parasite. (Information provided by Dr. Jorden Hansen,                 
Assistant Professor, Pathobiology & Public Practice)                            
                                                                                
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I recently bought a small farm that has a neglected patch of                    
black raspberries. I need information on when and how it would be               
best to trim and thin out these plants as they are very overgrown               
and thick.                                                                      
                                                                                
Before attempting to renovate your black raspberry patch,                       
consider two things. First, determine if it is a wild or cultiva-               
ted stand. A wild stand will not be worth putting much effort                   
into as newer, more productive varieties are available. Second,                 
be aware that black raspberries are more prone to virus diseases                
and should not be left near to where one anticipates planting                   
red raspberries. If your plot is a cultivated planting and you                  
choose to keep it, the chance of revitalizing it should be good                 
if proper pruining is done (assuming that other environmental                   
conditions such as plenty of sunlight and adequate moisture are                 
present for the plants.)                                                        
                                                                                
Start the renovation of cultivated black raspberry plants late                  
this winter with a dormant pruning to thin out and cut back                     
excess growth. Delay dormant pruning for bramble fruits until the               
danger of severe cold is passed in the winter, but before the                   
buds begin to swell for the new spring growth.                                  
                                                                                
In dormant pruning, remove all the dead, weak, and severely                     
damaged canes; in addition, eliminate crowded conditions. Cut out               
any dead canes since bramble fruits have biennial cane growth;                  
that is, they fruit on two year old canes which then die. Thin                  
each plant so that only four or five of the best year-old                       
canes remain per clump. Then, cut the side branches of the black                
raspberry canes so that they are only nine to tweleve inches                    
long. Since the new raspberry canes produced this year will be                  
the ones that fruit next year, you will want to save young, thick               
fruiting canes that are a half-inch or more in diameter.                        
                                                                                
In addition to the dormant pruning of the black raspberry plants,               
you should prune the young black raspberry shoots when they are                 
about two feet high next summer. For black raspberries, this                    
pruning operation, referred to as summer-topping, consists                      
of removing the top three or four inches of the new shoots.                     
Topping keeps the canes from growing too tall. To prevent the                   
possible spread of disease, canes should not be topped when they                
are wet or when rain is forecast that day.                                      
                                                                                
Since your black raspberry planting has been neglected for a                    
while, it would be advisable to take a soil test from the area                  
to see if there are any particular nutrient needs or a need for                 
lime. Normally, on fertile soils or where a good mulch is                       
maintained, bramble fruits do not need a regular fertilizer                     
program. If growth has been poor, the addition of one half to one               
pound of nitrate of soda to each 100 feet of row when growth                    
begins in the spring will be beneficial. (Adapted from an article               
by John Arbogast, Roanoke City Extension Agent.)                                
                                                                                
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As a Valentine's Day gift, a friend ordered me a live plant                     
called bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis.) What should I                     
do when this arrives?                                                           
                                                                                
The flowers of the plant Dicentra spectabilis, the common or                    
garden bleeding heart, resemble tiny living valentines; pink                    
heart-shaped flowers appear on curved racemes. The plant does not               
ordinarily flower on February 14th, but could be made to do so                  
under controlled conditions. Ordinarily, it flowers in April                    
through early June, depending upon the part of the state in which               
you live.                                                                       
                                                                                
Early spring planting gives the best results for bleeding heart.                
Ordinarily, nurseries wait to ship planting stock until it is the               
correct planting time in your zone. Should your plant arrive                    
before the soil is workable, it may be stored for a week or two                 
in the refrigerator. Keep the plant in the original shipping                    
wrapper so it will not dry out.                                                 
                                                                                
The soil for dicentra should be rich in humus, and possess                      
excellent drainage in order for the plant to thrive and grow                    
healthy. Once planted, it thrives best when left alone in an                    
undisturbed environment.                                                        
                                                                                
Partial shade provides the best conditions for bleeding heart,                  
whether in the garden border or slipped in among shrubs so that                 
it is protected, but not crowded by the surrounding vegetation.                 
The foliage of garden bleeding heart is a rich green and its                    
texture is fine enough to add interest to the flower border and                 
provide contrast with the neighboring plants. Plants can grow                   
to a height of three feet, but two feet is more common. As the                  
summer progresses, the foliage is prone to die-back.                            
                                                                                
There is a variety known as D. spectabilis `Alba,' which is                     
white bleeding heart. Usually this plant is not as sturdy or                    
reliable as the species and more difficult to locate.                           
                                                                                
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How do I establish a bed of rhubarb?                                            
                                                                                
Rhubarb, or pie plant, is one of the least finicky, most hardy,                 
longest living garden perennials. It does require a period of                   
dormancy and therefore, depending upon the cultivar, may not do                 
well in hotter parts of the state.                                              
                                                                                
As with all perennials, there are two ways to get rootstock:                    
from your neighbors and friends, or from a nursery grower. If you               
have a friend who plans to separate a rhubarb plant in the                      
spring, show up on the day with a sharp spade. Dig carefully to                 
expose the root system. Using the spade, cut straight down                      
through the roots so that each section you separate from the main               
crown has at least one strong bud. Two or three clumps of roots                 
should be ample for most families. (Ten pounds of stalks is the                 
average consumption per person per season.)                                     
                                                                                
Alternatively, obtain roots through a nursery grower in very                    
early spring. If a choice of rhubarb root stocks is offered,                    
choose the newer, all-red varieties.                                            
                                                                                
You may want to test the pH of your soil before planting the                    
roots. Rhubarb will do well in a pH range between 5.5 and 7.0.                  
The ideal way to prepare the soil is to dig holes three feet to                 
four feet on center, each hole being two feet deep and two feet                 
across. Discard the subsoil. Line the bottom of each hole with                  
six to eight inches of well-rotted cow manure, and then fill the                
holes with a mixture of equal parts compost and topsoil. One                    
pound of 5-10-20 per 100 feet of row before plants are set is                   
recommended for this heavy feeder. Set the roots, one per hole,                 
so that the tops of the roots lie two inches below the surface.                 
Roots should be planted as soon as the soil is workable in the                  
spring.                                                                         
                                                                                
Since the plant is long-lived, be sure to situate it where it                   
will remain undisturbed for years. Every five years or so, each                 
clump of roots should be dug up and separated; in this way you                  
will be assured of thick, tender stalks. Plants left alone too                  
long will lose their vitality and produce only thin stalks.                     
                                                                                
Many gardeners mulch their rhubarb plants with decomposed cow                   
manure in the fall. In the spring they remove the mulch, fertili-               
ze, and then replace it to encourage thick, juicy stalks every                  
spring. Seedstalks should be cut if you ever see them forming, as               
they sap energy from the roots. It is preferable to obtain roots                
rather than start rhubarb from seeds; frequently, seeds are not                 
true to variety and take a long time to become established.                     
                                                                                
Because rhubarb stalks, like asparagus, are the result of                       
nutrients stored in the roots, it is important not to harvest the               
first year and harvest lightly the second year. Harvest from                    
early spring until June. Always grasp the base of each stalk and                
pull sharply. Don't cut stalks with a knife as large stubs left                 
by cutting may become diseased and cause the rhizomes to which                  
they are attached to rot. Beginning in the third year, harvest                  
only for about eight weeks.                                                     
                                                                                
Immediately after pulling stalks, cut the leaves from the                       
petiole; the stalks will retain their moisture much longer. While               
the stalks have been used as a fruit, the leaves are not used                   
because of their poisonous concentration of oxalic acid. Ingesti-               
on can cause gastroenteritis; damage can result from the formati-               
on of calcium oxalate in the victim's kidneys.                                  
                                                                                
Even though this plant is very pest resistant, you should watch                 
for Japanese beetle and rhubarb curculio infestation. Crown rot                 
might be another problem. Rot forms at the base of the leaf                     
stalks, and wilting progresses from stalk base to stalk base                    
until the plant dies. There is no remedy. Dig up the plant                      
carefully to remove the infected roots and as much of the                       
infected soil as possible. Burn or dispose of what you dig up; do               
not compost it.                                                                 
FEBRUARY 1986 QUESTION BOX                                                      
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
EDITOR'S NOTE: In the January 1986 TVG Question Box, in reference               
to little-leaf linden: Foliage feeding insects such as Japanese                 
beetles can cause serious damage to little-leaf and American                    
lindens in areas where there are high populations of these                      
insects.                                                                        
                                                                                
                                                                                
Saffron                                       25 lines                          
Vegetable Gardening in the Shade              19 lines                          
Serviceberry                                  37 lines                          
Spanish Malibar Spinach                       15 lines                          
Terrace Construction                          20 lines                          
Storing Winter Squash                         14 lines                          
Pansies                                       25 lines                          
Cactus Blooming                               39 lines                          
Lithops (Living rocks)                        51 lines                          
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Where does the spice saffron come from?                                         
                                                                                
Saffron comes from the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus, autumn                  
crocus. Crocuses grow wild in the Mediterranean region and into                 
southwest Asia. They belong to the Iris family. There are more                  
than seventy-five species, and numerous forms or varieties.                     
Several are available through seed catalogs and garden centers.                 
                                                                                
Saffron flowers are called autumn crocus because as the weather                 
turns cold and the trees begin shedding their leaves, lovely                    
lilac flowers appear. Each flower has three scarlet-orange                      
stigmas which are collected, dried and used as a textile dye or                 
food spice.                                                                     
                                                                                
Purchase mature saffron plants or corms to observe the flowers.                 
New corms usually won't blossom for three years. The corms are                  
planted in late July to early August. Place them six inches deep                
and six inches apart. The soil should be light and rich; the                    
location sheltered.                                                             
                                                                                
If you expect to collect the stigmas, be sure to plant thousands                
of saffron as 60,000 stigmas weigh only a pound. Obviously, the                 
dried material is very expensive, and the spice sold is often                   
adulterated--or stretched--with arnica or calendula petals or                   
safflower florets.                                                              
                                                                                
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Part of my yard is shaded from a nearby tree. Since this is the                 
only place I can have a garden, are there any vegetables which                  
can be grown in that area?                                                      
                                                                                
Provided that this section of your garden is not densely shaded                 
and receives some direct sun, you should be able to grow many                   
leafy vegetables and root crops. Some of the vegetables to                      
consider include lettuce, Swiss chard, spinach, mustard greens,                 
cabbage, kale, chives, parsley, beets, radish, turnips and                      
carrots. Fruiting crops such as tomato, cucumber, sweet corn,                   
beans and squash require a minimun of 6 to 8 hours of direct                    
sunlight each day for good growth and yields and would not be                   
recommended for the shaded area of your garden.                                 
                                                                                
One other consideration about gardening in this area is the                     
location of the trees' roots. A shallow rooted tree would remove                
water and nutrients your garden needs. You might have to install                
irrigation and increase fertilization if this is the case. If                   
your garden is quite a distance from the tree itself, this may                  
not be necessary.                                                               
                                                                                
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I'm looking for a large shrub, 20' tall or more, with year-round                
interest. What should I plant?                                                  
                                                                                
Amelanchier, or serviceberry, is a plant which adds landscape                   
interest throughout the year. In April, it produces a profusion                 
of small white flowers which last only a week or so. In summer,                 
the foliage is finely textured and turns into a vivid display                   
ranging from yellow-orange to red as fall approaches. In midsum-                
mer small reddish, apple-like fruits appear. These can be                       
made into jelly when the fruit ripens. During winter months, the                
silvery bark and graceful branches and trunks are noticeable,                   
especially when outlined with fresh snow.                                       
                                                                                
Species of serviceberry reach 30-35 feet at maturity and can be                 
used as a large shrub or small tree. The plant is especially                    
attractive against a dark woodland background. It looks best                    
when incorporated into natural or informal settings.                            
                                                                                
Since the serviceberry is a member of the rose family, it                       
sometimes is affected by diseases and insects that cause problems               
on other members of the family such as apple, quince, and                       
crabapple. However, none of these problems are serious enough to                
discourage the use of the plant.                                                
                                                                                
The three most common species are Amelanchier canadensis (shad-                 
blow serviceberry), A. laevis (allegheny serviceberry), A. x                    
grandiflora (apple serviceberry). A. canadensis is a shrub with                 
erect stems and spreads by suckers at the base of the plant. It                 
will grow from 6 to 20 feet tall and has yellow to gold fall                    
color. White flowers are born on 2-3" long racemes and fruit is                 
black, juicy, and sweet. A. laevis has bronze-colored unfolding                 
leaves. Its fruit is black and sweet. A. x grandiflora is a                     
natural hybrid between A. arborea and A. laevis. The young                      
leaves of A. x grandiflora are purplish and pubescent. The                      
flowers are larger and the racemes longer and slimmer than on                   
the above species. Also, its flower buds are tinged in pink.                    
Unless flowers and developing leaves are present, these species                 
are difficult to accurately separate.                                           
                                                                                
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I just ordered Malabar spinach seeds. It was advertised as a                    
three-season, climbing spinach which does not bolt. Please                      
provide information on proper culture.                                          
                                                                                
For gardeners interested in a long production spinach crop,                     
Malabar spinach (Basella alba or B. rubra) may satisfy them. Also               
known as Ceylon Spinach and Vine Spinach, it is native to India.                
Although unrelated to spinach, it may be substituted for spinach                
in cooked foods.                                                                
                                                                                
Malabar spinach seed can be started under fluorescent light in                  
early spring, but do not place transplants outdoors until all                   
danger of frost has past. Germination at 70 degrees F with a                    
heating cable takes about seven days. Outdoors you can plant                    
seeds/plants 2-3 feet apart, six inches from a fence or trellis                 
as plants climb readily. Seeds should be sown 1" deep after the                 
last frost date in your area.                                                   
                                                                                
Malabar spinach is one of only a few leafy vegetables with a long               
production season. The more leaves harvested, the more new growth               
is produced. Two or three new leaves begin developing where one                 
leaf is pinched out. The process never quits until the plants are               
frost-killed in the fall. The crop is relatively disease and                    
insect-free but the fungus, Cercospora beticola sometimes causes                
leaf spotting. Infected leaves should be removed as soon as they                
are noticed.                                                                    
                                                                                
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We're thinking of adding a terrace to our house. What things                    
should we take into consideration when planning the design?                     
                                                                                
A terrace can be an attractive and useful addition to the home                  
landscape. It will enhance the value of your property and                       
provide a location for recreation and entertainment. A terrace                  
near the house will provide an extra outdoor room for family                    
living. From a landscapers' point of view, the terrace serves as                
a platform for the residence and improves the relationship of the               
house to the grounds.                                                           
                                                                                
The terrace should be located adjacent to the kitchen or family                 
room of the home. Make it large enough for the intended use.                    
Allow adequate space for tables and chairs and the easy movement                
of people. As a general rule, the terrace should be as wide as                  
the height of the house from the ground to the eaves. A narrow                  
terrace will look skimpy. The shape may carry out the lines of                  
the adjacent building, but may have an irregular free form if                   
appropriate shrubs and trees are planted nearby to soften the                   
lines.                                                                          
                                                                                
The surface of your terrace should be firm and relatively                       
smooth. It should slope gently down from the house to be sure                   
water drains away from the foundation. A paved terrace will                     
provide a smooth surface for chairs and tables, and is easy to                  
clean. You may prefer the design which can be secured from                      
bricks or flagstones. If such materials are used, install them                  
on a firm, well-drained sand or tamped cinder base. A brick or                  
flagstone terrace will be much easier to clean and maintain in                  
an attractive condition if the cracks are completely mortared.                  
                                                                                
Your terrace should be designed to provide privacy for your                     
picnic or entertainment use. It should not be a part of the                     
walk or drive system around the home. A wood or masonry fence                   
will provide a partial screen. Vines or espaliered trees will                   
add interest to your fence. Shrubs or small trees may also be                   
used as a screen, but will require more space than a fence. One                 
or more trees may be located in the lawn near the terrace to                    
provide shade from the late afternoon sun.                                      
                                                                                
Plan to include accessories which will make your terrace more                   
useful. Install electric lights and weatherproof receptacles.                   
This will extend the hours of use and provide power for outdoor                 
grills, radios, or other appliances. Flowering plants or shrubs                 
in pots or tubs will make your terrace more attractive.                         
                                                                                
Provide a storage place for the grill, folding chairs and other                 
items which are used on the terrace. If space is not available                  
in a nearby basement or garage, an attractive garden shed may be                
constructed. Screen the shed with shrubs to help it to blend                    
into the landscape picture.                                                     
                                                                                
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The winter squash I've stored in my basement are developing soft                
spots. The temperature is in the 50's. The squash are in bushel                 
baskets. Why aren't they keeping?                                               
                                                                                
Most winter squash should keep several months stored at 55                      
degrees F. and low humidity. If your basement is damp, you're                   
likely to have problems with mold and rot, especially with                      
squash piled on one another. Storing on open shelves, so fruit                  
do not touch one another, would be preferable. Avoid storing on                 
a cold concrete floor.                                                          
                                                                                
Storing squash with nicks, or other injuries will result in                     
storage problems. Use damaged fruits or any that got frost-nipped               
first. Store only unblemished squash. Check frequently and use                  
any that show signs of deterioration.                                           
                                                                                
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When is the best time to plant pansies?  Should I plant seed or                 
set out transplants?                                                            
                                                                                
Pansy seeds for spring bloom are customarily started indoors in                 
midwinter and carefully "hardened off" by gradual exposure to the               
elements. Sow seeds in a flat and cover with 1/8" of soil. At                   
65 degrees F,  pansy seeds will take about 10 days to germinate.                
Give seedlings night temperature of 50 degrees F. for 10 to 12                  
weeks. Move to the garden 2 weeks before average last frost date.               
                                                                                
Pansy transplants can endure spring weather that is cold and                    
damp. On the first dry day in early spring, "set in" a border                   
or bed of pansy plants. Despite light frosts, rain or snow                      
showers, they will develop blooms.                                              
                                                                                
Pansies have large flowers, up to 3 inches in diameter during                   
cool weather. They decline in warm weather. First, the blossoms                 
decrease in size; then plants begin to die. Don't fight it.                     
Except where summers are short and cool you are better off                      
putting in a second planting for fall bloom.                                    
                                                                                
It's a much simpler matter to grow pansies for fall bloom because               
seeds can be sown directly in the garden during late summer. If                 
an early fall catches the young pansy plants before they bloom,                 
don't worry. Except where winters are long and extremely bitter,                
they will live over and bloom the following spring.                             
                                                                                
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Do cactus bloom?  If so, how can I get mine to flower?                          
                                                                                
Most house plant cacti fail to bloom because they don't get                     
enough light. This can be easily remedied. Cacti take very well                 
to artificial lighting, so you can either grow them totally                     
dependent on fluorescent tubes or you can supplement their                      
natural light. The other major cause of flowerless cacti is the                 
lack of a dormant period. Their native homes offer them cool                    
temperatures and very little water in the winter. These plants                  
expect this period of dormancy in order to blossom when weather                 
changes in the spring. Most cacti need very cold air all winter                 
and lower light intensity to set buds. This dormancy period is a                
little tricky but is essential.                                                 
                                                                                
Beginning in October or November, place cacti on a window sill                  
between the window and the curtain. The temperature in this space               
can drop to between 40 and 50 degrees F but make sure freezing                  
does not occur. Cacti need short days or limited exposure to                    
artificial lights in order to form flower buds. In autumn, they                 
will receive this requirement naturally.                                        
                                                                                
At the same time, give the cacti a drought period by only                       
watering them when they begin to shrivel a bit (every 6 to 8                    
weeks). In March, when the days get longer and warmer, water the                
plants about every 2 weeks. Cacti will bloom in the spring.                     
                                                                                
Contrary to popular belief, cacti don't have to be very old to                  
blossom, nor do they flower only once in seven years. A mature,                 
healthy cactus flowers annually if it is treated to the right                   
conditions. Once a plant has bloomed, you can expect to enjoy its               
flowers every year. If it fails to produce blossoms twelve                      
months later, you are doing something wrong. On the other hand,                 
an immature cactus, won't bloom regardless of its treatment. Some               
take years and others need a lot of space to become fully mature                
enough to flower. Others are incapable of maturing in a container               
of any kind, but these aren't often sold as house plants.                       
Those that are available in pots or that can be purchased through               
the mail can and will flower if treated properly.                               
January 1986 Question Box                                                       
                                                                                
This material was prepared by Virginia Nathan and Debbie Blosser,               
Horticulture Extension Technicians, working with Diane Relf,                    
Extension Specialist Home Horticulture. The Virginia Gardener                   
Question Box has been developed for agent use in preparing radio                
and newspaper features.                                                         
                                                                                
EDITOR'S NOTE: In the November 1985 TVG Question Box, in referen-               
ce to acidifying soil: Although aluminum sulfate has traditional-               
ly been recommended to lower pH, in some soils it may build up to               
toxic levels (ie. heavy metal accumulation). Consult with the                   
Extension Specialists in Agronomy for correct recommendations                   
for your area.                                                                  
                                                                                
JANUARY TOPICS                                                                  
                                                                                
Wire imbedded in tree trunk                  14 lines                           
Jade plant                                   15 lines                           
Vacation watering of houseplants             21 lines                           
Little-leaf linden                           27 lines                           
Slow release fertilizer                      31 lines                           
Tissue culture                               31 lines                           
Spaghetti squash                             15 lines                           
Tayberry                                     22 lines                           
Juniper identification                       18 lines                           
Venus fly trap/carnivorous plants            40 lines                           
Micronutrients                               38 lines                           
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
                                                                                
Will a wire growing around a tree trunk harm the tree?                          
                                                                                
Wires which become embedded in bark can be very destructive to a                
tree. Although the wire will rust, it won't disintegrate.                       
Therefore, as the bark, and then the wood, envelop the wire, the                
obstruction interferes with water and nutrient flow. Conse-                     
quently, the tree may die. In addition, the wire may cause the                  
tree to become weak at this point and it may break in high                      
winds. Also, in years to come, if the tree is cut down for                      
firewood, the hidden metal may ruin the saw or pieces of metal                  
may fly up and hurt someone.                                                    
                                                                                
If the wire is near the surface, using pliers or a vice grip, try               
to remove the fencing but remember all tree wounds provide an                   
entrance for insects and pathogens. Therefore, if the wire is                   
deeply embedded, just cut the fence and route it away from the                  
tree to prevent further damage.                                                 
                                                                                
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Does jade ever flower?  How long will a jade plant live?                        
                                                                                
The common jade, one of the most popular house plants, is valued                
primarily for its glossy green leaves. It seldom flowers under                  
household conditions unless subjected to high light intensity. A                
healthy plant several years old grown in a sunny window with an                 
adequate water supply may display clusters of pale pink blossoms                
occasionally.                                                                   
                                                                                
Jade thrives as a foliage plant under a wide range of environmen-               
tal conditions. It tolerates low light levels, hot dry air and                  
infrequent watering. It propagates readily from cuttings which                  
grow quickly to respectable size. Given good care, a plant will                 
live as long as you or I.                                                       
                                                                                
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I am planning my vacation and have been unable to find anyone to                
tend my plants while I'm gone. Is there anyway to keep them                     
watered?                                                                        
                                                                                
To keep potted plants watered while you're away, all you need is                
heavy cotton clothesline, a sink or large container filled with                 
water, and several objects to act as weights. Cut the clothesline               
into lengths long enough to reach from the bottom of the water-f-               
illed sink or container to the soil of each plant. Weight                       
the ends down that are in the water; insert the other end into                  
the soil by making a hole with a pencil and then firm the soil                  
around the clothesline. Start the siphon action by watering the                 
plant. Be sure to place saucers under plants to catch excess                    
water.                                                                          
                                                                                
Water plants in this manner the day before you leave to be sure                 
that the system is working properly for all the plants. A three                 
gallon container will water six plants in 6" pots for ten days in               
a house with normal relative humidity. If your home is very dry,                
make more water available. Because this method tends to over-                   
water some plants, which may result in disease problems, use this               
watering system only as a temporary measure.                                    
                                                                                
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Our neighborhood planning committee has selected little-leaf                    
lindens as street trees in front of our home. What do they look                 
like? What kind of care will be required?                                       
                                                                                
The little leaf linden, Tilia cordata, often is called the                      
small-leaved European linden. The tree is easily recognized at a                
distance, particularly in winter, because of its symmetrical,                   
almost sheared, appearance. As a young tree it is mostly conical                
in shape but as it matures it develops a nearly columnar growth                 
habit. The leaves are 1 1/2 to 3 inches long and nearly as wide.                
You may look forward to small but fragrant yellowish flowers in                 
early summer. In a well-drained soil, little-leaf linden will                   
easily produce eighteen to twenty-four inches of growth a year.                 
                                                                                
Little leaf linden is a strong tree rarely subject to the                       
breakage from ice or snow. In addition, it falls prey to few                    
insect pests and diseases. Aphids, while occasionally present in                
the trees, are usually of little consequence to the plant's                     
overall health. Perhaps the worst enemy of the linden is man,                   
himself, when he plants the tree in a heavy clay soil with poor                 
drainage and overfertilizes, or when he applies herbicides over                 
the root system.                                                                
                                                                                
Little leaf linden is widely used on the streets in Europe and                  
has gained favor in many American cities. Crosses, using little                 
leaf linden as one of the parents, have also resulted in some                   
useful trees for the landscape, including the Crimean linden.                   
                                                                                
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A plant which was given to me last month has little tan balls                   
appearing on the soil surface. What kind of eggs could they be?                 
How should I treat for it?                                                      
                                                                                
Chances are the spheres appearing on the soil surface are not                   
eggs at all, but slow-release fertilizer pellets. Slow-release                  
fertilizer is supposed to release nutrients at the same rate they               
are taken up by the plants.                                                     
                                                                                
The slow release fertilizer used on most indoor plants is                       
composed of granular fertilizer coated with resin to control the                
rate of nutrient release from the granules into the soil. When                  
the resin-coated granules come in contact with water, the resin                 
swells and the pores increases in size allowing the fertilizer                  
to dissolve and move into the soil. Release rate depends on the                 
coating thickness, temperature, and water content of the soil.                  
Release timing can be from 1 to 6 months depending on the                       
coating.                                                                        
                                                                                
Slow release fertilizers provide benefits to both the plant owner               
and the plant. The grower only needs to reapply the fertilizer                  
every few months depending on the formulation. Fertilizer                       
concentrations higher than usual can be applied as there is                     
little danger from fertilizer burn. Plants may use the nitrogen                 
in slow release fertilizers more efficiently than in other forms                
since it is continually being released at the proper rate. The                  
plants also do not experience "feast or famine" in regard to the                
rate at which they recieve nutrients. One should consider                       
two other aspects about slow release fertilizers before before                  
opting to use them: 1) they are generally more expensive than                   
other types of fertilization; 2) they may encourage excess growth               
in plants you would prefer to keep small.                                       
                                                                                
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I hear a lot about tissue culture as the new way to propagate                   
plants? What does this involve?                                                 
                                                                                
Plant tissue culture techniques have become important for the                   
study of a wide range of problems in plant research. Although                   
technical prodecures for tissue culture are diverse and sometimes               
complicated, a simplified procedure can be followed in the home.                
All that is needed are a few basic supplies which can easily be                 
obtained at local grocery stores.                                               
                                                                                
The procedures can be used in the home to propagate various                     
species of plants which are either easy (African violets, coleus,               
chrysanthemums) or difficult (orchids, ferns, weeping figs) to                  
propagate. Small, actively growing portions usually result in the               
most vigorous plantlets. For example, ferns are most readily                    
propagated by using only 1/2 inch of the tip of a rhizome. For                  
other species, 1/2 to 1 inch of the shoot tip is sufficient.                    
                                                                                
Plant parts to be tissue cultured are first disinfected in a                    
dilute solution of bleach, then transferred to a sterile contain-               
er (such as a baby food jar) filled with a specially prepared                   
culture medium. This is then placed in a warm, well-lighted                     
environment to encourage growth.                                                
                                                                                
When plantlets have grown to a sufficient size, they are trans-                 
planted into a light media. Transplanting should be as gentle as                
possible because the plants are leaving a warm, humid environment               
for a harsher, drier one. If you would like complete instruc-                   
tions, request publication 426-385 Plant Tissue Culture for the                 
Homeowner. (Excerpt from article an by Mark Bridgen, Graduate                   
Assistant, and Richard Veilleux, Assistant Professor, Horti-                    
culture, Virginia Tech.)                                                        
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
What is "spaghetti squash"?                                                     
                                                                                
Spaghetti squash is a vegetable that is rapidly moving off the                  
"unusual" list because it is becoming so popular. A substitute                  
for noodles, this winter squash is simply boiled or baked and the               
pulp, when "fluffed out" with a fork, looks like noodles and                    
tastes delicious served with a sauce or butter. Spaghetti squash                
is grown like other vining winter squash and is susceptible to                  
the same problems. The vine spreads over a large area but has                   
been successfully trellised on a heavy tomato cage; each squash                 
being supported by a net sling to prevent its pulling the vine                  
down or falling off. Because they have a long growing season,                   
they should be started early. Spaghetti squash are ready to                     
harvest when they turn light yellow. Most seed companies carry                  
spaghetti squash sometimes calling it vegetable spaghetti.                      
                                                                                
 ------------                                                                   
                                                                                
I am seeing a new type of raspberry in seed catalogs. It is                     
called tayberry. What can you tell me about it?                                 
                                                                                
The tayberry, a result of a Scottish breeding program, is an                    
offspring of two very different bramble plants, the blackberry                  
and the red raspberry. Although it resembles the logenberry, its                
fruit are considerably larger and more conical. It pulls from the               
bush much like the blackberry where the core remains with the                   
fruit rather than staying attached to the plant as is the case                  
for the raspberry.                                                              
                                                                                
Tayberry's growth habit more resembles that of the spreading                    
blackberry than the raspberry. Some outstanding yields have been                
obtained from these plants under experimental growing conditions.               
Because they are propagated by tissue culture, which requires                   
special facilities and techniques, their price is greater than                  
that of similar plants. However, tissue culture insures that the                
brambles will be vigorous, superior plants.                                     
                                                                                
Tayberry plants are not widely available at present. However,                   
they deserve to be planted by all home gardeners interested in                  
bramble production. (Excerpt from article by Jerry Williams,                    
Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Virginia Tech)                               
                                                                                
 --------------                                                                 
                                                                                
Do you have any tips for telling junipers apart?                                
                                                                                
The foliage of junipers are of two distinct kinds: the juvenile                 
stage with sharp-pointed, prickly needles, and the adult,                       
scale-like formation. The prickly needles may predominate in one                
tree, the scale-like needles in another. Both kinds frequently                  
appear on the same tree, either permanently or in the                           
transitional stage.                                                             
                                                                                
Aside from the division of juniper foliage as either juvenile or                
adult, there is little help in distinguishing junipers from                     
foliage alone. Identification of junipers is mainly reduced to a                
consideration of the color of the foliage and the habit of the                  
plant. Because of characteristic differences in this regard, it                 
is necessary to become familiar with shapes and colors exhibited                
in various species and varieties. However, junipers may be easily               
distinguished from other genera of evergreens if they are found                 
with their semi-fleshy, bluish or reddish-brown cones often                     
called "juniper berries."                                                       
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
A friend gave me a Venus fly trap. Does this plant really eat                   
flies?                                                                          
                                                                                
Carnivorous plants, such as Venus fly trap, are true botanical                  
oddities. Many of these meat-eating plants evolved as a result of               
a habitat deficient in nitrogen, which is required for growth,                  
development, and reproduction.                                                  
                                                                                
All carnivorous plants can be grouped into three major categories               
(active, semi-active, or passive) based on the way they ensnare                 
their prey. Active traps, like Venus fly trap and bladderworts,                 
employ swift movements to prevent escape by prey. Semi-active                   
traps move much more slowly and generally have sticky, viscous                  
liquids to detain the victim in the interim; sundews and butterw-               
orts fit into this category. Finally, some carnivorous plants                   
must rely on peculiar shaped leaves to attract and trap insects.                
Such a mechanism is called passive since the trapping does not                  
involve leaf movement, only a clever arrangement of hairs and                   
other leaf modifications which permit the prey to travel in only                
one direction. Pitcher plants are representative of this categor-               
y.                                                                              
                                                                                
On Venus fly trap, the end of each leaf consists of two matching                
pads, outlined with needle-like teeth. Both pads are hinged                     
together and have the ability to open and close in the same way a               
clam or scallop does. This highly specialized ability is control-               
led by three sensory hairs projecting from the internal surface                 
of each pad. Trap closure depends on repeated stimulation, or                   
touching, of these hairs. This characteristic insures that if a                 
leaf or twig falls upon the trap with a single impact, it will                  
not cause the plant to expend energy enclosing a useless object.                
However, a potential victim stumbling over the hairs several                    
times will cause immediate entrapment.                                          
                                                                                
The Venus fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula) grows primarily in certain               
boggy areas within North Carolina. The Venus fly trap has been                  
placed on the endangered species list since careless and greedy                 
collecting occurred throughout the past. Vegetatively propagated                
plants are generally inexpensive and readily available from local               
or mail order sources.(Excerpt from article by Robert E. Lyons,                 
Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Virginia Tech)                               
                                                                                
 -------------                                                                  
                                                                                
Some fertilizers (the expensive ones) contain micronutrients. Do                
my plants need these?                                                           
                                                                                
To understand the role that fertilization plays in supplying                    
plant nutrients, it is necessary to look at the plants's total                  
nutritional needs. Plants require 16 elements for proper growth                 
and development. Three of these 16 elements (carbon, hydrogen,                  
and oxygen) come directly from air and water. The remaining 13                  
elements come from the soil. In naturally occurring ecosystems,                 
most soils are able to supply adequate amounts of these 13                      
elements to support plant growth as can be seen by viewing our                  
native woodlands. In the production of crops and house plants,                  
however, it is necessary to supplement some of the nutrients in                 
the soil with fertilizer.                                                       
                                                                                
The 13 elements provided by the soil can be broken into 2                       
categories: those required by plants in large amounts, the                      
macronutrients, and those required by plants in small amounts,                  
the micronutrients or trace elements. The macronutrients consist                
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium. magnesium and                      
sulfur. The micronutrients or trace elements consist of zinc,                   
manganese, copper, iron, boron, molybdenum, and chlorine.                       
                                                                                
Trace elements are not normally supplied on a regular basis,                    
since the soil is usually able to supply the small amounts needed               
for plant growth. However, occasions do arise where on certain                  
soils and for certain crops, it is necessary to apply one or more               
of these trace elements. This is normally the exception rather                  
than the rule in crop production. Inadequate trace element                      
supplies can often be corrected by adjusting the soil pH to the                 
proper level, since pH has a direct effect on the availability of               
many soil nutrients.                                                            
                                                                                
To determine the nutrient requirements of your crop, have your                  
soil tested on a regular basis. Your county extension agent will                
provide you with the necessary information and materials for                    
taking and submitting a soil sample for analysis. (Excerpt from                 
an article by Stephen J. Donohue, Extension Specialist, Soil and                
Plant Analysis)                                                                 
                                                                                
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                                Apple - Insects                                
                                _______________                                
                                                                               
     1.  Rosy  apple  aphids  cause curl and deformation of small fruits by    
         feeding on buds and young leaves.                                     
                                                                               
     2.  These aphids lay eggs in late fall on twigs or in  bark  crevices,    
         so a delayed dormant oil spray is very helpful in smothering aphid    
         eggs.                                                                 
                                                                               
     3.  The green apple worm damages apples by eating from the side or end    
         of the young green apple.                                             
                                                                               
     4.  The  eggs  are lain in early spring on twigs and branches, and the    
         larvae begin feeding on very small fruit as they hatch.               
                                                                               
     5.  Apples that are not totally consumed may  be  badly  blemished  by    
         scars from the worms' feeding.                                        
                                                                               
     6.  European  red mites are serious pests of apples, especially damag-    
         ing after the use of  certain  insecticides  which  destroy  their    
         predators.  Bright-red  or  orange  eggs  on  stalks overwinter on    
         branches and twigs, hatching  into  red  nymphs  which  grow  into    
         adults  only  about 1/50" long. The mites puncture leaves and suck    
         juices out, turning the leaves a bronze color, looking as if  they    
         were  covered  with dust. This mite does not produce much webbing,    
         one characteristic that  distinguishes  it  from  the  two-spotted    
         mite, which also is a pest of apples.                                 
                                                                               
     7.  Dormant oil appled to apples is helpful in destroying the eggs and    
         preventing damage.                                                    
                                                                               
     8.  The  codling  moth  is usually the adult of the "proverbial" apple    
         worm which is a serious pest of apples and  other  fruits,  boring    
         holes into the side or blossom end of the fruit and eating its way    
         through the flesh.                                                    
                                                                               
     9.  The  larva  overwinters in a silky cocoon underneath loose bark on    
         in debris on the ground.                                              
                                                                               
     10. The redbanded leafroller is another caterpillar capable of causing    
         serious damage to apple crops. The young worms feed on leaves  and    
         fruit. They roll and tie leaves and terminal growth.                  
                                                                               
     11. At maturity feeding by the leafroller appears as russeted scars on    
         the fruit.                                                            
                                                                               
     12. The  full-grown caterpillars pupate inside rolled leaves or make a    
         flimsy cocoon on the trunk or branches. The moth emerges  in  late    
         June or July.                                                         
                                                                               
     13. The  Oriental fruit moth injures fruit in a manner similar to that    
         of the codling moth, but the larva enters through the stem instead    
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
         of the outside of the apple, and damage may not be  evident  until    
         late in the fruit's development.                                      
                                                                               
     14. The  corn  earworm,  also  known  as  tomato  fruitworm and cotton    
         bollworm, has no qualms about attacking apples,  too.  This  is  a    
         rare  occurrence,  but  may be the result of letting grass get too    
         tall in the orchard.                                                  
                                                                               
     15. San Jose Scale is common pest of many fruit  trees  and  landscape    
         plants.                                                               
                                                                               
     16. On  apples,  a red inflammed-looking area around the scale is com-    
         mon. Dorman oil in January controls this scale.                       
                                                                               
     17. Young  apple  trees  may  be  seen  with  mysterious  girdled   or    
         partially-girdled areas on stems or trunks.                           
                                                                               
     18. One possible culprit, if the season is summer, is the grasshopper.    
         In  winter, girdling damage is more likely done by larger animals,    
         such as mice, rabbits or deer.                                        
                                                                               
     19. The apple leafhopper causes foliage to turn pale; the  upper  sur-    
         face  has  white  specks  and the lower side is covered with dark-    
         colored excrement and white cast skins.                               
                                                                               
     20. This is the leafhopper. There is no relation  between  the  insect    
         and the cracking of this fruit, which was caused by high humidity.    
                                                                               
     21. Woolly  apple  aphids  are found in white cottony masses on trunks    
         and branches. The aphids feed on roots, forming knots and  causing    
         stunting and even death of young trees.                               
                                                                               
     22. Blank                                                                 
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          2    
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                                FRUIT DISORDERS                                
                                _______________                                
                                                                               
     APPLE                                                                     
     _____                                                                     
                                                                               
     1.  The  goal of growing the perfect apple may be thwarted by many na-    
         tural events.                                                         
                                                                               
     2.  Beginning in early spring,  the  tender  buds  must  survive  late    
         frosts ...                                                            
                                                                               
     3.  which can cause injury both to leaves...                              
                                                                               
     4.  and newly-opened flowers. Browning of flower petals...                
                                                                               
     5.  and  puckering  of  leaves are signs of frost injury. This cupping    
         occurs because the lower side of the leaf stops growing. The lower    
         epidermis will be stretched across the cupped  part  like  a  drum    
         head.                                                                 
                                                                               
     6.  Frost injury to young fruit may result in russeting...                
                                                                               
     7.  which may appear as bands or circles on the fruit...                  
                                                                               
     8.  or in vertical stripes as shown here.                                 
                                                                               
     9.  Rings around the calyx end of the apple...                            
                                                                               
     10. may  also  indicate  cold  injury, and can be a point of entry for    
         secondary disease organisms.                                          
                                                                               
     11. Severe russeting has runied the appearance of these apples.           
                                                                               
     12. The trunk of the apple tree itself can also be damaged by a combi-    
         nation of severe cold and sunscald, which occurs when cold bark is    
         warmed quickly by the sun. This is most likely to occur on  south-    
         ern  exposures  of the tree. The damaged bark splits, exposing the    
         inner tissues to invasion by insects and disease. Dry soil  inten-    
         sifies this problem.                                                  
                                                                               
     13. Later  in  the season, largle apples may be damaged by hail.  This    
         is an invitation to pest problems, though the hail  damage  itself    
         may or may not be severe.                                             
                                                                               
     14. Chimera, which comes from the Greek word "fabulous monster," after    
         a  mythical beast with the head of a lion, the body of a goat, and    
         the tail of a dragon, is not quite so fabulous a phenomenon in ap-    
         ples, but may result in a good exhibit for the unusual fruit prize    
         at the county fair. Chimera is caused by a  genetic  mutation  in-    
         volving only one area of tissue.                                      
                                                                               
     15. Another relatively rare disorder is triple fruit, caused by...        
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     16. drought affects trees as well as herbaceous plants if it is severe    
         enough. Young trees are especially susceptible and should be irri-    
         gated during prolonged dry periods.                                   
                                                                               
     17. Calcium  toxicity (or excess) appears as bleached or scorched leaf    
         margins.                                                              
                                                                               
     18. Leaves turning pale, with dark green veins, may indicate herbicide    
         injury.                                                               
                                                                               
     19. Bitter pitis a physiological disorder most important in stored ap-    
         ples. It is associated with irregular moisture  supply,  imbalance    
         of  nutrients, or other factors. Round, sunken spots appear on the    
         skin, and dark, corky areas with a bitter taste form in the flesh.    
                                                                               
     20. Brown, corky spots, causing some deformation of the fruit may  ap-    
         pear, especially during drought periods.                              
                                                                               
     21. Cork  spot  is caused by boron deficiency and can be controlled by    
         applying boron at recommended doses when testing indicates  it  is    
         needed.                                                               
                                                                               
     22. Fruit  trees  are susceptible to damage by mice, especially during    
         winter and in plantings with organic mulches or  other  protective    
         cover that surrounds the tree trunk.                                  
                                                                               
     23. Mice simply gnaw off bark at the tree base, sometimes girdling the    
         plant, with obvious consequences.                                     
                                                                               
     24. Tree  guards  are helpful in preventing this problem. Cats provide    
         some biological control.                                              
                                                                               
     25. However, cats can cause their own problems  if  better  scratching    
         posts are not available.                                              
                                                                               
     26. Tree guards reduce both animal and mechanical damage.                 
                                                                               
     27. This  is not a modern Indian totem pole. It is sapsucker damage to    
         an apple tree.                                                        
                                                                               
     28. Blank                                                                 
                                                                               
                                      PEACHES                                  
                                      _______                                  
                                                                               
     29. This table shows the major causes of trouble with peaches.  Though    
         insects  and  diseases  are  important, the major portion of peach    
         disorders may be preventable with good planting conditions.           
                                                                               
     30. One of themost important  factors  is  frost  resistance.  Peaches    
         planted in an area where frosts are likely during bloom period...     
                                                                               
     31. are susceptible to severe cold injury.                                
                                                                               
                                                                          2    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     32. Blossoms  are killed by late frosts in spring, and so the tree may    
         produce little or no fruit.                                           
                                                                               
     33. The young fruit is also susceptible to cold damage.                   
                                                                               
     34. Fruits may be stunted in size if they do grow.                        
                                                                               
     35. Or they may develop corky spots on the skin.                          
                                                                               
     36. (Ed Phillips' idea of art) ??                                         
                                                                               
     37. Catfacing may also be the result of cold injury to fruit.             
                                                                               
     38. Peach trees themselves are often damaged by winter cold.              
                                                                               
     39. Splitting bark is symptomatic.                                        
                                                                               
     40. A split trunk can mean the end of a peach tree.                       
                                                                               
     41. Blackened wood of a cold-damaged limb.                                
                                                                               
     42. One way to prevent injury caused by bark warming up too quickly is    
         by whitewashing trunks to reflect sunlight.                           
                                                                               
     43. Of course peach trees are susceptible to  breakage  by  ice.  Some    
         breakage  due  to  heavy loads of ice or fruit can be prevented by    
         choosing branches with wide crotch angles when pruning and  train-    
         ing.                                                                  
                                                                               
     44. Sunscald  on  peaches causes the same type of split bark injury as    
         on apple trees.                                                       
                                                                               
     45. Here the bark peeled back from the crack,  resulting  in  a  large    
         amount of exposed wood.                                               
                                                                               
     46. Hail damage on young peach twigs can cause severe wounds.             
                                                                               
     47. The tender peach fruit is easily damaged by hail also.                
                                                                               
     48. Hail damage on ripening fruit.                                        
                                                                               
     49. Peach  trees are badly affected by poor soil conditions. One thing    
         they cannot tolerate is standing water.                               
                                                                               
     50. Trees growing in  wet  spots  are  stunted  with  sparse  foliage.    
         Leaves are dwarfed and roots, twigs and branches die back.            
                                                                               
     51. Drought also causes damage to peach fruit.                            
                                                                               
     52. On  the  other  hand, trees that have been over-irrigated may have    
         fruit with watery areas around the pit.                               
                                                                               
     53. Spray injury to peach trees results in necrotic areas on leaves...    
                                                                               
                                                                          3    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     54. that drop out, leaving holes in the leaves.                           
                                                                               
     55. "Burned" leaf margins may indicate toxic levels of fertilizer.        
                                                                               
     56. Mechanical injuries result from tools and machines or other  phys-    
         ical causes.                                                          
                                                                               
     57. These can have various effects.                                       
                                                                               
     58. Open wounds are subject to invasion by diseases and insects.          
                                                                               
     59. Mouse  damage occurs near the base of the tree and can even be se-    
         vere enough to girdle the plant.                                      
                                                                               
     60. Pollution injury to peaches may be  seen  as  blackened  spots  on    
         leaves...                                                             
                                                                               
     61. or  a  peculiar deformity of fruit. Peaches are classified as very    
         sensitive to a number of major polluntants.                           
                                                                               
     62. If there is doubt as to whether pollution is causing the  problem,    
         observe pines in the area. Many react to polluntants with this or-    
         ange coloration or bleaching of the needles.                          
                                                                               
                                    TO THE AGENT                               
                                    ____________                               
                                                                               
            Very  little  attempt has been made to include control measures    
         on these slides, since chemicals may  become  outdated  and  since    
         master gardeners would probably not remember enough from the slide    
         show  to  be  effective.  Instead, it is recommended that you make    
         recommendations as you go along, based  on  your  experience,  and    
         that  the master garderner have access to the current Pest Manage-    
         ment Guide 17, "Chemical Pest Control Information for  Home  Fruit    
         Production," as well as a diagnostic guide or key.                    
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          4    
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
1                                                                               
                                                                                
                                                                                
 CARE OF GARDEN EQUIPMENT                                                       
0Clean-up  of  tools  and   equipment  is  another  important                   
 practice related to  the garden which should  not be ignored                   
 in the fall.   Proper clean-up of  tools now will leave them                   
 in top shape and ready to use when spring comes.  Clean, oil                   
 and mend all hand tools.   Repaint handles or identification                   
 marks that have faded over  the summer.   Sharpen all blades                   
 and remove any rust.   Power tools  should be cleaned of all                   
 plant material and dirt.   Replace worn spark plugs, oil all                   
 necessary parts  and sharpen  blades.   Store  all tools  in                   
 their proper place indoors,  never  outdoors where they will                   
 rust over the winter.                                                          
0Unless you  are lucky enough  to live  in a warm  area where                   
 your cold frame will protect vegetables all winter, you will                   
 need to  clean up  the frame when  all vegetables  have been                   
 harvested.   Remove all remaining  plant material and spread                   
 it on the cold frame soil.    Spade the plant refuse and any                   
 other organic  material into the soil  in the cold  frame as                   
 thoroughly as possible.    Do not leave the top  on the cold                   
 frame over the winter, as the cold air or the weight of snow                   
 may crack  or break  the glass.   Remove  the top,   wash it                   
 thoroughly,  and store it on its  side in a protected indoor                   
 area where it will not get broken.                                             
0Successful  gardening doesn't  stop when  frost comes,   but                   
 continues throughout the fall and early winter months.  When                   
 following good garden care practices during this time,  your                   
 garden will  be ready for  the growth of  healthy vegetables                   
 next spring.                                                                   
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                      LANDSCAPING FOR YEAR ROUND INTEREST                      
                      ___________________________________                      
                             By: Albert S. Beecher                             
                           Department of Horticulture                          
              Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University              
                                                                               
                                                                               
        In  Virginia with the wide selection of plant material available it    
     is possible to develop landscaping that is of interest  twelve  months    
     of  the year.  Most folks associate color with flowering plants.  But,    
     it is well to remember that flowers are very transient and last only a    
     few weeks at the most.  Year-round interest in the yard can be  devel-    
     oped  by  considering some of the other characteristics of plants like    
     colorful bark, colorful fruit and interesting foliage.   In  addition,    
     interest  can be provided through the use of rocks, water, wood as ar-    
     chitectural features.                                                     
                                                                               
     1.  Colorful bark can serve as a point of interest  twelve  months  of    
         the  year.    The  Sycamore has striking bark but is too large for    
         most residential landscapes.                                          
                                                                               
     2.  The White Birch is another tree with colorful bark.   It  is  most    
         effective against a green background.  The foliage of the birch is    
         of interest especially in the spring when it first appears.           
                                                                               
     3.  The  Crape  Myrtle  is  a good example of a plant with interesting    
         bark.  It also has attractive summer flowers and fall foliage.        
                                                                               
     4.  The Crape Myrtle in flower.  This shrub is not fully hardy in ele-    
         vated exposed locations in western and northern Virginia.   During    
         severe  winters  it  may  be killed to the ground but will usually    
         grow back from the root the next year.                                
                                                                               
     5.  Fall foliage of the crape myrtle.                                     
                                                                               
     6.  Many shrubs add color to the  landscape  because  of  their  showy    
         fruit.    The  pyracantha has orange or red berries depending upon    
         the variety.  The color of the fruit  is  very  effective  in  the    
         fall.                                                                 
                                                                               
     7.  The  Nandina  (Nandina  domestica)  has  showy fruit and evergreen    
         foliage.  This shrub may be killed back during severe  winters  in    
         western Virginia.                                                     
                                                                               
     8.  The  American  holly  (Ilex opaca) makes an ideal year round plant    
         because of its broadleaf foliage.  In this garden it serves  as  a    
         focal point.                                                          
                                                                               
     9.  The  fruit  of  the  female  American holly.   Male plants must be    
         planted near female shrubs if a good crop of berries is to be  se-    
         cured.                                                                
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     10. A   yellow   fruited  form  of  the  American  holly  (Ilex  opaca    
         xanthocarpa).  The fruits should be retained and remain attractive    
         until midwinter.                                                      
                                                                               
     11. The Mountain Ash (Sorbus aucuporia) is a small tree with a  summer    
         display  of  fruit.    The fruit are eaten by birds or fall off in    
         early winter.                                                         
                                                                               
     12. Some plants are of interest because of their showy  fall  foilage.    
         The Sugar Maple (Acer Saccharum) is shown here.                       
                                                                               
     13. The Scarlet Oak (Quercus Coccinea) showing fall coloration.           
                                                                               
     14. The winged Euonymous (Euonymous alatus) or Burning Bush is a shrub    
         with brilliant color in the fall.                                     
                                                                               
     15. A flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) with its fall coloration.        
                                                                               
     16. The same dogwood plant showing the flower color in the spring.        
                                                                               
     17. Several  pink  dogwoods  planted together to form a mass of flower    
         color.  Also in bloom is the white flowering crab apple.              
                                                                               
     18. The same mass of dogwoods showing fall coloration.                    
                                                                               
     19. Interesting  year  round  color  can  be  found  in  some  of  our    
         Evergreens.  Golden forms of Chamaecyparis are available.             
                                                                               
     20. Blue colors are found in some Evergreens.   Shown here is the Blue    
         Atlas Cedar (Cedrus Atlantica Glauca).                                
                                                                               
     21. Deciduous  shrubs and trees with colorful summer foliage are espe-    
         cially good to provide a focal point or a mass display  of  color.    
         These Japanese Red Maple (Acer palmatum) are an example.              
                                                                               
     22. Brilliant summer foliage of the Purple Leaf Beech (Fagus sylvatica    
         Atropunicea).    Give this plant space so it will not be necessary    
         to cut lower branches.                                                
                                                                               
     23. Color can be provided through the use of stones  in  a  garden  or    
         border planting.                                                      
                                                                               
     24. Year  Round  interest in this garden is provided by the Art Piece.    
         Such objects should have an appropriate background planting, or be    
         used as a focal point of a garden.                                    
                                                                               
     25. The Beauty Bush (Kockwi tzia Amabilis) is an example of a colorful    
         flowering plant.                                                      
                                                                               
     26. The flowering crab apples (Malus species) are especially  colorful    
         in  the spring.  There is a wide color range, white, pink, red and    
         purple.                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          2    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     27. The fruit of the flowering crab apple.  Some varieties have  beau-    
         tiful red fruits which are suitable for making jelly, or are eaten    
         by birds.                                                             
                                                                               
     28. A  massed  spring  display of color:   dogwood, azaleas and bulbs.    
         This is ideal for the side yard or private areas of  the  residen-    
         tial property.                                                        
                                                                               
     29. Azaleas may be used effectively in the foundation or border plant-    
         ing  of  the public area.  The lawn should be quite open to create    
         an impression of spaciousness to the property and cause  the  home    
         to be the focal point of the landscape picture.                       
                                                                               
     30. Plants  in  containers on the patio could be changed each month to    
         provide color or interest.  An azalea is used in this tub.            
                                                                               
     31. Roses are another important group  of  plants  which  may  provide    
         color  in  the garden.  Roses may be used in beds of a formal gar-    
         den, or as hedge or specimen plants in the landscape.  Dwarf types    
         are useful in a rock garden.                                          
                                                                               
     32. Annuals and perennials provide color during the summer.  They  may    
         be used for special accent points in the landscape.                   
                                                                               
     33. The  use of lights extend the hours during which the landscape may    
         be enjoyed.                                                           
                                                                               
     34. A garden with bulbs and flowering dogwood.                            
                                                                               
     35. The next three slides show a garden view from a deck.   The  first    
         slide features the forsythia.                                         
                                                                               
     36. The  same  garden  in  the summer with roses in the rear providing    
         color.                                                                
                                                                               
     37. A view of the same garden in winter.                                  
                                                                               
     38. A garden in spring.  The Kwanzan cherry (Prunus serrulata Kwanzan)    
         is the pink blooming trees.  The white flowering dogwood  is  also    
         in bloom.                                                             
                                                                               
     39. The same garden with winter interest produced by plants and snow.     
                                                                               
     40. By  the careful selection of plant material and through the use of    
         architectural features it is possible to have an interesting  yard    
         or garden 12 months of the year.                                      
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                              Peach and Nectarines                             
                              ____________________                             
                                                                               
     Insects                                                                   
     _______                                                                   
                                                                               
     1.  European  red  mites found on apple trees also affect peach trees.    
         The damage is similar - sucking of sap and resulting  bronzing  of    
         leaves - and the yield of the tree may be reduced.                    
                                                                               
     2.  The tarnished plant bug is the same insect that flower and vegeta-    
         ble  gardeners  commonly battle. This bug injects a toxin into the    
         plant that causes deformation of leaves, dieback  of  shoots,  and    
         dwarfed, pitted fruit.                                                
                                                                               
     3.  Stink  bugs  also  cause  deformation  of fruit. Hard calluses are    
         formed around the puncture where the insect has fed.                  
                                                                               
     4.  Damage by the plum curculio is seen at first  as  small  crescent-    
         shaped cuts in the fruit skin where eggs are deposited.               
                                                                               
     5.  Later, when the fruit is opened up, the unappetizing larva and its    
         damage may be seen. This weevil also infests apples.                  
                                                                               
     6.  The Oriental fruit moth which attacks apples also damages peaches.    
         New  shoot  growth is damaged as the larvae bore through the stems    
         causing young terminals to die.                                       
                                                                               
     7.  They enter the fruit through the stem and feast on the  flesh  and    
         even the seed.                                                        
                                                                               
     8.  Four  of  the 20 or more scale insects attacking peaches are worth    
         consideration. Terrapin scale  and  European  fruit  lecanium  are    
         small and shiny brown.                                                
                                                                               
     9.  Besides  feeding  on  the  sap,  damage is done by sooty mold that    
         grows on the honeydew excreted by the scale insects.                  
                                                                               
     10. San Jose scale causes the same inflammed appearance on peaches  as    
         it does on apple fruits.                                              
                                                                               
     11. Males  of the white peach scale cause branches to look whitewashed    
         from a distance. In this slide, males and females are on  separate    
         branches.  All  the scale insects can cause weakening of the trees    
         if uncontrolled.                                                      
                                                                               
     12. Two peach tree borers are major pests of peaches  and  nectarines.    
         The  lesser  peach tree borer attacks upper branches. It lays eggs    
         in damaged sites in the bark.                                         
                                                                               
     13. This is a close-up of an entry  site  where  cast  skins  indicate    
         their  presence. A gummy substance mixed with brown sawdust exudes    
         from the area of infestation.                                         
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     14.  Male and female lesser peach tree borer moths (female larger?).      
                                                                               
     15. The regular peach tree borer moth is similar  in  appearance,  but    
         the  female has an orange band around her abdomen. This borer lays    
         eggs near the crown or base of the tree trunk.                        
                                                                               
     16. PDB (paradichlorobenzene) crystals - the same ingredient  used  in    
         mothballs  -  can  be  used  in control of this pest, applied in a    
         soil-covered band around the trunk of the tree.   Rates are  shown    
         here.                                                                 
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
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VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
1                                                                               
                                                                                
0PLANTING                                                                       
0Plant your container crops at the same time you would if you                   
 were planting your regular garden.    Fill a clean container                   
 to within  one-half inch of the  top with the  slightly damp                   
 soil mixture.   Peat  moss in the mix will  absorb water and                   
 mix  much more  readily  if soaked  with  warm water  before                   
 putting the  mix in  the container.   Sow  the seeds  or set                   
 transplants  according  to  the  instructions  on  the  seed                   
 package.   Put a label with the name,  variety,  and date of                   
 planting on or in each  container.   After planting,  gently                   
 soak the soil with water,  being  careful not to wash out or                   
 displace seeds.    Thin seedlings  to obtain  proper spacing                   
 when the plants have two or three leaves.  If cages, stakes,                   
 or other supports are needed,   provide them when the plants                   
 are very small to avoid root damage later.                                     
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
1                                                                               
                                                                                
0SEEDING AND PLANTING TOOLS                                                     
0Depending  on the  size  of your  garden  and your  physical                   
 abilities,  you may want to consider a row seeder.   Seeders                   
 with wheels  make easy work of  sowing long rows of  corn or                   
 beans or other vegetables.  Seeders are available which make                   
 a furrow,  drop the seeds properly spaced,  and close up the                   
 furrow behind  the seed,   all in  one pass.    They do  not                   
 perform quite as well on small-seeded  crops,  and it is not                   
 really worth  the effort  of setting up  a seeder  for small                   
 areas.   A hand-held seeder is  probably a better choice for                   
 this type  of work.    Broadcast seeders  are available  for                   
 sowing seeds such as rye or wheat for a cover crop,  but are                   
 generally not necessary for the average home gardener, since                   
 broadcasting  is  easily  done  by   hand  once  the  proper                   
 technique is learned.   Finally,  fluid sowing kits are sold                   
 for sowing pre-sprouted seeds in a gel that prevents drying.                   
 Fluid sowing devices may be made  at home,  however,  at low                   
 cost.                                                                          
0ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING EQUIPMENT                                             
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-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
1                                                                               
                                                                                
0     SAVING SEED                                                               
0     Saving your own  vegetable seed is another  pleasurable activity.         
      It offers a sense of self-sufficiency  and saves money.   You can         
      maintain a  variety that  is not  available commercially,   which         
      helps  to perpetuate  a broad  genetic base  of plant  materials.         
      Breeders often search  for old-time varieties when  attempting to         
      improve commercial plants, since the heirloom vegetables (as they         
      are sometimes  called)   often  have inbred  disease-  and  pest-         
      resistance or  cold-hardiness.   Participation in  a seed-saver's         
      exchange can  be a rewarding  experience.   Extra seeds  that you         
      have  may be  traded for  unusual  types that  are not  available         
      through other sources.                                                    
0     There are certain considerations that should be kept in mind when         
      saving seed,  however.   Hybrid varieties will not likely grow to         
      be the same as the parent plants; therefore, only open-pollinated         
      varieties should  be used for  home seed production.    Some seed         
      dealers have responded to the  increasing interest in seed-saving         
      by clearly  marking open-pollinated varieties in  their catalogs.         
      Another  consideration  in  saving seed  is  the  possibility  of         
      carrying seed-borne  diseases into the  next year's  crop.   Many         
      commercially grown  seeds are  grown in  dry areas  unsuitable to         
      fungal, viral and bacterial diseases which may be present in your         
      region.   Take care  to control diseases which can  be carried in         
      seed.   Another weather-related factor is  the speed of drying of         
      seeds,  which can be adversely  affected by frequent rains and/or         
      humidity.  And finally, if you've ever saved squash seed during a         
      season in which you had more than one type of squash planted, you         
      have probably  seen the wierd results  that may be  obtained from         
      cross-pollination!   Saving  seeds from crosspollinated  crops is         
      not generally recommended for the novice because of problems with         
      selection,   requirements  for hand  pollination  and  isolation,         
      biennial habits, and genetic variability.                                 
0     Some common self-pollinated annual plants  from which seed may be         
      saved include lettuce, beans and peas, herbs, and tomatoes.               
0     Saving beans  and peas:   Allow  seed pods  to turn brown  on the         
      plant.  Harvest pods, dry for 1-2 weeks, shell, and then store in         
      a cool (below 50~% F.), dry environment in a paper bag.                   
0     Saving  lettuce  seed:    Cut  off seed  stalks  when  fluffy  in         
      appearance,   just before  all the  seeds  are completely  dried.         
      Seeds will fall off the stalk and be lost if allowed to mature on         
      the plant.   Dry  the harvested seed stalk  further,  shake seeds         
      off, and then store in a cool,  dry environment in an envelope or         
      small glass jar.                                                          
0     Saving  herb seeds:    Herbs  vary in  the  way  their seeds  are         
      produced.   In  general,  allow herb seeds  to dry on  the plants         
      until they are almost completely dry.   Some seed heads,  such as         
      dill,  will shatter and drop their seeds as soon as they are dry.         
1                                                                               
                                                                                
      Watch the early-ripening seeds; if they tend to fall off, harvest         
      the other  seed heads  before they  get to  that point,   leaving         
      several inches of stem attached.  Hang several stems upside down,         
      covered with a paper bag to catch  falling seed,  in a warm,  dry         
      place until the drying is complete.    Remove seeds from the seed         
      heads and  store in  envelopes or small  glass jars.    Some herb         
      seeds  - dill,   celery,   anise,  cumin,   and  others are  used         
      themselves for flavoring and are ready  to use once dry.   Saving         
      tomato seeds:   Pick fruit from desirable plants when ripe.   Cut         
      fruit and squeeze out pulp into a container.  Add a little water,         
      then  let  ferment  2-4  days   at  room  temperature,   stirring         
      occasionally.   When seeds settle out,   pour off pulp and spread         
      seeds thinly to  dry thoroughly.   Store in an  envelope or glass         
      jar in a cool dry place.                                                  
0     For  all kinds  of  saved seeds,   be sure  to  mark the  storage         
      containers clearly  with permanent (preferably  waterproof)  ink,         
      indicating the variety and date saved.   Seeds will remain viable         
      for  some time  if properly  stored.   To  test for  germination,         
      sprout seeds between moist paper  towels;  if germination is low,         
      either  discard  the seed  or  plant  enough  extra to  give  the         
      desirable number of plants.                                               
0     Viability  of vegetable  seeds   (Average #  Years  Seeds May  be         
      Saved)                                                                    
0     Vegetable Years     Vegetable Years Asparagus     3    Leek           1   
      Bean 3    Lettuce   5 Beet 4  Muskmelon 5 Broccoli 5   Mustard   4        
      Brussels sprouts 5  Okra 2 Cabbage 5    Onion     1 Carrot 3     Parsley  
      Cauliflower 5  Parsnip   1 Celery 5     Pea  3 Chinese cabbage 5 Pepper   
      Collard 5 Pumpkin   4 Corn salad 5 Radish    5 Cress, water 5    Rutabaga 
      Cucumber 5     Spinach   5 Eggplant 5   Squash    5 Endive 5     Sweet    
      corn 1 Kale 5  Tomato    4 Kohlrabi 5   Turnip    5 Watermelon 5          
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                           HOME AND GARDEN SLIDE SETS                          
                           __________________________                          
                                                                               
     The following comments briefly describe the contents of all slide sets    
     available  from this office, to aid you in your selection and planning    
     processes. Sets are listed in alphabetical order.                         
                                                                               
     1.  All America Selections: Vegetables, 1977-1981 (20 slides)             
                                                                               
            Fairly thorough descriptions of some of the AAS vegetable vari-    
         ety choices for these five years. An alternative to Vegetable  Va-    
         rieties for the Home Garden.                                          
                                                                               
     2.  All America Selection Winning Flowers, 1977-1981 (20 slides)          
                                                                               
            Twenty slides describing new AAS flower varieties.                 
                                                                               
     3.  Annual Flowers (40 slides)                                            
                                                                               
            Describes general groups of annuals and their use.                 
                                                                               
     4.  Azaleas in the Garden (40 slides)                                     
                                                                               
            Includes suggestions for use of azaleas in landscaping, culture    
         of azalea plants, and descriptions of some varieties.                 
                                                                               
     5.  Careers in Horticulture (40 slides)                                   
                                                                               
            Illustrates   opportunities  in  laboratories,  florist  shops,    
         greenhouse management and construction, landscaping, nursery oper-    
         ations, bedding plant production,  garden  centers,  arboreta  and    
         display  gardens,  fruit  and vegetable growing, pest control, and    
         other fields available  to  persons  trained  in  horticulture.  -    
         Horticulture therapy is covered in a separate set by that name.       
                                                                               
     6.  Container Gardening: Construction and Planting (40 slides)            
                                                                               
            General  container  gardening  procedures,  including choice of    
         containers, making soil mixes, providing for  drainage,  watering,    
         fertilizing,  pest  control,  repotting, etc. Suggestions for con-    
         tainer plants. Mostly for outdoor gardening.                          
                                                                               
     7.  Dried Flowers and Arrangements (20 slides)                            
                                                                               
            Various uses of dried flowers, generally  for  formal  arrange-    
         ments. Drying methods are also covered.                               
                                                                               
     8.  Dwarf Apples on a Fence (20 slides)                                   
                                                                               
            Instructions  for  planting  and training apple trees espalier-    
         style. Especially useful for those with small production spaces.      
                                                                               
     9.  Exhibiting and Judging Flowers (40 slides)                            
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
            Points to consider in judging narcissus, tulips,  roses,  iris,    
         glads,   snapdragons,   dahlias,  chrysanthemums,  marigolds,  and    
         calendulas.                                                           
                                                                               
     10. Fall and Winter Garden Care (40 slides)                               
                                                                               
            Recommended practices for preparing a vegetable garden for  the    
         winter.  Covers  clean-up of garden area, protection of half-hardy    
         and perennial plants, disposal of wastes, composting, fall plowing    
         and cover crops, storage of garden  equipment,  and  cleaning  and    
         storage of tools.                                                     
                                                                               
     11. Fighting Drought in the Home Garden (40 slides)                       
                                                                               
            Practices which help prevent plant loss during extended dry pe-    
         riods.  Mulching  (including  various  types of mulches), watering    
         practices (sprinkler, hose, trickle irrigation, timing  of  water-    
         ing),  variety  selection for drought resistance, root depths, use    
         of grey water, and rain barrels.                                      
                                                                               
     12. Flower Arrangements for Christmas (40 slides)                         
                                                                               
            Traditional and nontraditional arrangements and  wreaths  using    
         living  and  nonliving  horticultural  materials, plus Christ- mas    
         ornaments and candles for seasonal decoration.                        
                                                                               
     13. Flower Arranging for the Home (40 slides)                             
                                                                               
            A variety of arrangement styles with both sketches  and  photo-    
         graphs for teaching principles of floral design.                      
                                                                               
     14. Flower Beds and Borders (40 slides)                                   
                                                                               
            Suggestions  for  use  of bulbs and other perennials as well as    
         annual flowers in the landscape. Discusses some principles of  bed    
         design and effective use of plant material.                           
                                                                               
     15. Flowering Houseplants (20 slides)                                     
                                                                               
            Houseplants  selected  for their attractive flowers and ease of    
         flowering indoors. Includes culture and uses for each plant.          
                                                                               
     16. Garden Insects (40 slides)                                            
                                                                               
            Slides of some commonly found insects in  the  home  fruit  and    
         vegetable garden. Includes several beneficial insects. Cur- rently    
         has no script.                                                        
                                                                               
     17. Gardening in a Small Space (60 slides)                                
                                                                               
            For those without a large garden plot, or who have little time,    
         or a physical disability preventing larger-scale gard- ening. Dis-    
         cusses careful garden planning, intensive cropping methods (inter-    
         cropping,   succession   cropping,   intensive  matrix,  wide  row    
                                                                               
                                                                          2    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
         gardening, vertical planting), use of dwarf varieties, planting in    
         flower beds, raised beds and containers, use of hot beds and  cold    
         frames, and fall gardening. A sample plan for a small space garden    
         is included.                                                          
                                                                               
     18. Gardening in Raised Beds (40 slides)                                  
                                                                               
            Suggestions  for  various  types  of raised beds and their con-    
         struction and use. Soil  preparation,  problems  and  advantages.-    
         Touches  on intensive planting, and can be supplemented by Garden-    
         ing in a Small Space. Useful for handicapped, elderly, and persons    
         who have only hand tools, and for those  who  like  the  aesthetic    
         value of raised beds.                                                 
                                                                               
     19. Gardening with Wildlife (40 slides)                                   
                                                                               
            Attracting  wildlife to the garden through the use of appropri-    
         ate plant materials. Description and culture of trees, shrubs  and    
         herbaceous plants that wildlife prefer.                               
                                                                               
     20. Grafting (20 slides)                                                  
                                                                               
            Step-by-step  techniques  for  grafting,  including  whip, side    
         tongue, cleft, and bark grafts.                                       
                                                                               
     21. Green Survival (77 slides + cassette)                                 
                                                                               
            Professionally prepared slide set with  cassette  tape  by  the    
         American  Association of Nurserymen. Improvement of the quality of    
         life through the use of plant material is the theme.                  
                                                                               
     22. Ground Covers in the Landscape (40 slides)                            
                                                                               
            Largely a description of ground cover plants and their uses.       
                                                                               
     23. Herb Culture for the Home Garden (33 slides)                          
                                                                               
            Descriptions and culinary uses of nineteen common herbs. - Cur-    
         rently under revision.                                                
                                                                               
     24. Home Vegetable Diseases (40 slides)                                   
                                                                               
            Common diseases of tomatoes, cucumbers, beans and  Irish  pota-    
         toes. Has no script at present.                                       
                                                                               
     25. Horticulture Therapy (40 slides)                                      
                                                                               
               Describes  this  growing field's benefits and opportunities,    
         gives examples of successful therapy programs,  discusses  various    
         tools  and  modifications  made  for  the  handicapped, and covers    
         horticulture therapy in Virginia.                                     
                                                                               
     26. House Plants for the Home (40 slides)                                 
                                                                               
                                                                          3    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
            Short descriptions of common house plants, with general culture    
         notes.  Includes  flowering  and   foliage   plants,   cacti   and    
         succulents, ferns, orchids, African violets, and poinsettias.         
                                                                               
     27. Indoor Plantscaping (20 slides)                                       
                                                                               
            Culture  and  uses  of  twenty indoor plants; includes propaga-    
         tion methods and original habitats..                                  
                                                                               
     28. Judging Fruits and Vegetables (40 slides)                             
                                                                               
            Indicates what to look for when judging fruits and vegetab- les    
         in competition. Thirteen types of vegetables, eight  varieties  of    
         apples,  pears and grapes are covered.  Landscape for Outdoor Liv-    
         ing (40 slides)                                                       
                                                                               
            Landscape planning for practical outdoor uses,  including  ter-    
         races, patios, walls, porches and other garden construction ideas,    
         outdoor furniture, play equipment and plant materials.                
                                                                               
     29. Landscaping for Year-Round Interest (40 slides)                       
                                                                               
            Choices of landscape plants for attractiveness in all seasons.     
                                                                               
     30. Landscaping the Home (40 slides)                                      
                                                                               
            Basic principles of landscape design, with examples of good and    
         poor landscaping. Suggest supplementing with more modern landscap-    
         ing design slides if you have them.                                   
                                                                               
     31. Landscaping with Trees (40 slides)                                    
                                                                               
            Use  of  trees  in the landscape, with photographs of some com-    
         monly used trees.                                                     
                                                                               
     32. Minimum Chemical Garden (60 slides)                                   
                                                                               
            Recently revised and expanded.  Covers  basic  practices  which    
         will  enable  a  home  vegetable  gardener to reduce the number of    
         chemicals used in the garden: soil preparation,  plant  selection,    
         cultural practices, and alternatives to chemicals.                    
                                                                               
     33. Perennials (40 slides)                                                
                                                                               
            Culture and use of perennial flowers.                              
                                                                               
     34. Plant Propagation (20 slides)                                         
                                                                               
            Various  methods  of  propagation, including seeding, cuttings,    
         and air layering. Also  describes  different  growing  media.  See    
         Starting  Your  Own  Vegetable Seed for more in-depth set covering    
         seeds.                                                                
                                                                               
     35. Plants Changing Man's Environment (40 slides)                         
                                                                               
                                                                          4    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
            Use of plants in landscaping and in homes and offices  to  make    
         humans more comfortable in their surroundings, as well as for home    
         food productions.                                                     
                                                                               
     36. Plants for Hanging Baskets (20 slides)                                
                                                                               
            Description  and culture of 19 plants suitable for hanging bas-    
         kets.                                                                 
                                                                               
     37. Plastic Greenhouse Construction (Estate Size) (20 slides)             
                                                                               
            Erection of a small gothic style greenhouse, step by step,  for    
         home gardeners. This is a free-standing style, and unfor- tunately    
         the set doesn't include an attached solar greenhouse.                 
                                                                               
     38. Pruning - Principles and Practices (60 slides)                        
                                                                               
            Photographs  and  sketches  showing  basic pruning tools, prac-    
         tices, and possibilities, mostly for  ornamental  plants.    Fruit    
         trees are covered superficially.                                      
                                                                               
     39. Pruning Shrubs and Trees (40 slides)                                  
                                                                               
            This  is  the  old  version  of  Pruning - Principles and Prac-    
         tices, and is only used during heavy loan periods.  Basically  the    
         same, except shorter.                                                 
                                                                               
     40. Rock Gardens (40 slides)                                              
                                                                               
            Examples of rock gardens and some of the plants used in them.      
                                                                               
     41. Roses (30 slides)                                                     
                                                                               
            Description of several rose varieties and some general comments    
         on desirable and undesirable qualities to look for in roses.          
                                                                               
     42. Shrubs for a Shady Location (20 slides)                               
                                                                               
               Description  of  shrubs  that  will tolerate shade and their    
         cultural requirements.                                                
                                                                               
     43. Small Fruit Varieties and Culture: Blueberry, Raspberry, and Grape    
         (34 slides)                                                           
                                                                               
            Planting, training, pruning, maintenance and pest management of    
         these crops. Emphasis on raining and pruning.                         
                                                                               
     44. Spring Bulbs for Indoor Bloom (20 slides)                             
                                                                               
               Step-by-step procedures for forcing spring  flowering  bulbs    
         indoors.                                                              
                                                                               
     45. Spring Flowering Bulbs (40 sides)                                     
                                                                               
                                                                          5    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
            Description  of  daffodils, tulips, crocus, hyacinths and other    
         bulbs for spring flowers.                                             
                                                                               
     46. Starting Early Plants (20 slides)                                     
                                                                               
            Short lesson on starting bedding plant seeds inside. For a more    
         thorough discussion of seed-starting, see Starting Your Own  Vege-    
         table Seed.                                                           
                                                                               
     47. Starting Your Own Vegetable Seed (80 slides)                          
                                                                               
            Expanded  set describing the details of seed starting, both in-    
         doors and out. Includes techniques such  as  fluid  sowing  (gel),    
         seed tapes, presoaking, and using cold frames and cloches, as well    
         as standard practices.                                                
                                                                               
     48. Strawberry Culture (24 slides)                                        
                                                                               
            Briefly  covers  varieties,  soil fumigation, planting methods,    
         mulching, spring frost damage, diseases and renovation.               
                                                                               
     49. Tree Fruit in the Home Garden (38 slides)                             
                                                                               
            Planting, training and pruning, fertilizing,  mulching,  spring    
         frost damage, and general pest control of common tree fruits.         
                                                                               
     50. Unusual Vegetables for the Home Garden (40 slides)                    
                                                                               
            Descriptions and culture of 23 unusual plants for the home veg-    
         etable garden.                                                        
                                                                               
     51. Vegetable Garden Planting and Culture (40 slides)                     
                                                                               
               Basic  vegetable  gardening,  including  sowing seeds, using    
         transplants, mulching; briefly discusses tomato culture.              
                                                                               
     52. Vegetable Garden Soil: Cartoon Chart Lecture (20 slides)              
                                                                               
            A cute little sunflower explains site selection,  organic  mat-    
         ter, soil pH, fertilization, weed control, mulching and watering.     
                                                                               
     53. Vegetable Gardening for the Beginner (60 slides)                      
                                                                               
            An expanded version of Vegetable Garden Planting and Cul- ture.    
         Covers  planning,  site  location,  soil  preparation  and  ferti-    
         lization, intensive techniques, seed  sowing,  using  transplants,    
         mulching, cultivation, watering and pest management.                  
                                                                               
     54. Vegetable Varieties for Home Gardeners (40 slides)                    
                                                                               
            Some  choices  available  for  the vegetable garden. A wide se-    
         lection, 30 types, are pictured and discussed.                        
                                                                               
     55. Water Gardens and Pools (40 slides)                                   
                                                                               
                                                                          6    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
            Ideas for those with ambitious  landscaping  visions.  Includes    
         both  formal  and naturalized settings. Some discussion of aquatic    
         plants.                                                               
                                                                               
     56. Weed Control in the Home Garden (20 slides)                           
                                                                               
            Brief discussion of various methods of weed control,  including    
         cultivation, hand pulling, mulching and herbicides.                   
                                                                               
     57. Wild Flowers of Virginia (40 slides)                                  
                                                                               
            Photographs and discussion of common Virginia wild flowers.        
                                                                               
     58. Winterizing Your Trees and Shrubs (40 slides)                         
                                                                               
            Preparation  of  landscape  plants for winter and discussion of    
         various kinds of winter damage.                                       
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          7    
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                           INSECTS OF THE HOME GARDEN                          
                                                                               
                       Prepared by D. Relf and J. Roberts                      
                                                                               
         (Note:  The written material to accompany these slides was adapted    
         from  Rodale's  Color  Handbook  of  Garden  Insects by Anna Carr.    
         Available from Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA.  It is an excellent  ref-    
         erence  with  over  300 color photographs.)  For chemical control,    
         refer to PMG 1.                                                       
                                                                               
     INSECTS                                                                   
                                                                               
     Aphid  (cabbage aphid and corn leaf aphid shown on slides)                
     _____                                                                     
                                                                               
     1.  General:  Soft body, pear-shaped, 1/10" long, winged or  wingless,    
         colors vary with species:  green, bluish-black, pink, red, brown.     
                                                                               
     2.   Cycle:  Many generations per year.  Hibernation occurs in the egg    
         stage.                                                                
                                                                               
     3.  Plants:  Most garden vegetables and fruit.                            
                                                                               
     4.  Hanging  Habits:  Aphids congregate on succulent foliage and stems    
         and suck juices.  Leaves turn yellow and the  plant  is  generally    
         weakened.                                                             
                                                                               
     5.  Natural Controls:  Spray foliage with soapy water, then rinse with    
         clear water.                                                          
                                                                               
         Beetles                                                               
                                                                               
         Colorado Potato Beetle                                                
         ______________________                                                
                                                                               
     6.  General:    Yellow with black stripes on wing covers and dark dots    
         just behind the head; hard shelled, very convex;  1/3  inch  long.    
         Eggs  are  orange,  laid in rows on underside of leaves.  Larva is    
         red with black legs and head, changing to pink or orange with  two    
         rows of black spots on each side; plump.                              
                                                                               
     7.  Life Cycle:  One to three generations per year.  Adults overwinter    
         in the soil.                                                          
                                                                               
     8.  Host Plants:  Eggplant, pepper, potato, tomato.                       
                                                                               
     9.  Feeding Habits:  Adults and grubs feed on leaves.                     
                                                                               
     10. Insect Predators:  Ground beetle (harpalus caliginosus)               
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     11. Natural  Controls:  Mulch well with a 1-foot layer of clean hay or    
         straw.                                                                
                                                                               
         Flea :hp1Beetle/Striped Flea Beetle                                   
         ____                    ____ ______                                   
                                                                               
     12. General:  Black, shiny, with curved yellow or white  stripes;  ac-    
         tive, hops away when disturbed; 1/10" long; eggs are whitish; min-    
         ute; laid in soil.                                                    
                                                                               
     13. Similar Insects:  Grape flea bettle                                   
                                                                               
     14. Life  Cycle:   One or two generations per year.  Adults overwinter    
         in garden weeds and trash.                                            
                                                                               
     15. Host Plants:  Broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower. Similar  species  on    
         almost every vegetable.  Eggplant is heavily attacked.                
                                                                               
     16. Feeding  Habits:   Adults and larvae chew tiny holes in leaves and    
         transmit viral and bacterial diseases.                                
                                                                               
     17. natural Controls:  Dust with diatomaceous earth.                      
                                                                               
         Mexican Bean Beetle                                                   
                                                                               
     18. General:   Yellowish brown with 16 black  spots  on  wing  covers;    
         round;  1/4"  long;  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters on underside of    
         leaves; larva is orange; spined; 1/3 inches long.                     
                                                                               
     19. Similar Insects:  Lady beetles Life Cycle:   One to  three  gener-    
         ations per year.  Adults hibernate in open fields or woods.           
                                                                               
     20. Host Plants:  Bean.                                                   
                                                                               
     21. Feeding  Habits:  Larvae and adults skeletonize leaves from under-    
         neath.                                                                
                                                                               
     22. Insect Predators:    Various  assassin  bugs,  a  wasp  (pediobius    
         foveolatus).                                                          
                                                                               
         Spotted Cucumber Beetle                                               
         _______________________                                               
                                                                               
     23. General:    Greenish  yellow  with a small black head and 11 black    
         spots on the back; 1/4" long; eggs are yellow; oval; laid in  soil    
         at  the base of plants; larva is beige with a brown head and brown    
         spot on the last body segment; and 1/2" long.                         
                                                                               
     24. Life Cycle:  In the North, there are one or  two  generations;  in    
         the  South,  there are up to four.  Adult overwinters in plant de-    
         bris and garden trash.                                                
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          2    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     25. Host Plants:  Corn, cucumber, eggplant, melon, pea,  potato,squash    
         and tomato, as well as many tree fruits.                              
                                                                               
     26. Feeding  Habits:   Adults chew holes in plant leaves. flowers, and    
         fruits and transmit brown rot among  stone  fruits.    Larvae  eat    
         roots and stems of plants early in the season.                        
                                                                               
     27. Insect Predators:  A tachinid fly (Celatoria diabrotica).             
                                                                               
         Striped Cucumber Beetle                                               
         _______________________                                               
                                                                               
     28. General:  Pale yellow to orange with three black stripes and black    
         head;  1/4" long; eggs are orange, laid in the soil at the base of    
         the host plants; larvae is white; slender; 1/4" long                  
                                                                               
     29. Life Cycle:   One generation in the North;  two  to  four  in  the    
         South.  Adults overwinter in plant debris.                            
                                                                               
     30. Host Plants:  Bean, Corn, cucumber, melon, pea, pumpkin, squash.      
                                                                               
     31. Feeding  Habits:  Adults chew leaves and flowers and transmit bac-    
         terial wilt and cucumber mosiac.  Larvae feed on underground stems    
         and roots.                                                            
                                                                               
     32. Insect Predators:  Various soldier beetles.                           
                                                                               
         Borer                                                                 
                                                                               
         Squash Vine Borer;eh1                                                 
         ______ ____ _________                                                 
                                                                               
     33. General:  White caterpillar with a brown head; wrinkled; 1"  long.    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         Adult  is  orange  and  black, clear-winged moth with coppery fore    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         wings and black stripes around the abdomen; 1 to 1/2"  long;  eggs    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         are brown, flat, oval; laid singly along the stems.                   
         ___________________________________________________                   
                                                                               
     34. Life  Cycle:  One to two generations.  Hibernates as larva or pupa    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         in a cocoon, 1" deep in the soil.                                     
         _________________________________                                     
                                                                               
     35. Host Plants:  Cucumber, gourd, melon, pumpkin,  squash.    Feeding    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         Habits:  Borers enter base of stems in early summer, causing vines    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         to  wilt suddenly and masses of greenish frass to exude from holes    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         in the stems.                                                         
         _____________                                                         
                                                                               
         BUG                                                                   
         ___                                                                   
                                                                               
         Squash Bug                                                            
         __________                                                            
                                                                               
     36. General:  Dark brown to black with orange or brown abdominal  per-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         imeter;  emits  a  peculiar odor when crushed; 1/2" long; eggs are    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         brown, shiny; laid in groups or singly on the underside of  leaves    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and  stems;  nymphs  are  yellowish  green  with  dark abdomen and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         thorax.                                                               
         _______                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          3    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     37. Life Cycle:  One generation per year.  Hibernates as an adult.        
     ___ ______________________________________________________________        
                                                                               
     38. Host Plants:  Cucumber, melon, pumpkin, squash.                       
     ___ _______________________________________________                       
                                                                               
     39. Feeding Habits:  Adults and nymphs congregate on  leaves,  causing    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         them to wilt and blacken.                                             
         _________________________                                             
                                                                               
     40. Insect Predators:  The tachinid fly (Trichopoda Pennipes).            
     ___ __________________________________________________________            
                                                                               
         CATERPILLARS                                                          
         ____________                                                          
                                                                               
         Cabbage Looper                                                        
         ______________                                                        
                                                                               
     41. General:  Green with pale stripes down the back; loops its body as    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         it crawls; 1 1/2" long.  The adult is brownish with a silvery spot    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         in the middle of each forewing; night flying; 1 1/2-inch wingspan.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Eggs  are  greenish white, round; laid singly on the upper surface    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         of the leaves.                                                        
         ______________                                                        
                                                                               
     42. Similar Insects:    Diamondback  moth;  garden  webworm;  imported    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         cabbageworm.                                                          
         ____________                                                          
                                                                               
     43. Life  Cycle:    Several broods per year.  Winter is spent as apupa    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         attached to a leaf, but in  norther  regions  adults  may  migrate    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         south  for  the  winter.   Host Plants:   Bean, broccoli, cabbage,    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         cauliflower, celery, kale, lettuce, parsley, pea, potato,  radish,    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         spinach, tomato.                                                      
         ________________                                                      
                                                                               
     44. Feeding Habits:  Larvae chew leaves.                                  
     ___ ____________________________________                                  
                                                                               
     45. Insect Predators:  Trichogramma wasps.                                
     ___ ______________________________________                                
                                                                               
     46. Natural   Controls:     Use  Bacillus  thuringiensis  for  serious    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         infestations.                                                         
         _____________                                                         
                                                                               
         Imported Cabbageworm                                                  
         ____________________                                                  
                                                                               
     47. General:  Velvety pale green with yellow  stripes;  leaves  behind    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         dark  green pellets of excrement; 1 1/4 inches long.  The adult is    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         a white moth with black tip on the forewing and two or three black    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         spots; 1 to 2 inch wingspan. Eggs are  yellowish;  bullet  shaped;    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         ridged; laid singly on the leave                                      
         ________________________________                                      
                                                                               
     48. Similar   Insects:    Cabbage  looper,  diamondback  moth,  garden    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         webworm.                                                              
         ________                                                              
                                                                               
     49. Life Cycle:  Two to three generations pr year.  Hibernation is  in    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         the pupal stage.                                                      
         ________________                                                      
                                                                               
     50. Host  Plants:    Cabbage,  cauliflower,  kale,  kohlrabi, mustard,    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         radish, turnip.                                                       
         _______________                                                       
                                                                               
                                                                          4    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     51. Feeding Habits:  Caterpillars feed on leaves, chewing  huge  holes    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         in them.                                                              
         ________                                                              
                                                                               
     52. Insect Predators:  Various trichogramma wasps                         
     ___ _____________________________________________                         
                                                                               
     53. Natural Controls:  Bacillus thuringiensis can be used                 
     ___ _____________________________________________________                 
                                                                               
         Corn Earworm                                                          
         ____________                                                          
                                                                               
         General:   color varies from white to green and even red with four    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         pairs of prolegs; spined;  1  1/2  inches  long.    The  adult  is    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         greenish  gray or brown moth with black markings on the for wings;    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         night flying; 1 1/2 inch wingspan.  Eggs are light brown  or  yel-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         low; domed, ridged; laid singly on plant leaves.  Similar Insects:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         European  corn  borer.    Life Cycle:   Up to seven generatons per    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         year.  Pupa passes winter in soil.  Host Plants:  Bean, corn, pea,    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         pepper, potato, squash, tomato.   Feeding Habits:   Earworms  chew    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         buds  and leaves, causing plants to be stunted.  Later, they enter    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         corn ears at the tip and work their way to the kernels.  Masses of    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         moist castings result; pollination is hindered; mold  forms.    On    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         tomato,  larvae  enter the stem end.  Larvae chew foliage of other    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         crops.    Insect  Predators:    Tachinid  fly  (Lydella  stabulans    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         grisescens).   Natural Controls:  Bacillus thuringiensis for seri-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         ous infestations on garden vegetables.  On corn,  apply a drop  of    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         mineral oil inside the tip of each ear after silk has wilted.         
         _____________________________________________________________         
                                                                               
         Cutworms General:  Grayish or brown; curls up when disturbed; sel-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         dom  seen  during  the  day; 1 to 2 inches long.  Adult is gray or    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         brownish moth with paler hind wings; night  flying,  attracted  to    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         light;  1  to  1 1/2 -inch wingspan.  Eggs are usually laid in the    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         soil.  Life Cycle:  One to five generations, depending  upon  spe-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         cies.    Winter  is passed as a pupa or young larva.  Host Plants:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         All garden vegetables,  particularly  seedlings  and  transplants.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Feeding  Habits:  Larvae feed near the soil surface, cutting stems    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         several inches below ground level or just above it.  Insect Preda-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         tors:  Trichogramma wasps.  Natural Controls:  Place a  collar  of    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         stiff paper or cardboard around each plant when it is transplanted    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         to   the  garden.     Bacillus  thuringiensis  kills  the  larvae.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Fruittree Leafroller General:  Green with dark brown head; covered    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         with fine spines; 1inch long.  The adult is brownish  yellow  moth    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         with  mottling  and  two beige spots on the wing margins; 3/4 inch    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         wingspan.  Eggs are pale yellow to brown,  covered  with  brownish    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         varnish;  laid in masses of up to 100 on twigs and branches.  Life    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Cycle:  One generation per year.   Hibernates as  an  egg.    Host    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Plants:    Apple  and other fruit trees.   Feeding Habits:  Larvae    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         spin webs around leaves at the tops of branches and feed on  bugs,    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         leaves,  and  small  fruits.    Mature apples have deep, russedted    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         scars.  Insect Predators:   Various trichogramma wasps.    Natural    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Controls:    Dormant-oil  spray  applied  just before buds open or    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Bacillus thuringiensis after the caterpillars appear.                 
         _____________________________________________________                 
                                                                               
         Tomato Hornworm General:  Green with seven or eight white  stripes    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and  a  black  horn projecting from the rear; similar species, to-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         bacco hornworm, has a red horn; 3 to 4 inches long.  The adult  is    
         __________________________________________________________________    
                                                                               
                                                                          5    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
         grayish  or brownish moth with white zigzags on the rear wings and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         orange or brownish spots on the body; 4 to 5-inch wingspan.   Eggs    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         are greenish yellow; laid on the underside of leaves.  Life Cycle:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         One  or  two  generations per year.  Winter is passed in the pupal    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         stage.  Host Plants:  Eggplant, pepper, potato, tomato.    Feeding    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Habits:    Larvae  chew  leaves  and  fruits.    Insect Predators:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Braconid wasps lay eggs on caterpillars, often forming small white    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         cocoons on the skin.  Trichogramma wasps parasitize  hornworms  in    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         the  egg stage.  Natural Controls:  Plants can tolerate some feed-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         ing but if the caterpillars become a problem, remove them by  hand    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and destroy them.                                                     
         _________________                                                     
                                                                               
         FLY                                                                   
         ___                                                                   
                                                                               
         Leafminers  General:    Black  and yellow stripes; 1/10 inch long.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Eggs are laid on leaf surfaces.   Larva is  yellowish,  stout  and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         wormlike.    Life Cycle:  Several generations per year.  Hibernate    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         in cocoons in the soil.  Host Plants:  Bean, blackberry,  cabbage,    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         lettuce,   pepper,  potato,  spinach,  turnip.    Feeding  Habits:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Maggots mine beneath the surface of the leaves, causing white tun-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         nels to form.  Related leafmines may chew blotches in leaves.  Na-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         tural Controls:  Remove and destroy infested leaves, this may help    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         reduce problems.                                                      
         ________________                                                      
                                                                               
         Cabbage Maggot General:  Gray with black stripes  on  the  thorax;    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         resembles  ahouse  fly;  1/4  inch long.   Eggs are white, laid on    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         plants near the soil surface.  Larva is white,  blunt  ended,  1/4    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         inch  long.  Life Cycle:  Two to three broods per year.  Winter is    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         passed as a pupa in the soul.   Host Plants:   Broccoli,  Brussels    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         sprouts,  cabbage,  cauliflower, radish, turnip.   Feeding Habits:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Maggots tunnel into roots and stems, causing plants  to  wilt  and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         develop  bacterial  or  fungal diseases.   Insect Predators:  Rove    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         beetles.  Natural Controls:  Protect seedlings with  a  square  of    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         tar  paper  laid  flat on the ground around the stem or cover with    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         screening.  Dust with rock phosphate or with diatomaceous earth.      
         ________________________________________________________________      
                                                                               
         Onion Maggot General:  Gray or brown with a humped back and  large    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         wings;  1/4  inch long.   Eggs are white, cylindrical, laid at the    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         base of plants or in bulbs.  Larva is white, blunt ended, 1/3 inch    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         long.  Life Cycle:  Two to three generations per year.  Hibernates    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         as a pupa in the soil.    Host  Plants:    Onion  Feeding  Habits:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Larvae  tunnel  into  bulbs, ruining crops and often killing young    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         onions.  Most damage is done in spring.                               
         _______________________________________                               
                                                                               
         GRASSHOPPER                                                           
         ___________                                                           
                                                                               
         Grasshoppers/Locusts General:  Brown to reddish yellow  or  green;    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         long  bodies with prominent jaws and short antennae; enlarged hind    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         legs for jumping; 1 to 2 inches long.  Eggs are laid in  egg  pods    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         in  soil  and weeds.  Life Cycle:  One generation per year.  Over-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         winters in the egg stage.   Host Plants:   Most  vegetable  crops.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Feeding  Habits:    Grasshoppers feed during the day on leaves and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         stems, often defoliating plants during dry periods.  Natural  Con-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
                                                                               
                                                                          6    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
         trols:    Trap  grasshoppers  in  mason  jars  partly  filled with    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         molasses and water and buried in the garden                           
         ___________________________________________                           
                                                                               
         LEAFHOPPER Potato Leafhopper General:  Green with white  spots  on    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         the  head, wings, and part of the thorax; 1/5 inch long.  Eggs are    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         yellowish white; laid in veins on the underside of leaves.   Simi-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         lar  Insects:    Beet  leafhopper.    Life  Cycle:    Two  to four    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         genrations per year.  Adults hibernate in garden trash and weeds.     
         _________________________________________________________________     
                                                                               
     54. Host Plants:   Bean, celery, citrus,  eggplant,  potato,  rhubarb.    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         Feeding Habits:  Adults and nymphs transmit viral diseases to host    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         plants.    Infected leaves are curled and strippled or stunted and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         bleached.                                                             
         _________                                                             
                                                                               
         WHITEFLY                                                              
         ________                                                              
                                                                               
         Greenhouse Whitefly                                                   
         ___________________                                                   
                                                                               
     55. General:  White, mothlike; 1/20 to 1/12 inch long.  Eggs are  yel-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         low,  cone  shaped;  laid on small projections on the underside of    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         leaves.  Nymph is green, translucent, flat with  fine  waxy  fila-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         ments.                                                                
         ______                                                                
                                                                               
     56. Life  Cycle:    Many  broods  each year.   Hibernates in the nymph    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         stage.                                                                
         ______                                                                
                                                                               
     57. Host Plants:  Most fruits and vegetables.                             
     ___ _________________________________________                             
                                                                               
     58. Feeding Habits:  Nymphs and adults suck the juices from  succulent    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         new growth and cause plants to become weak and susceptible to dis-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         ease.                                                                 
         _____                                                                 
                                                                               
     59. Natural Controls:  Trap adults.                                       
     ___ _______________________________                                       
                                                                               
         WIREWORM                                                              
         ________                                                              
                                                                               
         Eastern Field Wireworm                                                
         ______________________                                                
                                                                               
     60. General:    Brown to yellowish; shiny, hard skin, cylindrical; 1/3    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         to 1/2 inches long.  Adult is black to grayish or brown with  dark    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         spots  on  the  head  and bands across wing covers; 1/2 inch long.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Eggs are laid in damp soil several  inches  beneath  the  surface.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Similar Insects:  Millipedes                                          
         ____________________________                                          
                                                                               
     61. Life Cycle:  One generation per year, the life cycle requiring one    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         to  six  years to complete.   Adult beetles overwinter in cells in    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         the soil.                                                             
         _________                                                             
                                                                               
     62. Host Plants:  Bean, beet, carrot, corn, lettuce, onion,  pea,  po-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         tato.                                                                 
         _____                                                                 
                                                                               
                                                                          7    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     63. Feeding  Habits:   Larvae chew seed, feed on underground roots and    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         tubers, and burrow into other  plant  parts.    Natural  Controls:    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Trap wireworms in pieces of potato scattered around the garden.       
         _______________________________________________________________       
                                                                               
         NON-INSECT                                                            
         __________                                                            
                                                                               
         Mites/Spider Mites                                                    
         __________________                                                    
                                                                               
     64. General:    Reddish  brown or pale in color; spiderlike with eight    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         legs and no antennae, thorax, or wings; about 1/150 to  1/50  inch    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         long.  Eggs are laid at the base of plants or on leaves and buds.     
         _________________________________________________________________     
                                                                               
     65. Life  Cycle:   Many generations per year, the life cycle often re-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         quiring only a few days.  Adult mites hibernate in debris or under    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         bark.                                                                 
         _____                                                                 
                                                                               
     66. Host Plants:   Various species feed on  many  plants,  particulary    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         fruit  trees  and  various small fruits.  European red mites are a    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         major problem on apple trees in the Northeast.                        
         ______________________________________________                        
                                                                               
     67. Feeding Habits:  Mites feed on leaves, fruits,  and  roots.    In-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         fested  leaves  become silvery and may turn yellow.  They curl and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         may be covered with a fine web.  Fruit may be  russeted,  dry  and    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         rough  or deformed.  A few species of mites form blisters on young    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         leaves.                                                               
         _______                                                               
                                                                               
     68. Insect Predators:  Lacewings, lady beetles, predatory mites.          
     ___ ____________________________________________________________          
                                                                               
     69. Natural Controls:  Spray brisk stream of cold water on leaves.        
     ___ ______________________________________________________________        
                                                                               
         Slugs and Snails                                                      
         ________________                                                      
                                                                               
     70. General:  Gray to black to brown; soft bodied,  often  with  asoft    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         hump in the center; eyes at the tips of small tentacles; two other    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         tentacles  used  for smelling.   Snails have a single shell; slugs    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         have none; 1/2 to 3 inches long.                                      
         ________________________________                                      
                                                                               
     71. Life Cycle:  Several years are required to complete the  life  cy-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         cle. Winter is spent in the soil or in garden litter.                 
         _____________________________________________________                 
                                                                               
     72. Host  Plants:    Many  garden and orchard crops.   Feeding Habits:    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         Most slugs and snails feed at night, spending the day beneath  de-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         caying  boards  or  in garden trash.  They scrape holes in foliage    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and may cause extensive damage.  Some snail species are predaceous    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and feed on many different small insects.                             
         _________________________________________                             
                                                                               
     73. Natural Controls:  Handpick slugs and snails when they  emerge  in    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         the  evenings.    Dust  with  diatomaceous  earth for more serious    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         infestations.  Trap slugs under boards or shingles.  Trap slugs in    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         containers of stale beer.  (Pans of beer must be recessed in  soil    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         so that lip of pan is flush with soil surface.)                       
         _______________________________________________                       
                                                                               
                                                                          8    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
         BENEFICIAL INSECTS;                                                   
         ___________________                                                   
         BEETLE                                                                
         ______                                                                
                                                                               
         Lady Beetle                                                           
         ___________                                                           
                                                                               
     74. General:    Orange  or  red,  usually  with  12 black spots, black    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         pronotum with two white stripes and white  rims;  1/4  inch  long.    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         Eggs  are  orange, cylindrical.  Larva is black with orange spots;    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         long, flat; 1/2 inch long.                                            
         __________________________                                            
                                                                               
     75. Life Cycle:   One generation per year.   In  most  regions  adults    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         overwinter in garden trash.                                           
         ___________________________                                           
                                                                               
     76. Feeding Habits:  Adults and larvae are important predators of many    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         aphids and sometimes feed on mealybugs, scales, or other small in-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         sects.                                                                
         ______                                                                
                                                                               
         Lady Beetle (with no spots)                                           
         ___________________________                                           
                                                                               
     77. General:    Orange  to  bright  red  wing  covers  with  few or no    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         markings, black and white marks just behind the head; 1/10 to  1/4    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         inch  long.    Eggs are orange; laid upright in clusters on leaves    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and stems.  Larva is grayish, flat bodies wrinkled.                   
         ___________________________________________________                   
                                                                               
     78. Range:  Western United States.  Similar species distributed in the    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         South and West.                                                       
         _______________                                                       
                                                                               
     79. Life Cycle:  Many generations per year.  Overwinter as adults.        
     ___ ______________________________________________________________        
                                                                               
     80. Feeding Habits:   Larvae and adults  eat  aphids,  mealybugs,  and    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         scales.                                                               
         _______                                                               
                                                                               
         LACEWING                                                              
         ________                                                              
                                                                               
         Green Lacewing                                                        
         ______________                                                        
                                                                               
     81. General:  Pale green; slender body with delicate long green wings;    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         1/2 to 3/4 inches long.  Eggs are white, laid on slender stalks on    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         the  underside  of  leaves.    Larva  is yellowish gray with brown    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         marks, turfs of hair, long jaws.                                      
         ________________________________                                      
                                                                               
     82. Life Cycle:  Three to four generations per year.  Passes the  win-    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         ter in the pupal stage.                                               
         _______________________                                               
                                                                               
     83. Feeding  Habits:    Many  adult and larvae prey on aphids, various    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         larvae, and the eggs of other insects.                                
         ______________________________________                                
                                                                               
         WASP                                                                  
         ____                                                                  
                                                                               
         Braconid Wasps                                                        
         ______________                                                        
                                                                               
                                                                          9    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     84. General:  Black, yellowish or red; 1/10 to 1/4 inch  long.    Eggs    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         are  laid  in  the bodies of hosts.  Larva is white; wormlike, de-    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         velop within the host.                                                
         ______________________                                                
                                                                               
     85. Life Cycle:  Usually several generations per year.   Most  species    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         hibernate as larvae or pupae in their hosts.                          
         ____________________________________________                          
                                                                               
     86. Feeding  Habits:    Adults  lay  eggs  on  the  larvae  of various    
     ___ __________________________________________________________________    
         caterpillars or aphids.  Larvae may feed within the host or on the    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         surface.  Often brown cocoons are seen on the backs  of  hornworms    
         __________________________________________________________________    
         and other caterpillars.                                               
         _______________________                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                         10    
-End-                                                                           
-Title-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VA TECH HORT FACTS                                                              
SCRIPT/VS 3.0.1: DEVICE 1403W6 CHARS MONO                                      
{                                                                               
                                                                               
                            VINES FOR THE LANDSCAPE                            
                            _______________________                            
                                                                               
     1.  Akebia quinat.  A Fiveleaf Akebia Decid.  Sun to shade.               
                                                                               
            A  very  aggressive  twining  vine  with  small purple flowers.    
         Needs support. Can become a nuisance if not controlled  carefully.    
         Also called Chocolate Vine.                                           
                                                                               
     2.  Ampelopsis  brevi  -  Blueberry or Porcelain Decid.  Sun to shade.    
         Pedunculata  Ampelopsis.  Better fruiting in sun.                     
                                                                               
            Beautiful maroon tinged foliage  color  and  small,  blue-black    
         fruit.  Vigorous grower.  Climbs by attaching tendrils to trellis-    
         type support.                                                         
                                                                               
     3.  Campsis radicans.  Trumpet Creeper Decid.  Sun to shade.              
                                                                               
            Native vine with large, orange, bell-shaped flowers in  summer.    
         Strong  shrubby  vine  which clings to stone or wood by holdfasts.    
         Very large and rampant.   Easy to propagate by  cutting  or  seed.    
         Spreads by root suckers. Can become weedy.                            
                                                                               
     4.  Clematis  cultivars.  Clematis Decid.  Sun to shade.  Best flowers    
         in sun.                                                               
                                                                               
            Large 4-5" flowers. Cultivars include   Huldine  (white);  Mme.    
         Andre (crimson); Gypsy Queen (dark purple); Jackman (blue-violet).    
         All  these  bloom  on  new  wood so early spring pruning is recom-    
         mended. Needs moist, cool soil and support.                           
                                                                               
     5.  Clematis Sweet Autumn Semi-Sun paniculata.  Clematis Evergreen.       
                                                                               
            Heavy white fragrant flower cover in late summer,  followed  by    
         attractive  fluffy seed heads. A very vigorous vine that is little    
         affected by insect pests or diseases.  Useful on fence for screen-    
         ing.                                                                  
                                                                               
     6.  Euonymus fortunei  Bigleaf   Evergr.   Plant in partial  shade  to    
         avoid 'Vegetus' Wintercreeper winter burn.                            
                                                                               
            An  excellent  semi-shrub  with round 1- 1 1/2" diameter leaves    
         and very effective orange fruit. Relatively slow growing  compared    
         to  most  vines. Can be grown as a shrub to about 4 feet. Responds    
         well to pruning. A clinging type that adapts well to walls, fences    
         or most any type of support. Showy fruit in fall.                     
                                                                               
     7.  Gelsemium Carolina Jessamine Evergr.  Sun to shade.  sempervirens.    
                                                                               
            Native to zone 8 and 9.  Beautiful, yellow, bell-shaped flowers    
         1" to 2" long in spring. Excellent twining vine. New double  flow-    
         ering  variety  is available. Needs well drained acid soil. Plants    
         are poisonous if eaten. (Southeast Virginia only.)                    
                                                                               
                                                                          1    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
     8.  Hedera helix  English Ivy Evergr.  Semi-shade to shade.               
                                                                               
            Should not be used on wooden  structures  since  rootlets  will    
         promote  rotting  of lumber.  Excellent for chain link fences, but    
         keep excess foliage and stems pruned to reduce weight and pull  on    
         fence.  Many  cultivars  available. Root like holdfasts allow this    
         ivy to climb tree trunks and stone walls.                             
                                                                               
     9.  Hydrangea anomal.  A Climbing Hydrange.  A Decid.   Sun to  Shade.    
         petiolaris.                                                           
                                                                               
            Excellent clinging vine, with spectacular white flower clusters    
         borne  in  profusion  in June. The shredding red-brown bark is at-    
         tractive in winter.                                                   
                                                                               
     10. Ipomoea purpure a Morning Glory Annual.  Sun to semishade.            
                                                                               
            New cultivars are super.  Try  'Blue  Star',  'Heavenly  Blue',    
         'Pearly  Gates' and 'Scarlett O'Hara.  Easily grown from seed. Na-    
         tive types self-seed and can become weedy.    Twining  vine  needs    
         support.                                                              
                                                                               
     11. Lonicera  heckrotti.    Everblooming  Decid.    Sun  to semishade.    
         Honeysuckle.                                                          
                                                                               
            One of the best climbing honeysuckles. Blooms  throughout  sum-    
         mer.  Purple blooms with yellow centers.                              
                                                                               
     12. Parthenocissus   Virginia   Creeper   Decid.      Sun   to  shade.    
         quinquefolia.                                                         
                                                                               
            Vine climbs by tendrils.  Do not use on  wooden  structures  as    
         rootlets will promote rotting of lumber. Excellent for fall color.    
         Fruit attracts birds.  Easily propagated by cuttings or seed.         
                                                                               
     13. Parthenocissus Boston Ivy Decid.  Sun to shade.  tricuspidata.        
                                                                               
            Simple,  3-lobed leaves help you distinguish this from Virginia    
         Creeper which has five leaflets. Excellent fall  color  and  fruit    
         for  birds.  Do  not  use on wooden structures. Nice against stone    
         work.                                                                 
                                                                               
     14. Wisteria floribund. A Japanese Wisteri.  A Decid.  Sun.               
                                                                               
            Not as widely grown in the U.S. as Chinese Wisteria. This  vig-    
         orous  twining  vine  has flowers in racemes up to 3 feet long (in    
         the purple variety, Macrobotrys). The flowers open  progressively,    
         top  to  bottom, so that by the time the lower flowers have opened    
         the upper ones have faded. Heavy fragrance.                           
                                                                               
     15. Wisteria sinensis Chinese Wisteri.  A Decid.  Sun to shade.           
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          2    
{                                                                               
                                                                               
            Very large twining vine with large clusters of fragrant  purple    
         flowers which resemble grape clusters. Roots spread into surround-    
         ing areas unless confined by walks, walls, or buildings.              
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                               
                                                                          3    
-End-                                                                           

-Title-
EARWIGS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
EARWIGS

     Adult earwigs are flattened insects, up to one and one-
fourth inches in length, and light red-brown to black.  Some
species are wingless but others have a pair of leathery forewings
covering a few segments of the abdomen and the membranous hind
wings, which have the tips protruding.

     The forceps-like appendages at the end of the abdomen are
strongly curved in the male.  The female's are smaller and less
curved.  The forceps are used primarily for defense and during
courtship and cannot harm man.

     Eggs are laid in small batches or clutches in a chamber two
to three inches beneath the soil surface.  The mother guards the
eggs and the newly hatched young.  After the first molt, the
young leave the nest and fend for themselves.  They differ from
the adults in color pattern, forceps' shape and size, lack of
wings, and in body size.  The young usually mature in one season
and most species in this country have one generation per year,
overwintering as eggs or adults in the soil.  Some tunnel as
deeply as six feet to escape the cold.

     Eggs and young require moisture.  Heavy rains are
detrimental to both forms as are rapid temperature changes.

     Earwigs are primarily scavengers on dead insects and rotted
plant materials.  Some species are predators; others feed on
living plants and often become pests in greenhouses and field
crops.

     They are active at night and some species are attracted to
lights in large numbers.  During the day they usually find
shelter beneath stones, boards, sidewalks, or debris.  Earwigs
are rapid runners and migrate short distances in this manner.
Only a few of the winged species are good fliers.  They are often
transported great distances in plant materials and occasionally
in other freight.

     Control.  Chemical control consists of the applications made
outdoors, since the problem originates outdoors.  Sevin (2
percent) will provide effective control of earwigs.  The
effectiveness of chemical treatments may be enhanced by removing
debris sheltering earwigs.  If earwigs already have gained
entrance to a building, indoor treating is desirable although
those indoors will die off eventually.

     Outdoor Chemical Applications.  Apply insecticides around
the building foundation, in subfloor crawl spaces, and to flower
beds and turf within a couple of yards of the building.  Mulches
in such flower beds should be treated very thoroughly from top to
bottom.

     Apply sprays in late afternoon if possible so that residues
are fresh when the earwigs become active in the evening.  Earwigs
are protected during the day when they are beneath debris or
below the soil surface.  Emulsifiable concentrates or wettable
powders can be used with good results.  Apply insecticides at the
rate recommended on the label, but use sufficient water so that
the water carries the toxicant down to the zone where the earwigs
are active.

     Indoor Chemical Applications.  Indoor treatment is only a
supplement to outdoor treatment to eliminate those earwigs
already indoors.  Indoor treatment alone will not solve the
problem.  Use aerosol insecticides registered for indoor use.
Indoor treatment generally consists of residual sprays applied to
baseboards, beneath cabinets, and other hiding places at floor
level.  For most earwig treatments indoors, the insecticides used
for cockroaches are effective.





-End-
-Title-
SOLDIER BEETLE LARVAE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
SOLDIER BEETLE LARVAE

     The larvae of solder beetles are on the move in the fall.
The small (half inch), velvety-brown larvae have well-developed
legs and prominent mouth parts.  They feed on other insects found
in the grass surrounding houses.  The adult beetles are yellow
and black and usually go unnoticed.  In the fall the larvae
migrate toward buildings (for the heat?), apparently looking for
a place to overwinter.  They can occur in great numbers, and
cause quite a stir!  These larvae frequently show up on patios
and sidewalks around houses.  They will not infest the house or
bite humans.  If control is needed, 2 percent carbaryl (Sevin)
will be effective.
-End-
-Title-
DRAIN FLIES/MOTH FLIES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
DRAIN FLIES/MOTH FLIES

     Drain flies (or moth flies) are small, dark, fussy, moth-
like insects.  They are often found clinging to the walls of
bathrooms, kitchens, or in the basement.  They are weak fliers,
typically flying but a few feet at a time.  Although these flies
do not bite, they can be an annoyance in the home.

     Drain flies breed in polluted shallow water or the scum that
often collects around drains.  They are perhaps the most common
insect inhabitant of sewage treatment plants.  In the home, drain
flies lay their eggs in the gelatinous material which accumulates
on the sides of drains and overflow pipes, and the larvae feed on
the decaying organic matter and microscopic plants and animals
that occur there.  Adults usually emerge in a week or two,
although during the colder months of the year development may
take longer.  During the day, adult flies rest on walls or on the
sides of tubs and shower stalls.  They become more active at
night, hovering over drains, sinks and other breeding areas.
Because of their small size, drain flies are able to get into
residences from outside, sometimes through ordinary window
screen.

     Control of drain flies should be aimed at control of the
breeding sites.  The most effective control method is to clean
the drain pipes with a stiff brush, removing all the slime in
which the flies breed.  Sometimes it may be necessary to remove
the trap to thoroughly eliminate the breeding media.  Pouring
water down the drain provides short-term control.  Drain fly
larvae are difficult to drown because they are able to trap an
air bubble and remain submerged for a day or more.

-End-
-Title-
LARDER BEETLES IN HOUSES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
LARDER BEETLES IN HOUSES

     The larder beetle is often found in houses--and not just in
the larder! (the kitchen).  This beetle is a member of the carpet
beetle family Dermestidae; however, the larder beetle, Dermestes
lardarius can feed on a great variety of materials--not just
carpets.  They will feed on any stored animal or plant products,
such as leather, insect, bird, and mammal specimens, cured meats,
cheese, tobacco, dried fish meal, and a few things we can't even
mention!

     Outdoors the life cycle of this insect is regulated by the
seasons; indoors it may breed continuously throughout the year.
Eggs are laid in batches of 6-8, with the total per female being
about 200.  The larvae are dark colored and covered with dark
brown hairs.  The larvae pass through five or six stages during
the 35 to 80 days of their life.  The larvae have a strong
tendency to remain in dark places.  Just before the larvae pupate
they begin to migrate, and are often encountered by homeowners at
this time.  These older larvae often bore into materials such as
wood, cork, or insulation looking for a place to pupate.  The
pupal period lasts about 15 days.  The adults mate soon after
emerging and eggs are laid near a food source.

     Control.  Identifying and eliminating the food source is the
first step in controlling these pests.  Larder beetles found in
and around the kitchen may be infesting stored food.  Larvae or
adults found in an upstairs room or attic may be infesting a dead
animal.  Consider all the possibilities for food when looking for
an in-house infestation site.  Applying aerosol chemicals in
areas where larvae are found may provide some control.  However,
larvae do travel when they are full grown and the place they are
sited may be far from the actual food source!

-End-
-Title-
CARPET BEETLES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CARPET BEETLES

     The four most important and most common species are the
black carpet beetle (Attagenus mezatoma), the varied carpet
beetle (Anthrenus verbasci), the common carpet beetle (Anthrenus
scrophulariae), and the furniture beetle (Anthrenus flavipes).
The adults feed primarily on pollen and nectar and can be found
on plants outdoors during the summer.  The larval stages cause
damage to a variety of material.  Their preferred food varies
with the species, but all carpet beetles larvae can feed on wool
carpets and other wool products, furs, hides, horns, feathers,
hair, and silk.  They will also feed on linen, cotton, and rayon
if these fabrics are soiled with juice, food, or animal excreta.
They can be pests in cereals, stored grains, nuts, meal, Indian
corn, red pepper, and similar products.  Carpet beetle larvae are
frequently pests of insect collections and other museum
specimens.

     All of these beetle species have a complete life cycle--egg,
larva, pupa, and adult.  Adult carpet beetles are commonly found
outdoors on flower heads and indoors at windows.  They are small,
oval insects, usually less than one-fourth of an inch long.
Adults can mate and reproduce without feeding.  Females can lay
from 30 to 100 eggs, depending on the species.  Eggs are laid in
lint, behind and under baseboards, in floor cracks, or other dark
and protected locations.  Eggs hatch in one to three weeks.

     Larvae develop over a 3 to 36 month period, and can molt
(shed their skin) from 5 to 12 times.  The old skins are often
mistaken for live larvae, and can give the impression of a larger
infestation than really exists.  Carpet beetle larvae are usually
about the size of the adult beetle, one-fourth inch or less in
length.  They have dense tufts of long setae (bristles) on their
bodies.  Carpet beetle larvae often wander about the infested
location--from room to room in a house.  This behavior results in
spreading the infestation throughout the house.  The pupal stage
lasts 6 to 24 days, but the adult may take up to three weeks
before it emerges.

     Control.  The best way to attack a carpet beetle problem is
prevention!  Vacuum regularly, do not store soiled fabrics (that
is fabric that has been exposed to food spills), and use moth
crystals or flakes when storing wool or other potential food of
carpet beetles.  When an infestation has become established, it
is necessary to locate--as best possible--the source of the
infestation in the house.  Check all potential food materials
inside the house.  Carpet beetles may be coming from an abandoned
bird nest or bee/wasp nest or from a dead mouse or squirrel in a
wall.  Discard all infested material.  Household aerosol sprays
should be directed at suspected areas.  A professional pest
control operator can be contacted.  If so, insecticides such as
Ficam (odorless), diazinon, Dursban L.O. (low odor), Safrotin
(low odor), or Baygon can be used.
-End-
-Title-
CLUSTER FLIES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CLUSTER FLIES

     The cluster fly is slightly larger than the common house
fly.  There are no distinct lines or stripes behind the head, and
the abdomen has irregular light and dark gray areas.  Cluster
flies are parasitic on certain earthworms.  The female lays eggs
in the soil near the burrows of earthworms.  The tiny maggots
that hatch from the eggs seek out earthworms to feed upon.  The
maggots of cluster flies have never been reared on any other food
but living earthworms.  When full grown, the parasitic maggot
leaves the body of the host and enters the soil.  There are about
four generations a year.

     Adult flies of the last generation of the year become
numerous during the latter days of September to mid-October.  As
cold weather progresses, adults seek protected places to spend
the winter.  In many cases, this is within walls, attics, storage
rooms, and basements of homes.  Screens offer no protection since
these flies prefer to crawl in through small openings elsewhere
around the building.  For this reason they are extremely
difficult to keep out of homes.  Isolated homes in the country
are especially prone to invasion, since they offer the only warm
shelter for miles around.

     Control.  Complete control of cluster flies is almost
impossible, since the overwintering adults are concealed in
walls, attics, etc.  When possible, cover the louver to the attic
with screen, and use a caulking compound to seal openings to the
outside.  Adults are sluggish enough in the winter to be picked
up with a vacuum cleaner.

     It is probably not practical to attempt to control the host
of cluster flies -- earthworms in the ground around the house.
Earthworms are important to soil, and cluster flies would simply
come from surrounding areas.  Chemical control should be
concentrated in the home where the adults hibernate.  An easy
method of chemical control is to use dichlorvos strips (Vapona)
in the attic, storage closets, etc.  Do not apply in bedrooms or
in wallpapered or other well-finished rooms.

     When using the strips or the spray, it may be more effective
to concentrate the chemical on the sunny side of the house.
These walls are the warmer and generally attract more flies.

     Adults that buzz about the house can be killed with an
aerosol spray of pyrethrins.  Pyrethrins are "quick kill"
insecticides and have little or no residual action.

     Prevention of cluster fly infestations is very difficult,
but certainly warrants a try.  Timing is the most important
factor.  Applying a synthetic pyrethroid (permethrin is an
example) to the outside of the structure with an electric fogging
machine will help treat all entry sites.  Application should be
made in the first two weeks of August.
-End-
-Title-
OLD HOUSE BORER
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
OLD HOUSE BORER

     The chewing sounds produced by the feeding of old house
borer larvae can be heard in wood during the spring and summer
months.  The larvae feed little during the winter months of
December through February.  The larvae can live in seasoned
softwood for several years.  When the adults are full grown,
which usually takes about five years, they emerge through oval
holes in the surface of the wood.  Emergence occurs during June
and July.  During the first few years of feeding, the larvae
cannot be heard, but when they are about four years old the
chewing sounds are audible.  The actual structural damage caused
by these beetles depends on the number of larvae feeding, the
extent of the infestation (how many years), and whether there has
been a reinfestation.

     Control of old house borers involves the use of insecticides
applied to the surface of wood or the use of an insecticidal gas
(fumigation).  When there is an extensive and active infestation
of this insect, fumigation may be the best control method.
However, limited infestations can be controlled by applying
insecticides to the surface of the wood to prevent reinfestation,
and perhaps kill larvae that may feed close to the surface and
contact the chemical just below the surface.

-End-
-Title-
ELM LEAF BEETLE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
ELM LEAF BEETLE

     Elm leaf beetles are a pest in and around homes in the fall
and spring.  The adult beetles usually overwinter in houses,
garages, barns, etc.; and when the days warm up in the spring and
the trees begin to leaf out, the adult beetles move about, and
leave the house.  They are frequently overlooked or stay hidden
during the winter months, but are noticed in the spring.

     Description and Life History.  The adult beetle is about 1/4
inch long, yellowish to olive green with a black stripe along
each side of the back.  The stripes are sometimes indistinct in
the dark green forms.  There are 3-4 black spots on the region
behind the head.

     In the spring and summer the larvae and adult beetles feed
on the leaves of elms.  Successive generations continue
throughout the summer and into fall when the adults seeking
shelter for overwintering, again invade houses.

     Control.  Obviously there is no danger to household foods or
materials from these insects.  They will not infest the house --
simply spend the winter there.  Control of these insects should
be directed toward the larvae and adults on the trees.
Preventing the beetles from entering the house may be possible.
Use a caulking compound to fill in cracks around doors and
windows and all other openings large enough for insects to go
through.  Sevin can be used to kill adults outdoors, but should
not be used indoors.  A commercial aerosol can be used indoors.
-End-
-Title-
CARPENTER BEES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CARPENTER BEES

     These insects build their nests in wood siding, the ends of
logs used in modern log houses, or other areas where bare or
painted wood is exposed.  The males and females cut a one-half
inch circular hole into the wood, then create a tunnel parallel
to the surface of the wood.  Within the tunnel the female stores
food and lays eggs.  The developing carpenter bee larvae are in
individual cells in the tunnel.  There is usually only one
generation per year.  Carpenter bees are large bees, resembling
bumblebees.

     Control of these insects can be achieved by spraying the
entrance hole with an aerosol insecticide.  Existing holes can be
plugged with a moth ball to prevent adults from returning or the
second generation adults from emerging.
-End-
-Title-
BROWN RECLUSE SPIDERS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BROWN RECLUSE SPIDERS

     Brown recluse spiders belong to a group of spiders commonly
known as violin spiders or fiddlebacks.  This is because of a
characteristic fiddle-shaped pattern they have on their head
region.  The spider is golden brown with the fiddle being dark
brown or black.  This spider is not hairy and the fiddle pattern
is often shiny.  They are about one-fourth to three-fourths inch
long.

     Brown recluse spiders are found primarily in the mid-west.
Many cases of bites are reported from Texas, Kansas, Missouri,
and Oklahoma.  The edge of its range just reaches the tip of
western Virginia, but it occurs very rarely in this state.

     The spider commonly lives in basements and garages of houses
and often hides behind boards and boxes.  Bites often occur when
the spiders hide in towels or old clothes left in those areas.
The severity of the bite may vary.  The symptoms may vary from no
harm at all to a reaction that is very severe.  Often there is a
systemic reaction, within 24-36 hours, characterized by
restlessness, fever, chills, nausea, weakness, and joint pain.
Where the bite occurs there is often tissue death and skin is
sloughed off.  In some bad cases, a wound may develop that lasts
several months.  In all cases, a physician should be notified.
If at all possible, kill and take the spider to the physician for
positive identification.

     Control.  Individual spiders can be crushed underfoot or
sprayed with an aerosol spray.  Clean up and remove any potential
hiding places.

     Important note:  Many of the wolf spiders are similar in
appearance and have similar markings as the brown recluse.  They
are large, robust, and hairy and, therefore, can be distinguished
from the brown recluse.


-End-
-Title-
BLACK WIDOW SPIDER
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BLACK WIDOW SPIDER

     Black widow spiders are common around wood piles, and are
frequently encountered when homeowners carry firewood into the
house.

     The black widow is not aggressive.  They will, however, bite
instinctively when touched or pressed, and for this reason one
should be very careful when working around areas where black
widows may be established.  Take proper precautions - wear gloves
and pay attention to where you are working.

     Black widow bites are sharp and painful, and the victim
should go to the doctor immediately for treatment.  It is
important to recognize this spider and describe the symptoms
accurately and fully so the physician can diagnose the trouble
correctly.

     To control the black widow, carefully remove all materials
where they might hide.  They can be cleaned out of an area simply
by knocking the webs, spiders, and round tan egg sacs down with a
stick and crushing them underfoot.

-End-
-Title-
TERMITES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
TERMITES

     Termite damage is usually first seen at or near the ground.
However, damage can occur far above ground if the infestation has
remained undetected for a long period.  Termite-damaged wood has
no sawdust associated with it, but the wood does contain mud
tubes, and the galleries are lined with soil.  Termite damage is
sometimes located in wood adjacent to heaters or fireplaces.
Perhaps the soil in these areas remains at higher temperatures
during the winter, or the drainage around fireplaces is poor and
the soil remains moist for long periods.  Termites actually eat
wood and can cause physical damage.  Termites often attack wood
that is touching soil or close to it.

     Control of subterranean termites is best left in the hands
of a professional pest control operator.  The application of
termiticides in and around the home--around pipes, wells, and
heating ducts--requires experience and the proper tools.

     Chlordane has been removed from the market, but there are
many other chemicals available for the prevention and control of
termites.

     Dursban TC is an insecticide that is registered for the
prevention and control of subterranean termites.  This is a
relatively new formulation and use for dursban, but it is gaining
in use.  Homeowners should be aware that this chemical is not
more effective than chlordane, not safer than chlordane, and not
the same price as chlordane.  Dursban TC is applied in a manner
similar to chlordane.  The residual life of dursban is less than
chlordane, so retreatment may be necessary in 15-20 years.
Dursban is slightly more expensive than chlordane.
-End-
-Title-
CREMATOGASTER ANTS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CREMATOGASTER ANTS

     These ants are very small and reddish brown.  They infest
moisture damaged wood by building nests and tunneling out small
to large areas in the wood.  They can be found in areas adjacent
to downspouts or in roofs that have small leaks.  They are
usually associated with houses on wooded lots.  The amount of
damage caused by these ants is minimal--they are small and seem
to restrict their nest building and tunneling to the moisture-
damaged wood.  However, they can produce a quantity of fine
sawdust or frass, and that can cause some concern to homeowners.

     Control of these small ants is best achieved by removing the
damaged wood.  The very presence of these ants indicates that the
wood is damaged by moisture, and that there is a structural fault
somewhere.  Replacement of the wood would control the ants and
correct the structural problem.

-End-
-Title-
MIDGES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
MIDGES

     The name "midge" is best applied to the mosquito-like flies
in the family Chironomidae.  Midges are different from
mosquitoes:  the females do not bite (mosquito females do!); the
males have large, bushy antennae (mosquitoes don't).  Adults
frequently collect in large swarms in late afternoon or evening
near streams, ponds, and lakes.  They are often attracted to
outdoor lights of houses close to these swarming sites.  The
adults produce a high pitched humming sound when they swarm.

     Midges breed chiefly in water, but some develop in decaying
vegetation, manure, or under bark of trees.  Because larvae occur
in huge numbers in water, they are an important source of food
for many species of fish.  Adults emerge in the spring,
frequently in large numbers.  Houses adjacent to the emergence
sites can be over-run with these flies.  Although they do not
bite, the adults can be a severe nuisance simply by their
numbers!

     Control is nearly impossible.  Streams, ponds, and lakes
cannot (and should not!) be treated with insecticides to control
these flies.  Fogging for adults is not practical.

-End-
-Title-
CLOTHES MOTHS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CLOTHES MOTHS

     Clothes moths can feed on wool products, such as clothing,
carpets, rugs, furs, fabrics, blankets, and piano felts.  They
may feed on fabrics of vegetable origin (cotton) if the fabrics
are mixed with wool or soiled with food particles.  These
articles must be protected from clothes moth attack, either by
frequent cleaning or storing in insect-free environments.

     Clothes moths can be serious pests of small or large wool
rugs.  The caterpillars can feed on the underside of the carpet
for a long time--do considerable damage--before they are
detected.  Wool rugs should be inspected and cleaned (if small
enough) on a regular basis.

     Clothes moths are small, yellowish to slightly gold colored
moths with narrow, slightly pointed wings.  They are not
attracted to lights and usually hide when disturbed.
-End-
-Title-
FUNGUS GNATS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
FUNGUS GNATS

     Fungus gnats are small (1/8 inch), brown or black flies that
are common household pests.  They are usually seen flying at
windows and around potted plants.  Homeowners usually notice
these small flies when they water their potted plants; the flies
become distrubed and fly around.  The larvae of fungus gnats live
in moist soil and feed on decaying organic matter.  These
conditions are abundant outside in the fall season and nearly
year round in potted plants.  Although the larvae rarely attack
healthy plant roots, they may nibble at a few and reduce the
vitality of house plants.

     Control of fungus gnats in the house is relatively simple.
Adult fungus gnats are attracted to moist, organically-rich soil.
Examine all house plants for "overwatered soil."  Allowing the
soil to dry out for several days (or longer) is probably the best
control of these pests.  The larvae live in the top layer of
soil, and if this becomes dry the larvae will die and the adults
will be denied a place to lay their eggs.

     An effective, chemical control of fungus gnat larvae is to
place a small amount of loose tobacco (2 shredded cigarettes) in
a glass of water.  Allow this "mixture" to sit for a day or two,
then pour over soil of infested plants.  The nicotene from the
tobacco will kill the fungus gnat larvae.

-End-
-Title-
WOOD ROACHES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
WOOD ROACHES

     Only a few of the thousands of species of cockroaches are
pests in the homes and other structures of man.  Most cockroaches
live outdoors and are rarely seen by homeowners.  Except for the
"woodroach"!  This cockroach is commonly encountered in homes in
the spring, and frequently causes some concern among homeowners.

     The wood cockroach lives outdoors in the leaf litter and
debris of wooded areas.  The adults of this cockroach are about
1/2 to 3/4 inch long, brown, and the outer edges of the wings are
pale.  The adult cockroaches are very capable flyers, and they
frequently fly to lights at night--especially the warm nights of
early spring and fall.  The adult cockroaches are active during
the spring and fall, and are frequently found in houses at this
time.  In the spring these insects are probably attracted to
outside lights at night.  In the fall the adults are probably
brought into the house with firewood.  In either case, this
species of cockroach does not infest houses--they are simply
casual or accidental invaders.

     Control of these infrequent cockroaches can be achieved with
a fly swatter or a nudge out the door!  An aerosol insecticide
can be used if considered necessary.  This insect will not take
up residence in structures, so chemical control is usually not
necessary.

-End-
-Title-
YELLOW ANTS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
YELLOW ANTS

     Yellow ants frequently swarm in the fall season -- causing
great concern!  They can appear around the outside of houses,
usually associated with a sidewalk, patio, other concrete slabs,
and foundation walls.  Their nests are in these locations, but go
unnoticed for most of the year.  They swarm in the spring and
fall, and there may be thousands of winged ants produced from one
or more nests in the area.  It is not uncommon for several nests
to swarm at the same time--producing lots of ants!  Yellow ants
are not structural pests.  They nest in soil or even in wood
close to houses, but rarely enter houses in search of food.  They
do not damage wood.  If control is necessary, use some liquid
insecticide (Sevin, diazinon, dursban) directly on the nest.
-End-
-Title-
AMERICAN AND ORIENTAL COCKROACHES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
AMERICAN AND ORIENTAL COCKROACHES

     American cockroach adults are one and one-half inches long,
reddish brown in color, and have a yellowish margin on the body
region behind the head.  When disturbed, these cockroaches run
rapidly and adults may fly.

     Oriental cockroach adults are one and one-fourth inches long
and dark reddish brown to black in color.  Females have only tiny
buds for wings.  Males have fully developed wings but cannot fly.
Unlike other pest cockroaches, oriental cockroaches move
sluggishly and cannot climb up smooth surfaces (they lack sticky
pads on their feet).  Immature cockroaches resemble adults except
that they are wingless.

     Females produce egg cases and carry them protruding from the
tip of the abdomen for about two days.  Egg cases are then
generally glued to a surface in a hidden location.  Egg cases are
3/8 inch long, brown, and purse shaped.  Immature cockroaches
emerge from egg cases in 6 to 8 weeks and require 6 to 12 months
to mature.  Adult cockroaches can live up to one year, during
which females produce an average of 150 young.

     American and oriental cockroaches generally live in moist
areas, but can survive in dry areas if they have access to water.
American cockroaches prefer warm temperatures around 84 degrees
Fahrenheit and do not tolerate cold temperatures.  In residential
areas, these cockroaches live in basements and sewers, and may
move outdoors into yards during warm weather.  Oriental
cockroaches prefer cooler temperatures around 75 degrees
Fahrenheit and can overwinter in protected areas outdoors where
temperatures average 40 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit.  These
cockroaches are common in basements, crawl spaces, cracks and
crevices of porches, foundations, and walkways adjacent to
buildings.  American and oriental cockroaches feed on a wide
variety of plant and animal material.

     Control.  Due to the large size and slow development of
American and oriental cockroaches, large infestations of these
insects are not common within homes.  However, during certain
times of the year, American and oriental cockroaches may move
inside a home from outside sources.  For example, in winter these
cockroaches may move indoors, seeking warmer temperatures and
food.  Cockroaches may enter homes via sewer connections, under
doors, around utility pipes, air ducts, or other openings in the
foundation.  Exclusion is the best way to control this inward
movement of cockroaches.  Place fine mesh screening over crawl
space vents and basement floor drains.  Seal exterior doors with
weather stripping.  Fill gaps in walls and floors where pipes
enter using steel wool and/or caulking compounds.  Cockroach
populations in basements can be reduced by decreasing dampness
and applying insecticides in cracks and crevices where there is
evidence of cockroach activity (presence of egg cases, dead
cockroaches, brown fecal smears).

     Cockroach populations around the perimeter of homes are more
difficult to control.  First, limit the availability of food and
water.  Place garbage in trash cans, not plastic bags.  (Plastic
bags rip easily).  Divert water from gutters at least 3 feet away
from the foundation.  Secondly, reduce hiding places for the
cockroaches.  Do not stack firewood or debris next to the
foundation.  Make a visual inspection about one to two hours
after sunset to locate cracks and crevices in the building from
which cockroaches are emerging.  Spray these areas with
insecticide and seal these cracks and crevices, if possible.

-End-
-Title-
BOOKLICE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BOOKLICE

     Booklice are small, almost microscopic insects that are
grouped together in the insect order Psocoptera.  Other members
of this order are the "barklice".  Although there are many
species of psocoptera, most people see only a few species that
occur in houses or buildings.  Most of the species found in
buildings are wingless, and because they often live among books
and papers, they are usually called "booklice".  The term "lice"
in the names "booklice" and "barklice" is somewhat misleading for
none of these insects if parasitic and they are not louselike in
appearance.  The majority of the psocopterans live outdoors and
occur on the bark or leaves of trees or shrubs.  A few species
live indoors, but rarely cause any damage beyond being a nuisance
to homeowners.

     Pcocopterans feed on molds, fungi, cereals, pollen,
fragments of dead insects or other similar materials.  Booklice
(in houses) are frequently found associated with old books and
papers.  Booklice are very common in libraries, paper storage
warehouses, packing and shipping warehouses that contain a lot of
cardboard boxes, accounting and billing offices, large
secretarial offices, and other places in which large quantities
of paper are stored or used on a daily basis.  In houses, these
small insects can be found infesting cereals, grits, flour, and
grain in the kitchen or basement.  They can be very common in the
late summer when temperatures and relative humidities are high.

     The most favorable environment for booklice is one of high
temperature and relative humidity.  The eggs are laid singly or
in clusters and are often covered with a silken web.  Most
species pass through six nymphal stages and time between egg and
adult can range from 30 to 60 days--depending on the environment.

     Control.  These insects are probably found in every house in
eastern and southeastern U.S.  They are usually present in small
numbers and go unnoticed.  However, when conditions are
favorable, and there is adequate food available, booklice can
become numerous and a nuisance.  There are a few instances in
which these small insects were the cause of delusory parasitosis,
that is, people thought that these tiny insects were causing
bites and skin rashes.  In fact, booklice do not bite humans.

     Adjusting the environment is the first step in controlling
booklice.  If there are unnecessary collections of books or
papers--remove them, especially if they are in the basement or
other damp storage area.  Reduce the relative humidity by heating
the environment for several days (over a weekend if a commercial
establishment).  If these methods fail to give adequate control,
the use of aerosol insecticides in areas where booklice have
occurred will be effective.  Whole-house spraying is not
necessary.

-End-
-Title-
CIGARETTE BEETLE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CIGARETTE BEETLE

     The cigarette beetle is one of the most common household
insect pests in Virginia.  It can be found throughout the year,
but seems to be more common in the fall and winter months.  As
its name implies, the cigarette beetle is a pest of dried tobacco
either in the stored, bundled form or in cigars, cigarettes, and
chewing tobacco.  But the larval stages of the cigarette beetle
can feed on a variety of stored products including grain, cereal
products, ginger, raisins, dates, pepper, dried fish, drugs, and
seeds.  This feeding habit often makes them a serious pantry
pest.  The range of food makes them difficult to control.

     Infestations of cigarette beetles have been reported from
dried flowers.  The larvae can feed within the head of the
flowers in the arrangement, causing the flower to drop or all the
petals to fall.  Infestations of this type may be "fumigated" by
placing a small amount of moth crystals and the flowers in a
plastic bag for a day or two.

     The adult beetles are oval, about 1/10 of an inch long, and
are covered with small hairs which give them a silky, yellowish-
brown color.  The female produces about 100 eggs, and they are
deposited on or near the available food supply.  The wormlike
larvae are slightly smaller than the adult beetles.  They are
creamy white except for the yellow head and brown mouthparts.
Larvae become full grown in about 40 days.  The entire life cycle
can be completed in 45-50 days, and there may be 3-6 generations
a year.

     Control.  The first step in control of the cigarette beetle
is to find the source of the infestation.  This means inspecting
all of the dried foods in the infested cabinets or drawers.  Once
the infested material is found, it should be destroyed.  Clean
all the cabinets and drawers with a vacuum cleaner (then throw
the cleaner bag away!).  Chemical sprays should be used only as a
last resort!

-End-
-Title-
SPRINGTAILS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
SPRINGTAILS

     Springtails are very small (rarely more than 1/5 inch long),
pale brown to cream colored insects that seem to hop and
disappear when disturbed.  The common name "springtail" has been
applied to these insects because of this habit of springing away.
A hook-like structure on the bottom side of the abdomen is
snapped against the ground and this propels the insect.
Springtails are commonly found in moist or damp places, usually
in contact with soil.  Homeowners encounter them in damp
basements and on the surface of the soil of household plants.

     Springtails have chewing mouthparts, but they rarely, if
ever, damage house plants (roots or leaves).  The moist, organic
soil of house plants provides them the proper environment to live
and increase in numbers.  Plants that are over-watered during the
fall and winter can support a large population of springtails in
the potting soil.  Frequently the plants begin to decline and
homeowners blame the springtails.  But not so!  Springtails
rarely cause the death of house plants -- over-watering can,
however.

     Control.  Controlling these tiny critters is not difficult -
here are the options:

1)   Do nothing, but stop over-watering the plant!  Let the soil
     dry out -- the springtails will leave or die.

2)   Soak a few cigarettes in a cup of water for a few days --
     then pour the water over the soil of the infested plants.
     The nicotine will kill the springtails.

3)   Place a few moth balls on the surface of the soil.

4)   Throw the plant out and start again.

-End-
-Title-
GROUND BEETLES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
GROUND BEETLES

     Ground beetles (Family Carabidae) are often found in houses
in the spring.  There are a great number of species of these
beetles, and some are rather ferocious looking -- resulting in
some very worried homeowners!  These shiny, blackish brown
beetles are predators on other insects and may enter houses in
the spring looking for other insects (=food).  They may simply
crawl around basements on ground floor rooms, or fly to bright
lights.

     Ground beetles have well developed mandibles, but are not
known to bite man.  They use their strong mouthparts to devour
other insects.  The larval stages of ground beetles are also
predators on insects, but they live in the grass and soil around
the house.  Certainly, there is no need to worry about these
beetles permanently infesting a house.  Extensive control
programs for these casual invaders is not recommended.

     Control of these beetles in the house is done best with an
aerosol spray or a fly swatter.  There is no need to apply
insecticides outside the house.  Ground beetles are beneficial
insects and an important part of the natural animal populations
in turf, pasture, and crop land.  Indeed some ground beetles are
an important natural control of some insect pests of corn.

-End-
-Title-
DRUG STORE BEETLE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
DRUG STORE BEETLE

     The drug store beetle (Stegobium paniceum) is similar to the
cigarette beetle in appearance but is slightly larger, more
elongate, and has distinctly striated wing covers.  It is 2-3 mm
long.  The last three segments of the antennae are like a saw.
Its food is even more varied than that of the cigarette beetle,
and it is said to feed "upon almost anything except cast iron."
Its peculiar diet includes such odd materials as strychnine and
books as well as flour, oatmeal, spices, and other foods.

     Control of this pantry pest begins with the location of the
infested food.  A thorough clean up, using a vacuum cleaner to
get into the cracks and crevices, will control this pest.

-End-
-Title-
FRUIT FLIES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
FRUIT FLIES

     With the end of the summer season, many homeowners often
encounter fruit flies in and about their kitchens and near their
garbage storage areas.  The adult flies are very small insects,
about 1/8 inch long, and their body color is usually a light
yellow to tan color.  Fruit flies are weak fliers and they are
generally found hovering around decaying vegetation and overripe
fruit.  These pesky insects are often found in the kitchen,
especially when vegetable or fruit materials are present after
major home canning efforts.

     Female fruit flies lay their eggs on the surface of rotting
fruit.  These eggs hatch into larvae, which molt twice before
becoming full grown.  Fruit fly larvae feed on the yeast
organisms and fungi growing in the fruit and vegetable materials,
and through their feeding efforts, they soon turn their food into
a semi-liquid mess.  When the full grown larvae are ready to
pupate, they leave the rotten fruit for drier areas, usually to
the sides of the garbage can.  The time required to complete one
life cycle is mainly dependent on the temperature of the growth
medium and surrounding air; at 64 degrees Fahrenheit, it takes
18-20 days for growth from the egg stage to adult, while at 77
degrees Fahrenheit, only 8-10 days are required to complete the
stages of development.

     Control.  Should fruit flies become abundant, a careful
search for the larval breeding areas should be made by the
homeowner.  Removal of any overripe fruit or vegetable materials
should alleviate any recurrence of these insects.  Any lingering
adult flies in the kitchen my be destroyed via the judicious use
of a fly swatter or an aerosol spray.
-End-
-Title-
INDIAN MEAL MOTH
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
INDIAN MEAL MOTH

     The Indian meal moth is one of the most common and
troublesome of the moths infesting stored products.  The
caterpillar stage of this insect will feed on a variety of
grains, meal, breakfast foods, dried nuts, seeds, chocolate,
powdered milk, and especially dry pet foods.  Infested material
may be more or less webbed together.  Small two-colored moths
(gray and reddish-brown) will also be seen flying about the
infested area.

     The life cycle and habits of this pantry pest is similar to
other moths infesting stored products.  The adult moths usually
fly at night.  When at rest the wings are folded together along
the line of the body.  The front half of the forewings is a
grayish-white color, and the tip half is a reddish-brown color.
Eggs are laid on or near the food.  A female moth may deposit
from 40 to 350 eggs.  After hatching the small caterpillars begin
spinning silken threads in the infested food material.  They feed
for about two weeks before becoming full grown.  They crawl up to
the surface of the food material and pupate within a cocoon.  The
adult emerges in about 30 days.  The entire cycle requires about
six weeks and there are from 4-6 generations per year.

     Control of this pest begins with the location of the
infested food.  A thorough clean up, using a vacuum cleaner to
get into the cracks and crevices, will control this pest.

-End-
-Title-
WHEEL BUG
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
WHEEL BUG

     The wheel bug (Arilus cristatus) is a "monster" of the
insect world.  With its bizarre appearance and deadly beak, it is
a dreaded foe of other insects.  At the same time, it is a
beneficial ally of man.  The wheel bug is one of the largest
members of the family of insects known as assassin bugs.  Most
members of the family are predacious on other insects.

     The adult is brownish-black and about an inch long.  It has
a distinctive semi-circular crest behind the head which resembles
half a cogwheel (thus the name wheel bug).  The long, slender
antennae, beak, and ends of the legs are reddish brown.  The head
is very narrow and slightly constricted behind the eyes forming a
slender "neck."  Bending down and back from the front of the head
is a rigid, 3-segmented beak.

     The nymphs are small and lack the cogwheel crest.  Their
abdomen is bright red and curls upward when they are young.

     The wheel bug has one generation per year and overwinters as
barrel-shaped eggs cemented together in masses of 10-40 eggs
each.  The eggs hatch in May and June, and nymphs soon begin
hunting for prey.  Caterpillars are among their favorite meals.
The wheel bug spears its unfortunate host with its sharp beak and
sucks up the victim's body fluids.  They molt several times and
grow in size through the season.  By late summer they are adults
ready to mate and lay eggs.

     Control.  Wheel bugs are beneficial insects and should be
considered valuable allies.  Do not handle them, however, as they
can inflict a painful and lasting "bite" with their beak.
-End-
-Title-
PAPER WASPS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
PAPER WASPS

     Paper wasps are three-fourths to one inch long and have
longer legs and more slender bodies compared to yellow jackets
and hornets.  Their abdomen tapers at both ends.  Paper wasps are
sometimes called "umbrella wasps" because their nests consist of
a single exposed comb suspended by a narrow stalk.  Paper wasps
may be more inclined to build nests in attics than yellow jackets
or hornets because their nests lack an outer covering.

     Individual paper wasps and their nests can be sprayed with
an aerosol insecticide.  It is best to knock down the nest if
possible after spraying all the wasps on it.

-End-
-Title-
BARK BEETLES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BARK BEETLES

     People often report large numbers of small brown beetles in
their houses.  These beetles are often seen collecting around
windows and lights.  These beetles are often bark beetles and
they usually come from firewood that is in the house.  Over 600
beetles in the family Scolytidae are commonly referred to as bark
beetles.  Species identification is difficult because nearly all
bark beetles are black or brown, cylindrical, hard-shelled, and
between one-eighth and one-third inch long.  Fortunately all
species have similar life cycles and species identification is
not necessary.

     Adult bark beetles bore through the bark to the cambium
layer of suitable host trees.  Females excavate a tunnel between
the bark and wood along which they lay their eggs.  Upon
hatching, each grub burrows away from the egg tunnel and feeds on
the live bark tissue (phloem) and outer cell layers of wood
(xylem).  The resulting network of egg and larval tunnels beneath
the bark is called a gallery.  The "shot hole" appearance seen on
firewood and trees indicates that many beetles have matured,
chewed exit holes, and flown off to find new breeding sites.
These breeding sites must be dying trees or live but weakened
trees because they will not infest dead wood.  This includes
houses.  They will not infest any wood found in a house.

     To control bark beetles, simply burn the firewood that is
infested first.  Try to keep all firewood outside until you are
ready to burn it.  Control the beetles indoors with an aerosol if
they become a nuisance.

-End-
-Title-
FLEAS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
FLEAS

     Adult fleas are about one-eighth inch long, wingless, and
very dark in color.  They have three pairs of legs, the hind pair
is modified for jumping.  Fleas are flat vertically like a fish
and can move easily through the hair of a host.  The immature
stage or larval stage of the flea looks like a small white worm
with a dark head.  Flea eggs are very small and white.

     Female fleas lay eggs loosely in the hosts (usually cat or
dog) hair.  The eggs drop off and hatch into tiny, hairy, worm-
like larvae.  The larvae are usually found where the animal
sleeps, along baseboards, in carpets, or on furniture.  Larvae
pupate and new adults emerge.  The new adults seek a host
immediately and must get a blood meal to survive and produce
eggs.  They will often bite humans especially when they cannot
find their usual animal host or if they become very numerous.
Their bite often will leave a small, red, irritated area on
humans.

     The cooler and drier fall weather will bring a reduction in
the number of household fleas.  However, dogs and cats that spend
much time indoors can still have problems until late fall, when
household heating significantly lowers the relative humidity.
House pets usually maintain small flea populations throughout the
winter, the numbers increase slowly in the spring, and may
"explode" in mid to late summer.  Although vacuuming only removes
a small percentage of the flea larvae in carpet, vacuuming can
remove a large percentage of flea eggs, if it is done on a
regular basis.  The key to successful household flea control is
frequent vacuuming of pet bedding and resting areas, treatment of
the pet, and careful use of insecticides.

-End-
-Title-
BOXELDER BUGS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BOXELDER BUGS

     The boxelder bug becomes a pest in many homes each year in
fall and spring.

     This bug is about one-half inch long and one-third as wide.
It is black with three red lines on the thorax, a red line along
each side, and an oblique red line on each wing.  The wings lie
flat on the back when at rest.  The young nymphs are red and
gray.

     Feeding Habits.  Boxelder bugs normally feed on the leaves,
flowers, and seed pods of the boxelder tree.  The populations of
bugs may number into the thousands.  Large infestations are
usually on the female, or pod-bearing, tree.  While they may feed
on male boxelder trees and other trees and plants, they usually
do not build up to such large numbers.  The bugs cause little
damage to trees.

     Life Cycle.  The adult bugs lay eggs in the spring and the
nymphs emerge in a few days.  The nymphs are small and show more
red than adults.  These nymphs develop into adults during the
summer, then mate and lay eggs which hatch into the nymphs of the
second generation.  Activity of nearly fully grown nymphs is
noticed in August and September when they gather in large numbers
on the trunks of boxelder trees.  The migration of the adults
begins at this time.

     The adults' search for a place to overwinter brings them
into houses where they hide in small cracks and crevices in
walls, door and window casings, attics, and around the
foundation.  During warm days in winter and early spring they
come out and scatter through the house.  They are primarily a
nuisance as they crawl or fly about in the rooms.  They do no
damage by feeding, but their excrement spots on draperies are
difficult to remove.

     Non-chemical Control.  Boxelder bugs do not feed on
household structures, so there is no need for extensive chemical
control in the house.  The bugs can be cleaned up with a vacuum
cleaner.

     Eliminate hiding places such as piles of rocks, boards,
leaves, and general debris close to houses.  Repair places where
the bugs may enter the house, such as cracks around doors,
windows, weather-boarding, and in the foundation.

     Chemical Control.  If the bugs become so numerous, chemical
control may be necessary.

-End-
-Title-
YELLOW JACKETS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
YELLOW JACKETS

     Yellow jacket wasps are often pests in recreational areas in
Virginia from late summer until early autumn.  During this time
of year, wasp colonies have attained their largest size, and in
the vicinity of numerous colonies, foraging workers may become
serious pests as they search for food--usually food that is eaten
or discarded by people.  If a colony is disturbed, worker yellow
jackets will aggressively defend their colony by stinging.

     Like all wasps, yellow jackets are predators on a wide
variety of insects and other arthropods.  Yellow jackets are
unusual in that workers also forage on foods consumer by people,
especially sweets and meats.  Because of this habit, yellow
jackets are frequently found associated with recreational areas,
and may create a nuisance and life-threatening stinging episodes.

     Recent surveys indicate that between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of
the population may be allergic to yellow jacket venom.  For most
of us a sting may be just a temporary painful experience, but for
allergic individuals a single sting may result in a serious
reaction.

     Management of Yellow Jacket Foragers.  Destruction of all
yellow jackets in and around a recreational area is advised to
reduce the possibility of a dangerous sting.  Nests should be
located during the day when the workers are going and coming on a
regular basis; the location of the nest should be marked.  Return
late at night to treat the nest with a liquid insecticide.  The
destruction of individual colonies may not eliminate all the
yellow jacket workers from an area in which food is available.
This is because yellow jackets are capable of flying a mile from
their colonies in search of food.

     Effective management of yellow jackets can be achieved by:
(1) rigorous sanitation, and (2) use of physical exclusion from a
food source.  The principle behind these practices is the denial
of attractive food to the foraging worker wasps.  If begun early
in the summer and carried out through mid-autumn, proper
sanitation will help to reduce the buildup of foraging yellow
jackets in an area.  Trash containers should be kept closed (lid)
whenever possible; open containers should be emptied regularly
(every few hours when a large number of foragers are present).
Use an aerosol insecticide to remove yellow jackets present
around trash cans in order to empty them.  Place a one-half or
one-quarter section of no-pest strips to the inside of the lid of
a closed trash container to kill the yellow jackets that may
become trapped inside.

     The following measures are of no value in reducing the
number of yellow jacket foragers in an area:  (1) general
spraying of an infested area, and (2) electrocuting devices
employing UV light.
-End-
-Title-
CARPENTER ANTS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CARPENTER ANTS

     Ants of the genus Camponotus are known as carpenter ants
because they house their colonies in galleries they excavate in
wood.  These ants are large (from 1/4 inch for a worker up to 3/4
inch for a queen) and are black, or sometimes red and black.
Under natural conditions, carpenter ants nest in live and dead
trees and in rotting logs and stumps.  However, they will also
construct their nests in houses, telephone poles, and other man-
made wooden structures.

     Nests are begun in deteriorating wood which has been exposed
to moisture.  Often, the colony will extend its nest to adjacent,
sound wood.  Nests are commonly found in porch pillars and roofs,
window sills, and wood in contact with soil.  Carpenter ants do
not eat the wood they remove during their nest-building
activities, but deposit it outside entrances to the colony in
small piles.  The wood is used solely as a nesting site.  The
galleries of carpenter ants are kept smooth and clean, and are
not lined with moist soil as termite galleries are.

     Carpenter ants rarely cause structural damage to buildings.
Although most carpenter ant damage is cosmetic, the ants are
nevertheless considered serious pests by homeowners.  The natural
food of the ants consists of honeydew from aphids, other insects,
and plant juices, but they will readily forage for water and food
scraps within the home.

     The colonies of carpenter ants are often long lived.  Each
colony is founded by a single fertilized queen.  She establishes
a nesting site in a cavity in wood.  She then rears her first
brood of workers, feeding them salivary secretions.  She does not
leave the nest nor feed herself throughout this period.  The
workers which are reared first assume the task of gathering food
with which to feed the younger larvae.  As the food supply
becomes more constant, the colony population grows very rapidly.

     A colony does not reach maturity and become capable of
producing young queens and males until it contains 2000 or more
workers.  It may take a colony from three to six or more years to
reach this stage.  Each year thereafter, the colony will continue
to produce winged queens and males, which leave their nest and
conduct mating flights from May through July.

     Control of carpenter ant infestations requires that the nest
be found.  Once this is done, the infested wood can be removed or
treated chemically, and causes of moisture damage to the wood can
be corrected.

     Carpenter ants are active indoors during many months of the
year, usually during the spring and summer.  When ants are active
in the house during late winter/early spring (February/March),
the infestation (nest) is probably within the household.  When
carpenter ants are first seen in the spring and summer
(May/June), then the nest is likely outdoors and the ants are
simply coming in for food.   The best procedure is to inspect all
possible locations--and to select these locations on the basis of
potential water exposure.  Once the nest is located, control can
be achieved by the use of an aerosol insecticide.
-End-
-Title-
CONFUSED FLOUR BEETLE AND RED FLOUR BEETLE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CONFUSED FLOUR BEETLE AND RED FLOUR BEETLE

     The confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum) and the red
flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) are similar in appearance and
habits.  Adult confused flour beetles have the antennae gradually
enlarged toward the tip; the antennae of the red flour beetle
have the last three segments abruptly enlarged.  T. confusum
cannot fly, but T. castaneum may fly.  The elongate, reddish-
brown beetles are about 3-4 mm long, with a distinct joint
between the thorax and abdomen.  The adult female may live for as
long as two years, depositing 300 to 400 eggs.  The mature larva
is brownish-white, has six legs, and is up to 13 mm long.  The
life cycle requires one to four months when temperatures are
favorable.  These beetles are very important pests infesting many
flour mills, warehouses, and grocery stores.  They also feed upon
grain, beans, dried fruits, nuts, chocolate, and other foods in
the home.

     Control of these pests begins with the location of the
infested food.  A thorough clean up, using a vacuum cleaner to
get into the cracks and crevices, will control this pest.

-End-
-Title-
SILVERFISH
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
SILVERFISH

     Silverfish normally live outdoors under rocks, bark and leaf
mold, in the nests of birds and mammals, and in ant and termite
nests.  However, many occur in homes and are considered a pest,
or at least a nuisance, by homeowners.

     Silverfish are not often seen by homeowners because they are
nocturnal and can run very swiftly.  Occasionally, they are found
in bathtubs.  They crawl in seeking food or moisture and can't
climb out.  These insects prefer vegetable matter with a high
carbohydrate and protein content.  However, indoors they will
feed on almost anything.  A partial list includes dried beef,
flour, starch, paper, gum, glue, cotton, linen, rayon, silk,
sugar, molds and breakfast cereals.  They can go for up to one
year without food, so sanitation alone will not eliminate an
infestation, although it may prevent new ones from starting.

     Adults lay eggs in small groups containing a few to 50 eggs.
The eggs are very small and deposited in cracks and crevices.  A
female normally lays less than 100 eggs during her lifespan of
two to eight years.  Under ideal conditions, the eggs hatch in
two weeks, but may take up to two months to hatch.

     The young nymphs are very much like the adults except for
size.  Several years are required before they are sexually
mature, and they must mate after each molt if viable eggs are to
be produced.  Populations do not build up rapidly because of
their slow development rate and the small number of eggs laid.  A
large infestation usually means the house has been infested for
some time.

     Control.  Residual insecticides (use an aerosol) will help
to control these pests.  Removing old papers, boxes, books, and
clothes from the attic to basement will help remove food and
hiding places.  Moth crystals placed in boxes in the attic will
also help.

-End-
-Title-
DEER TICKS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
DEER TICKS

     Deer ticks are small, dark-colored ticks sometimes called
seed ticks.  These ticks congregate along paths, trails, and
roadways and may inflict a painful bite.  Deer ticks feed mostly
on deer, cattle, and other large animals, but they will feed on
man when they get a chance.  Deer ticks can carry Lyme disease.
Deer ticks are in the genus Ixodes, and there are several species
of Ixodes that carry the Lyme disease bacteria in their systems.

     Lyme disease has become an important tick-borne disease in
Virginia and other eastern states.  It is an affliction of the
summer months.  This tick-transmitted bacterial disease is most
likely to be contracted during the months of June through
September, when young people and adults are outdoors.  It is
spreading rapidly and is now the most frequently diagnosed tick-
transmitted illness in the United States.  The disease was first
reported in Connecticut in 1975, and is named after the town of
Lyme in which the disease was first observed.

     The symptoms of Lyme disease vary, ranging from acute
headache to neurological impairment, and symptoms resembling
rheumatoid arthritis.  The onset of the symptoms usually follow a
skin rash one to several weeks earlier.  Fortunately Lyme disease
can be treated successfully with antibiotics administered orally.
Lyme disease is also becoming a veterinary problem.  Dogs and
horses in areas where the disease is common have developed joint
problems that veterinarians believe to be caused by Lyme
bacteria.

-End-
-Title-
PARASITIC WASPS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
PARASITIC WASPS

     Homeowners usually encounter parasitic wasps in houses in
the fall and winter, partly because these wasps emerge from
infested insects associated with firewood.

     The adults of the parasitic wasps vary considerably in size,
form, and coloration, but the majority resemble slender wasps.
They do not sting.  They differ from the wasps that sting in that
they have very long antennae.  The adults attack and lay eggs in
a great variety of hosts; the larvae are internal parasites of
the immature stages of the host.  The parasite larva usually
completes development in the host, and emerges from the host when
an adult.  The parasite kills the host (that's the beneficial
part!).

     There are a great variety of hosts for these wasps:
caterpillars, moths, leafminers, wood-boring beetle larvae,
flies, aphids, gypsy moth, weevils, and spiders.  These parasites
help to reduce the number of pest insects, thus taking an edge
off the amount of damage from pests.  Research by biological
control programs has helped to increase the number of parasitic
wasps in an area, again to help reduce the number of pests.  No
control is recommended for these wasps.
-End-
-Title-
POWDERPOST BEETLES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
POWDERPOST BEETLES

     There are species of beetles that infest softwoods (pine,
spruce, fir) and hardwoods (oak, maple), and make small (one-
eighth inch), round holes in the wood.  These beetles are
referred to as powderpost beetles.  In modern log houses,
powderpost beetles are usually encountered in the logs after the
first year or two.  The first evidence is small holes with fine
sawdust streaming from them, usually in the spring of the year.
They have a one to two year life cycle, and they can reinfest the
logs.  Certainly there will be no structural damage from these
beetles unless they continue to feed in the logs for many years.

-End-
-Title-
PAVEMENT ANTS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
PAVEMENT ANTS

     Pavement ants are very common in the eastern United States.
These small, brown to black ants usually nest under stones,
concrete slabs, at the edge of pavements, and in houses in
crevices in woodwork and masonry.  Pavement ants feed on a
variety of materials, including live and dead insects, honeydew
from aphids, meats, grease, etc.  They often enter houses looking
for food.  They may become numerous in a short period of time in
a kitchen or outside on a patio.  The nests are often difficult
to locate, so control is usually aimed at individual ants or
groups of ants.
-End-
-Title-
MOSQUITOES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
MOSQUITOES

     Adult female (only!) mosquitoes seek a blood meal so they
can produce a new patch of eggs.  Mosquitoes can travel a mile or
more from their breeding spot to find a meal.  However, most
remain close to the lake, pond, or clogged gutter they lived in
as larvae.  Excess rain in the spring will provide plenty of
breeding places for mosquitoes.  Homeowners should carefully
inspect their house (gutters) and yard (bird bath, old tires) for
standing water - then dump it!  Non-chemical control in the
spring is easier and more effective than chemical control in the
summer.

-End-
-Title-
MILLIPEDES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
MILLIPEDES

     Millipedes have caused some problems around the state in the
summer and fall.  There were several locations in which the
numbers of millipedes were so excessive that they swarmed over
mulched flower beds and invaded basements and other ground level
rooms in houses.  Millipedes develop best in damp and dark
locations with abundant organic matter (food).  Areas around
houses that provide these conditions include piles of grass
clippings, a wooded lot close to the house, excessive mulch
around the house, and similar locations.  They lay eggs in the
spring and populations build up during the summer.  Under good
conditions -- adequate food and habitat -- populations can become
very large.  Then changes in the habitat -- excessive moisture,
lack of food, too little moisture -- cause the population to
disperse.  At times there can be thousands of millipedes moving
across lawn areas and into houses.

     Controlling such large numbers of millipedes can be very
difficult.  It seems that most insecticides available to
homeowners are not very effective in killing millipedes.
Diazinon (granular formulation) is probably the most effective.
Liquid formulations may have to be re-applied on a three to seven
day basis.  Nonchemical control measures, such as looking for the
source of the problem, may be useful--but not always possible or
effective.  Populations of millipedes may build to large numbers
in one year, the habitat become overcrowded, and thousands of
them migrate to other areas.

-End-
-Title-
MEALWORMS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
MEALWORMS

     The yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and the dark mealworm
(Tenebrio obscurus) are very similar in appearance.  The adults
are large beetles, 12-15 mm in length.  The adult of T. molitor
is dark shiny brown to black; T. obscurus is a dull black.  The
larvae resemble wireworms and are familiar to many people as
dried food for aquarium animals.  Although these insects are
cosmopolitan in distribution, they are rarely of major
importance.

     Control.  Controlling mealworms requires carefully
inspecting all cereal foods, discarding the heavily infested
material, repackaging material in new containers, and vacuuming
kitchen cabinets.

-End-
-Title-
SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN BEETLE

     The saw-toothed grain beetle (Oryzaephilus sarinamensis) is
an important pest known throughout most of the world.  A closely
related species, Oryzaephilus mercator, is also important and is
often mistaken for the saw-toothed grain beetle.  The adult is a
small, active, brown beetle, 2-3 mm long, with a flattened body
and six saw-toothed projections on each side of the thorax.  The
larva is yellowish-white, about 2 to 3 mm long, with a brown
head.  The abdomen tapers toward the tip.  The females live from
6 to 10 months and deposit 45 to 285 eggs in foodstuffs.  Several
generations may occur each year, as the life cycle requires only
3 to 4 weeks during the summer.  The saw-toothed grain beetle is
an important pest in grocery stores, food warehouses, and grain
storage.  It readily penetrates packaged cereals, dried fruits,
and candies.  It also attacks flour, meal, sugar, drugs, dried
meat, and tobacco.

     Control.  Controlling this pantry pest requires careful
inspection of all cereal foods, discarding the heavily infested
material, repackaging material in new containers, and vacuuming
kitchen cabinets.  Vacuuming the cabinets will be much more
beneficial than washing them.  Vacuuming will remove flour dust
and scraps in the cracks and crevices of the cabinet.  Washing
may make a paste of the flour.
-End-
-Title-
HOUSE FLIES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
HOUSE FLIES

     August is the "house fly month" for household insect pests.
The hot days of July and August will result in a great number of
flies by the end of August and September.  At the height of the
summer season, a generation of flies (egg to adult) may be
produced in 12 to 14 days.  In Virginia there might be time for
10 or 12 generations during a season.  It has been estimated that
the progeny of a single female fly at the end of the ninth
generation may reach the number of 1,953,000,000 female flies, to
say nothing of all the males produced.  Fortunately, all the
eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults don't live!

     Control of house flies is important.  They can and do carry
and spread disease.  Control should be aimed in two directions--
the breeding site and in the house.  House flies breed in garbage
(primarily).  Garbage cans and large trash containers can be a
breeding place for house flies.  Attaching no-pest strips to the
underside of the lids or covers will help kill adults and larvae.
Plain boiling water is an excellent (and inexpensive) way to kill
house fly maggots in garbage cans.  Fly paper, fly swatters, and
aerosols are the best methods for adult control.  No-pest strips
are designed to be used in a closed area to allow for the
chemical given off by the plastic strip to accumulate.  They are
not very effective in breezy rooms, carports, patios, etc.

-End-
-Title-
SPIDERS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
SPIDERS

     Spiders are common household pests in the fall.  After
spending the summer catching flies and moths, adult spiders begin
looking for a safe (warm!) place to spend the winter.  Homeowners
frequently encounter these eight-legged critters around windows,
doors, house plants, and in clutter in basements and garages.

     Most homeowners have misconceptions about spiders -- they
are pictured to be poisonous (even deadly), and likely to attack
at any time.  Wrong.  The only dangerous spiders we have in
Virginia are the brown recluse spider and the black widow spider.
The brown recluse is not common.  The black widow is common, but
reports of it biting people are infrequent.  For the most part,
spiders are beneficial, eating insects and other spiders.

     The following spiders are commonly found around houses:

     Golden garden spiders have a rather flat head and a thorax
region covered with whitish hair.  They are black with yellow
markings.

     Large orb weavers are found about houses in the fall.  Their
legs are usually shorter and their body not as big as the golden
garden spider.

     Wolf spiders are usually large, hairy spiders that are not
associated with webs.  They look much worse than they are.

     Jumping spiders do just that -- jump!  They are small,
usually black with red or white markings, and often found in
windows.  They rarely bite.

     House spiders have "dirty" white and gray markings on their
abdomen.  They build complicated webs in corners, under tables,
chairs, etc.

     Sheet web spiders have a pair of dark bands across their
yellowish head-thorax and abdomen region.  They are common on
shrubs and weeds around the house.

     Control.  Spider control is best done on a one-to-one, as
needed basis.  A general spray for spiders is not recommended,
unless the infestation seems severe.  Tolerate what you can,
spray with an aerosol what you can't.

-End-
-Title-
HORNETS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
HORNETS

     The bald-faced hornet is a large, black and white insect
which is widely distributed in Virginia.  The oval-shaped nests
are often quite large and are usually found attached to limbs of
trees.  The nests are constructed of the same paper-like material
as that of other wasps (yellow jackets).  They differ a great
deal from other wasp nests in being enclosed in a thick "paper"
envelope.  There is a single opening at the lower end of the
nest; this is always guarded by a few hornets.  Nests are
abandoned at the end of the season.  The workers are killed by
frosts in the fall.  The fertilized females (future queens)
hibernate in barns, attics, and other sheltered places, emerge
and begin new nests in the spring.  Hornets are beneficial; they
prey upon flies and caterpillars.  Unfortunately they can be a
potential health hazard to people allergic to their stings.

     Control.  Hornet nests in trees, lawns, or buildings away
from the normal activity of people should not be considered
dangerous -- and should not be removed.  Removing a nest is not
easy and always dangerous.  Here are some suggestions:  work at
night (when the temperature is low and it is fully dark); use a
red light to see (hornets cannot see red light very well); use
material known as (or similar to) "wasp freeze"; and, do not use
gasoline.
-End-
-Title-
GIANT EUROPEAN HORNET
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
GIANT EUROPEAN HORNET

     The giant European hornet is a common pest in the summer.
It is a large, robust, brown and yellow wasp, about  one and
three-fourths inches long.  This insect was introduced into the
United States from Europe, and occurs primarily in the eastern
seaboard states including Virginia.  The nests of the giant
hornet may be in hollow tree trunks, in buildings, in other
sheltered places, and occasionally in the ground.

     Giant European hornets are powerful, agile wasps that prey
on active insects.  Captured prey includes butterflies, moths,
caterpillars, flies, bees, and other wasps.  Giant hornets rarely
visit flowers for nectar.  They are often encountered at outdoor
lights at night -- preying on the other insects attracted to the
light.  Although they are very large and active, giant hornets
are not prone to attacking and stinging man.

     The size of the colony and the number of individuals
increases during the summer.  Nests decline in fall, and males
and new queens are produced.  The nests of these wasps are used
for only one season.

     Control.  The control of any pest begins with locating the
source.  In the case of wasps, it is the nest.  Giant hornet
nests are difficult to locate; they may not be close to the area
where the wasps are occurring.

     Aerosol sprays can be used to kill individual wasps.  If the
nest is located, insecticides can be used (at night and with
protective clothing).

-End-
-Title-
STINGING CATERPILLARS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
STINGING CATERPILLARS

     The majority of ferocious looking caterpillars are
completely harmless.  There are, however, six rather common
species in Virginia with poisonous hairs or spines.  These so
called urticating hairs are hollow and connected to underlying
poison glands.  Contact with them causes a burning sensation and
inflammation that can be as painful as a bee sting.  The
irritation can last for a day or two and may be accompanied by
nausea during the first few hours.  Specific symptoms vary
depending on the species of caterpillar and the susceptibility of
the victim, but usually the site of contact reddens and swells
much like a bee sting.

     A person "stung" by a poisonous caterpillar should
immediately wash the affected area to remove any insect hairs and
poison that remain.  An ice pack will help reduce swelling, and
creams and lotions containing steroids will lessen the discomfort
and promote healing.  Persons known to be sensitive to insect
stings should consult a physician.

     Most stinging caterpillars are general feeders and are
commonly encountered on shade trees and ornamental shrubs.  The
six species common in Virginia are the saddle-back caterpillar,
puss caterpillar, hagmoth, hackberry leaf slug, io moth, and buck
moth.  They are found in late summer.

     The saddle-back caterpillar is about an inch long and
possesses poisonous spines on four large projections (tubercles)
and many smaller ones that stick out from the sides of its body.
The "saddle" consists of an oval purplish-brown spot in the
middle of a green patch on the back.  Saddle-back caterpillars
feed on the leaves of basswood, chestnut, cherry, plum, oak, and
other trees and shrubs.

     The puss caterpillar is also about an inch long and
completely covered with long, silken, brownish hairs.  Hidden
among the hairs are short, poisonous spines.  Puss caterpillars
are commonly found on hackberry, elm, plum, sycamore, oak and
rose.

     Hagmoth larvae are extremely bizarre in appearance.  They
are covered with short, dark brown hairs and have nine pairs of
fleshy appendages, some of which are long and twisted.  Rose,
sassafras, alder, and spirea are among their favorite hosts.

     The hackberry leaf slug grows to about an inch long and has
six small tufts of hair on each segment.  Its body is off-white
with a large purple patch on the back.  Hackberry leaves are its
preferred food.

     A mature io moth caterpillar may be up to two and one-half
inches long.  They are a beautiful pale green color with white
and red stripes on the sides.  Short spines radiate from numerous
tubercles on the back.  These larvae feed on alder, ash, birch,
cherry, elm, locust, oak, sassafras, and other deciduous trees
and herbaceous plants.  They are not uncommon in corn fields.

     The buck moth caterpillar is unusual in this group since it
is found in the early summer, mainly in June.  It is often
confused with spiny elm caterpillars and gypsy moth caterpillars
which are also active at that time.  Buck moth caterpillars grow
up to two inches long.  The head, prolegs, and anal plate are
reddish, but the rest of the body is black with small white
spots.  Long branched spines and tufts of shorter spines cover
the body.  Buck moth caterpillars are found most commonly on oak.
But willow, hazelnut, cherry, and rose are also suitable host
plants.

     In addition to the above mentioned stinging caterpillars,
there is one non-stinging caterpillar of note.  The Hickory
Horned Devil is a frightful looking large caterpillar (up to 5.5
inches) that has many orange and green spines and horns.  The
spines are not poisonous and are not particularly sharp--it only
looks mean.  The adult of this caterpillar is the orange and
brown Royal Walnut Moth.

     Stinging caterpillars rarely occur in sufficient numbers to
be considered plant pests, but people who work with ornamental
plants should learn to recognize them and avoid touching them.

-End-
-Title-
TICKS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
TICKS

     Ticks are one of the most important pests in Virginia.
There are several species of "wood ticks" in the state, and two
of them transmit Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) to man.
People working and playing outdoors in the spring can encounter
ticks, get bitten, and risk contracting RMSF.  While only one to
two percent of the tick population actively carries RMSF, and
those in danger are the very young and the very old, it is best
that everyone knows how to identify the tick species likely to
transmit this disease.  Along with identification, it is
important that people know the best way to remove ticks that are
imbedded in the skin.

     Identification.  Identifying the species of ticks that can
spread RMSF is not difficult.  The best character to remember is
that any tick with white markings on its body has the "potential"
of spreading RMSF.

     The American dog tick has an uneven pattern of white
markings on its back and sides.  The lone star tick usually has
one large white spot in the middle of its back.  The brown dog
tick is solid brown in color and does not transmit RMSF.

     Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever.  In spite of the name, this
disease is very common in the eastern and southeastern United
States.  Virginia and the bordering states usually have a large
number of cases of this disease reported each year--there are few
deaths.  Over 90 percent of those affected become ill between
April 1 and September 1.  Ticks (and RMSF) are most active in the
spring and fall of the year.  The nymph and adult ticks seek a
small rodent, dog, or man as a host to take a blood meal at this
time.  During feeding, the tick can transmit diseases to the
host.  However, feeding usually has to last for 20-40 minutes
before the disease agent is transferred.  Prompt removal of ticks
can help to eliminate the potential of infection.

     Removal.  Removing ticks that have inserted their mouthparts
into the skin is not difficult, and should be done with as little
worry and excitement as possible.  While hot matches, kerosene,
petroleum jelly, and "home cure" are popular, they do not work as
well as simply grasping the tick firmly with the thumb and
forefinger and pulling it gently, but firmly, out!  A tissue may
be placed over the tick during this process.

-End-
-Title-
BED BUGS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BED BUGS

     Bed bugs are sometimes called "red coats", "chinches", or
"mahogany flats".  The adult bed bug is a brown, wingless insect
that is flattened from top to bottom.  They feed on blood --
principally the blood of man.  They feed by piercing the skin
with a long beak and sucking blood into their stomachs.  The
stages in the life cycle of a bed bug are:  egg, nymph, adult.

     Bed bugs feed mostly at night, by biting people who are
asleep.  But if they are very hungry and if the light is dim,
they will feed during the day.  The females lay about 200 eggs,
usually at the rate of three or four a day.  The eggs are laid in
cracks and crevices in the floor or bed -- areas that the bugs
hide in during the day.  Newly hatched bugs begin feeding
immediately.  They shed their skin five times before becoming
adults.  There may be three or more generations per year under
favorable conditions.

     At the beginning of an infestation, bed bugs are likely to
be found only in the tufts, seams, and folds of mattresses and
bed covers.  In areas of heavy infestations, bed bugs can be
found in crevices in the bedsteads.

     Control.  In private homes, find all the areas that bed bugs
hide in during the day time.  These must be treated with
chemicals.  In hotels, apartments, and other multiple-type
dwelling places, bed bugs may spread from one unit to another.
All units should be inspected.

-End-
-Title-
BLOW FLY LARVAE AND PUPAE
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BLOW FLY LARVAE AND PUPAE

     Homeowners frequently report finding fly maggots and/or
pupae on the floor or carpeting around an unused fireplace.
Large numbers of maggots may be encountered crawling across the
floor or numerous small, oval-shaped pupae may be found under a
rug close to a fireplace.  The insects are usually blow flies,
and the reason is usually a dead animal in the fireplace or flue.
Abandoned stoves and fireplaces may be used by birds for nesting,
or a mouse, squirrel, or other animal may become trapped in the
flue stack.  Once the animal dies and the body begins to decay,
blow flies are attracted for egg laying.  The maggots complete
development in the decaying flesh, then seek a dry place to
pupate.  Fly maggots have the habit of wandering a distance
before selecting a place to pupate.  They may wander out into the
living area of a house and cause concern to homeowners.  There is
really no need for alarm or extensive control of these insects.
The pupae and larvae can be picked up and discarded.  The real
concern should be for the cause of the problem.  Get the flue
checked, especially if there are ever plans for another fire.  A
blocked fireplace flue can cause more damage than a few fly
maggots or pupae on the floor.
-End-
-Title-
SELECTING A PROFESSIONAL PEST CONTROL OPERATOR
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
SELECTING A PROFESSIONAL PEST CONTROL OPERATOR

     Small local companies can be just as reliable and capable as
large, regional or national companies.

     There are no secret chemicals or formulas for the control of
termites or other wood-infesting insects.  There are a few
chemicals available to all the professionals.  The careful
application of those chemicals is the most important aspect of
insect control.

     Membership in the state or national association demonstrates
some degree of professionalism and probably participation in
regular training sessions.

     Ask that the company representative explain all the
procedures to be used.  Ask about odor or potential problems with
wells located close to the house or heating ducts buried in the
slab or in walls.

     Consider getting the opinion of two or three professionals
before making the final decision on treatment.

-End-
-Title-
VELVET ANTS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
VELVET ANTS

     Velvet ants are medium-sized, red and black insects that
resemble ants, but are more closely related to wasps.  Their
bodies are densely clothed with red and black hairs that give the
insect a velvety appearance.  The wingless females (males are
winged and rarely seen) can inflict a nasty sting, and can make a
squeaking noise when captured.

     These insects are parasitic on wasps and bees.  The female
velvet ant invades a nest of wasps or bumblebees and lays eggs in
the cells of the host.  The velvet ant larva kills and eats the
host bee pupa.

     If control is desired, individual velvet ants can be killed
with an aerosol spray.

-End-
-Title-
HONEYBEES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
HONEYBEES

     The honeybee is covered with short, dense hair, usually
golden-brown and black, and its abdomen is striped.  There are
three castes of honeybees in the colony:  workers (2/5 to 3/5
inch long), drones (3/4 to 5/8 inch long), and the queen (3/5 to
3/4 inch long).  Most people see only the workers because these
are the bees that regularly fly in and out of the nest.

     The queen is responsible for reproduction.  The drones are
fertile male bees that mate with new queens.  The workers are
sterile females responsible for feeding the queen, maintaining
the hive, gathering the pollen and nectar, and protecting the
hive.  Honeybee workers have a barbed stinger that becomes
detached along with a venom sac after the sting.

     When stung by a bee, immediately remove the stinger and
venom sac by gently scraping or flicking the stinger with a
fingernail or knife.  Do not use tweezers or try to squeeze out
the stinger--this pushes more venom into the wound.  Next, wash
the sting site with soap and water.  Apply ice to minimize pain
and swelling.  For normal sting reactions, a solution of 1/2
teaspoon meat tenderizer dissolved in 1 teaspoon water (or
commercially available sting solution) can be applied to the skin
to relieve discomfort.  If you experience anything more than a
localized, normal reaction, seek medical attention immediately.
Sting victims should be kept calm, quiet and inactive.  In some
cases, an allergy specialist may advise a series of injections to
lessen sensitivity for persons with case histories of severe
allergic reactions to insect stings.

     Prevention.  Wear proper clothing and use caution when
worker honeybees are foraging around houses on flowering trees
and plants.  When flowers finish blooming, the danger will
decrease.

     It is best to allow swarms of honeybees to leave on their
own.  A swarm of bees will remain clustered until scout bees have
located a suitable site for permanent nesting.  In two days or
less, the swarm will usually break the cluster and fly away.  If
it is necessary to remove a swarm, be sure to contact a local
beekeeper, who usually will be happy to get the bees.

     Removal from Buildings.  When honeybees establish a nest in
your house or other undesirable places, you can either hire
professional help (certified pest control operator or beekeeper)
or do the job yourself.  Remember that after the honeybees are
killed, they must be removed with their comb nest along with
honey.  Untended honey soon begins to decompose and/or seep out
of the comb, causing odor problems, staining walls or ceilings,
and encouraging secondary pest infestations by ants, cockroaches,
wax moths, flies and dermestid beetles.
-End-
-Title-
CLICK BEETLES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CLICK BEETLES

     In the mid to late summer, people often encounter large
numbers of click beetles coming to lights and getting into
houses.

     These flattened, elongate, brown beetles are about 1/4 to
3/4 inch long.  On their underside, they have a click mechanism
that aids them in defense and righting themselves when they are
turned upside down.  They release this mechanism with an audible
"click" which causes the head to snap back with such force that
they can be propelled into the air as much as several inches.

     The larval form of the click beetle is the wireworm which
can be a pest in gardens and turf if in large numbers.  The
wireworms feed on the roots of plants.  Click beetles feed on
nectar from flowers and are not pests.  The best way to reduce
the number of click beetles in the house is with a reduction in
the number of outside lights on at night and tightening and
patching of screens.  If desired, individual beetles can be
controlled with an aerosol spray.

-End-
-Title-
BROWN-BANDED COCKROACHES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BROWN-BANDED COCKROACHES

     The brown-banded cockroach, Supella longipalpa (Fabr.), is
more likely to be found in houses, hotels or apartments rather
than commercial stores or restaurants.  These insects feed on
starchy materials and even non-food materials such as nylon
stockings.  They prefer to hide in warm, elevated areas near the
ceiling, behind wall decorations and loose wallpaper, in closets,
beneath or inside upholstered furniture, and in electrical
appliances such as TV sets, stereos, radios, and toasters.  They
develop and live throughout the building, making control
difficult.  Roaches can foul food, damage wallpaper and books,
eat glue from furniture and produce an unpleasant odor.  Some
homeowners are allergic to roaches.  The pests can contaminate
food with certain bacterial diseases that result in food
poisoning, dysentery or diarrhea.

     Most cockroaches have a flattened, oval shape; spiny legs;
and long, filamentous antennae.  Immature stages are smaller,
have undeveloped wings and resemble adults.  Adult brown-banded
cockroaches are light brown to glossy dark brown, are about 5/8
inch long, and have wings.  Males are capable of flight.  Nymphs
and females are broad when viewed from above, while the male is
slender.  The male's wings cover the abdomen, whereas the
female's wings are short, exposing the abdomen.  These roaches
have two light, transverse bands across the base of the wings and
abdomen.  These bands may appear irregular or broken but are
usually quite apparent on the nymphs and females.  Egg capsules
are about 1/4 inch long and reddish-brown.

     Brown-banded cockroach females deposit egg cases in clusters
on furniture, draperies, wall decorations, shelving and ceilings.
The egg capsule contains 14 to 16 eggs; a female produces 10 to
20 cases in her lifetime.  Eggs hatch in 50 to 75 days, and
nymphs develop in 90 to 270 days, with adults living 150 to 200
days.  These roaches are active at night, and nymphs and adults
jump rapidly when disturbed.  These pests do not require as much
moisture as German cockroaches and tend to avoid light.  No room
or furniture is immune to infestations, and one may find tiny,
dark droppings and cast skins on cabinets and shelves.  The
roaches are commonly transported in furniture, luggage, and other
items in houses and soon develop into annoying infestations under
warm, humid conditions.  Control is difficult--treatments must be
extensive or directed at population sources determined by bait
trapping.  Traps can determine infestation severity and monitor
chemical controls, especially with brown-banded and German
cockroaches.

     Brown-banded cockroaches can be detected by examining the
premises after dark with a flashlight.  During the day, probing
hiding places with a wire will expose roaches.  Household sprays
of 0.1 percent pyrethrins applied to hiding places will flush out
roaches, sometimes killing them if they contact the spray.

     Because brown-banded roaches commonly hitchhike into the
house, it is important to inspect sacks, cartons and boxes, etc.,
brought into the home and destroy any roaches.  Sanitation is
critical in roach control.  Clean up spilled foods and liquids,
avoid leaving scraps of food on unwashed dishes and counter tops,
keep food in tightly sealed containers, rinse cans and bottles
before putting them in the trash and transfer garbage outdoors
into roach-proof receptacles.  Seal openings with putty or
plastic wood.

     Apply chemicals at roach hiding places.  Enter a dark room
quietly, turn on the light and watch where the roaches run.  Spot
treat these hiding places and known pathways, especially under
and behind loose baseboards or molding strips and around pipes or
conduits along the walls.  Do not treat entire floors, walls or
ceilings.  Roaches may hide around the kitchen sink or drain
board, in cracks underneath cupboards and cabinets, inside the
motor compartment of refrigerators, behind window and door
frames, in radio and TV cabinets, and around closet and bookcase
shelves.  Surfaces where food is prepared should not be treated.
Buildings with multiple dwellings usually require the treatment
of each unit.

     There are numerous cockroach insecticide formulations.  Some
are labeled "general use" for homeowner application, and others
are labeled "restricted use" for professional pest control or
licensed, certified applicators only.  Before using any
insecticide, read the label and follow directions.
-End-
-Title-
GERMAN COCKROACHES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
GERMAN COCKROACHES

     German cockroaches, Blatella germanica (L.), are the most
common roaches found in homes and restaurants.  They eat food of
all kinds and may hitchhike into the house on egg cartons, soft
drink cartons, sacks of potatoes or onions, used furniture, beer
cases, etc.  These roaches will move from building to building
during the warm summer months.  They can develop into large
populations and live throughout the house, especially in the
kitchen and bathroom.  Roaches can foul food, damage wallpaper
and books, eat glue from furniture and produce an unpleasant
odor.  Some homeowners are allergic to roaches.  The pests can
contaminate food with certain bacterial diseases that result in
food poisoning, dysentery, or diarrhea.

     Most cockroaches have a flattened, oval shape; spiny legs;
and, long, filamentous antennae.  Immature stages are smaller,
have undeveloped wings and resemble the adults.  Adult German
cockroaches are light brown except for the shield behind the head
marked with two dark stripes, which run lengthwise on the body.
Adults are about 5/8 inch long and have wings (but rarely fly).
Young roaches are wingless and nearly black with a single light
stripe running down the middle of the back.  Egg capsules are
light tan and about 1/3 inch long.

     German cockroach females, unlike most other roaches, carry
the egg capsule protruding from their abdomen until the eggs are
ready to hatch.  The case is then dropped in a secluded location,
with the nymphs emerging one to two days later.  A female may
produce four to eight cases during her lifetime, each containing
30 to 40 eggs.  Eggs hatch in 28 to 30 days, and nymphs develop
in 40 to 125 days.  Female roaches live about 200 days and males
not as long.  The roach produces more eggs and has more
generations per year (three to four) than other roaches, and only
a few individuals are needed to develop into troublesome
infestations.  During the day, these roaches may be found hiding
clustered behind baseboard molding; in cracks around cabinets,
closets or pantries; and, in and under stoves, refrigerators and
dishwashers.  When seen during the day in clusters, the
population is large.  Without food or water, adults may die in
two weeks, but they can live a month with water.

     German cockroaches can be detected by examining the premises
after dark with a flashlight.  During the day, probing hiding
places with a wire or thin wood strip will expose roaches.
Household sprays of 0.1 percent pyrethrins applied to hiding
places will flush out roaches, sometimes killing them if they
contact the spray.

     Prevention.  German cockroaches can move from one building
to the next during the summer, entering through cracks in
foundations, around loose-fitting doors or windows, and along
water and gas pipes.  Seal openings with putty or plastic wood.
Inspect sacks, cartons and boxes, etc., brought into the house,
and destroy any roaches.  Sanitation is critical in roach
control.  Clean up spilled foods and liquids, avoid leaving
scraps of food on unwashed dishes and counter tops, keep food in
tightly sealed containers, rinse cans and bottles before putting
them in trash and transfer garbage outdoors into roach-proof
receptacles.

     Insecticides.  Apply chemicals at roach hiding places.
Enter a dark room quietly, turn on the light and watch where the
roaches run.  Spot treat these hiding places and known pathways,
especially under and behind loose baseboards or molding strips
and around pipes or conduits along the walls and through it.  Do
not treat entire floors, walls or ceilings.  Roaches may hide
around the kitchen sink or drain board, in cracks underneath
cupboards and cabinets, inside the motor compartment of
refrigerators, behind window and door frames, in radio and TV
cabinets, and around closet and bookcase shelves.  Surfaces where
food is prepared should not be treated.  Roaches in buildings
with multiple dwellings usually require the treatment of other
units as well.
-End-
-Title-
BUMBLEBEES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
BUMBLEBEES

     Bumblebees are common and inconspicuous insects, often
encountered foraging at roadside flowers.  Yet most people have
never seen the fascinating bustle of activity that is the nest of
the bumblebee.  Inside the nest, a colony of these social insects
may number 200 or more, members engage in most of the activities
of a human society -- gathering food, caring for offspring,
constructing a home, defending it, and regulating the environment
inside it.

     Bumblebees are beneficial insects, performing unexcelled
pollinating services for such crops as red clover and
blueberries.  Their colonies are a spectacular example of social
organization, with each member working tirelessly to protect and
build the colony.  Yet, as many homeowners have discovered, they
can also be a nuisance because of the tendency of some species to
choose nesting places around people's houses.  Wooden storage
sheds and small barns, which may also house small rodents, are a
favorite nesting place of bumblebees.  Many species, normally
docile and unaggressive while foraging on flowers, turn vicious
when their nests are disturbed, chasing intruders for many yards
away from the nest.  Because their stings are so effective,
bumblebees have to worry about very few natural enemies, skunks
being one of the few animals that find bumblebees tasty, sting
and all.

     Control is usually not recommended.  But if desired, it
would be best to find and destroy the nest.  Individual
bumblebees that get into the house can be controlled with an
aerosol.
-End-
-Title-
LONGHORNED BEETLES/ROUNDHEADED BORERS
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
LONGHORNED BEETLES/ROUNDHEADED BORERS

     Most of the hundreds of species of roundheaded borers are
found in weakened, dying, and dead trees.  In addition, they feed
on felled trees, stumps, and cut firewood.  Roundheaded borers
feed under the bark and in the sapwood of trees.  They bore long
holes as they feed and weaken and destroy the wood.  Infested
trees are often rendered unusable for commercial purposes.

     Adult roundheaded borers (longhorned beetles) do very little
damage to trees and spend most of their time feeding at flowers
on pollen.  A few species commonly referred to as twig pruners
will kill small branches and twigs.

     Roundheaded borers are elongate, cylindrical, and have large
gnawing mandibles.  The name roundheaded borer refers to the
enlarged thorax directly behind the head.

     Adult roundheaded borers are medium to large cylindrical
beetles, usually brown, reddish brown, or black in color.  They
are sometimes mottled or banded with white or gray.  Adult
roundheaded borers are often referred to as longhorned beetles
because of their very long and distinctive 11-segmented antenna,
often longer than the beetle's body.  The thorax and wing covers
on some species bear small, stout spines.

     Adults lay their eggs on weakened and damaged parts of the
tree.  The larvae bore into the tree, feed under the bark at
first, and later bore into the heartwood.  They may take one to
several years to mature before they pupate inside the tree just
under the bark.

     Adults often emerge from firewood that is brought into the
house and may cause concern.  They will not infest structural
wood and are thus a nuisance only.  Insecticide control is not
recommended for firewood, simply burn the infested wood first.

-End-
-Title-
CENTIPEDES, SOW BUGS, PILL BUGS, MILLIPEDES
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
CENTIPEDES, SOW BUGS, PILL BUGS, MILLIPEDES

     There are several insects and relatives to insects that are
commonly encountered in damp basements in the fall.  These
include sow bugs, pill bugs, millipedes, and centipedes.  Pill
bugs, sow bugs, and millipedes feed on decaying vegetation.  They
may be attracted to organic matter in rich potting soils.
Occasionally, they feed on vegetables stored in basements,
especially if the vegetables have been damaged.  Centipedes feed
on live insects and other small animals; they do not damage
plants.  Controlling these pests should start with reducing the
moisture and humidity in the basement, then the use of aerosols.

-End-
-Title-
FLATHEADED BORER - WOOD INFESTING INSECT
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
FLATHEADED BORER - WOOD INFESTING INSECT

     Beetles in the family Buprestidae, or flatheaded borers, are
beautifully marked, metallic-colored beetles, varying greatly in
size but usually somewhat flattened and boat-shaped.  The wood-
boring larvae are characterized by a hammer-headed shape produced
by a flattened enlargement of the body region behind the head.

     The flatheaded borers are of considerable importance in the
forest.  The greatest damage results from the larvae boring into
the sapwood of recently felled logs.  The larvae will attack and
feed on a variety of softwoods and hardwoods.

     Adult females lay eggs singly or in groups on the bark or in
crevices in the bark or wood.  The young borers (larvae) mine the
inner bark or wood.  The galleries of the larvae are flattened,
usually oval in cross section, and winding, gradually enlarging
as the larva increases in size.  These larval mines are always
tightly packed with fine sawdust arranged in arc-like layers.
The adult beetles on emerging through the bark or the wood leave
a characteristic oval or elliptical exit hole.

     The life cycle may be completed in part of one season, or
extend to two years.  Some forms complete their development in
the summer, transform to adults, and do not emerge until the
following spring.

     Buprestis lineata is a common flatheaded borer in the
eastern and southeastern United States.  It has been found
associated with loblolly, scrub, longleaf pine, pitch pine, and
white pine.  It has been found causing damage to log houses in
many parts of the southeast and middle Atlantic states.  The
larvae feed during the summer and early fall, pupation occurs
early in spring, and adults emerge soon after.  The larvae may
require two years to complete development.

     The characteristics of flatheaded borer damage are:  medium
sized (1/4 - 1/2 inch), oval holes in the wood; flattened tunnels
in the sapwood of softwoods and hardwoods; powdery, pale-colored
sawdust in tunnels.

     Flatheaded borers are rarely a problem in Virginia, and
infestations tend to be small and localized.  If control is
desired, the best method is to spot treat the local infestations.
This can be done by applying insecticides to the surface of the
wood to prevent reinfestation, and perhaps kill larvae that feed
close to the surface and contact the chemical just below the
surface.

-End-

-Title-
Bagworm
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Bagworm

Lepidoptera:  Psychidae, Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Juniper, arborvitae, other cedars, pine, hemlock,
spruce, Chinese elm, honeylocust, primarily also on crabapple, maple,
sycamore, box elder, willow, linden, poplar, and many others.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Increasing degree of leaf damage from June to
defoliation by late July and August.  Stripping of leaves usually most
noticeable in the uppermost parts of trees and shrubbery.  Associated with
presence of many psindle-shaped bags up to 1 1/2" in length from late
summer to spring.

IDENTIFICATION:  Larvae enclosed in cone-shaped bags consume foliage.
Insect seldom seen, except head of larva protruding from the bag.  The
larva is mottled brown to black, enclosed in a bag spun from silkstrands,
incorporating bits of leaves and twigs from the host.  During June bags
are difficult to see, since they start less than 1/4" in length.  Bags
increase to 1 1/2" by late summer.  Adult males fly and are the only form
occurring outside the bags.  Females develop inside the pupal case within
the bag where the eggs are laid.

LIFE HISTORY:  Overwintering eggs begin hatching in early June.  The tiny
larva immediately begins to construct a tiny silken bag around itself and
initiates feeding.  Larvae and bags remain small (less than 1/4" long) for
a few weeks and are not easily discovered.  Feeding and molting continues
until August when pupation occurs.  Adults are active in late August and
September.  Only males leave the bag to mate with females which remain in
the bags to lay overwintering eggs.  Prior to molting and pupation, larvae
attach the bag by silk strands to twigs and close the opening, protecting
the larva.

CONTROL:  It is important to treat during mid-June.  Small larvae are more
susceptible to insecticides.  Larger larvae and molting larvae are not
easily killed.  Insecticides with some residual are preferred.  Picking
off and burning bags from fall till spring will reduce populations, but is
tedious.  The presence of bags during winter is a good indication of which
plants to treat the following year.  Diazinon, carbaryl, and dimethoate
are effective.  One generation per year.

REMARKS:  Bagworm is a serious pest, capable of rapid buildup and
extensive defoliation.  Annual surveys during fall, winter, or early
spring are important to detect infested plants before serious damage
results.

-End-
-Title-
Boxelder Bugs
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Boxelder Bugs



PLANTS ATTACKED:  Boxelder trees and other trees and plants.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Boxelder bugs normally feed on the leaves,
flowers, and seed pods of the boxelder tree.  The populations of bugs may
number into the thousands.  Large infestations are usually on the female,
or pod-bearing tree.  While they may feed on male boxelder trees and other
trees and plants, they usually do not build up to such large numbers.  The
bugs cause little damage to trees.

IDENTIFICATION:  This bug is about 1/2" long and 1/3 as wide.  It is black
with 3 red lines on the thorax, and a red line along each side, and an
oblique red line on each wing.  The wings lie flat on the back when at
rest.  They young nymphs are red and gray.

LIFE HISTORY:  The adult bugs lay eggs in the spring and the nymphs emerge
in a few days.  The nymphs are small and show more red than adults.  These
nymphs develop into adults during the summer, then mate and lay eggs which
hatch into the nymphs of the second generation.  Activity of nearly fully
grown nymphs is noticed in August and September when they gather in large
numbers on the trunks of boxelder trees.  The migration of the adults
begins at this time.

The adults' search for a place to overwinter brings them into homes where
they hide in small cracks and crevices in walls, door and window casings,
attics, and around the foundation.  During warm days in winter and early
spring they come out and scatter through the house.  They are primarily a
nuisance as they crawl or fly about in the rooms.  Tye do no damage by
feeding, but their excrement spots on draperies are difficult to remove.

CONTROL:  Non-Chemical--Boxelder bugs do not feed on household structures,
so there is no need for extensive chemical control in the house.  The bugs
can be cleaned up with a vacuum cleaner.

Eliminate hiding places such as piles of rocks, boards, leaves, and
general debris close to houses.  Repair places where the bugs may enter
the house, such as cracks around doors, windows, weather-boarding, and in
the foundation.

Use vacuum cleaner to pick up the bugs in the house.

Chemical--If the bugs become so numerous that a chemical control is
needed, use:  carbaryl (Sevin) 0.12% in water; spray outdoors on the
clusters of boxelder bugs on trunks of trees, or other areas where they
gather.

-End-
-Title-
Boxwood Mite, Boxwood Leafminer, Boxwood Psyllid
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Boxwood Mite, Boxwood Leafminer, Boxwood Psyllid

Order:  Family, species

PLANTS ATTACKED:  American and European Boxwood

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:

Boxwood Mite:  Leaves of infested plants appear to be pin-pricked or
scratched with tiny white or yellow marks.

Boxwood Leafminer:  Infested leaves appear blistered on the underside and
are often discolored.

Boxwood Psyllid:  Their feeding on tender new growth causes leaves to cup
and stunts the growth of shoots.

IDENTIFICATION:

Boxwood Mite:  One of the spider mites. Difficult to find even under a
dissecting microscope.  Egg shells and cast skins can be important clues
but they are not as apparent as they are with other spider mites species.

Boxwood Leafminer:  A small, delicate fly.  Damage is caused by larvae
which feed between the upper and lower layers of leaves.  Two to six
larvae typically occur in a single leaf.  With a little practice, they are
easily found by breaking open a blistered leaf with your thumbnail.

Boxwood Psyllid:  Member of a family of insects closely related to aphids.
 Adults are rarely seen.  Nymphs cover themselves with white, cotton-like
secretions.

LIFE HISTORY:

Boxwood Leafminer:  Larvae overwinter within their mines.  Adult flies are
evident around boxwoods in late April and early May.

Boxwood Psyllid:  Adults are active during July and early August, but they
are rarely seen.  Eggs are laid between bud scales and nymphs emerge from
them in mid-to-late April.  Nymphs soon cover themselves with white,
cotton-like secretions.

-End-
-Title-
Black Vine Weevil (taxus weevil)
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Black Vine Weevil (taxus weevil)

Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Otiorhynchus sulcatus

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Mostly feeds on taxus, euonymus, and other broad and
narrow-leaved evergreens, but feeds on numerous other plants.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Leaf of root feeder.  Not evident until extensive
root damage has been done.  Then plants turn brown and die.  In early
stages of infestation, notches in the margins of leaves indicate presence
of adults and potential larvae in the soil.  On taxus, needles nearer to
the main trunk down inside the shrub show notching and feeding scars.
Broad-leaved evergreens exhibit notching similar to that caused by the
Japanese weevil and fullers rose beetle. Black adults chew marginal
notches in leaves; larvae chew off roots.

IDENTIFICATION:  Adults are black, large (1/4") weevils with short broad
snouts.  The head is narrow, the thorax medium and rounded, and the wing
covers broad and well rounded.  (See card illustrations).  The wing covers
have find yellow hairs present and conspicuous corrugations which appear
as lines down the back.  Wing covers are fused together; adults cannot fly.

LIFE HISTORY:  Overwintering larvae feed on roots in the spring deep in
the soil and pupate in May.  Adults dig their way out of the ground in mid
june and crawl up the plants to feed.  Feeding occurs mostly at night and
adults hide in dark places during the day on the plants or on the ground.
When disturbed they quickly drop to the ground.  After 1-2 weeks of
feeding adults crawl or drop to the ground to lay eggs.  For several weeks
they alternately feed and lay eggs.  Occasionally a few adults can be
found in houses during winter, presumably able to overwinter in this
stage.  Most die in the fall and larvae survive the winter.  One
generation per year.

CONTROL:  It is critical to apply an insecticide after most adults have
emerged but before they begin laying eggs.  The second or third week of
June is optimal.  Chlordane is effective.  Other available insecticides
have not been found to be effective.  There is NO evidence that grub
treatments will control this species.  Tests have not been successful.
Adult treatments should be made thoroughly to treat the soil surface, the
main stems and branches.

REMARKS:  Control is aimed at adults as they crawl on the ground and up
the plants.  Taxus should be examined by looking for adults feeding down
in the center of plants near the amin trunk or stems.  Adults usually hide
in crotches under heavy bunches of needles.  Larvae overwinter in the soil.

-End-
-Title-
Cottony Maple Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Cottony Maple Scale

Homoptera: Coccidae, Pulvinaria innumerabilis

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Maples.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Discoloration and deformity of leaves feeding on
may kill branches and twigs heavily infested.

IDENTIFICATION:  Larger than maple leaf scale - it is brown in color and
elongate and oval in shape.

LIFE HISTORY:  Eggs are laid in April and June and hatching occurs
throughout the early summer.  Crawlers ettle on leaves, and stems.  Nymphs
complete their development by fall and are fertilized.  The adult female
then migrates back to the stem to overwinter.  In spring the eggs are laid
in a white cottony sac which usually has no distinct characteristic.  One
generation per year.  Overwinter as adults.

CONTROL:  Bimonthly sprays during the crawler stage in early summer.

REMARKS:  Heavily fed upon by natural enemies, and in some cases chemical
controls are not needed.  Sometimes confused with Maple leaf scale.  Egg
masses are primarily on the branches and stems.

-End-
-Title-
Dogwood Twig Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Dogwood Twig Borer

Coleoptera: Cerambycidae, Obrea tripunctata

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Elm, dogwood, viburnum and many fruit trees.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The larvae feed down the center of the branch
making a long series of closely placed round holes for the exudation of
frass.  Periodically the larvae cut off portions of the twig from within
and continues feeding on the green wood.

IDENTIFICATION:  Larvae tunnel in live twigs.  Larvae are about 1-2" long
and white with a yellowish-brown head.  Adults are cylindrical, with a
black head, wing covers, and abdomen.  Thorax is orange with three black
dots.

LIFE HISTORY:  Adult borers appear in early June.  They girdle the tips of
branches and deposit their eggs on the living twigs near the girdling.
Eggs hatch and the larvae enter the twig and bore down the center.  Damage
usually causes death to branches and ruins the appearance of shrubs or
trees.  The larvae overwinter in the stems.  In spring some larvae pupate
while others continue to develop into the second year.  Thos pupating
emerge by mid May or early june.  One generation per year.  Larvae or
pupae overwinter.

CONTROL:  Pruning burning of infested twigs is an effective control
measure.  Sprays with recommended materials (in C.S. 141) prior to budding
will also control this borer.

-End-
-Title-
Elm Leaf Beetle
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Elm Leaf Beetle

Coleoptera:  Chrysomelidae, Pyrrhalta luteola

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Chinese, English, Camperdown, American elms severely,
also other elms.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Young larvae produce light skeletonizing on under
surfaces of leaves, which increases in severity as larvae grow larger.
Larvae do not chew holes in leaves, but drying of epidermis often results
in dead tissue dropping out of leaves, leaving holes.  Trees appear quite
brown from a distance.

IDENTIFICATION:  Newly hatched larvae are black; newly molted larvae are
yellowish to olive green with a light dorsum.  Two rows of dark green
spots occur along the dorsum.  Mature larvae are much darker.  Pupae are
bright yellow and found in July on the trunk and bases of trees in
clusters up to 1" dep.  Adults are olive green in fall and dull dark olive
by spring.  The wing covers are yellowish with two basal spots and two
marginal bands of dark olive color.

LIFE HISTORY:  Overwintering adults migrate from protected areas as new
leaves unfold from the buds in early spring.  They chew very small
inconsequential holes in the new leaves and are ctive but uninjurious
until late May or early June when they lay clusters of orange eggs
(resembling lady beetle eggs) on the undersides of elm leaves.  Egg laying
may occur over a two week period.  Feeding by larvae occurs June into
mid-July as the immatures develop.  By July larvae start migrating down
the branches to pupate in the cracks of the trunk and in the grass and
leaves adjacent to the base of the tree.  Adults begin emerging within
7-10 days and are active but noninjurious until fall when they fly to
buildings to hibernate.  One generation per year.

CONTROL:  Application of an insecticide soon after most eggs have hatched
is essential.  normally this is in late May to early June.  Spraying too
early or later than mid-June is not effective.  Spraying for adults or
pupae at the bases of trees is not effective.  Mist blowers are highly
effective, as well ashydraulic sprayers.  Homeowners are not equipped to
spray large trees and should contract with arborists or commercial
applicators.  Proper timing and equipment large enough to cover tall trees
should be specified in a contract.

REMARKS:  Control of adults in buildings is a household insect problem;
but this is not an effective means of protecting trees.  Good control of
elm leaf beetle on trees on an area-wide basis will reduce problems of
overwintering beetles in houses.  Previously, elm leaf beetle was named
Galerucella  xanthomelaena.

-End-
-Title-
Eastern Test Caterpillar
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Eastern Test Caterpillar

Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae, Malacosoma americanum

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Black cherry, choke cherry and apple are favored; also
feeds on hawthorn, pear, plum, and flowering fruits.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Defoliator.  The larvae initiate small webs ni
branch crotches as soon as eggs hatch.  As the larvae feed on the foliage,
they continually increase the size of the web until it is a large nest or
tent, a foot or more in length.  Most larvae crawl back to the tent at
night, but forage out to feed during the day, defoliating increasingly
larger portions of the branches and tree.

LIFE HISTORY:  Winter is spent in the egg stage as one of many in a dark
brown varnished collar or belt encircling the twigs.  The young larvae
hatch at or before bud growth in March or April and gather in a fork of
the limbs to spin their large webby nests.  The larvae leave during the
day to feed, but return to the nest at night, or during rainy weather.
They are full grown (2 to 2 1/2 inches) in 4 to 6 weeks and often crawl to
nearby buildings or protected places to spin their dirty white cocoon.
The moths emerge in about 3 weeks and each female lays an egg collar
(containing 150 to 350 eggs) around a twig.  One generation per year.
Overwinter in egg masses on small twigs.

CONTROL:  Early control is important.  However, it is difficult becaue
larvae begin feeding on leaves unfolding from the bud before there is
adequate leaf surface to be sprayed.  Insecticides with residual
effectiveness are desirable.  Most will kill larvae hit by the spray,
however, larvae in webs are protected from sprays.  Treat foliage and
twigs during the day.  Webs can be flash-flamed at night with care not to
get bark scorch or burning.  See C.S. 142, C.S. 143 for recommendations
for sprays.  Carbaryl is most effective.

REMARKS:  Larvae most frequently cause concern when migrating to protected
places to hibernate.  They crawl on other types of plants, roadways,
walks, buildings, etc.  Suggesting infestations elsewhere than on the
host.  No further feeding occurs when larvae are mature and migrate.
Insecticides are generally ineffective against mature larvae.

-End-
-Title-
Euonymus Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Euonymus Scale

Homoptera: Diaspididae, Unaspis euonymi (Comstock)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Euonymus, bittersweet, pachysandra, etc.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Plants loose vigor and become spindly.  The leaves
turn yellow and fall prematurely.  Heavy infestations can kill the plants.

IDENTIFICATION:  Females, pear-shaped and dark brown, male scales are
white with yellow cap on one end - easily observable on plants.  All
stages damage plants.

LIFE HISTORY:  Eggs are laid early in the spring and hatch in late May or
early June.  These crawlers settle quickly and produce a second brood by
mid-July.  A third brood is produced in October.  There is continuous
overlapping of broods, so that, all stages may be found during favorable
conditions.  Two to three-plus generations per year; weather dependent.
Overwintering stage - adult female.

CONTROL:  Sprays applied at time of hatch in late May and repeated in 7-10
days should control crawlers.  For heavy infestations spray in early June,
mid July, and early October as stated above.

REMARKS:  We still lack a thoroughly effective control.  Most difficult to
kill are scales at the base of the plant near the ground, particularly on
vine type of euonymus.

-End-
-Title-
European Hornet
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
European Hornet

Hymenoptera:  Vespidae, Vespa crabro germana

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Lilac boxwood, birch, willow, poplar, Ligustrum,
rhododendron and other trees and shrubs.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  May girdle smaller twigs and gnaw holes in the
bark of larger branches.  Often the portion of the twig beyond the girdled
area dies.  Injury becomes most noticeable in August and September.  The
hornets chew off the bark for use in making their paper nests.

IDENTIFICATION:  This is the largest hornet in this country, approximately
1 inch long, dark reddish brown with orange markings on the abdomen.  It
resembles the cicada killer but is stouter and hairier.

LIFE HISTORY:  Damage is most extensive in late summer and early fall when
large colonies have developed.  The hornets build their nests in protected
areas such as hollow trees, hollow posts, partitions in sheds, barns,
porches, attics and occasionally in the ground.  Nests generally consist
of several horizontal combs, without the papery covering associated with
many other hornets' nests.  Nests can be very large, up to 2-3 feet in
length and 20 inches in diameter.  These hornets have a large stinger and
large poison sac but they do not appear to be particularly aggressive or
vicious.

CONTROL:  There is no known insecticidal control on host plants.  Attempt
to locate the nest by following the hornet in its flight to and from the
nest and destroy the nest when located.  See Insect Control for
ornamentals, Gardens, and the Home, Publication 690 and Pest Management
Guide 1, "Insect Pests of Recreation Areas" and "Insects-Household" for
correct procedure for destroying nests.

-End-
-Title-
European Rose Slug
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
European Rose Slug

Hymenoptera:  Tenthredinidae, Caliroa aethiops

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Most varieties of rose.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The larvae feeds on the upper surface only,
skeletonizing the leaves, only the soft tissue is eaten, leaving the veins
and lower epidermal tissues.

IDENTIFICATION:  The larva is yellowish green in color and partially
translucent with ingested food causing the digestive track to appear to be
dark olive green.  There are two other species of sawfly on rose, the
bristly rose slug and the coiled roseworm, both of which do not
skeletonize, but chew holes in the foliage.

LIFE HISTORY:  Eggs are laid in pockets in the leaf tissue near the edge
of the leaflets.  The larvae skeletonize the upper surface of the leaf.
When they are full-grown, the larvae leaves the bush and enters the ground
where it constructs a cell, cementing together particles of sand and earth
to form a capsule-shaped chamber.  This stage of quiescence occupies the
largest part of the year.  One generation per year.  Overwintering stage -
pupa.

CONTROL:  Application of carbaryl when the initial signs of skeletonizing
appear is effective.  Emergence of adults occurs in late spring, but may
occur over a period of time.  Surveillance of plants is important to
determine when plants should be treated and when treatments need to be
repeated.  Feeding progresses rapidly.  A period of relatively few days
results in extensive skeletonizing, if infestations are overlooked and not
treated.

REMARKS:  Rose slugs are more unsightly and aesthetically undesirable than
seriously damaging to the plants.  They are conspicuous and cause concern
resulting in numerous calls for diagnosis.  The application of control
measure is a judgment decision based on the immediate aesthetic value of
the foilage.

-End-
-Title-
MIMOSAWWMimosa Webworm
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
     MIMOSAWWMimosa Webworm

     LSRPCHTRLesser Peach Tree Borer

     OBSRESCLObscure Scale

     OYSTRSHLOystershell Scale

     PCHTREBRPeach Tree Borer

     PINEBRKAPine Bark Aphid

     PINENDLSPine Needle Scale

     PINESAWYPine Sawyers

     PSOCIDSPsocids

     RDHDASHBRedheaded Ask Borer

     RNDHDATBRound-headed Apple Tree Borer

     TRNSHPLBTarnished Plant Bug

     TULPTSCLTulip Tree Scale

     TULPTLFMTulip Tree Leaf Miner

     WAXSCALE(Ceriferus) Waxscale

     WHPCHSCLWhite Peach Scale

     LILACBORLilac Borer

     BOXWODINBoxwood Insects

-End-
-Title-
Fall Webworm
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Fall Webworm

Lepidoptera:  Arctiidae, Hyphantria cunea

PLANTS ATTACKED:  120 varieties of fruit, shade, and woodland trees.
Favorite hosts are: apple, cherry, peach, pecan, English walnut, black
walnut, ash, boxelder, birch, choke cherry, elm, hickory, linden, poplar,
sycamore, white oak, and willows -- sometimes roses and other shrubs.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Damage is much like that of the tent caterpillar,
but it makes its nest over the end of branches, never in tree crotches.
The web initially involves a few leaves at the end of a single branch.  As
larvae grow, more leaves are covered with unsightly, conspicuous webs
until an entire branch or several may be attacked.  Webs often are 2-3
feet long.

IDENTIFICATION:  The full grown larva is about 1" long, very hairy, and
pale yellowish or greenish.  There is a broad darkish band down the dorsum
and a yellowish stripe along the sides.  Body hairs arise from black and
orange humps on the body.

LIFE HISTORY:  Cocoons enclosing brown pupae winter under trash on ground
or under loose bark.  Moths emerge in May and June and again in July and
August.  Eggs are laid in white masses of 400-500 on the undersides of
leaves.  As soon as they hatch larvae begin to spin webs over the foliage
and begin to feed on the enclosed leaves.  The web is enlarged as the
larvae grow and consume the foliage.  Larvae are gregarious and remain
clustered, usually not crawling away from the web until ready to pupate.
Larvae drop or crawl to the ground to spin cocoons in hidden places in the
duff, ground litter, or other debris.  Adults, may emerge over a period of
2 or 3 weeks, thus not all webs are started at the same time.  One or two
generations per year.  Overwintering stage - pupae.

CONTROL:  Since larvae are gregarious, only one or a few branches in an
entire tree are affected when populations are light.  Which branch is
involved is not known until webbing is first produced.  Spot treatments of
infestations when larvae first begin to produce webs is most effective.
Light foliage feeding is not injurious.  Treat branches whith carbaryl
(Sevin) when webs first appear.  Spray the entire branch.  Where
infestations have been severe, it is worthwhile to spray the entire tree
to avoid frequent repetition of spot treatments.  New webs begin to appear
in mid to late June.

REMARKS:  The eastern tent caterpillar produces webs in the crotches of
larger branches never at the ends of branches.  It is an early spring pest
and larvae are gone by the time fall webworm appears.

-End-
-Title-
Flatheaded Apple Tree Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Flatheaded Apple Tree Borer

Coleoptera:  Buprestidae, Chrysobothris femorata

PLANTS ATTACKED:  All hardwoods.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The larvae girdle the trees causing their death.
If the tree is not killed, the mines or tunnels produced by the larvae
produce large deadened patches of bark which peel off.

IDENTIFICATION: Adult is elongate-oval, flattened, shiny dark bronze
above and brassy beneath.  The wings are marked with irregular
impressions.  The larvae is flat headed and grayish white.  Damaging
stage : larvae.

LIFE HISTORY:  They are very injurious to weakened or injured hardwoods.
The eggs are laid beneath scales of bark, from which points the larvae
extend meandering galleries.  At maturity the larvae move from under the
bark into the wood and form the pupal cells.  They overwinter in the pupal
stage and mature in the spring.  The adults begin emerging in the late
spring and emerge throughout the summer.  They are very nervous and active
insects which buzz like bees when flying.  They may be found on the sunny
side of infested trees.  One generation per year.  Overwintering stage -
pupa.

CONTROL:  No satisfactory sprays are available for this pest.  Since they
attack weakened and injured trees it is advantageous to keep trees healthy
by proper watering and fertilizing to stimulate growth, therefore making
the plant more resistant.  The use of mechanical barriers such as paper or
burlap around the steps of pruned or transplanted trees will prevent
attack.

-End-
-Title-
Gloomy Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Gloomy Scale

Homoptera:  Diaspididae, Melanaspis tenebricosus (Comstock)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Primarily red and silver maple; also elm, hackberry, and
boxelder.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The bark becomes roughened and encrusted with
scales.  Branches and limbs die back and result in a rapid decline in tree
vigor, occasionally resulting in the death of trees.  Seriously weakened
trees are common in Virginia as a result of scale populations, especially
red and silver maples.

IDENTIFICATION:  The scale cover is circular, dark gray, with a black
nipple on dorsum.  The underside cover is snowy white.  Damaging stage -
nymphs and adults.

LIFE HISTORY:  Immatures complete development in spring and by early- to
mid-June eggs are hatching.  These crawlers settle and produce a second
brood by late summer to early fall.  These immatures overwinter until
spring when development is completed.  Two-plus generations per year.
Overwintering stage - immatures.

CONTROL:  Spray with oils during dormant periods.  Sprays for crawlers may
help, but crawlers emerge over a long period.  There is a peak in
mid-June, but 2 or 3 sprays at weekly intervals are necessary to obtain
only fair control.

REMARKS:  Very destructive to forest and shade trees.

-End-
-Title-
Gypsy Moth
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Gypsy Moth

Lepidoptera:  Lymantriidae, Lymantria dispar (L.)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  General feeder on trees and shrubs.  Preferred hosts
include oak, willow, apple, alder, poplar, sumac, larch, birch, and many
others.  In addition, pine, spruce, and hemlock are fed upon by large
larvae during severe infestations if favored hosts are available which
allow the young larvae to begin development and become established.
Plants which usually are avoided include:  arborvitae, ash, azalea,
catalpa, cedar, dogwood, holly, locust, maple, sycamore, yellow poplar,
and walnut.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  In lightly infested areas, feeding by the gypsy
moth caterpillars often goes unnoticed.  However, in heavy infestations,
all the leaves may be stripped from suitable hosts.

Deciduous trees usually can withstand one or two complete defoliations by
caterpillars.  By mid-summer defoliated trees put out new leaves, but the
foliage is less dense and the leaves smaller.  If this happens more than
two consecutive years, the tree food reserves may become critically low.
In this condition, trees become susceptible to secondary insect pests,
diseases, and unfavorable environmental conditions (drought).

Evergreens are much less tolerant of defoliation.  Many are unable to
survive a single season of heavy feeding.

IDENTIFICATION:  Gypsy moth eggs are laid in clusters called egg masses.
Each egg mass contains 100 to 1,000 round, brown or black eggs.  They are
scattered among the hairs of a felt-like mat from 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches
long.  The buff-colored egg masses are found ost commonly on tree trunks,
often near the base, but upper branches, rocks, stacked firewood, houses,
and other objects are all suitable egg-laying sites.

The caterpillars are less than 1/4 inch long when they hatch, but at
maturity they will have grown to nearly 2-1/2 inches.  The brownish black
caterpillars are covered with tufts of long, soft hairs.  Older ones have
three light stripes which run along their backs, and each segment bears a
pair of colored spots.  The first five pairs are blue, the last six are
red.  Pupae are brown and teardrop shaped.

The adult male moth is mottled brown with a wingspread of about 1-1/2
inches.  The front wings have black wavy lines and V-shaped markings.
They are strong flyers.  Male moths have large feather-like antennae which
they use to find females.  Female gypsy moths are larger with wingspreads
of 2 to 2-1/2 inches, but cannot fly.  They are predominantly white with a
yellow abdomen.  Their forewings also have black wavy lines and V-shaped
markings.  The hindwings are off-white, and both pairs of wings have a
line of black dots near the outer edge.

LIFE HISTORY:  The gypsy moth has one generation per year nad overwinters
in the egg stage.  Eggs begin to hatch in April in warm sunny places, and
the hatch may continue for about a month.  Tiny caterpillars soon climb
trees and begin feeding.  Natural spread occurs during this stage when the
small, hairy larvae suspend themselves on silken threads and are picked up
by the wind.  Young caterpillars feed during the day and rest on the
foliage at night.  Larger caterpillars feed mostly at night and crawl down
the tree to rest in protected shady spots during the day.  In overcrowded
areas, however, larvae will feed day and night to try to satisfy their
hunger.  At maturity each is capable of devouring several leaves per day.
This stage is prevalent from early June to early July.  Short distance
dispersal may occur at this time when hungry caterpillars wander in search
of new food or hiding places in which to pupate.

Pupation takes place in sheltered spots over a period lasting from 7 to 17
days.  Adult moths begin to emerge around July 1.  The females are so
heavily laden with eggs that they cannot fly.  They crawl or flutter a
short distance from their pupal cases and begin to emit a chemical
(pheromone) which attracts males.  Egg laying begins soon after mating,
and once this is completed the moths die.  Adults do not feed; their sole
function is to reproduce.

Gypsy moth numbers in an area tend to fluctuate widely.  For long periods,
they may be relatively scare, then populations increase, and they become
incredibly abundant.  Sudden population collapses are also characteristic
of the species.

CONTROL:  Non-Chemical--Manual methods of control are cheap and usually
sufficiently effective in lightly infested areas to prevent defoliation of
individual shade trees and very small wood lots.  Egg masses should be
painted with creosote or scraped off with a putty knife and buried,
burned, or put into a container of kerosene or gasoline.  Caterpillars can
be trapped under bands of burlap as they move up and down trees in their
daily cycle.  Cut the burlap into strips about 10 inches wide.  Wrap the
strip around a tree, tie it in the middle with a peice of cord, and fold
the top down to produce a double flap.  Check the flaps daily and remove
and destroy all caterpillars and pupae.

Chemical--Contact your County Extension Office of the Virginia Department
of Agriculture and Consumer Services for insecticide recommendations.
Protection of large trees will normally require hiring professionals in
tree maintenance.

REMARKS:  The gypsy moth is one of the most serious pest of trees int he
Eastern United States.  A french scientist brought it to this country from
Europe in 1869 hoping to develop a hardy, silk-producing caterpillar.
Some of the larvae escaped creating a colossal pest problem.  The first
noticeable defoliation occurred in Medford, Massachusetts, in 1889.  By
1905 the infestation had spread to Connecticutt; it reached New York in
1922 and Pennsylvania in 1932.  Like ripples in a pond, the outbreak
continues to expand.  The leading edge of the outbreak reached Northern
Virginia in 1981.  In the future, the gypsy moth may occupy all of
Virginia and eventually all the predominantly oak forest regions east of
the Great Plains.

-End-
-Title-
Hickory Leaf Stem Gall Aphid
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Hickory Leaf Stem Gall Aphid

Homoptera:  Phylloxeridae, Phylloxera caryaecaulis

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Hickory.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Development of swellings or galls on petioles and
occasionally new shoots of hickory.  In spring and early summer the galls
are green, leathery, and bullet shaped varying in size from a pea to 1/2"
or more in diameter.  The galls may be round or irregular in shape.  By
mid- to late-summer, the leaves fall prematurely, causing concern by the
tree's owner.  Damaging stages - adults and nymphs.

IDENTIFICATION:  Typical adelgid or chermid aphids fill the galls.  The
aphids are whitish to greenish and live among considerable waxy
secretions.  Adult initially enclosed by the gall produce a great many
young, filling the gall with small and large aphids by the time the galls
is fully developed.

LIFE HISTORY:  Eggs are laid in late summer or fall in cracks and crevices
of the bark and in old stem galls.  The eggs hatch as new budgs open and
grown in the early spring.  Young aphids crawl to newly expanding foliage
where they feed on the new growth by piercing the epidermis and sucking
cell sap.  The feeding causes the tissue to grow galls which enclose the
aphids.  Several generations of aphids develop within the galls during
May, and June, and into July.  In late July, the galls split open, turn
black and jagged in appearance and the aphids emerge.  At this time most
of the affected leaves fall prematurely.  Several generations per year.
Overwintering stage - eggs in gall and bark crevices.

CONTROL:  Malathion sprays have been suggested when the buds have expanded
to about 1/2" and are beginning to show green.  However, reports indicate
this treatment may not be very effective.  Determining the exact timing is
difficult and it is unlikely all aphids will be hit with insecticides.  No
other control measures have been developed.

REMARKS:  This pest is not likely to cause serious damage to the trees.
Pre-mature leaf drop alarms tree owners resulting in calls and questions.
However, the problem is minor.  When leaf drop is noticed it is much too
late to take action.

-End-
-Title-
Holly Leafminer & Nature Holly Leafminer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Holly Leafminer & Nature Holly Leafminer

Diptera:  Agromyzidae, Phytomyza ilicis & P. ilicicola

PLANTS ATTACKED:  American and English varieties of boxwood, inkberry.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Linear or blotch mines are evident on the upper
surface of leaves from July through May.  P. ilicis makes a linear mine;
P. ilicicola makes a blotch mine.  There are numerous other species of
holly leafminers more or less related to specific hosts.  Japanese and
Chinese hollies are not attacked by leafminers.  Adult feeding causes
numerous puncture marks on the undersides of the leaves.

IDENTIFICATION:  Adults can be seen in early May when new growth is 1/2-1"
in length.  They are jet black, shiny flies about 1/16" long.  Larvae are
cream colored to yellowish and one per mine is usual.  Leaves may have one
or more mines per leaf.  Pupae are brown to black and located in the leaf
attached to a grayish spot where the adult will emerge.

LIFE HISTORY:  Pupation may occur in late fall or early spring.  Adult
emergence begins in early May and peaks as new leaves and shoots begin to
develop, about the time old leaves naturally drop to the ground on
American Holly.  Adult flies spend a several days puncturing new leaves
with the ovipositor and feeding on bleeding cell sap.  In mid May they
insert their ovipositors deep into leaf tissue from the underside and
deposit an egg.  Larval development starts two or three weeks later in
June.  Larvae develop slowly until mid or late summer when mines develop
into a lrge blotch.  Larval development is complete by fall.  One
generation per year.  Overwintering stage - larvae.

CONTROL:  Systemic insecticides, dimethoate and oxydemetonmethyl, are
highly effective if applied after eggs have hatched.  Best time to treat i
mid-June, although later treatment iwll kill larvae.  Diazinon is also
effective after mines have started to form.  Malathion is fair for
control.  applications made before June are ineffective.  when contact
insecticides, such as DDT, were used previously, treatments were suggested
when adults were active.  Some people have switched to new materials but
have not changed timing.  Ineffective results are thus obtained.
Dimethoate will injure Chinese Holly varieties, especialy burfordi, but
leafminers do not attack these plants.

REMARKS:  Be sure to include a precaution against spraying Chinese Hollies
with dimethoate.

-End-
-Title-
Iris Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Iris Borer

Macronoctua onusta (Grote)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Iris and the native blue flag.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Larvae may completely hollow-out one or more
rhizomes.

IDENTIFICATION: Full grown caterpillars are cylindrical, smooth, and
measure up to 1 3/4" long.  Pupae are dark brown to nearly black and
quite shiny.  Adult moths have a wing spread of 1 1/2-2 inches.  The
wings are covered with scales, purplish brown on the front wings and
yellowish on the hind wings.  Eggs are not smooth but highly sculptured.
From an initial creamy color with a greenish tinge, they become lavender
in color.  They are found primarily in creviceds and rough spots on
dried out, brown, dead leaves.

LIFE HISTORY:  Adult moths may produce as many as 1000 eggs.  They are
laid in the fall on brown, dried leaves and remain there through the
winter until spring.  Hatching occurs in April and larvae feed on the
leaves.  Some leaf-mining occurs before the larvae work down into the
lower parts of the growing plants.  They reach the crown and rhizome when
about half grown.  During the summer the large larvae may completely
hollow out one or more rhizomes.  By August pupation is initiated and
adult moths emerge in September and October.

CONTROL:  Removal and burning of dead leaves, dried rhizomes, and damaged
plants helps destroy large numbers of eggs.  Adult moths are active fliers
and may invade healthy beds.

Until withdrawn from use, DDT was highly effective against this pest.
Recent tests have shown that several other insecticides will control iris
borer.  Sprays of either carbaryl (Sevin) or malathion are recommended for
application in early April.  Malathion can also be used effectively.
Control measures should be applied every year.  Community effort is
important in reducing the number of insects over a wide area as a means of
preventing infestation.

REMARKS:  This insect is not conspicuous, since the adult moths fly at
night, so are seldom seen.  Also larval feeding is not apparent until
considerable damage has been done.  Extensive injury to the rhizomes can
occur before the plants begin to collapse.

Frequently bacterial rot is associated with the feeding of the larvae.
The bacterium is introduced through wounds and results in progressive
foul-smelling decay of rhizomes.

-End-
-Title-
Imported Willow Leaf Beetle
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Imported Willow Leaf Beetle

Coleoptera:  Chrysomelidae, Plagiodera versicolora (Laicharting)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Most willows (primarily on black and white willow; feeds
but not severely on weeping willow).

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The larvae skeletonize the underside of the leaves
in feeding.  The adults chew holes in the leaves, but the total area
consumed is less than larvae.  Trees can be turned completely brown from
severe populations.  Damaging stages - larvae primarily and adults.

IDENTIFICATION:  Adults are metallic-blue about 1/8" long, the eggs are
yellow.  Larvae are cream-colored when they molt but darken gradually to
black.  The body of the larvae bears many black and brown markings and is
about 3/16" long when full grown.  Eggs are yellow, spindle-shaped and
laid on end in clusters on the undersides of the leaves.

LIFE HISTORY:  The hibernating adult begins to emerge in the spring when
foliage appears.  These adults feed on the new leaves, cutting holes in
them.  The eggs are laid for the first generation and they hatch in about
a week.  In less than a month, usually the adults emerge from pupae which
have been formed by larvae on the leaves.  Adults of the 2nd generation
develop in early July and a 3rd in early August.  These adults feed
heavily for a number of days and by the last of August, practically all
have entered hibernation.  Only a few of this generation mate and deposit
eggs that develop into a partial 4th generation.  Three and sometimes a
partial fourth generation per year.  Overwintering stages - adults, under
bark or other shelter.

CONTROL:  Control of willow leaf beetle is simply a matter of applying a
residual spray of carbaryl (Sevin) when larvae are first noticed hatching
from egg masses.  In areas where willow leaf beetle is established, it
will be necessary to treat 2 or 3 times during the season for 2nd and 3rd
generations.  Plants should be checked periodically for the presence of
egg masses and newly emerged larvae.

-End-
-Title-
Japanese Weevil
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Japanese Weevil

Coleoptera:  Curculionidae, Pseudocneorhinus bifasciatus

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Long list of hosts, but especially on cherry laurel,
broadleaved evergreens, pyracantha, privet, barberry, euonymus, very many
others.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Foliage is more or less chewed beginning as
marginal notches increasing to large rounded sections of the leaves being
consumed.  Never are holes cut in the inner part of the leaf; always
inward from the margin.  Larvae feed on roots of plants in the soil, but
their habits are not well known, nor is the extent of injury produced.
Injury is not distinguishable from that caused by black vine weevil,
fullers rose beetle, and other species.

IDENTIFICATION:  The adults are mottled grayish light brown.  The body is
more round and stubby than elongate as with many weevils.  Although they
feed in daytime, they frequently hide under leaves, in crotches, and are
not easily detected in light infestations.  Larvae are legless, more or
less C-shaped grubs in the soil, seldom seen or found.

LIFE HISTORY:  Little is known about the life history of this weevil.
Adults are most frequently found first during mid to late June and
continue to inhabit host plants and feed over several weeks or more.
Presumably they lay their eggs in the soil during midsummer and the larvae
feed on plant roots until late the following spring.  Adults cannot fly
since the wing covers are fused together.  One generation per year.
Overwintering stage - larvae in the ground.

CONTROL:  Adequate tests for control of this insect have not been tested.
Use information indicates that chlordane is effective, but slow-acting.
Trees should be sprayed during the second or third week of June,
preferably, but can be treated whenever the weevils are seen.  Spray
trunk, branches, and the foliage.

REMARKS:  There are reports in the literature that populations have built
up into the thousands on occasion.  There are no recent records of such
outbreaks, although light infestations are relatively common in the
southeastern part of the state.  Japanese weevil is known to be equally
abundant northward to and including Long Island, New York.

-End-
-Title-
Juniper Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Juniper Scale

Homoptera:  Diaspididae, Carulaspis juniperi (Bouche')

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Juniper sp.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Needles in area of feeding become yellowish or
straw colored and die.  Damaging stages - all stages.

IDENTIFICATION:  Males most easily observed.  They have an elongate white
covering with a yellow cap at one end.  The female coverings are circular
and tan in color.  The female under the cover is also circular and yellow
in color.

LIFE HISTORY:  Fifteen to forty eggs are laid beneath female scale about
the first of May.  Hatching occurs about the first of June.  The crawlers
settle shortly after hatching and begin feeding.  The females have 3
instars, the males, 5 instars.  The males do not overwinter.  They develop
by fall, emerge, mater, and die soon after.  One or two generations per
year.  Overwintering stage - fertilized adults.

CONTROL:  At least 2 sprays 1 week apart beginning about the first of
June.  Eggs hatch over a period of 2 weeks or more.  Dormant sprays help
but are not thoroughly effective.  Oils are not as effective as lime
sulfur, but lime sulfur severely stains white paint, woodwork, and stone
work.

REMARKS:  We still lack a thoroughly effective control.  Control measures
should be applied for 2-3 years to clear up infestations.

-End-
-Title-
Juniper Webworm
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Juniper Webworm

Lepidoptera:  Gelechiidae, Dichomeris marginella

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Red cedar, Irish juniper, also-pfitzer, hetzi, and
creeping juniper.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Large brown patches scattered throughout the plant
are apparent from a distance.  Close examination shows masses of brown
needles webbed together and pulled in toward the twigs.  When pulled
apart, larvae can be found within the webbing and dead needles.

IDENTIFICATION:  Larvae are about 1/2" long when fully developed.  They
are brown with longitudinal reddish brown stripes.  The adults are not
often seen, but are light brown and almost 1/2" long.

LIFE HISTORY:  Where one generation occurs, moths occur during late June
and July, when there are two, adults may occur in May and June and again
in July and early August.  Eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch shortly
afterward.  Larvae feed for a few to several weeks, pupating in the webs.
The winter is spent as young larvae in the webs.  It is likely that one
generation occurs in Virginia.  Most larval development occurs in the
spring and early summer, but youngest larvae are present in late July and
August until the following spring.

CONTROL:  Insecticides can be applied in the spring, but the best time is
in late July or early august.  Diazinon or carbaryl give effective
control, although webbing may permit some survivors.  Sprays are most
effective against young larvae in late July and August, but can be applied
in April and early May.  Strong spray streams should be directed into the
webbing to provide maximum penetration.

REMARKS:  This pest has not been reported as common inthe state, but does
occur throughout Virginia.  If heavy populations build up, it can be a
serious pest.  Apply control measures when evidence of infestation is
first noted.

-End-
-Title-
Lilac Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Lilac Borer

Lepidoptera:  Sesiidae, Podosesia syringae (Harris)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Lilac and ash.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The base of infested stems and canes become
swollen and the bark is cracked and broken away from the wood.  Canes
suddenly wilt and show fine sawdust-like borings extruding from holes in
the bark.  Plants may be copletely destroyed if uncontrolled.

IDENTIFICATION:  The larvae are pure white worms with brown heads.  The
adult has clear wings and is wasp-like in appearance.  The fore wings are
brown or chocolate color and the hind wings are clear with a dark border.
The moth is about 1" long with a wing span of 1 1/2 inches.

LIFE HISTORY:  The winter is passed as an immature larvae in the stem of
lilac and ash near the surface of the soil.  Feeding and continued
development begins in early spring and completed by early summer.  It then
pupates in the stems and in three weeks emerges as the adult.  (late June
or early July).  Oviposition occurs shortly after emergence and mating.
The eggs are laid about the base of lilac canes or on ash stems.  The
hatching larvae bore into the host and become half grown by cold weather.
One generation per year.

CONTROL:  Complete coverage by spraying or painting infested plants with
lindane for homeowners or endosulfan for commercial growers will give
satisfactory control.  Heavily infested plants should be cut and burned
during the fall and winter periods.

-End-
-Title-
Locust Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Locust Borer

Coleoptera:  Cerambycidae, Megacyllene robiniae

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Black locust.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Larvae tunnel in trunk and larger branches of live
trees.  Most damaging on younger trees during dry seasons.  They attack
healthy young trees boring into the heart and sapwood of stems and
branches.  Young larvae feeding in the spring cause bleeding at the site
of the injury.  Wet spots are present on the bark.

IDENTIFICATION:  Adult overall color is black with yellow markings.  Most
characteristic mark is the W-shaped yellow mark on the first pair of
wings.  Adults prominent in fall feeding on goldenrod pollen.

LIFE HISTORY:  Very small larvae pass the winter in the inner bark of the
host.  In early spring they begin development moving into the sap and
heart woods.  Maturity is obtained about midsummer and a pupal cell is
excavated.  The adults emerge about the first of September.  They are
extremely active and may be found actively feeding on goldenrod and
associated plants.  As with the Painted hickory borer feeding is required
for oviposition.  The eggs are laid in cracks and crevices of the bark,
they hatch and the young larvae bore into the inner bark next to the
sapwood before the approach of cold weather.

CONTROL:  Heavily infested trees should be destroyed.  Locust borers can
be controlled by applying a drenching spray of lindane in early September
or late August.  One application may protect the trees for two or three
years.  Applications applied in early spring also may be effective in
killing larvae before they tunnel into the wood.  High dilution rates are
required; see V.P.I. recommendations.

REMARKS:  Older trees are not damaged and younger trees 6 inches in
diameter and over are seldom bothered.

-End-
-Title-
Lesser Peach Tree Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Lesser Peach Tree Borer

Lepidoptera: Sesiidae, Synanthedon pictipes

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Peach, plum, cherry, etc.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Very similar to that of the peach tree borer but
it attacks the upper part of the tree and its branches.  Frequently masses
of resin are found in the crotches of trees.  Damaging stage - larvae.

IDENTIFICATION:  Larvae are white with brown heads, 1/2 - 3/4" long.  The
adults are metallic blue-black with pale yellow markings on abdomen.

LIFE HISTORY:  The partially grown larvae overwinter in the inner bark of
the tree.  As with the peach tree borer the larvae vary in size because of
the long oviposition period.  The larvae start feeding early in the
spring, the larger larvae pupating by late April, the smaller by late
June.  Pupation occurs close to the surface of the abark, the exit hole
covered by a thin silken web.  Just prior to emergence the pupae push
themselves out of the cocoon and practically out of the burrow, emergence
occurring during most of the summer.  Oviposition takes place during the
summer and early fall in the cracks and crevices of the bark.  The
hatching larvae bore into the bark and begin development prior to cold
weather.  One generation per year.

CONTROL:  Although spraying or painting of the infested tree with lindane
in September or October give the best results, it may also be applied in
April.  In heavy infestations removal of the plant may be best.  Not only
does this remove a possible source of infestation but it also removes the
source of attractant.  All branches and trees removed should be burned and
all wounds and injuries to trees should be cared for.  Endosulfan can be
used by commercial spraymen and nurserymen.

-End-
-Title-
Magnolia Soft Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Magnolia Soft Scale

Homoptera:  Coccidae, Neolecanium carnuparuum

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Magnolia

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Heavy infestations cause stunting of twigs and
undersize leaves, and trees are visibly weakened.  Small trees may be
killed.  Large trees lose branches and tree shape may become irregular.

IDENTIFICATION:  Female ranges from dull grayish brown to dark brown or
smoky in color.  Scale has a varnish-like appearance.  Some specimens
appear covered with a powdery wax material.  Females are hemispherical and
about 1/2" in diameter.

LIFE HISTORY:  The overwintering scale begins feeding in late spring or
early summer and matures by early August.  The females which are
parthenogenetic give birth to living young in late August.  The old adults
then fall from the plant.  The crawlers soon settle and feed on plant
juices.  They develop to 2nd instar before cold weather and overwinter in
this stage.

CONTROL:  Dormant oils may be sprayed in March or April prior to bud
opening.  Sprays for crawlers may also be applied in late August and
repeated 10-14 days later.

REMARKS:  Contro of crawlers is usually easier and in most cases gives
more effective results.

-End-
-Title-
Maple Gall Mites
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Maple Gall Mites

Acarina:  Eriophyidae, Eriophyes spp.

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Silver, red, and sugar maple

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Growths in discreet gall formations are incited by
the feeding of adult mites on newly developing foliage.  Several species
of mites are involved:  green or red maple bladder gall on silver and red
maple; green to tan maple spindle gall on sugar maple; and red maple
erineum gall on silver and red maple.

IDENTIFICATION:  Not an insect, nor a typical spider mite, these mites are
seen with difficulty even through a 10X magnifier.  They are carrot-shaped
or worm-like, whitish or orange, and have 2 pairs of very short legs.

LIFE HISTORY:  Adult mites become active very early in spring as buds
begin to open.  As new leaves unfold, mites begin to feed.  Teh leaf
tissue at that point grows out from the upper surface to form a gall
gradually, enclosing the mite.  As the leaves become full size, the mites
in the numerous galls lay eggs which hatch in a very short time.  Hundreds
of mites develop, and leave the galls through the opening on the underside
of the leaf blade to crawl to newly developing leaves.  By the time new
growth on the plant ceases, little mite activity occurs until the next
spring.

CONTROL:  There is little that can be done to prevent maple gall mites.
Sprays have some lessening effect, but little damage is caused to the
plant even in severe infestations.  Control is hardly worthwhile.  Lime
sulfur can be used as a spray before leaf buds open, but while flowers are
blooming.  Caution: lime sulfur causes severe staining of white paints,
woodwork, and stonework.

REMARKS:  This is probably one of the most common inquiries received by
diagnosticians because the galls are highly conspicuous and tree owners
are uncertain of the extent of spread and the seriousness of the problem.

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-Title-
Mimosa Webworm
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Mimosa Webworm

Lepidoptera:  Glyphipterygidae, Homadaula anisocentra

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Honey locust and Mimosa

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Larvae feed on the leaf surfaces.  The foliage is
usually skeletonized.  The lower epidermis is usually entirely destroyed.
Leaves die and turn dull gray on mimosa; brown, as if fire-scorched on
honey locust.  Leaves and flowers are webbed together as larvae feed and
develop.  Usually the entire tree is involved with larvae scattered here
and there throughout the foliage.  Leaflets from different leaves often
are webbed together.  Repeated attacks seriously weaken trees,
occasionally leading to death of some trees.

IDENTIFICATION:  Larvae are grayish to dark brown, sometimes tinged with
rose or pink and are 1/2" - 1" long.  Five white stripes run the length of
the body.  The larvae are extremely active, wriggle violently, and drop on
silk strands when disturbed much like many leaf-rollers.  The adult moth
may seldom be seen, but has about 1/2" wing span.  Wings are gray with
silver sheen and black dots.

LIFE HISTORY:  Moths appear in June and lay eggs on mimosa flowers and
foliage.  The larvae feed gregariously within a web spun over flowers and
leaves.  In midsummer larvae descend to the ground on silken threads and
spin cocoons in cracks in bark or in ground cover.  The webbing is most
conspicuous in August from the 2nd brood.  Second generation pupae
overwinter in crevices on tree trunks or protected by soil cover or
litter.  There is considerable overlap of generations.

CONTROL:  Since many eggs are laid initially and the young larvae begin to
feed extensively, trees should be watched for the earliest signs of
feeding, in June.  Larvae are more difficult to control when larger and
webbing is extensive.  Adult moths are active over a period of time, so
new eggs may be laid after effects of earlier sprays have dissipated.  See
C.S.  112, C.S. 143 for treatments.

REMARKS:  Sunburst honeylocust is reported to be most susceptible with
Moraine, Skyline, and Shademaster less so, although damaged severely.  It
is helpful to keep leaf and other debris raked up under host trees.  Honey
locust is more if not as susceptible as mimosa.

-End-
-Title-
Obscure Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Obscure Scale

Homoptera:  Diaspididae, Melanaspis obscura

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Oaks, chestnut, and pecan

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Insects feed on plant juices by means of long,
hollow, needle-like mouthparts inserted into the tissue of the host.  Slow
progressive killing of infested twigs and stems results.  Heavy
infestation may cause death of tree.  Damaging stages-nymphs and adults
(female).  Plant parts attacked--twigs, stems, branches, and trunks.

IDENTIFICATION:  Insect lives under small circular gray cover up to 1/25th
of an inch in diameter.

LIFE HISTORY:  Most eggs hatch in July.  Crawlers settle usually within an
hour.  If the crawler is a male it will develop like the female early in
its life, but during the spring male scales form what is known as a pupal
stage and from this emerges a tiny two-winged insect capable of flight.
After mating with the female, the male dies.  Adult females remain under
cover and lay eggs.  One generation per year.  Overwintering stages -
second instar males and females.  On pin oak in Maryland.

CONTROL:  Superior dormant oil at 4%.  Crawler sprays - either carbaryl or
malathion should be applied in July.  The crawler stage extends over an
extended period, but there is a peak of emergence in mid to late July.

REMARKS:  A deadly insect for oaks!  On white oaks the crawler stage
occurs about one month later than on the red oak group.

-End-
-Title-
Oystershell Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Oystershell Scale

Homoptera:  Diaspididae, Lepidosaphes ulmi (Linnaeus)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Dogwood, elm, hickory, poplar, apple, etc.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Bark become cracked and scaly, trees loose vigor,
foliage is dwarfed and spotted with yellow.  In severe infestations may
kill plant.

IDENTIFICATION:  Scale cover resembles small oyster shell.  The adults are
usually clustered together and in severe infestations may cover the bark
of infested branches completely.

LIFE HISTORY:  Eggs laid in late fall, 40-150 per female.  Hatching occurs
in late spring.  Crawlers move around 1-2 hours to 1-2 days before
settling.  The scales are white in color at first but become brown with
maturity.  They mature about the middle of July, mate, and lay eggs.  This
second generation develops and by late fall they lay the eggs which
overwinter for the spring generation.

CONTROL:  Sprays should be applied at time of crawler hatch and emergence
from the old females, in mid-late May and again in late July oe early
August.

REMARKS:  Populations tend to congregarte on one or a few branches or on
entire tree, seldom a few scales scattered over the host.

-End-
-Title-
Peach Tree Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Peach Tree Borer

Lepidoptera:  Aegeriidae, Sanninoidea exitiesa

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Peach, cherry plum, prune, nectarine, apricot, and
ornamental shrubs.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Borer holes exude masses of gum with bits of frass
and sawdust.  Infestations occur on the trunk from 1-2 feet above ground
to 2-3 inches below ground.  Damaging stage - larvae.

IDENTIFICATION:  The adult is a blue-black moth with clear hind wings and
an orange band on the abdomen.  They are very active in the daytime.  The
larvae are white with a brown head, and measure from 3/5 - 1" length.

LIFE HISTORY:  The overwintering larvae become active in the spring as
conditions warm up.  The larvae vary in size because of the long
oviposition period.  Pupation begins in late May and June, and adult
emergence starts in late June or early July and may continue until the
latter part of September and sometimes in October.  Females lay 200-300
eggs on the trunks of trees or in cracks in the soil within inches of the
trunk.  They are attracted to previously infested trees and to those trees
which have been injured and not cared for.  The larvae hatch and burrow
into the bark of the tree and feed during the late summer and fall,
gradually penetrating deeper as they develop.

CONTROL:  Spray application during the first weeks of July and again three
weeks to a month later.  Lindane is recommended for homeowner.  Commercial
recommendations suggest endosulfan (thiodan) for nurserymen and custom
spray specialists.  Control is complicated by the long period
(July-September) when individual adults may emerge.

REMARKS:  DDT was especially effective on clear-wing moth borers, but is
no longer available.

-End-
-Title-
Pine Bark Aphid
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Pine Bark Aphid

Homoptera:  Adelgidae (Chermidae), Pineus strobi

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Eastern white pine, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, and
occasionally other pines.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Damage is not conspicuous until very large
populations build up or moderate populations have been present for several
seasons. Injury to bark tissues results in shorter needle growth, shorter
shoot growth, fewer needles, and a general weakened unhealthy appearance
of trees.  Very yound to very old trees are commonly infested.  Plants
parts attacked:  needle bases, twigs, trunk.  Damaging stages: nymphs and
adults.

IDENTIFICATION:  The aphids are seldom seen without closely examining the
twigs or bark with a hand lens.  They are less than 1/16" long, reddish,
and typical chermid (adelgid) aphids.  When eggs are laid cottony masses
of wax are produced to cover or mix with the eggs.  The cottony wax is
very conspicuous even at a distance, and occurs in bark crevices and at
the bases of the needles.  Eggs are reddish or purplish brown.

LIFE HISTORY:  Overwintering nymphs spend the winter in cottony masses in
crevices of the bark.  After some feeding in the spring they lay eggs and
the waxy masses become more prominent.  Hatching occurs in mid to late
May.  Several generations occur until fall.  Egg laying peaks are usually
accompanied by the production of cottony masses.  However, there is
considerable overlap in generations.  The precise development of the
aphids through the season needs more study to determine detailed habits.
There are winged and non-winged females.  Non-winged females are
continually produced in each generation and remain on the same tree.
Winged females migrate to infest new trees.

CONTROL:  Control is difficult with insecticides because of the heavy
deposits of wax and the presence of eggs which are not susceptible to
sprays.  It is desirable to use forceful sprays when treating for pine
bark aphid.  Light mists are probably not very effective.  Malathion and
lindane are recommended.  However, carbaryl (Sevin) may be highly
effective also, applications should be applied in April, late June, and
mid-August.

REMARKS:  a related species, Adelges tsugae, occurs on hemlock in the
Richmond area and Danville.  Related species cause galls on spruce and
cottony masses on needles of douglas fir (Adelges abietis and A.
cooleyi).  These are not common in Virginia.

-End-
-Title-
Pine Needle Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Pine Needle Scale

Homoptera:  Diaspididae, Phenaeaspis pinifoliae

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Scotch, mugho, Austrian Pine; also present but seldom
damaging on Eastern White Pine, Norway Spruce, and some other condifers.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Damage is not apparent until large populations
have been present for more than 1 or 2 seasons.  trees are stunted, gow
slowly, have short needles and shoots.  Occasionally the feeding of scales
produces chlorotic, yellowish flecks no the needles, but normally this is
not apparent.  Heavily infested plants are seriously weakened and may be
in a state of decline.

IDENTIFICATION:  Scale covers are about 1/8" long, white, elongate, narrow
in front and broad in back.  Eggs under the scale covers are purplish in
color.  Crawlers and settled nymphs are reddish brown.  Females are
reddish in color beneath the white scale covers.

LIFE HISTORY:  The hatching period is relatively short (7-10 days) in mid
May and again in mid to late July.  The first generation crawlers settle
on old needles, since new growth is not fully developed until later.
Second generation crawlers settle primarily on the current year's growth.
Females produce 5-30 reddish purple eggs.  Although the number of eggs
laid is relatively small, two generations a year pemits rapid buildup of
infestations.  In areas where infestations are large, lady beetle
(especially the twice-stabbed lady beetle) is an effective predator.

CONTROL:  Sprays of malathion or diazinon are effective if applied after
most eggs have hatched.  Carbaryl and dimethoate are effective if applied
as eggs begin to hatch, not if applied later.  Experience has shown that
treatments for the summer generation may be more effective than the first.
 Control may be applied at either time.

REMARKS:  Pine needle scale can be a serious pest of Christmas trees as
well as ornamental trees and shrubs.  Crawlers are blown by the wind and
can be carried on birds.

-End-
-Title-
Pine Sawyers
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Pine Sawyers

Coleoptera:  Cerambycidae, Monochamus sp.

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Pine, spruce, and balsam fir.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  They are secondary infestors whose main damage is
disfiguring wood by larval boring and tunneling in felled trees and usable
trees which are weakened or dying from other causes.  Plant parts attacked
  trunk.  Damaging stage - larvae.

IDENTIFICATION:  The adults are large cylindrical beetles, black,
brownish-black, or reddish brown, mottled with whitish or grayish
pubescence.  The thorax bears a prominent spine on each side.  The larvae
are elongate, cylindrical, and have large gnawing mandibles.  The larvae
are legless.

LIFE HISTORY:  Adult appearance coincides with the pollen release by the
host plants.  Shortly thereafter they begin attacking killed and felled
trees, gnawing pits through the bark, and inserting from 1 to several eggs
in each pit.  Upon hatching, the larvae bore beneath the bark and mature
between 40-60 days.  At this time the larvae enter the wood and make a
deep U-shaped cell through the sap and heartwood.  The entrance is plugged
with frass, and the opposite end enlarged into a pupal cell.  The larvae
pupates the following spring or early summer and the adult emerges the
same summer.

CONTROL:  Sanitation and prompt actions are the best controls against
these borers.  Felled timber should be removed from the woods as soon as
possible.  Secondly, the bark should be removed from the logs to prevent
infestation.  Thirdly, logs may be sprayed thoroughly if storing is
required.

REMARKS:  Adults are attracted to the smell of various materials with
resin bases; turpentine, paints, etc., and are occasionally thought to be
emerging from homes.

-End-
-Title-
Psocids
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Psocids

Psocoptera:  Psocidae

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Maple and boxelder, primarily.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Damaging stages - none.  Location of the plant -
bark.

IDENTIFICATION:

LIFE HISTORY:  In mid-summer, usually starting in late June, very large
clusters of brown, soft-bodied, winged insects about 1/4 inch long may be
seen moving in masses on the bark of trees.  Characteristically, when
disturbed, the whole mass appears to move at once.  This insect is
commonly known as the bark psocid (pronounced so'-sid).  Maple and
boxelder are the most common plants which bark psocids inhabit.  They may
be found on other plants as well.  No damage is ever caused since the
psocids merely congregate when they reach the adult stage to feed on
lichens and bark.  Prior to their appearance on the trees, they live among
ground debris and plant liter.  They are known to feed only on decaying
organic matter.  Therefore they are a curiosity and present no real
problem other than a general nuisance.

CONTROL:  If bark psocids are objectionable, they may be destroyed by an
insecticide.  Aerosol space sprays directed on the insect masses will
control the infestation.  Water sprays or dusts of malathion, may be used
effectively.  Use 4 tbsp. of 50% wettable powder, Malathion 25% or 1 tbsp.
of 57% EC per gallon.

-End-
-Title-
Pine Tortoise Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Pine Tortoise Scale

Homoptera:  Coccidae, Toumeyella numismaticum

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Hard pines - Scotch, Jack, Austrian, and Virginia.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Foliage drops, needles usually shorter and may
kill tree over period of years - most damaging on seedlings and young
saplings.

IDENTIFICATION:  Reddish-brown, convex, and oval.  All stages attack stems
of plants.

LIFE HISTORY:  These overwintering immatures mature by early June.  Each
female may lay 500 eggs, the crawlers appear from mid-June to early July.
The males develop quickly and mate soon after emerging then die.  After
mating, the females continue to develop and overwinter in this condition.
Overwintering stage second instar.  One generation per year.

CONTROL:  Heavily fed upon by predators and parasites.  Two sprays 10-14
days apart are recommended during crawler emergence early in June.

REMARKS:  Has a wide range from Canada to the Gulf, and depending on
weather conditions a second generation may be produced.

-End-
-Title-
Redheaded Ash Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Redheaded Ash Borer

Coleoptera:  Cerambycidae, Neoclytus acuminatus

PLANTS ATTACKED:  All dying or recently killed hardwoods, especially oak,
ash, hickory, and hackberry.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Young larvae feed under the bark but later enter
the heart and sap wood and completely destroy it.  Plant parts attacked:
trunk and main limbs.  Damaging stages:  larvae.

IDENTIFICATION:  Adults are elongate, cylindrical, and slender.  They are
reddish brown with yellow cross bands on the wing covers.  The larvae are
cylindrical and white in color and the body is moderately hairy.

LIFE HISTORY:  The adults emerge in June.  They feed, mate, and lay eggs
in the cracks and crevices of the bark.  These eggs hatch and the young
larvae bore into the bark and feed between the bark and sapwood 4-6 weeks.
 They then enter the sap and heart wood and completely destroy it.  At
maturity they construct a pupal cell near the surface of the wood and
pupate in early spring.

CONTROL:  Control procedures are not necessary since only dying or cut
wood is attacked.

REMARKS:  This is often a household nuisance pest since adults may emerge
from fuel logs.

-End-
-Title-
Round-headed Apple Tree Borer
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Round-headed Apple Tree Borer

Coleoptera:  Cerambycidae, Saperda candida

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Service berry, thorn apple, mt. ash, and many fruit
trees.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  The larvae feeds between the bark and wood for a
year, then bores into the wood, riddling the base of the tree with
tunnels.  Much frass is exuded through holes at the base of the plants.

IDENTIFICATION:  Adult, about 20mm long, is brown with two white stripes
running the entire length of the body connecting on the head.  The
underside of the body is white.  The larvae are brownish-white,
cylindrical, and legless.

LIFE HISTORY:  The adults are seen in early summer.  They fly about from
tree to tree depositing eggs in small scars gnawed at the base of trees.
Upon hatching, the larvae bore into the bark and feed beneath it for one
year.  They then bore into the wood, riddling the base with large
excavations.  This continues for 2 years, the larvae then pupate in early
spring and emerge in early summer.  One generation every three years.
Overwinter as larvae.

CONTROL:  Small amounts of recommended materials should be placed in the
borer holes and then plugged with putty or mud.  In areas where borers are
numerous spraying or painting plants is effective.

REMARKS:  This pest is serious on ornamentals, and young plants which are
attacked may be blown over by heavy winds because of the severe tunneling
by these larvae.

-End-
-Title-
Tarnished Plant Bug
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Tarnished Plant Bug

Hemiptera:  Miridae, Lygus lineolaris

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Vegetables, fruits, and flowers (dahlias and saters,
chrysanthemums, marigolds, zinnia, and many others).

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Nymphs and adults puncture the terminal shoots
beneath the flower bud and inject a poison which usually causes the flower
to wilt and die.  Feeding on topmost leaves causes leaf spotting and a
general bronzing effect.

IDENTIFICATION:  The adult is a light brown insect, variously spotted
about 1/4" long.  The spots of white, yellow, and black give the insect a
tarnished appearance, but there is a clear yellow triangle, marked with a
black dot on the lower third of each side.

LIFE HISTORY:  The adults and older nymphs (Forbes, 1884) hibernate under
leaf litter and rocks.  These individuals become active during the first
warm days of spring.  They feed on early buds of their host plant, but
breed in grasses.  Eggs are generally laid on the midrib of leaves and
sometimes into the buds of the plant.  Ten days later, the eggs hatch.

CONTROL:  Carbaryl and malathion have been recommended, but probably are
only partially effective.  Plant bugs are active and move about freely.
Feeding injury can occur as soon as effectiveness of sprays dissipates.
DDT was the most effective control, but is no longer available.  Carbaryl
is preferred over malathion.

REMARKS:  Minor plant bug injury is tolerable, although unsightly.
Controls are necessary for severe infestations.

-End-
-Title-
Tulip Tree Leaf Miner (Sassafras Weevil)
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Tulip Tree Leaf Miner (Sassafras Weevil)

Coleoptera:  Curculionidae, Odontopus calceatus

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Yellow poplar, sassafras, and magnolia.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Rice-shaped holes, about 1/16" result from adult
feeding.  Mines, usually two per leaf are formed by larval feeding.  If
they are both on the same side of midrib, one is extensive, and the other
dwarfed.  If on opposite side of midrib, both mines develop normally.

IDENTIFICATION:  Small, blackish weevil, short and stubby, about 3/16"
long.

LIFE HISTORY:  Before bud break, weevils attack swelling buds and make
puncture-like feeding marks.  Mating and oviposition occur in May and
early June.  The eggs are placed in a 1/4" section of midrib on the
underside of leaves.  This destroys that section of the midrib, causing
the leaf, in many cases to break over.  The newly hatched larvae move from
the midrib into the mesophyll, their boring action accentuating the midrib
damage.  The larvae pupate in infested area of mine.  The first adults
emerge in early June.  The weevils then feed heavily ont he leaves and by
mid-summer, enter a period of aestivation, which is continuous though
diapause in winter.  Adults overwinter in leaf litter.  One generation per
year.

CONTROL:  Adults can be controlled in July with carbaryl.  Treatments
during May may be helpful in preventing oviposition.  Larvae in mines can
be controlled with dimethoate applied during June.

REMARKS:  This has not been a common or widespread pest in Virginia,
although it has been serious in West Virginia, Ohio, and western
Pennsylvania.

-End-
-Title-
Tulip tree scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Tulip tree scale

Homoptera:  Coccidae, Toumeyella liriodendri (Gmel)

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Linden, tulip poplar, magnolia.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE:  Causes weakened condition of plant and reduces
vigor and growth.  Heavy infestations may kill trees, young trees and
branches on older trees.  Plant parts attacked - leaves and bark.  Damage
occurs through all stages.

IDENTIFICATION:  Female hemispherical and dark chocolate brown in color.
Usually symetrical but shape varies in crowded populations.

LIFE HISTORY:  Immature stages complete development in spring, mature, and
give live birth in late August.  The old females then fall from the plant.
 The young develop to the second instar and then become dormant until the
following spring.  One generation per year.  Overwintering stage - 2nd
instar.

CONTROL:  Sprays should be applied in late August and two weeks later for
crawlers or in late March or early April with superior dormant oil for
over-wintering immatures.

REMARKS:  Large amounts of honeydew secretions are present with this group
of scales.

-End-
-Title-
Twig Cutters
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Twig Cutters

Twig Girdler and Twig Pruner

PLANTS ATTACKED: Hickory, persimmon, elm, poplar, gum, basswood,
honeylocust, dogwood, and some fruit trees.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE: The Twig Girdler is found in the Eastern States.
Late in the summer or early in the fall these beetles appear and feed on
the thin bark of twigs before laying their eggs.  The adult female
girdles branches of the host tree by cutting a circular incision through
the bark and deep into the wood.  The twigs or branches so girdled range
from 1/4 inch to 1 1/2 inches in diameter.  In the girdled portions the
eggs are deposited in small scars which the female beetles gnaw through
the bark.  These branches soon die, and most of them fall to the ground.
Until the middle of the following summer the larvae feed in the wood,
loosely filling the mine with frass, although much of the frass falls
out.  The pupal cell is firmly walled with fibrous frass.  These beetles
become so numerous at times that trees are badly deformed, dozens of
branches often being cut from a single tree.  Young hickory seedlings
are frequently cut off near the ground.

The Twig Pruner severs the twig as a larva by feeding within the twig,
hollowing out part of it, cutting the edge off cleanly and leaving the
bark irregularly broken.  There is usually no evidence of egg punctures
or feeding scars, twigs are girdled from within making a part of the
stem hollow.  Shade and park trees are often so severely pruned by this
insect that the shape and appearance of the tree is altered.  It is not
unusual to see the ground thickly strewn with these severed twigs.

LIFE HISTORY: Twig Girdler - Until the middle of the following summer
the larvae feed in the wood, loosely filling the mine with frass,
although much of the frass falls out.  The pupal cell is firmly walled
with fibrous frass.  One year is required to complete the development,
but in more northern localities many of the larvae feed through the
second year before pupating.  A high mortality occurs in the larval
stage, this resulting from the fact that there are too many borers in
the same twig or from excessive drying of the branches.

Twig Pruner - Eggs are deposited near the tip of the twigs in the axil
of a leaf.  The young larva mines down the stem, increasing in size as
it goes.  Late in the summer it severs the branch by several concentric
cuts from the center outward leaving the thin bark.  Infested branches
1/4 to 2 inches in diameter break with the wind and fall to the ground.
In the fall within the stem the larva secretes itself between two wads
of fibrous frass where it pupates the following spring or fall.

CONTROL: Twigs or stems girdled by any of several species of insects
causing this type of damage usually contain the borer in the severed
portion of the twig.  Gathering and burning of the girdled twigs is the
most satisfactory means of preventing further damage, provided it is
thoroughly done and extended some distance in the surrounding area.
This form of control, however, is of very little value if the trees are
growing adjacent to wood lots where these girdlers are abundant.

Spraying has not shown much promise for control of these species.

-End-
-Title-
Virginia Pine Sawfly
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Virginia Pine Sawfly

Diprionidae:  Neodiprion pratti pratti

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Virginia (scrub) pine primarily; but also short leaf and
loblolly pines.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE: Defoliation of needle just prior to new growth
and shoot development.

IDENTIFICATION: Mature larvae are usually light green, with four
gray-to-black stripes running their full length.  The head capsule is
shiny black.

LIFE HISTORY: Eggs begin to hatch in early April.  They feed on the pine
needles and grow and molt to darker and darker shades of lateral
stripes.  They pupate in May. The adults emerge from the last week in
October to the first week in November.  The males are quite active,
while the female usually sits quietly on a needle and waits for the
male.  After mating, the female begins to lay eggs in pine needles with
her "saw-like" ovipositor.  Eggs overwinter in pine needles.

CONTROL: Where infestations are known to be present, it may be
worthwhile to spray trees with carbaryl in mid-April.  It may be
difficult to predict the severity of populations in a given year.

REMARKS: Spraying is probably necessary only on high-value ornamental
trees and in commercial forests.

-End-
-Title-
Wax Scale (Ceriferus Waxscale)
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
Wax Scale (Ceriferus Waxscale)

Homoptera: Coccidae, Ceroplastes ceriferus

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Well over 50 hosts, especially Japanese and Chinese
hollies, pyracantha, spirea, ivy, hemlock, euonymus, and boxwood.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE: Infestations seldom kill plants directly, but
seriously weaken them, reduce growth, and cause decline.  Deposits of
honeydew give rise to rampant growth of the black sooty mold fungus.
Particularly on burford and Chinese holly.

IDENTIFICATION: From August until June adult female scales are large up
to 1/4", bright white, and circular.  On certain hosts they may reach
only 1/8-3/16", in diameter.  Dead scales remain on the twigs, but turn
dull and gray, and may be covered with sooty mold.  When wax is
initially produced, the scale looks like a cameo.  The next instar is
called the dunce cap stage due to the conical shape of the wax produced.

LIFE HISTORY: Females overwinter completely mature.  Oviposition begins
in late April.  It is 2-4 weeks or more before eggs hatch.  Hatching
varies from June 1 to 23, depending on geographic location in the state.
Development through the cameo and dunce cap instars take place during
late July and August.  Females are mature by late August or September.
Wax scales settle and remain on the twigs and stems.  Only where very
dense populations exist will crawlers settle on leaves and fruit.  There
frequently are variants in the populations - a few eggs hatching as late
as July.  Adult females lay 1500-2000 eggs on the average and may lay as
many as 3000 or more per female.

CONTROL: Carbaryl has given complete control, even if timing of sprays
is not precise.  Applications are best if made when eggs start to hatch.
In test plots one applications was as effective as 2 or 3 at two week
intervals.  Treatments anytime in June should give complete control if
thoroughly applied.  Malathion and diazinon give good results if applied
2 or 3 times at weekly intervals, but a few scales are likely to
survive.  In light infestations wax scale adults may be picked off the
plants manually.  During fall and early winter they can be dropped on
the ground.  During February, March, and April, they should be killed.

REMARKS: Wax scales on cut branches or picked from stems in late spring
will proceed to lay eggs.  Eggs may hatch and crawlers are likely to
infest plants.  Through 1971, wax scale has not been found west of
danville, Lynchburg, Charlottesville, or Loudoun County.

-End-
-Title-
White Peach Scale
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
-Doc-
White Peach Scale

Homoptera:  Diaspididae, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona

PLANTS ATTACKED:  Peach, locust, ash, pecan, mulberry, apple, etc.

DESCRIPTION OF DAMAGE: Bark becomes encrusted with scales and scale
feeding weakens limbs and branches and may kill the tree if
uncontrolled.

IDENTIFICATION: Females usually circular but sometimes irregular in
crowded populations.  Scale cover is white, yellow white, or grayish
white in color.  The cover is convex and somewhat thickened.  The males
are more elongate and pure white in color.  Male covers are often more
easily noticed.

LIFE HISTORY: Eggs are laid in early spring and begin hatching 2 - 4
weeks later usually appearing in the first two weeks of May. A second
brood appears in early July and a third in early September.

CONTROL: Spray in early May, July, or September and ten-twelve days
later to catch crawlers.  Sprays should probably be made in two or all
of these time periods in heavy infestations to assure a more complete
control.  Superior oil sprays may be used in dormant seasons.

-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S

-Title-
MICROWAVE BASICS
 
LESSON 1
 
Publication 356-060
September 1983
 
Janice Woodard, Extension Specialist, Home Management and Equipment, Virginia
Tech
 
 
Assisted  by JoAnne  Barton,   Extension  Specialist,  Foods  and  Nutrition,
Virginia Tech
 
 
Acknowledgement:    Subject  matter  in this  publication  was  adapted  from
publications  of the  Florida,  Missouri,   Ohio,  and  New York  Cooperative
Extension Services and the Whirlpool Corporation.
 
-Lesson-
               MICROWAVE BASICS
-Doc-

     In 1945, while Dr. Percy L. Spencer was working on a radar experiment, a
chocolate bar melted in his pocket.   This  caused him to wonder if microwave
energy  could possibly  be used  for cooking.    His experiments  led to  the
development  of  microwave  cooking  for   mass-feeding  situations  such  as
hospitals and other institutions.  These first microwave ovens were large and
very expensive.   Not until 1967 were microwave ovens available that were the
right size  and price  to be practical  in a  consumer's home.    Since then,
interest in microwave cooking has soared,   resulting in the development of a
major segment of the appliance industry.

-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
How Microwaves Work

MICROWAVE BASICS
LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
     In order to understand how microwaves cook,  it's important to know what
microwaves are.    They are a  form of high-frequency  electromagnetic energy
similar to that which  powers a CB radio,  AM-FM radio,  a  TV,  or the radar
which detects speeding cars.   In the oven, microwaves are transmitted into a
small space rather than beamed over long distances.
 
     Microwaves produce energy.   Depending on the  density of the food,  the
microwaves penetrate food  3/4 to 2 inches  and cause the water  molecules in
the food to vibrate at extremely high rates of speed.  This  vibration causes
friction between the molecules and produces heat.   You can achieve a similar
result by rubbing your palms together  very briskly.   Cooking occurs
when the heat is transferred from the  hot outer layers to the uncooked inner
layers.  Traditional methods  of cooking rely on heat transferred  to food by
conduction or  convection;  these  are much  slower processes.    In general,
cooking  by microwaves  requires from  one-fourth  to one-half  the time  for
conventional cooking.
 
     Microwaves have three characteristics which affect their use in cooking:
 
     1)  When microwaves  hit metal they are reflected away  much as sunlight
from a mirror.   Therefore, standard utensils made of stainless steel,  iron,
and aluminum are  not usable.   However,  especially with  newer oven models,
there are some occasions where certain  metal containers or aluminum foil can
be used.   Before using metal containers or foil,  consult the manufacturer's
use  and care  manual  for your  oven  to  be sure  that  such practices  are
recommended for your oven model.   If you use a utensil containing metal,  be
sure that it is placed in the center of  the oven away from the walls and the
door to prevent arcing between the metal item and the oven wall.  When arcing
occurs you can see sparks.
 
     2)  Microwaves pass  through materials such as glass,   paper,  and many
plastics.   Foods should be cooked in utensils made of these materials.   The
utensils stay cool because they do not absorb the microwaves.
 
     3) Microwaves are absorbed by food.   Microwaves penetrate the food from
all directions,   generating heat  by agitating the  water,  fat,   and sugar
molecules.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Safety - MICROWAVE BASICS

LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
     Properly  used,   the  microwave  oven is  one  of  the  safest  kitchen
appliances.   The Bureau of Radiological Health (BRH), a part of the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA),  requires that microwave oven doors have 2 or more
interlocks so that  if one lock should  fail to shut off  the microwaves when
the door is opened,  another will  take over.   Another regulation limits the
amount of radiation that may be emitted  around the oven door to levels below
which there  are clearly  no harmful  effects.   The  limit is  one milliwatt
(1/1000 of a  watt)  per square centimeter measured 5  centimeters (2 inches)
from the oven door  when it leaves the factory,  and  5 milliwatts per square
centimeter during the life of the oven.
 
     The possibility of excessive microwave leakage is highly unlikely if the
manufacturer's use  and care instructions  are followed.   To  further assure
your safety:   be sure to check your  microwave oven for shipping damage when
it is delivered to  your home,  and keep the door seal  clean.   Never try to
close the door  with anything between it and  the oven cavity (such  as a pot
holder).   If  you are concerned that  your oven may have  excessive leakage,
contact an authorized  service center for your microwave  oven.   Some county
health department sanitarians also test microwave ovens for radiation leakage
upon request.
 
     Some use and care books neglect to  mention the possibility of burns and
fires that can result from microwave use.  Fires are not likely to occur, but
items can get hot enough to char, smoke, or even burst into flame.   This can
happen  when you're  handling  low (small)   loads such  as  drying herbs  or
freshening crackers.   A cup of water placed  in the corner of your oven will
help to  absorb excess microwave energy.    Burning can occur when  heat from
food transfers  to the  container.   Foods  high in  fat or  sugar should  be
handled carefully because of their affinity for microwave energy.
 
     As  with any  other  cooking,  use  caution when  removing  any type  of
covering or  lid;  steam  builds up  in the  container and  can cause  burns.
 
Always tilt  lids away from you  and leave a  space for steam to  escape when
using plastic  film covering.   Plastic  bags or  pouches must be  pierced to
prevent steam buildup and possible burns.

 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
     Review the safety precautions found in the use and care book for your
microwave oven.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Oven Cleaning - MICROWAVE BASICS

LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
     It is not  necessary to buy special  cleaners for your oven,   but it is
necessary to  clean it  regularly.   Because foods  do not  burn on  the oven
surfaces (except  in the case  of when a  browning element or  the convection
mode of  a microwave/convection  oven is used),   cleaning may  be neglected.
There are good reasons for making cleaning a routine:  1) food soil can cause
odors;  2)  it is  possible for food soil buildup to  interfere with the door
seal;  3)  microwaves  are attracted to food and do  not discriminate between
soil and tonight's roast, so excessive soil can slow cooking time.
 
     To clean your oven, simply wipe it with a paper towel,  or clean it with
a mild detergent in warm water and  a soft sponge or cloth.   Wipe frequently
around  the door  seals  of the  oven  and  the door  itself  to remove  food
particles.
 
     If food particles become stuck to the sides or bottom of the oven,  boil
a cup of water in the oven;  the steam from the boiling water will loosen the
dried particles so  they can easily be  wiped off.   Use a  nylon scrubber if
necessary, but do not use abrasive cleaners or commercial oven cleaners.
 
     To clean the glass shelf found in some microwave ovens, remove the shelf
and wash it with  warm water and detergent.   Do not  operate the oven unless
shelf is in place.   To remove stains from the ceramic oven floor, use baking
soda or a special ceramic glass cleaner.
 
     Odors can  be removed  by boiling one  part lemon  juice to  three parts
water in a measuring cup in the oven,  or placing a small dish of baking soda
in the  oven and leaving  the oven door ajar.    Removing food from  the oven
immediately after cooking will help avoid odor problems.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Getting Acquainted with Your Microwave Oven

MICROWAVE BASICS
LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
Output wattage or cooking power.   Generally,  the higher the wattage output,
the faster food will cook.   Larger  countertop models have an output wattage
of 600 to 720  watts.   Recipes in magazines and cookbooks  (other than those
that come with the microwave oven) typically are designed for use with models
having an output wattage of 600 to 650 watts.
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
What is the output wattage of your oven? _________________
 
If you  cannot find the answer to the  question by looking on the oven  name-
plate,  in the use and care booklet,  or recipe book for your  oven,  do this
test:
 
Heat 1 cup of  room temperature water for 2-1/2 to 3 minutes  on HIGH or 100%
power.   The water will be boiling at the end of this period if your oven has
an output wattage of 650 to 700.  If more time is required to bring the water
to a boil, you may need to extend the cooking time when using a recipe from a
source other than the cookbook for your microwave oven.*
 
*If you want  to calculate the output  wattage of your oven  more accurately,
see the method in the box on page 7.
 
Power levels or cooking speeds.  Variable power models have a full power set-
ting and one or more lower settings which  permit using less than 100% of the
power during cooking.   The lower the power setting,  the lower the
output wattage  in the oven  and the longer may  be the cooking  time needed.
But the  availability of variable power  levels increases the types  of foods
that can be successfully cooked.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Microwave/convection Ovens

MICROWAVE BASICS
LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
Settings for microwave/convection ovens differ  among brands.   Therefore you
will need  to rely on the  use and care  booklet and cookbook for  your model
until you  get familiar with its  operation.   Research at Virginia  Tech has
shown that  the microwave/  convection oven  generally cooks  food with  less
energy,  and in less time than the conventional range oven.   However,  there
were several foods  for which the microwave/convection oven  used more energy
than the conventional  range oven.   Overall,  the  microwave/convection oven
saved time,  but  broiled items and foods for  which the microwave/convection
oven was preheated took longer than those conventionally cooked.  The energy-
saving with  the microwave/convection oven was greater in broiling; time-sav-
ing was greater in roasting.
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
Make a  hot beverage (instant coffee  doesn't count)  in your  microwave oven
using a recipe in your microwave oven cookbook or the following recipe:
 
                                  Hot Cider
 
2 cups apple cider
3 cloves
1 inch stick of cinnamon
1 tablespoon brown sugar
 
Combine ingredients in  a 1-quart glass measuring cup.    Use the temperature
probe for your oven.   If you don't have a probe, microwave on HIGH for 3-1/2
to 4 minutes or until hot.  Stir halfway through the microwave time.   Remove
spices and serve.  Serves 2-3.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Cookbooks - MICROWAVE BASICS
 
LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
Start with the book which came with your microwave oven.   As you become fam-
iliar with microwave cooking, you can branch out to other sources of recipes,
and adapt your favorite dishes.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
     Go to the public  library and/or bookstore and look at  the selection of
microwave oven cookbooks available.   Over 50  cookbooks in addition to those
prepared by microwave oven manufacturers are on the market today.  You should
be able to find cookbooks which suit your needs.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Interested in Buying a Microwave Oven

MICROWAVE BASICS
LESSON 1

-Doc-
 
     If you are considering buying a microwave oven, ask your local Extension
agent for the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service publication,  "Microwave
Ovens:  Guide for Shoppers."
 
     Please turn to page 7.
 
                         CALCULATING OUTPUT WATTAGE
 
     If you do not know the OUTPUT WATTAGE  of your oven,  write to the manu-
facturer for specification sheets, or use the following formula:
 
1. Fill a 4-cup glass measure with lukewarm tap water.   Take the temperature
   with a candy thermometer. ______degrees.
2. Remove thermometer.
3. Heat the water 2 minutes in your microwave oven on HIGH.   The temperature
   is _____degrees.
4. Subtract the first temperature from the second. ______degrees.
5. Multiply this figure by 17.5.  _____ X 17.5 = ______.
6. This figure is  the actual OUTPUT WATTAGE.   Compare this  with the OUTPUT
   WATTAGE quoted  by your  manufacturer (if available).    If the  number is
   higher or lower, how will you compensate in cooking?
 
______________________________________________________________
NOTE:
 
Many things can affect your answer.   If your answer was low and you are con-
cerned about it, check for the following things:
 
a. low input voltage
b. use of a heavily loaded
   circuit
c. inaccurate thermometer
d. wrong size container
e. read thermometer wrong or
   figured incorrectly
 
If, though, your answers are consistently low and/or your oven very slow, you
probably should contact your dealer.
 
              LET'S REVIEW
 
As you  studied this lesson,   you should have discovered  the answers 
to  the fol lowing questions:
 
1.  What happens when  microwaves come in
    contact with:
 
    a) metal?
 
    b) glass, paper, and some plastics?
 
    c) food?
 
2.  Name  two  things  a  microwave  oven
    owner can do to assure his/her safety
    (other  than  what  the  manufacturer
    does) when operating the oven.
 
3.  What is the most  important part of a
    microwave oven to keep clean?
        USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
 
             Your Questions
 
 
     If this  lesson and  the five  which
follow  raise  some  specific  questions,
please note  them on this page.    At the
end of the lesson series,  mail this page
to  your local  Extension  office and  we
will respond to your questions.
 
Brand            of             microwave
owned_________________________________________
 
Availability  of Variable  Power  _______
Yes  _______ No
 
Length  of   time  you  have   owned  the
oven___________________________
 
 
I want to know:
 
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
__________________________________________________________________
 
__________________________________________________________________
 
__________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
___________________________________________________________________
 
 
 
                                      Name ______________________
 
                                    Address______________________
 
                           Telephone Number ___________________
 
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES
 
LESSON 2
 
Publication 356-061
September 1983
 
Janice Woodard, Extension Specialist, Home Management and Equipment, Virginia
Tech
 
Assisted  by JoAnne  Barton,   Extension  Specialist,  Foods  and  Nutrition,
Virginia Tech
 
Acknowledgement:    Subject  matter  in this  publication  was  adapted  from
publications  of the  Florida,  Missouri,   Ohio,  and  New York  Cooperative
Extension  Services,   the  Whirlpool Corporation,   and  the  Union  Carbide
Corporation.
 
-Lesson-
         MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES

-Doc- 

     Even though  each microwave oven is  different,  there are  some general
instructions for  use that  can be  applied to  all microwave  ovens.   These
general instructions will be covered in this lesson.
 
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Utensils - MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES
 
LESSON 2

-Doc-
                                  Section I
 
     This first section has to do with the types of utensils that can be used
in a microwave oven.   Think back to  Lesson One when we said that microwaves
had these three properties:  l)  they are reflected by metals;  2)  they pass
through glass, paper,  and many plastics;  and 3)  they are absorbed by food.
Let's look at the  second of these characteristics and see  how it relates to
microwave utensils.
 
     Microwaves pass through glass, paper, and many plastics.  
 
     Because of this characteristic,  food may be cooked or heated in serving
dishes,  on paper or china plates  (without metallic trim),  napkins or paper
towels, in glass measuring cups, or paper or foam plastic cups.   The utensil
does not get  hot in the same way  as in conventional cooking  or baking,  so
there is less sticking and clean-up is much easier.
 
     A word of  warning:   although the microwaves pass through  the glass or
paper product,  the heat from the food may be quite intense-- especially with
foods high  in fat or  sugar.   No  problem should arise  with heat-resistant
glass utensils,   glass-ceramic,  and  sturdy china.    However,  when  using
delicate china and paper  products,  limit the time food is  in the microwave
oven to 5 minutes or less.
 
     The use of plastic  utensils in the microwave oven is  a "maybe" kind of
situation.   Some plastics,  such as  made-for-microwave products can be used
for cooking almost  anything you might cook  in a microwave oven.    Look for
labels on plastic utensils indicating  their suitability for microwave usage.
Melamine plastic  (dinnerware)  should  not be used--it  absorbs some  of the
microwaves which may cause it to crack.  Foam cups are okay for short periods
of time; lightweight plastics such as cottage cheese and margarine containers
distort quite readily from the heat of the food.
 
     Some pottery or earthenware is suit-able for microwave oven use--some is
not.   A simple way of determining this is  to place a glass measuring cup of
water in the microwave oven.   Set an  empty cup of the questionable material
next to it, but not touching.   Set the microwave oven timer for 1 minute and
turn it on.   At the end of the minute,  the water in the cup should be warm;
the test item cool.    If the test item is warm,  this  is an indication that
there is a metallic substance in the glaze  or clay--it should not be used in
the microwave oven.  Some items within a matching set may vary, especially if
handmade.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
Testing utensils for microwave use:   Follow  the above directions with a mug
or dish from your kitchen.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Shapes for Utensils - MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES
 
LESSON 2

-Doc-
 
     The most  efficient utensil shape for  microwave cooking is the  ring or
donut shape (a round unit with a  hole in the center).   The microwave energy
can enter the food from several angles--inside, outside, top,  and bottom for
faster,  more even cooking.    This shape is ideal for foods  which cannot be
stirred during cooking.
 
     The next  most acceptable shapes are  round and oval.   Foods  cook more
evenly in  these shapes than in  square or rectangular shaped  utensils whose
corners receive a greater concentration of energy  than the rest of the uten-
sil.   As a result the food in the  corners often overcooks and the center is
undercooked.
 
     Square or  rectangular shaped  utensils can be  used provided  they have
well-rounded corners at the top as well  as the bottom of the utensil.   Well
rounded corners reduce the concentration of energy and dehydration.
 
     The sides  of a utensil  should be as vertical  as possible to  keep the
depth of the food uniform.  A full 90 degrees is not necessary, but the sides
should  be as  steep as  possible.   Utensils  with sloping  sides should  be
avoided as the food  is less deep in the areas which  receive the most micro-
wave energy and may overcook.
 
     The depth of the utensil is important as well as its capacity.   A shal-
low utensil  exposes more food  surface to  the microwave energy  and permits
quicker and more  even cooking than does a deep  utensil.   However,  larger,
deeper utensils than are normally used for conventional cooking are necessary
to allow for the  vigorous action of foods which have a  great deal of liquid
such as sauces and puddings.  Usually a container large enough to hold double
the actual amount is recommended.
 
     A trivet or roasting rack should be  used with meats to elevate them out
of the juices to prevent stewing.   It is also recommended for steaming fresh
vegetables such as  asparagus and broccoli.    An alternative to  the trivet/
roasting rack is the ribbed bacon/roaster.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
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-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Covering Foods - MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES
 
LESSON 2

-Doc-
 
     Little evaporation  occurs during  microwaving.   But  a cover  holds in
steam,  keeps food moist and shortens the cooking time.   Paper coverings can
serve as spatter guards.
 
     In general,  foods which are  covered during conventional cooking should
be covered during microwaving.
 
     Glass covers to casseroles are always good.  Plastic wrap can be used to
cover dishes without covers.   A tight cover of plastic wrap may split during
microwaving.   Make an opening for excess  steam to escape.  Vent the plastic
wrap by rolling back one edge to form a narrow slot or opening, or by folding
in a pleat.
 
     A cooking  bag holds in steam  to tenderize meat.    Before microwaving,
remove any foil from  the bag and discard the metal twist  tie.   Tie the bag
loosely with string or a strip of plastic cut from the end of the bag.  Leave
a small space for steam to escape.  Place the bag in a cooking dish.
 
     Wax paper forms a loose cover.   Use wax  paper to hold in heat and pre-
vent spatters.
 
     A  dry paper  towel lets  steam escape  while it  prevents spatters  and
absorbs excess moisture.  Use a dry paper towel to cover bacon or foods which
are cooked uncovered but tend to spatter.  Paper towels absorb moisture trap-
ped between food and the oven floor.  They keep bread surfaces dry.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Cooking Times - MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES
 
LESSON 2

-Doc-
                                 Section II
 
     The second  section in  this lesson has  to do with  the amount  of time
required for food to cook.   It is  very important to realize that although a
recipe says to cook  something for a specified number of  minutes,  this time
is, at best, an estimation.  There are a number of factors that determine how
long it takes a particular item to cook.
 
1.  Temperature of the food.   This factor affects conventional cooking, too,
but we don't notice  it as much.   For most foods  (frozen vegetables are the
exception),  thawing  them before cooking in  the microwave will give  a more
evenly cooked product.
 
2.  Quantity of food.  As the quantity of food increases, so does the cooking
time.  The same number of microwaves enter the oven cavity no matter how much
food is there.  If all the microwaves are absorbed by one food item such as a
potato,  the cooking time is short,  but if there are several food items such
as potatoes,   the cooking  time will  be longer.  It  is generally
thought that quantities of food for 4 to  6 people (or less)  may be economi-
cally cooked in the microwave oven.  Quantities larger than that may actually
take more time and electricity than when cooked conventionally.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
Food vs.  heating time:    Use a large,  clear glass mixing  bowl you know is
microwave safe.   Starting  with cold tap water,   pour 1 cup water  into the
bowl.   At full  power,  heat to boiling (when bubbles  appear).   Record the
time.  Repeat, emptying the water each time and adding water by cupfuls until
you have 4 cups  total.  Compare the heating time re- quired  for each of the
four amounts.
 
3.  Shape of food.   Uniformly thick foods cook most evenly.   Those that are
un-evenly shaped will require shielding with  aluminum foil to keep the thin-
ner, outer portions or corners from overcooking.
 
4.  Composition of food.   Microwaves are attracted to the moisture, fat, and
sugar molecules in food.   Generally,  moist food cooks more quickly than dry
food.   When fats and sugars are concentrated in foods of varied composition,
"hot spots" may  develop.   For example,  the  raisins or jelly filling  in a
sweet roll may become much hotter than the surrounding roll.
 
5.   Density of food.   Light,  porous items such as breads and pastries will
absorb microwave energy faster than compact items of the same size.
 
 
Other factors affecting cooking time include:
 
1.  Arrangement of food.  As has been discussed, the donut is the ideal shape
for cooking in a  microwave oven.   Keep this in mind  when arranging food in
the microwave  oven.  Remember that  microwaves are attracted  to the
outer edges or corners of the food first.   Always place the thicker,  larger
portions of food to the outside edges.  For example:  place broccoli stems or
the meaty portions of  drumsticks to the outside since they  take the longest
to cook.  Leave the center of the dish empty, if possible.
 
2.  Rotating and Stirring.   Microwaves are not always distributed equally in
all parts  of the oven.    In order for  the food to  cook as quickly  and as
evenly as possible,   it may need to  be stirred or rotated  1/4 turn halfway
through cooking.   The  use of a turntable in the  microwave oven may
help to  achieve even  cooking.   However,   the food  in the  center of  the
turntable may still need a little stirring.   Note:   Manufacturers are cons-
tantly improving  their microwave distribution  systems.   You may  find that
very little, if any, rotating or stirring is necessary with your oven.
 
3.  Heating Pattern of Your Microwave Oven
Standing time, carry-over cooking time, or heat equalization time.   This
is a very important  part of microwave cooking.   For a  period of time after
the microwaves stop penetrating the food, the food molecules continue to move
and create heat.   This  heat is conducted to the center of  the food to com-
plete the cooking process.   It is necessary to allow food to stand about 1/3
to 1/2  the cooking  time before  serving it  to allow  this process  to take
place.  An apple baked for 2-1/2 minutes will be firm when you take it out of
the oven.  After standing 1 minute, it will be soft and ready to eat.  Always
undercook food.   If, after the standing time, it needs additional cooking it
can be  returned to the  oven.   Not much can  be done to  salvage overcooked
food.   During the standing time period you  can keep the food inside or out-
side the oven.  Usually food should be kept covered or, depending on the type
of food, wrapped in aluminum foil.
 
 
After all this, it's easy to see why microwave cooking times are, at best, an
estimate.  Another way of determining cooking time is through the use of var-
ious sensors.  One of these is the temperature probe which automatically det-
ermines cooking  time by the temperature  of foods.   Another type  of sensor
regulates cooking time by reacting to the steam given off during cooking.  If
your  oven has  any system  for  automatically determining  the cooking  time
needed, follow the directions in the use and care booklet for your oven.

                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
     Carry-over cooking  or standing time:   Place  3 baking potatoes  in the
microwave oven.  Follow directions for time recommended for your model.  Take
the first potato out of the oven at the recommended time and wrap it in foil.
Take the  second potato out  at the same  time and  wrap it in  plastic wrap.
Continue to  cook the third potato  in the oven  until you think it  is done.
Let each stand for  5 minutes before comparing results.   Be  sure to compare
the appearance and texture of the baked potatoes.   Note:  Some people prefer
the texture of potatoes baked conventionally.   The hot, dry air of a conven-
tional oven  produces a  drier potato skin  than is  possible in  a microwave
oven.
 
 
 
                                LET'S REVIEW
 
 
     As you studied  this lesson,  you should have discovered  the answers to
the following questions:
 
1.  What is the most efficient utensil shape for microwave cooking?
 
2.  What is the purpose of standing time in microwave cooking?
 
3.  How can you tell whether a pottery utensil is safe for microwave
    cooking?
 
4.  What are two ways that users can counteract an uneven heating
    pattern in a microwave oven?
 
5.  Why will the raspberry jelly in a Danish roll be hotter than the
    rest of the roll after it has been heated in the microwave oven?
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
     Study the  effect of stirring on  food.   Prepare one of  the following:
basic white sauce, gravy, or dessert sauce.   Use a recipe from your cookbook
or you can try the following recipe:
 
                                 Lemon Sauce
 
1/2 cup sugar
1-1/2 tablespoons cornstarch
1/8 teaspoon salt
1 cup water
2 tablespoons butter or margarine
2 to 3 tablespoons lemon juice
1 teaspoon grated lemon peel
 
Combine sugar,  cornstarch and  salt in a 2 or 4-cup  measure or mixing bowl.
Stir in water; add butter.  Microwave at HIGH 4 to 6 minutes until mixture is
thick and clear,  stirring every 2 minutes.   Stir in juice and peel.   Serve
warm or cold.  Makes 1-1/2 cups sauce.
 
Source:  Basic Microwaving published by Publication Arts, Inc.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
MICROWAVING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
 
LESSON 3
 
Publication 356-062
September 1983
 
Janice Woodard, Extension Specialist, Home Management and Equipment, Virginia
Tech
 
Assisted  by JoAnne  Barton,   Extension  Specialist,  Foods  and  Nutrition,
Virginia Tech
 
Acknowledgement:    Subject  matter  in this  publication  was  adapted  from
publications  of the  Florida,  Missouri,   Ohio,  and  New York  Cooperative
Extension Services and the Whirlpool Corporation.
 
 
-Lesson-
                  MICROWAVING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
-Doc-

     A basic knowledge of  how various types of food react  to microwaves may
help you understand  why some foods taste better than  others when microwaved
and why some foods may need special attention.   In this lesson,  recipes are
given only to  illustrate a cooking principle.   Recipes  for specific dishes
can be found in  the myriad of microwave cookbooks available  at libraries or
wherever books are sold.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
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-State-
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-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Vegetables - MICROWAVING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
 
LESSON 3

-Doc-
                                 VEGETABLES
 
 
     Superb!    Excellent!    Delicious!    These adjectives  are  the  usual
reactions when people  eat vegetables that have been cooked  in the microwave
oven.   Quick cooking  at the high power  setting seems to help  preserve the
bright colors and fresh flavors of most vegetables.   Very little water needs
to be  added--often the water  clinging to  leafy vegetables after  they have
been washed will  be sufficient moisture.   Although it's  more convenient to
add salt  before cooking,  don't.    Salt dehydrates and  toughens microwaved
vegetables, so if you add salt, do so after cooking.
 
     Generally,  a covering of some kind--lid,   wax paper or plastic wrap is
advised.  It helps  keep the moisture from evaporating;   also the vegetables
cook more evenly.   Often a vegetable's skin serves as a container--such as a
baked potato or  acorn squash.   Be sure  to pierce the skin  of these before
cooking--steam can build up inside and cause the item to burst.
 
     Arrange the "toughest,"  thickest part of vegetables  toward the outside
of the dish or cooking container where  they will cook faster.   For example,
broccoli stalks should  be placed toward the  dish edge and the  heads placed
toward the dish  center.   When cooking vegetables such as  whole potatoes or
individual squashes,  arrange them in a circle  instead of rows for more even
cooking.   Leave  a space  of about  1 inch  between them.    Turn individual
vegetables over and rearrange them halfway through the cooking time.
 
     Frozen vegetables may be cooked in their cardboard boxes--no need to add
additional water.  Just remember to remove part or all of the waxpaper cover-
ing and any seasoning packets. If you're using vegetables in boilable plastic
cooking pouches, slit the bag to allow steam to escape.   About 1-1/2 cups of
bulk-pack frozen  vegetables (home  or commercially frozen)   equals an  8 to
10-ounce package.
 
     Vegetables vary in  the amount of cooking time they  require.   The age,
texture,  freshness,  size,  shape,  temperature,  and variety can all affect
cooking time.   Whole vegetables will require  a slightly longer cooking time
than vegetables cut in pieces.   For fast, even cooking,  cut vegetables into
small uniformly-shaped pieces.
 
     Cooking times in most microwave  cookbooks result in just-tender vegeta-
bles.  If you  prefer vegetables cooked to the very-tender  stage,  time will
need to be increased.   Of course,  if  you prefer vegetables even less done,
time will  need to  be decreased.    Be careful  not to  overcook vegetables.
Allow for standing  or carry-over cooking time.   Keep  vegetables covered to
retain heat before serving.   In cooking  home frozen vegetables,  follow the
timing for commercially frozen vegetables in your microwave oven cookbook.
 
     Dried vegetables  like peas and  beans need  a long simmering  period to
become tender.    This can be  done in the  microwave oven with  the variable
power setting at simmer, but no time is saved.
 
     Note:   Corn, beans,  and other foods that have a skin-like covering may
"pop" in the microwave oven.   Such popping  shows up most often when heating
small quantities of the foods.   To avoid this problem, place another item in
the oven at  the same time such as a  cup of water,  set the oven  at a lower
setting or allow standing time during the heating period.
 
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
Prepare at least one fresh vegetable, one frozen vegetable, and one
 
                           Seasoned Vegetable Tray
 
 
3 tablespoons butter or margarine
1/4 teaspoon onion salt
1/8 teaspoon thyme
1/8 teaspoon chopped parsley or
     dried parsley flakes
1/2 pound fresh broccoli
1/2 small head cauliflower
l medium zucchini
1 medium tomato, cut into wedges
1/8 cup Parmesan cheese
 
1.  Combine butter,  onion salt,   thyme,  and parsley in a 1  cup measure or
    bowl.   Microwave  on HIGH for  20 to 45  seconds or until  melted.   Set
    aside.
2.  Trim and cut broccoli and cauliflower into florets.   Alternately arrange
    groups of the florets  around the edge of a 10-inch  serving platter with
    the flower ends toward the center of  the dish.   Slice zucchini and fill
    the center of the plate.  Cover with plastic wrap.
3.  Microwave on HIGH for 9 to 11 minutes or until vegetables are almost ten-
    der.  Drain off excess liquid.
4.  Arrange tomato wedges on vegetable platter.
5.  Pour butter mixture over vegetables and sprinkle with Parmesan cheese.
6.  Microwave uncovered on HIGH for 1-1/2 to  2 minutes or until tomatoes are
    heated.
 
5 to 6 servings.
 
Variation:
 
Follow Seasoned Vegetable  Tray recipe as directed  except in step 2  place 2
packages (10 ounces each) Brussels sprouts on outside edge of a 10-inch round
dish, place 2 medium sliced yellow summer squash toward inside, and 1 can (16
ounces) small whole beets (drained) in middle.  Continue as directed in steps
3, 5, and 6.
 
 
Source:  Used with permission of The Tappan Appliance Division
 
Blanching Vegetables for Freezing
 
     Because of the  variable results obtained from using  microwave ovens to
blanch vegetables, Virginia Tech does not recommend this practice.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
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-State-
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-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Fruits - MICROWAVING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
 
LESSON 3

-Doc-
 
                                   FRUITS
 
 
     Fruits are generally cooked covered.   Pierce the skins of fresh fruits,
or peel them  before cooking.   Cooking times are  approximations,  since the
age,  size,  and shape of fruits can affect the amount of cooking time.   The
amount of sugar and spices in fruit recipes can be adjusted as desired.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
Prepare one fruit dish in the microwave oven using a recipe in your microwave
oven cookbook or the following recipe:
 
                              Glazed Grapefruit
 
     Remove core and seeds from grapefruit halves; cut edges and between sec-
     tions.   Sprinkle each half with brown sugar;  dot with butter or marga-
     rine.  Microwave on HIGH--2 halves, 3 to 3-1/2 minutes; 4 halves, 4 to 5
     minutes.
 
 
                                LET'S REVIEW
 
 
     As you studied  this lesson,  you should have discovered  the answers to
the following questions:
 
True      False       Check the best response:
____      ____
____      ____       1.  If you salt vegetables, do it before
                         microwaving.
____      ____       2.  When baking sweet potatoes in the
                         microwave oven, be sure to prick them before
                         putting them in the oven.
____      ____       3.  Vegetables should be microwaved uncovered.
 
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
MICROWAVING MEATS, POULTRY, AND FISH
 
LESSON 4
 
Publication 356-063
September 1983
 
Janice Woodard, Extension Specialist, Home Management and Equipment,  Virginia
Tech
 
Assisted by JoAnne Barton, Extension Specialist, Foods and Nutrition, Virginia
Tech
 
Acknowledgement:   Subject  matter  in  this   publication  was  adapted  from
publications  of the  Florida,   Missouri,  Ohio,   and  New York  Cooperative
Extension Services and the Whirlpool Corporation.
 
-Lesson-
                    MICROWAVING MEATS, POULTRY, AND FISH
-Doc-

     Cooking meat in the  microwave oven varies from super easy  to a moderate
challenge.   The type of meat,  its form,   and the results you want determine
what you have to do to get the best results.
 
     Defrosting Meats,  Poultry,  and Fish:    As frozen meat defrosts,  water
drippings form.   Elevate  the meat on a  roasting rack or inverted  saucer so
that the  drippings which collect  in the  dish cannot cause  surface cooking.
Shield areas  that become  warm before defrosting  is completed,   using small
pieces of foil.   Microwave-thawed meats should  be cooked promptly after they
are  thawed.    Note:   Defrosting  in  the  microwave  oven  is a  matter  of
convenience.    It  is   more  energy  efficient  to  defrost   foods  in  the
refrigerator.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
Defrost a package of frozen meat,   following the directions in your microwave
oven cookbook.
 
-End-
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USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
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-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Beef - MICROWAVING MEATS, POULTRY, AND FISH
 
LESSON 4

-Doc-
 
Tender  Roasts:   The  first  key to  success in  microwaving  beef roasts  is
choosing a good quality piece of meat and storing it properly.  Size and shape
of roasts are also  important.   An irregular shaped roast cooks  in an uneven
pattern.  Choose a roast that has a symmetrical shape for best results.  Small
roasts cook best, but if too small, the roast cooks before browning develops.
 
     The roast also should be compact as  possible.   If a roast is thinner in
one area than another, the thin part will be done before the thick part,  just
as in conventional cooking.   Expect a long,  thin roast to cook faster than a
short, squatty roast.   Bony roasts, such as standing ribs of beef,  generally
cook best if bones are left attached to the roast as it cooks.
 
     Most  roasts will  keep  their shape  if tied  with  heavy string  before
cooking.   Adding  small amounts of  foil to shield  areas that cook  first is
helpful in obtaining the best results in roasting.   Foil prevents overcooking
on outside areas while the interior of the roast gets to the doneness desired.
Do not add salt to meat before cooking.   Salt tends to toughen outer layer of
meat if  added before cooking.   However,   garlic powder and  other non-salty
seasonings such as pepper may be added before cooking, if desired.
 
     Meats should be placed  on a trivet or roasting rack so  that they are up
and out of juices which form in the bottom  of the dish as the meat cooks.  An
inverted saucer may be used as a trivet.
 
     Fat on a  roast tends to "pop"  loudly from time to  time during cooking.
This is a common occurrence.   Covering meat with waxed paper helps reduce the
spattering.
 
     Drippings should be removed from the dish to shorten cooking time.
 
     Carry-over cooking time is important in microwaving meats. After the meat
is taken from  the oven,  the molecules  continue to vibrate and  create heat.
When the meat has been cooked at high power, the internal temperature may rise
as much as 15  to 20 degrees within 20 minutes.    Temperature rises less with
the  lower power  settings.    Be  sure to  remember  this  when checking  the
temperature at the end of the cooking time.  Meat can easily be overcooked.
 
     The National  Live Stock and Meat  Board makes the  following recommenda-
tions for cooking boneless beef rib eye, top round top loin,  rump,  and cross
rib roasts:
 
1.  Place  3  to   4-pound roast,   fat side down,  on  rack in microwave-safe
    dish.  Do not add liquid.
 
2.  Place waxed paper over top of  roast;   microwave at medium low (200 watts
    or about 30% power).  To estimate cooking time, allow 18 to 22 minutes per
    pound for rare to medium.   Specific time varies with weight,  shape,  and
    composition of roast.
 
3.  Rotate dish 1/4  turn every  20 minutes during cooking.    Invert roast to
    fat side up at midpoint of cooking time.
 
 
4.  Shield edges  that   appear to  be overcooking with  small pieces  of foil
    during cooking.
 
5.  When roast is  5 degrees below doneness desired,  remove  from oven,  tent
    with foil,  and allow to stand 15  to 20 minutes.   To determine doneness,
    use a  microwave thermometer  or sensor  probe during  cooking or  a quick
    recovery or regular meat thermometer after roast has been removed from the
    microwave oven.
 
6.  Cook roasts from  beef round and chuck  only to rare or medium rare.   (If
    well-done beef is desired, cook as a pot roast.)   More tender roasts from
    the rib and loin can be cooked to rare, medium, or well done.
 
Less Tender Cuts:   Less tender cuts such  as chuck roasts and flank steak can
be braised in the microwave oven.   However, there is likely to be little time
advantage in comparison to conventional cooking.
 
Ground Meat:  Thickness and type of ground meat determine cooking time.  Fatty
ground meat may take less time to cook than very lean meat.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Pork - MICROWAVING MEATS, POULTRY, AND FISH
 
LESSON 4

-Doc-
 
     The practicality and safety of cooking pork in the microwave oven is cur-
rently under  study due to  concern that certain  microorganisms (specifically
Trichinella spiralis) might survive in microwave cooked pork.
 
 
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Poultry - MICROWAVING MEATS, POULTRY, AND FISH
 
LESSON 4

-Doc-
 
     Poultry parts should  be arranged in a  baking dish so that  the thinner,
quicker cooking parts are toward the center of the dish and the thicker,  lon-
ger cooking parts are to the outside.  Whole birds will need to be rotated and
turned several  times during  the cooking process.    Covering with  wax paper
makes clean-up  easier and  helps distribute  the heat  more evenly.    Remove
juices during cooking.
 
-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
Fish - MICROWAVING MEATS, POULTRY, AND FISH
 
LESSON 4

-Doc-
 
     Fillets and steaks may be microwaved successfully in several ways to pro-
duce a variety of dishes.  Be careful not to overcook fish.
 
Browning Meats and Poultry
     In microwave cooking,  large cuts of meat with a fat covering cooked lon-
ger than 10 minutes will develop some browning on the surface.  However, small
pieces  and nonfatty  cuts  do not  brown as  do  conventionally cooked  foods
because there is  not enough time to  produce a browning effect.    One way to
brown such  cuts of meat is  to sprinkle or  spread a browning agent  onto the
meat.   These browning agents include sauces such as soy, barbeque, brown bou-
quet,  and Worcestershire;  and powders such  as paprika and special microwave
browning products.   Jelly, preserves,  and glazes can also be used.   Many of
the browning agents have  a high salt content which is  a limitation for those
people on low-sodium diets.
 
     Other techniques  for browning  include the  use of  conventional surface
cooking or broiling;   or microwave oven browning elements  and browning uten-
sils.  Of course, there are recipes in which the lack of brownness is no limi-
tation.   For example,  in making chicken salad  it is not necessary to have a
brown skin.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
Prepare a meat, fish, or poultry dish using the microwave oven,  following the
directions in  your microwave  oven cookbook.    Or try  one of  the following
recipes:

 
                              Oven-Fried Chicken
 
2 to 2-1/2 pound chicken, cut up
1 package seasoned coating mix
1/2 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon pepper
 
1.   Wash chicken and drain.
2.  Combine remaining ingredients in a bag.
3.  Coat  chicken  according  to directions on coating mix package.
4.  Arrange pieces in a  11-3/4  x 7-1/2-inch glass dish with  large pieces at
    corners and near edge of dish, with small ones in the center.
5.  Cover dish with wax paper.
6.  Microwave on HIGH for  18 to 21 minutes or until chicken is done, rotating
    dish half-way through microwave time.
 
6 to 8 servings
 
 
                                   Meatloaf
 
1-1/2 pounds ground beef
1/4 cup bread crumbs
1 small onion, chopped
2 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce
1 teaspoon salt
1/2 teaspoon mustard
1/4 teaspoon pepper
 
1.  Mix   ingredients  together thoroughly.   Spread  mixture evenly in baking
    dish.
2.  Spread over top if  desired:   2 tablespoons catsup, steak,  barbecue,  or
    chili sauce.
3.   Microwave on HIGH:
    Loaf        12-18 minutes
    dish        (rotate after
                half the cooking)
 
    Ring-shaped 
    dish        8-13 minutes
    Round dish  12-18 minutes
 
        6       
    individual  
    containers  10-13 minutes.
 
4.  Let stand 5 to 10 minutes  to complete cooking and become firm.
 
 
 
                                 LET'S REVIEW
 
     As you studied this lesson, you should have discovered the answers to the
following questions:
 
 
True   False     Check the best response:
____   _____     _____ ___ ____ ________ 
 
____    ____      1.  Meats which are microwaved longer than 10
                      minutes are likely to brown.
____    ____      2.  A beef roast should be served immediately
                      after being taken out of the microwave oven.
____    ____      3.  When cooking chicken drumsticks and thighs,
                      put the thicker parts of the chicken toward
                      the center of the dish.

-End-
-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S
 
-Title-
MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
 
LESSON 5
 
Publication 356-064
September 1983
 
Janice Woodard, Extension Specialist, Home Management and Equipment, Virginia
Tech
 
Assisted  by JoAnne  Barton,   Extension  Specialist,  Foods  and  Nutrition,
Virginia Tech
 
Acknowledgement:    Subject  matter  in this  publication  was  adapted  from
publications  of the  Florida,  Missouri,   Ohio,  and  New York  Cooperative
Extension Services and the Whirlpool Corporation.
 
-Lesson-
             MICROWAVING MILK, EGGS, AND CHEESE
             SAUCES AND CASSEROLES
             BREADS AND CEREALS

-Doc-

     This  lesson focuses  on the  principles involved  in microwaving  milk,
eggs, and cheese; sauces and casseroles; breads and cereals.  As in lessons 3
and 4, recipes are given to illustrate a principle.
 
 
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-Title-
Milk, eggs, and cheese - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
                           MILK, EGGS, AND CHEESE
 
 
Protein Foods  Are Heat Sensitive.   The  cooking of protein products  can be
slowed by cooking with the defrost cycle or a lower power setting.
 
Milk
     When using milk in creamed soups, scalloped potatoes, and the like, milk
may foam and boil over.  Make certain the container is large enough to handle
this.
 
     When cooking homemade soup,  you will probably use 100% power.   However
when  heating canned  soups diluted  with milk,   microwave at  50% power  to
prevent overcooking.   The temperature probe is  convenient to use in heating
milk (such as for scalding, 185 degrees F.)
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
Prepare  a  dish containing  milk  using  a  recipe  in your  microwave  oven
cookbook.  Or try the following recipe:
 
 
                            Cream of Potato Soup
 
4 strips bacon
3 cups potatoes, cut into 1/2 inch cubes
1/4 cup chopped onion
1/4 cup chopped celery
1/2 cup water
1 teaspoon salt
2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
1-1/2 cups milk
1 cup chicken broth
1 tablespoon chopped parsley
 
1.  Microwave  bacon   on  HIGH   for 3 to  3-1/2 minutes  or until  bacon is
    crisp.  Crumble and set aside.
2.  Combine  potatoes,     onions,   celery,  water,   and salt in  a 2-quart
    casserole.  Cover with a tight-fitting lid or plastic wrap.  Microwave on
    HIGH for 10 to 12 minutes or until vegetables are tender.
3.  Mix flour,  milk,  chicken broth,  and  parsley until smooth.   Stir into
    potatoes.   Microwave  uncovered on HIGH  for 15  to 20 minutes  or until
    thickened.  Stir occasionally during cooking.
4.   Garnish with bacon.
 
4 to 6 servings
 
If you have a temperature probe, set it for 150 to 160 degrees.
 
Source:  Used with permission of The Tappan Appliance Division
 
 
-End-
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Eggs - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
     In the microwave oven,  egg yolk which  contains more fat than egg white
attracts the microwaves first.    If you microwave an egg until  the white is
firm,  the yolk will toughen.   Standing time  is necessary to cook the white
completely without hardening the yolk.
 
     Remember to puncture the membrane of the yolk before microwaving.   It's
the same principle  as the baked potato--building up of  steam pressure.   DO
NOT TRY TO  MICROWAVE EGGS IN THE  SHELL.   Cooking eggs in  the shell causes
building up of pressure,  too.   For recipes requiring hard-cooked eggs,  use
conventional methods of cooking rather than the microwave oven.
 
     The heating pattern of your oven may affect the way eggs cook.   If your
oven has an uneven pattern,  you may  have difficulty with poached or shirred
eggs and omelet mixtures.   Experiment with your oven.  Use 50% power setting
to prepare eggs in these ways.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
Prepare an egg dish using a recipe from your microwave oven cookbook.  Or try
the following recipe:
 
                               Brunch Special
 
 
1 package (12 ounces)  frozen  hash brown potatoes
1/3 cup sour cream
1/3 cup milk
1/2 teaspoon salt
1 tablespoon snipped chives
4 slices ham
4 eggs
 
1.  Place potatoes  in 2-quart (8  x 8  inches)  glass baking  dish.   Cover.
    Microwave on HIGH for 6 to 7 minutes or until partly cooked.
2.  Blend in  sour  cream,  milk, salt, and chives.   Arrange ham slices near
    center of dish.
3.  Make two hollows in  potatoes on each side of ham.    Break egg into each
    indentation; replace cover.
4.  Microwave on  70% power for 6  to 8 minutes  or until eggs are  cooked to
    desired doneness.
5.  Let stand covered for 2 minutes before serving.
 
4 servings
 
 
-End-
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Cheese - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
     In microwaving, cheese melts quickly and toughens easily.   Natural hard
cheese becomes stringy if overcooked.   Processed  and softer cheese does not
become stringy, but will toughen if cooked too long.  Cheese should therefore
be cooked at a medium power setting,  added to the food toward the end of the
cooking pe-riod,  or placed  beneath other foods in a casserole.    If a dish
calls for grated  cheese on top,  sprinkle  it on when only  standing time is
left.  The heat from the cooked food will be sufficient to melt the cheese.
 
 
-End-

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Sauces, puddings, and casseroles - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-

                      SAUCES, PUDDINGS, AND CASSEROLES
 
 
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Sauces and Puddings - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
     Sauces and  puddings can be meas-ured,   mixed,  and cooked in  the same
utensil.   For  a 4-serving portion,  use  a 4-cup glass measuring  cup.   In
microwaving sauces  and puddings you will  not have to stir  them constantly.
And you won't have to worry about  lumps.   Stir several times as the mixture
begins to thicken.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
Prepare  a  sauce and/or  pudding  using  a  recipe  in your  microwave  oven
cookbook.  Or try this recipe:
 
 
                                Easy Pudding
 
1 package (3-1/2 ounces) pudding and pie filling mix (not instant)
2 cups milk
 
1.  Pour package of pudding mix into a 1-quart glass measuring cup.   Stir in
    enough milk to dissolve pudding.
2.   Stir in remaining milk.
3.  Microwave on HIGH for 2 minutes.  Stir.
4.  Microwave  on  HIGH for  3  to  4  minutes  longer or  until  pudding  is
    thickened.  Stir once every minute.
 
4 servings
 
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Casseroles - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
     Most casseroles are microwaved on HIGH.   Exceptions might be those with
considerable amounts of cheese.   Toppings should  be added toward the end of
cooking, or when the cooking is completed.   For example,  crumb or chip-type
toppings may  be added during  the last few minutes  of cooking or  after the
casserole has cooked and just before serving.
 
Using A  Temperature Probe.   To  avoid damaging  the probe,  insert  it into
completely defrosted foods.  Heat precooked foods to 150 to 160 degrees.  The
probe should be placed in the center of the casserole.
 
 
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Breads - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
     A brief warming in the microwave  oven gives tasty rolls,  muffins,  and
other  bread products.    Usually 5  to 10  seconds  per roll  or serving  is
adequate time to warm bread products.  Wrap these products in paper napkin or
towel to absorb moisture during the  warming.   Older breads can be freshened
by heating them in  plastic film to retain moisture.   Sprinkling  with a few
drops of water before wrapping may help.  Rolls with moist filling or topping
heat faster than others.   Raisins and  icing become very hot.   Frozen rolls
defrost and  heat at the same  time,  taking only  15 seconds or so  for each
roll.  Remember, overheating results in tough products.
 
     To make  your own bread cubes  or crumbs,  heat  2 slices of bread  on a
paper towel for 1-1/2 minutes, turning over once.   After the bread cools for
a minute or two, it is dry and crisp enough to use.
 
     It is possible to bake quick and yeast breads in the microwave oven, but
unless you  have a microwave/convection oven  you may prefer the  texture and
appearance of  bread products when they  are baked conventionally.    You may
also find little time advantage in using  the microwave oven for baking bread
products.
 
 
     Yeast bread dough can be proofed (raised)  in the microwave oven several
different ways.   One way is to use the  oven as an "incubator" by bringing 2
to 3 cups of water to a boil.   Set the bowl of dough alongside the hot water
and close the  door.   The heat and  moisture from the water  create an ideal
atmosphere for the yeast.   The time required  for the dough to rise is about
the same as if it were in any warm place.
 
     If your  microwave oven has variable  power settings,  a quicker  way of
proofing is possible.   One method is to place dough in the oven with about 3
cups of boiling water.  Set the oven at the lowest power setting.   Turn oven
"on."  Unshaped  dough takes  about 15 minutes  to rise;   rolls or  2 shaped
loaves about 7 to  8 minutes.   Use caution in proofing  yeast bread to avoid
killing the yeast.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 
Proof yeast bread in your microwave oven,  following the instructions in your
microwave cookbook or the above directions.
 
 
-End-

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-Title-
Cereals - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
 
     Cereals, especially the quick-cooking kinds,  are very simple to cook in
the microwave  oven.   As  with all  high-liquid foods,   use a  large enough
container to  prevent boilovers.    For even heating,   stir the  cereal once
halfway through the cooking.   With microwaving, you'll have no messy cooking
pan to clean.
 
 
                              LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
a) Look  for  microwave  cooking instructions on packages of cereal.
b) Cook  at   least  one   cereal using   the microwave  oven.   Here  is one
   suggested recipe:
 
 
                            Quick Cooking Oatmeal
 
 
3/4 cup water
1/3 cup quick-cooking oats
1/8 teaspoon salt
 
1.  Measure water, cereal, and salt into cereal bowl.  Mix well.
2.  Microwave on  HIGH uncovered  for 1-1/4 to  1-3/4 minutes.    Stir.   Let
    stand, covered, for 1 to 2 minutes before serving.
 
1 serving
 
 
For two servings, microwave two individual bowls at one time on HIGH for 2 to
2-1/2 minutes.
 
 
-End-

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-Title-
Cakes and Pies - MICROWAVING

MICROWAVING MILK/EGGS/CHEESE, SAUCES/CASSEROLES, BREADS/CEREALS
LESSON 5

-Doc-
 
     It is possible to prepare cakes and pies in the microwave oven.  However
the products will differ in appearance  and texture from those conventionally
baked.    If you  want to  experiment with  these products,   start with  the
directions in your microwave cookbook.   Some  cake mixes come with microwave
cooking  instructions  or information  about  where  to obtain  such  cooking
instructions.
 
 
                                LET'S REVIEW
     As you studied  this lesson,  you should have discovered  the answers to
the following questions:
 
True  False   Check the best response.
 
____   ____   1.  When heating canned cream of tomato soup diluted
                  with milk, the best microwave power setting is
                  HIGH.
____   ____   2.  In cooking eggs in the microwave oven, it is
                  recommended that you use a setting lower than HIGH.
____    ____  3.  Muffins should be heated for 1 minute per muffin.
 
-End-

-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
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-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S

-Title-
MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6
 
Publication 356-065
September 1983
 
Janice Woodard, Extension Specialist, Home Management and Equipment, Virginia
Tech
 
Assisted  by JoAnne  Barton,   Extension  Specialist,  Foods  and  Nutrition,
Virginia Tech
 
Acknowledgement:    Subject  matter  in this  publication  was  adapted  from
publications  of the  Florida,  Missouri,   Ohio,  and  New York  Cooperative
Extension Services and the Whirlpool Corporation.
 
-Lesson-
                        MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
-Doc-

     Now  that you've  had  a  chance to  microwave  cook  some foods  on  an
individual dish basis, let's consider the topic of microwave oven management.
 
-End-

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Energy-saving - MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-
                       ENERGY-SAVING
 
     Research at  Virginia Tech  has found that  energy consumption  could be
decreased about a third  by using a microwave oven along  with a conventional
electric range to cook a week's meals for a family of four.   However, use of
the microwave oven does not always result in reduced energy consumption.   To
maximize the energy-saving feature of microwave ovens,  the following choices
of foods are  recommended for microwave oven cooking:    a)  items ordinarily
prepared by heating in the range oven such as baked custard or casseroles; b)
items that will  cook faster in the  microwave oven than on  surface units of
the electric range.
 
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Suiting your family's needs - MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-

                SUITING YOUR FAMILY'S NEEDS
 
     As a cooking appliance,  the microwave oven,  like a conventional range,
can accommodate your family's needs in terms of your food budget,  desire for
gourmet meals,  and special diet needs.  Keep  your family's needs in mind as
you decide what foods to cook.   Learn  to screen recipes that encourage your
objectives.   You will also find some microwave cookbooks which have separate
chapters on  topics such as  low calorie meals,  and  cooking for one  or two
persons.
 
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Planning microwave oven menus

MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
LESSON 6

-Doc-


               PLANNING MICROWAVE OVEN MENUS
 
     You can,   of course,   cook just  one dish  in the  microwave oven  and
conventionally cook all the rest of the  foods for a meal.  However,  you can
also use the microwave oven for more than one dish per meal.
 
     When you  are planning a menu  for microwaving,  consider  the following
points, just as you do when cooking conventionally:
 
     Think through the entire meal.
 
     Carefully read each recipe and become familiar with the instructions.
 
     Assemble all utensils and ingredients required by the recipe.
 
     Consider the nutritional aspect of foods.
 
     Strive for contrast in the color and texture of foods.
 
     Think about food flavors.  Do they blend well?
 
     Unless you have  a microwave oven which is designed  for cooking several
kinds of  foods at a time,   foods must be cooked  one at a time,   either in
segments or sequence.
 
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Segmenting - MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-
 
     This is one  approach to microwaving which means  partially cooking some
foods and  allowing them  to stand  while the  temperature equalizes  and the
flavors blend.  This leaves the oven free to cook another item.
 
     A segmented schedule might look like this:
 
  Menu                                        Schedule
 
Rolled rib roast                          Early in day, make fruit
Baked sweet potatoes                       delight.
Creamy cabbage                            About 1 hour before the
Fruit delight                              meal:
                                 a) Cook roast through 1/2
                                     time required.
                                 b) Cook sweet potatoes
                                    (wrap in foil after
                                    removing from oven).
                                 c) Complete roast.
                                 d) Cook cabbage.
 
                                 At dessert time,
                                   reheat fruit delight,
                                   if desired.
 
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Sequencing - MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-
 
      With this technique,  one food is prepared after another in a preplanned
 sequence.   To determine in what order  you should prepare foods consider the
 following:
 
 1.  Would it be preferable to pre-
     pare any food the day before
     or earlier in the day?
 
 2.  How long a cooking time does
     each food require?
 
      Plan to set the  table before starting to prepare the  food.   Then cook
 the food having the longest cooking time first.   Usually, foods that require
 a longer  cooking time  retain or  hold heat  well.   Some  dishes,  such  as
 casseroles,  will actually  improve in flavor when they are  allowed to stand
 for a few  minutes.   Remember that some foods require  a "carryover" cooking
 time during which the food will finish its cooking.
 
      While one food is cooking, prepare the other foods so they will be ready
 for  their turn  in the  oven  with no  delay.    Have some  food inside  the
 microwave oven at all times so no cooking time is wasted.  To help foods stay
 moist and hot,  cover  them after they are removed from  the oven.   If foods
 cool before serving they can be reheated in the microwave oven.
 
      The following will review previous lessons and give you some ideas as to
 the order in which specific foods might best be prepared:
 
 Meats and casseroles:    As a general rule,   start cooking the meat  or meat
 casseroles first.
 
 Vegetables:   Usually there  is a short standing  time (2 to 3  minutes)  for
 frozen vegetables to allow them to  completely soften for best eating.   This
 is also true of  most fresh vegetables.   While they are  standing,  you have
 plenty of time to heat rolls or beverages in your microwave oven.
 
 Meat  and  vegetable  combination  casseroles:     The  versatility  of  most
 casseroles allows them  to be cooked well  in the microwave oven.    They may
 either  be  served immediately  or  allowed  to  stand  a few  minutes  while
 vegetables and rolls are cooking.
 
 Desserts:  These can be handled in one of two ways.   Cook them several hours
 ahead of time (example:   puddings, cookies, pies)  or you can cook them just
 before eating while  dishes from the main course are  being cleared (example:
 baked apples, glazed grapefruit, frozen cakes, or pastries).
 
 Bread and rolls:   These heat in seconds.   Because they easily overcook they
 should be  popped into  the microwave oven  just before you  sit down  at the
 table.
 
 Appetizers:   If appetizers are to be served hot, heat them when needed, even
 if it means removing another food from  the microwave oven for a few minutes.
 Most appetizers, even frozen ones,  take such a short time to prepare that no
 harm is done to the food which has been set aside while appetizers heat.
 
-End-

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Reheating - MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-

                                   REHEATING
 
      Another  common  use of  the  microwave  oven  in  family meals  is  for
 reheating foods which have been cooked conventionally.   Most foods reheat in
 the microwave oven  without loss of quality or texture.    They taste freshly
 cooked,  not warmed  over,  which may mean you will  discard fewer leftovers.
 Main dishes reheat especially well;  some even  improve in flavor if they are
 made in advance.   Take care to avoid additional cooking which might overcook
 foods.
 
 Caution:   Food may not be safe to eat if  held for more than 2 or 3 hours at
 tem-peratures between 60 degrees and 125  degrees F,  the zone where bacteria
 grow rapidly.
 
 Reheating Plates of Food
 Arrange thick or dense foods to the outside of a microwave-safe plate.  Place
 delicate foods to the center of the  plate.   Spread out main dishes or foods
 such as mashed potatoes in a shallow  layer for quick,  even heating.   Cover
 the plate with wax paper or plastic wrap  to hold in heat and moisture.  Test
 warmth by  feeling the  bottom of  the plate.    When food  is hot  enough to
 transfer heat to the plate, the food is ready to serve.
 
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Recipe conversion - MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-

                               RECIPE CONVERSION
 
      This topic is covered in the fact sheet accompanying this lesson.   Here
 is  an  example  of  a  conventional   recipe  which  has  been  changed  for
 microwaving:
 
                             Ground Beef and Rice
 
    Conventional                              Microwave
 
 1.  In large skillet, brown one      1.  Use 3-quart casserole.
     pound ground beef with one       2.  Microwave on HIGH 6
     chopped onion.                       minutes.
 2.  Cook over medium heat until      3.  Stir once at 3 minutes.
 3.  meat loses color                 4.  Omit water
 4.  Add 1 cup water and 1 No. 2      5.  Use 1-1/3 cups precooked
     can tomatoes                         rice.
 5.  with 2/3 cup long grain rice     6.  Use smaller amount.
     and                                  
     
 6.  1 tablespoon minced onion        
                                      
 
                               LEARNING ACTIVITY
 
 Write down your favorite recipe and rewrite it for microwaving.
 
                             MICROWAVE OVEN EXTRAS
 
      The microwave oven is well known as a  cooking device but it can also be
 used for a variety of other things. Here are some of them:
 
 Drying fresh herbs            Arrange 10 herb sprigs (such as parsley,
                               basil, mint, etc.) between 2 paper
                               towels. Microwave on HIGH 3 to 4
                               minutes or until dry and brittle.
                               When cool, crumble leaves off
                               branches.  Store in airtight jar or
                               plastic bag.
 
                               Note:  When handling lesser amounts of
                               herbs, place a small container of
                               water in one corner of your oven to
                               prevent build-up of microwaves.
 
 Softening hard brown sugar    Place sugar in a glass dish and heat
                               one to two minutes on HIGH.
 
 Plumping raisins              Sprinkle 1 or 2 teaspoons of water
                               over the raisins.  Cover tightly.
                               Microwave 30 seconds to 1 minute
                               on HIGH.
 
 Toasting nuts                 Spread about 1/4 cup nuts on a paper
                               plate or in a glass pie plate.
                               Microwave uncovered on HIGH about
                               3 minutes or until toasted, stirring
                               frequently.
 
 Melting chocolate             Heat chocolate in its paper wrapper
                               or a plastic or glass cup.  Use 50%
                               power.
 
 Soften dried fruits           Place 1 cup in a bowl, cover with
                               water and heat 4-5 minutes on
                               HIGH.
 
 Warm honey, maple syrup       Place in microwave-safe glass
                               pitcher for 30-45 seconds on HIGH.
 
 Crisp soggy pretzels          Heat for 15-20 seconds.  Let stand
 or potato chips               for 2 minutes.
 
-End-

-HEADER-
USING YOUR MICROWAVE OVEN
Learn-by-Mail Course
 
-State-
Virginia, Va
-Region-
Southern, S

-Title-
Other sources of microwave cooking information

MICROWAVE OVEN MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 6

-Doc-


                OTHER SOURCES OF MICROWAVE COOKING INFORMATION
 
      Appliance Dealers
 
      Many  microwave oven  dealers offer  programs  about microwave  cooking.
 These programs can answer more specific questions about a particular model of
 microwave oven than is possible in these lessons.
 
      Printed Material
 
      In  addition  to the  many,   many  cookbooks and  magazines  containing
 microwave  recipes,  there  are  at least  four  newsletters  available on  a
 subscription basis.
 
                                 LET'S REVIEW
 
      As you studied  this lesson,  you should have discovered  the answers to
 the following questions:
 
 1.  What are two ways of cooking more than one type of food at a time
     in the microwave oven?
 2.  What are two adjustments which usually need to be made when
     adapting conventional recipes to microwave oven cooking?
 3.  How can you prevent a build-up of microwaves when you are
     microwaving small amounts of herbs?
 
 REMINDER:  SEND ANY UNANSWERED QUESTIONS ABOUT USING THE MICROWAVE
 OVEN TO YOUR LOCAL EXTENSION AGENT USING THE FORM PROVIDED IN LESSON I.
 
