
-Title-
 BASIC BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON PLANT GROWTH
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

In order to gain a working knowledge of horticulture, it is necessary to
understand the structure and function of plants and the environmental
factors that affect plant growth. In the greatly diversified kingdom of
plants, all flowering plants have certain structures and functions in
common. These similarities are the basis for this chapter. Higher flowering
plants are divided into two groups, monocotyledons (monocots) and
dicotyledons (dicots). Although monocots and dicots are similar in many
ways, differences with respect to number of seed leaves, number of flower
parts, leaf vein pattern and root structure exist. In addition,
physiological dissimilarities exist which, for example, result in different
responses to herbicides (weed killers).

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A<figure,2>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-Text-

The parts of a plant can be divided into two groups, sexual reproductive and
vegetative parts. Sexual reproductive parts are those involved in the
production of seed. They include flowers, fruit, flower buds, and seeds. The
vegetative parts include leaves, roots, shoot buds, and stem and are not
directly involved in sexual reproduction. However, they are often used in
asexual or vegetative forms of reproduction such as cuttings.

     PRINCIPAL PARTS
     OF A VASCULAR PLANT
-Fig-
Principal Parts of a Vascular Plant
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A<figure,3>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Stems
-Text-

Stems are structures which support buds and leaves and serve as conduits for
carrying water, minerals, and sugars. Three major internal parts of a stem
are the xylem, phloem, and cambium. The xylem and phloem are the major
components of a plant's vascular system. The vascular system transports
food, water, and minerals and offers support for the plant. Xylem tubes are
the water and mineral conducting channels while phloem tubes are the food
conducting channels.

The vascular systems of monocots and dicots differ. While both contain xylem
and phloem, they are arranged differently. In the stem of a monocot, the
xylem and phloem are paired into bundles; these bundles are dispersed
throughout the stem. The vascular system in a dicot is said to be continuous
because it forms rings inside the stem. The ring of phloem is near the bark
or external cover of the stem and is a component of the bark in mature
stems. The xylem forms the inner ring and is the sapwood and heartwood in
woody plants. The difference in the vascular system of the two groups is of
practical interest to the horticulturist because certain herbicides are
specific to either monocots or dicots. An example is 2,4,-D, which only
kills plants with a continuous vascular system or dicots.

-Fig-
Cross Section of Stem
-Text-

The cambium is a meristem, which is a site of cell division and active
growth. It is located between the xylem and phloem inside the bark of a stem
and is the tissue responsible for a stem's increase in girth, as it produces
both the xylem and phloem tissues.

Stems may be long, with great distances between leaves and buds (branches of
trees, runners on strawberries) or compressed with short distances between
buds or leaves (fruit spurs, crowns of strawberry plants, dandelions). Stems
can be above the ground like most stems with which we are familiar, or below
the ground (potatoes, tulip bulbs). All stems must have buds or leaves
present to be classified as stem tissue.


                         DIVERSIFIED STEM DEVELOPMENT

-Fig-
Diversified Stem Development: Above Ground Modifications
Diversified Stem Development: Below Ground Modifications
-Text-

An area of the stem where leaves are located is called a node. Nodes are
areas of great cellular activity and growth, at which point, buds develop
into leaves, or flowers. The area between nodes is called an internode.

The length of an internode may depend on many factors. Decreasing fertility
will decrease internode length. Internode length varies with the season. Too
little light will result in a long internode, causing a spindly stem. This
situation is known as stretch or etiolation. Growth produced early in the
season has the greatest internode length. Internode length decreases as the
growing season nears its end. Vigorously growing plants tend to have greater
internode length than less vigorous plants. Internode length will vary with
competition with surrounding stems or developing fruit. If the energy for a
stem has to be divided between three or four stems, or if the energy is
diverted into fruit growth, internode length will be shortened.

-Fig-
Parts of a Stem
-Text-

Although typical stems are above ground trunks and branches, there are
modified stems which can be found above ground and below ground. The above
ground modified stems are crowns, stolons, runners, or spurs and the
below-ground stems are bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers.

Above-ground stems called crowns (strawberries, dandelions, African violets)
are compressed stems having leaves and flowers on short internodes. Spurs
are short, stubby, side stems that arise from the main stem and are common
on such fruit trees as pears, apples, and cherries where they may bear
fruit. If severe pruning is done close to fruit bearing spurs, the spurs can
revert to a nonfruiting long stem. A stolon is a horizontal stem that is
fleshy or semiwoody and lies along the top of the ground. Strawberry runners
are examples of stolons. Remember, all stems have nodes and buds or leaves.
The leaves on strawberry runners are small but are located at the nodes,
which are easy to see. The nodes on the runner are the points where roots
begin to form. The spider plant has stolons that can produce an entirely new
plant.

Rhizomes are similar to stolons, but grow underground rather than above
ground. Some rhizomes are compressed and fleshy such as Iris; they can also
be slender with elongated internodes such as bentgrass. Johnsongrass is an
insidious weed principally because of the spreading capability of its
rhizomes.

-Fig-
Rhizomes and Stolons
-Text-

Below-ground stem variations such as the potato tuber, the tulip bulb and
the iris rhizome are underground stems that store food for the plant. The
tuber, like any other stem, has nodes that produce buds. The eyes of a
potato are actually the nodes on the stem. Each eye contains a cluster of
buds.

Tulips, lilies, daffodils, and onions are plants that produce bulbs which
are shortened compressed underground stems surrounded by fleshy scales
(leaves) that envelop a central bud located at the tip of the stem. In
November, if you cut through the center of a tulip or daffodil bulb, you can
see all the flower parts in miniature within the bulb.

Many bulbs require a period of low temperature exposure before they begin to
send up the new plant. Both the length of this treatment and the temperature
are of critical importance to commercial growers who force bulbs for
holidays. Easter lilies are especially tricky to time since the date of
Easter may vary by six weeks.

Bulbs and corms are not the same. Corms have shapes similar to bulbs, but do
not contain fleshy scales. A corm is a solid, swollen stem whose scales have
been reduced to dry, scale-like leaves.

-Fig-
Bulbs and Corms
-Text-

Some plants produce a modified stem that is referred to as a tuberous stem.
Examples are tuberous begonia and cyclamen. The stem is shortened,
flattened, enlarged, and underground. Buds and shoots arise from the top or
crown and fibrous roots are found on the bottom of the tuberous stem.

In addition, some plants such as the dahlia and the sweet potato produce an
underground storage organ called a tuberous root which is often confused
with bulbs and tubers. However, these are roots, not stems, and have neither
nodes nor internodes.

-Fig-
Tuberous Root: Begonia
Tuberous Root: Sweet Potato
-Text-

Stems are one of the most commonly used parts for plant propagation
purposes. Above ground stems can be divided into sections that contain
internodes and nodes. They are referred to as cuttings and will produce
roots thus giving rise to new plants. Below ground stems are also good
propagative tissues: rhizomes can be divided into pieces; bulbs form small
bulblets at the base of the parent bulb; cormels are miniature corms that
form under the parent corm; and tubers can be cut into pieces containing
eyes and nodes. All of these will produce new plants.

It may sometimes be difficult to distinguish between roots and stems but one
sure way is to look for the presence of nodes. Stems have nodes, roots do
not.

Types of Stems   A SHOOT is a young stem with leaves present. A TWIG is a
stem which is one-year old or less and has no leaves. It is still in the
winter dormant stage. A BRANCH is a stem which is more than one-year old,
and typically has lateral stems. A TRUNK is a main stem of a woody plant.
Most trees have a single trunk.

Trees are perennial woody plants with one, or sometimes several main trunks
which at maturity are usually more than 12 feet tall.

Shrubs are perennial woody plants which may have one or several main stems
which at maturity are usually less than 12 feet tall.

A vine is a plant which develops long trailing stems that grow along the
ground, or must be supported by another plant or structure. Some twining
vines circle the support clockwise (hops or honeysuckle) while others circle
counter-clockwise (pole beans or Dutchman's pipe vine). Climbing vines are
supported by aerial roots as in English ivy or poison ivy, or by slender
tendrils which encircle the supporting object such as in cucumber, gourds,
grapes, and Passion-flowers, or by tendrils with adhesive tips such as
Virginia and Japanese Creeper.

-Fig-
Vines: Tendril Vine
Vines: Twining Vine
Vines: Climbing Vine
Vines: Self-Attached Vine
-Text-

Texture and Growth of Stems   Woody stems contain relatively large amounts
of hardened xylem tissue in the central core, and are typical of most tree
fruits and ornamental trees and shrubs.

A cane is a stem which has a relatively large pith (the central strength
giving tissue of stem) and usually lives only one or two years. Examples of
plants with canes include rose, grape, blackberry, and raspberry.

Herbaceous or succulent stems contain only small amounts of xylem tissue and
usually live for only one growing season. If the plant is perennial, it will
develop new shoots from the root.

Plants are classified by the number of growing seasons required to complete
a life cycle. Annuals pass through their entire life cycle from seed
germination to seed production in one growing season, and then die.

Biennials are plants which start from seeds, produce vegetative structures
and food storage organs the first season. During the first winter a hardy
evergreen rosette of basal leavespersists. During the second season,
flowers, fruit and seed develop to complete the life cycle. The plant then
dies. Carrots, beets, cabbage, celery, and onions are biennial plants which
produce seed by flowers that develop the second year of growth. Hollyhock
(Althaea rosea), Canterbury bells (Campanula Medium), and Sweet William
(Dianthus barbatus) are biennials which are commonly grown for their
attractive flowers.

Plants which typically develop as biennials may in some cases complete the
cycle of growth from seed germination to seed production in only one growing
season. This situation occurs when drought, variations in temperature, or
other climatic conditions cause the plant to pass through the equivalent of
two growing seasons physiologically, in a single growing season. This
phenomenon is referred to as bolting.

Perennial plants live for many years and after reaching maturity typically
produce flowers and seeds each year. Perennials are classified as herbaceous
if the top dies back to the ground each winter and new stems grow from the
roots each spring. They are classified as woody if the top persists, as in
shrubs or trees.

Stems as Food   The edible portion of several cultivated plants such as
asparagus and kohlrabi is an enlarged succulent stem. The edible parts of
broccoli are composed of stem tissue, flower buds and a few small leaves.
The edible part of the white or Irish potato, is a fleshy underground stem
called a tuber. Although the name suggests otherwise, the edible part of the
cauliflower is proliferated stem tissue. The flower of this biennial
develops from buds in the compact branched stem tissue.

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A<figure,4>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Leaves
-Text-

Parts of Leaves   The principal function of leaves is to absorb sunlight for
the manufacture of plant sugars in a process called photosynthesis. Leaves
develop into a flattened surface to present a large area for efficient
absorption of light energy. The leaf is supported away from the stem by a
stem-like appendage called a petiole. The base of the petiole is attached to
the stem at the node. The smaller angle formed between the petiole and the
stem is called the leaf axil. An active or dormant bud or cluster of buds is
usually located in the axil.

The leaf blade is composed of several layers. On the top and bottom, is a
layer of thickened tough cells called the epidermis. The primary function of
the epidermis is protection of leaf tissue. The way in which the cells in
the epidermis are arranged determines the texture of the leaf surface. Some
leaves have hairs that are an extension of certain cells of the epidermis.
The African violet has so many that the leaf feels like velvet.

Part of the epidermis is the cuticle which produces a waxy layer called
cutin that protects the leaf from dehydration and prevents penetration of
some diseases. The amount of cutin is a direct response to sunlight,
increasing with increasing light intensity. For this reason, plants grown in
the shade should be moved into full sunlight gradually, over a period of a
few weeks to allow the cutin layer to build and to protect the leaves from
the shock of rapid water loss or sunscald. The waxy cutin also repels water
and can shed pesticides if spreadersticker agents or soaps are not used.
This is the reason many pesticide manufacturers include some sort of spray
additive to adhere to or penetrate the cutin layer.

On the underside of leaves some epidermal cells are capable of opening and
closing. These cells guard the interior of the leaf and regulate the passage
of water, oxygen, and carbondioxide through the leaf. These regulatory cells
are called guard cells. They protect openings in the leaf surface called
stomata. The opening and closing of the cells are determined by the weather.
Conditions that would cause large water losses from plants (high
temperature, low humidity) stimulate guard cells to close. Mild weather
conditions leave guard cells in an open condition. Guard cells will close in
the absence of light.

The middle layer of the leaf is the mesophyll and is located between the
upper and lower epidermis. This is the layer in which photosynthesis occurs.
The mesophyll is divided into a dense upper layer called the palisade and a
lower layer of cells that contains lots of air space, the spongy parenchyma
layer. The cells in these two layers contain chloroplasts which are the
actual site of the photosynthetic process.

-Fig-
Leaf Parts: model 1
Leaf Parts: model 2
-Text-


Types of Leaves:  A number of rather distinct types of leaves occur on
plants. Leaves commonly referred to as foliage are the most common and
conspicuous, and as previously stated, serve as the manufacturing centers
where the photosynthetic activity of the plant occurs. Scale leaves or
cataphylls are found on rhizomes and are also the small leathery protective
leaves which enclose and protect the bud. Seed leaves or cotyledons are
modified leaves which are found on the embryonic plant and commonly serve as
storage organs. Spines and tendrils as found on barberry and pea are
specialized modified leaves which protect the plant or assist in supporting
the stems. Storage leaves as are found in bulbous plants and succulents
serve as food storage organs. Other specialized leaves include bracts which
are often brightly colored. The showy structures on dogwood and poinsettias
are bracts, not petals.

Parts of a Leaf   The blade of a leaf is the expanded thin structure on
either side of the midrib. The blade usually is the largest and most
conspicuous part of a leaf.

The petiole is the stalk which supports the leaf blade. It varies in length
or may be lacking entirely in some cases where the leaf blade is described
as sessile or stalkless.

-Fig-
Leaf Shapes
-Text-

Venation of Leaves:  The vascular bundles from the stem extend through the
petiole and spread out in the blade. The term venation refers to the
patterns in which the veins are distributed in the blade. Two principal
types of venation are parallel-veined and net-veined.

Parallel-veined leaves are those in which there are numerous veins which run
essentially parallel to each other and are connected laterally by minute
straight veinlets. Possibly the most common type of parallel-veining is that
found in plants of the grass family where the veins run from the base to the
apex of the leaf. Another type of parallel-venation is found in plants such
as banana, calla, and pickerel-weed where the parallel veins run laterally
from the midrib. Parallel-veined leaves occur on plants which are part of
the monocotyledon group.

Net-veined leaves, also called reticulate-veined, have veins which branch
from the main rib or ribs and then subdivide in finer veinlets which then
unite in a complicated network. This system of enmeshed veins gives the leaf
more resistance to tearing than is true for most parallel-veined leaves.
Net-venation may be either pinnate or palmate. In pinnate venation the veins
extend laterally from the midrib to the edge such as in apple, cherry and
peach. Palmate venation occurs in grape and maple leaves where the principal
veins extend outward, like the ribs of a fan, from the petiole near the base
of the leaf blade. Net-veined leaves occur on plants which are part of the
dicotyledon group.

-Fig-
Types of Venation
-Text-

Leaves as a Means of Identifying Plants:  Leaves are useful in identifying
species and varieties of horticultural plants. The shape of the leaf blade,
and the type of margin, are of major importance in identifying
characteristics.

Leaf shape:   The leaves of plants have characteristic shapes which may be
used in identifying species and varieties. Simple leaves are those in which
the leaf blade is a single continuous unit. A compound leaf is composed of
several separate leaflets arising from the same petiole. A deeply lobed leaf
may appear similar to a compound leaf but if the leaflets are connected by
narrow bands of blade tissue it may be classified as a simple leaf. If the
leaflets have separate stalks and particularly if these stalks are jointed
at the point of union with the main leaf-stalk, the leaf is considered to be
compound. Some leaves may be doubly compound, having divisions of the
leaflets.

-Fig-
Leaf Shapes
-Text-

Shape of the leaf blade:   The following are some common shapes which are
found in leaves and leaflets.

Linear:   narrow, several times longer than wide and of approximately the same
          width throughout.
Lanceolate:  longer than wide and tapering toward the apex and base.
Elliptical:  about 2 or 3 times as long as wide, tapering to acute or rounded
             apex and base.
Ovate:  egg-shaped, basal portion wide, tapering toward the apex.
Cordate or Heart-shaped:  broadly ovate tapering to acute apex, with the base
                          turning in and forming a notch where the petiole is
                          attached.

-Fig-
Leaf Blade Shapes
Leaf Apex and Base
-Text-

Shape of the leaf apex and base:   The following are common shapes found in
leaves.

Acuminate:  tapering to a long, narrow point.
Acute:  ending in an acute angle, with sharp but not acuminate point.
Obtuse:  tapering to a rounded edge.
Sagittate:  arrowhead shaped, two pointed lower lobes.
Truncate:  having a relatively square end.

Leaf margins:   The type of margin of a leaf is especially useful in the
identification of certain varieties of fruit plants. The following are the
most common forms of leaf margins.

Entire:  a smooth edge with no teeth or notches.
Serrate:  having small sharp teeth pointing toward the apex.
Dentate:  having teeth ending in an acute angle pointing outward.
Crenate:  having rounded teeth.
Sinuate:  having a pronounced sinuous or wavy margin.
Incised:  margin cut into sharp, deep, irregular teeth or incisions.
Lobed:  incisions extend less than halfway to the midrib.
Cleft:  when incisions extend deeper than halfway to the midrib.

-Fig-
Leaf Margins
-Text-

Leaf arrangement along a stem:  The various ways leaves are arranged along a
stem are also used to help identify plants. Rosulate arrangement is one in
which the basal leaves form a rosette around the stem with extremely short
nodes. Opposite leaves are positioned across the stem from each other, two
leaves at each node. Alternate or spiral leaves are arranged in alternate
steps along the stem with only one leaf at each node. Whorled leaves are
arranged in circles along the stem.

-Fig-
Leaf Arrangement along the Stem
-Text-

Leaves as Food:  The leaf blade is the principal edible part of several
horticultural crops including chive, collard, dandelion, endive, kale, leaf
lettuce, mustard, parsley, spinach, and Swiss chard. The edible part of
leek, onion, and Florence fennel is a cluster of fleshy leaf bases. The
petiole of the leaf is the edible product in celery and rhubarb. In plants
like Brussels sprout, cabbage and head lettuce, the leaves in the form of a
large naked bud, are the edible product.

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A<figure,5>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Buds
-Text-

A bud is an undeveloped shoot from which embryonic leaves or flower parts
arise. The buds of trees and shrubs of the temperate zone typically develop
a protective outer layer of small leathery bud scales. Annual plants and
herbaceous perennials have naked buds inwhich the outer leaves are green and
somewhat succulent.

Buds of many plants require exposure to a certain number of days below a
critical temperature (rest) before they will resume growth in the spring.
This time period varies for different plants. The flower buds of forsythia
require a relatively short rest period and will grow at the first sign of
warm weather. Many peach varieties require from 700 to 1000 hours of
temperatures below 45 F (7C) before they will resume growth. During rest,
dormant buds can withstand very low temperatures, but after the rest period
is satisfied, buds become more susceptible to weather conditions and can be
damaged easily by cold temperatures or frost.

A Leaf Bud is composed of a short stem with embryonic leaves, with bud
primordia in their axils and at the apex. Such buds develop into leafy
shoots. Leaf buds are often less plump and more pointed than flower buds.

A Flower Bud is composed of a short stem with embryonic flower parts. In
some cases the flower buds of plants which produce fruit crops of economic
importance are called fruit buds. This terminology is objectionable because,
although flowers have the potential for developing into fruits, this
development may never occur because of adverse weather conditions, lack of
pollination, or other unfavorable circumstances. The structure is a flower
bud, and should be so designated since it may never set fruit.

-Fig-
Leaf and Flower Buds of Elm
-Text-

Location of Buds:  Buds are named for the location which they inhabit on the
stem surface. Terminal buds are those which are located at the apex of a
stem. Lateral buds are borne on the sides of the stem. Most lateral buds
arise in the axis of a leaf and are called axillary buds. In some instances
more than one bud is formed. Adventitious buds are those which arise at
sites other than in the terminal or axillary position. Adventitious buds may
develop from the internode of the stem, at the edge of a leaf blade, from
callus tissue at the cut end of a stem or root, or laterally from the roots
of plants.

Buds as foods   Enlarged buds or parts of buds form the edible portion of
some horticultural crops. Cabbage and head lettuce are examples of unusually
large terminal buds.Succulent axillary buds of Brussels sprouts become the
edible part of of Globe Artichoke, the fleshy basal portion of the bracts of
the flower bud are eaten along with the solid stem portion of the bud.
Broccoli is the most important horticultural plant in which edible flower
buds are consumed. In this case portions of the stem as well as small leaves
associated with the flower buds, are eaten.


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A<figure,6>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Roots
-Text-

A thorough knowledge of the root system of plants is essential if their
growth, flowering, and fruiting responses are to be understood. The
structure and growth habits of roots have a pronounced effect on the size
and vigor of the plant, method of propagation, adaptation to certain soil
types, and responses to cultural practices and irrigation. The roots of
certain vegetable crops are important as food.

Roots typically originate from the lower portion of a plant or cutting. They
possess a root cap, have no nodes, and never bear leaves or flowers
directly. The principal functions of roots are to absorb nutrients and
moisture, anchor the plant in the soil, furnish physical support for the
stem and serve as food storage organs. In some plants, they may be used as a
means of propagation.

Types of Roots   A primary root originates at the lower end of the embryo of
a seedling plant. A taproot is formed when the primary root continues to
elongate downward into the soil and becomes the central and most important
feature of the root system with a somewhat limited amount of secondary
branching. Some trees, especially nut trees like pecan, have a long taproot
with very few lateral or fibrous roots which causes them to be difficult to
transplant and necessitates that they be planted only in deep well-drained
soil. The taproot of carrot, parsnip, and salsify, is the principal edible
part of these crops.

A lateral or secondary root is a side or branch root which arises from
another root. A fibrous root is one which remains small in diameter because
of very little cambial activity. One factor which causes shrubs and dwarf
trees to remain smaller than standard or large size trees is the inactivity
of the cambium tissue in the roots.

A fibrous root system is one in which the primary root ceases to elongate,
and numerous lateral roots develop, which branch repeatedly and form the
feeding root system of the plant.

If plants that normally develop a taproot are undercut so that the taproot
is severed early in the plant's life, the root will lose its taproot
characteristic and develop a fibrous root system. This is done commercially
in nurseries so trees, which naturally have tap roots, will develop a
compact, fibrous root system. This allows high transplanting success in the
field.

-Fig-
Taproot of Carrot and Fibrous Root of Grass
-Text-

The quantity and distribution of plant roots is very important because these
two factors have a major influence on the absorption of moisture and
nutrients by roots. The depth and spread of the roots are dependent on the
inherent growth characteristics of the plant, and the texture and structure
of the soil. Roots will penetrate much deeper in a loose well-drained soil,
than in a heavy, poorly-drained one. A dense compacted layer in the soil
will restrict or terminate root growth.

During early development, a seedling plant absorbs nutrients and moisture
from the soil which is within a few inches of the location of the seed from
which the plant grew. Therefore, the early growth of most horticultural
crops which are seeded in rows, benefits from band application of fertilizer
several inches on each side and slightly below the location of the seeds.

As plants become well established, the root system develops laterally and
usually extends somewhat beyond the spread of the branches. For most
cultivated crops, roots meet and overlap between the rows. The greatest
concentration of fibrous roots occurs in the top foot of soil, but
significant numbers of laterals may grow downward from these roots to
provide an effective absorption system several feet deep.

-Fig-
Root Structure: part A
Root Structure: part B
-Text-

Parts of a Root:  Internally there are three major parts of a root. The
meristem is at the tip and manufactures new cells; it is an area of cell
division and growth. Behind it is the zone of elongation. In this area,
cells increase in size through food and water absorption. These cells, by
increasing in size, push the root through the soil. The third is the
maturation zone where cells undergo changes to become specific tissues such
as epidermis,cortex, or vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost
layer of cells surrounding the root. These cells are responsible for the
absorption of water and minerals dissolved in water. Cortex cells are
involved in the movement of water from the epidermis and in food storage.
Vascular tissue is located in the center of the root and conducts food and
water.

Externally, there are two areas of importance, root hairs and the root cap.
Root hairs are found along the main root and perform much of the actual work
of water nutrient absorption. The root cap is the outermost tip of the root
and consists of cells that are sloughed off as the root grows through the
soil. The meristem, the area of cell division, is behind the root cap and is
protected by it. The parts of a root are illustrated on the next page.

Roots as Food Crops   The enlarged root is the edible portion of several
vegetable crops. The sweet potato is a swollen root called a tuberous root
which serves as a food storage area for the plant. Carrot, parsnip, salsify,
and the radish, are elongated taproots.

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A<figure,7>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Flowers
-Text-

The flower, which is generally the showiest part of the plant has as its
sole function, sexual reproduction. Its attractiveness and fragrance have
not evolved to please man but to ensure the continuance of the species.
Fragrance and color are devices to attract pollinators, insects that play an
important role in the reproductive process.

Binomial nomenclature is the scientific system of giving a double name to
each plant or animal. The first or genus name is followed by a descriptive
or species name. Modern plant classification or taxonomy, is based on a
system of binomial nomenclature developed by the Swedish physician, Carl von
Linne (Linneanus). Prior to Linneaus people had tried to base classification
on the leaf shape, plant size, flower color, etc. None of these systems
proved workable. Linneaus's revolutionary approach was to base
classification on the flowers and/or reproductive parts of a plant and to
give plants a genus and species name. This has proven to be the best system
since flowers are the plant part least influenced by environmental changes.
For this reason, a knowledge of the flower and its parts is essential for
anyone who is interested in plant identification.

Parts of the Flower   As the reproductive part of the plant, the flower
contains the male pollen and/or the female ovule plus accessory parts such
as petals, sepals, and nectar glands.

-Fig-
Parts of a Flower
-Text-

Sepals are small green leaf-like structures on the base of the flower to
protect the flower bud. The sepals collectively are called the calyx.

Petals are highly colored portions of the flower. They may contain perfume
as well as nectar glands. The number of petals on a flower is often used in
the identification of plant families and genera. The petals collectively are
called the corolla. Flowers of dicots typically have sepals and/or petals in
numbers of four, five or multiples thereof. Monocots typically have these
floral parts in threes or multiples of three.

The pistil is the female part of the plant. It is generally shaped like a
bowling pin and located in the center of the flower. It consists of the
stigma, style, and  ovary. The stigma is located at the top and is connected
by the style to the ovary. The ovary contains the eggs which reside in the
ovules. After the egg is fertilized the ovule develops into a seed.

The stamen is the male reproductive organ and consists of a pollen sac
called the anther and a long supporting filament which holds the anther in
position so that the pollen it contains may be disbursed by wind or carried
to the stigma by pollinating insects or birds.

Types of Flowers   If a flower has stamen, pistils, petals, and sepals, it
is called a complete flower. If one of these parts is missing, the flower is
designated incomplete. If a flower contains functional stamens and pistils,
it is called a perfect flower. These are considered the essential parts of a
flower and are involved in the seed producing process. If either of the
essential parts is lacking, the flower is imperfect. Pistillate (female)
flowers are those which possess a functional pistil or pistils but lack
stamens. Staminate (male) flowers contain stamens but no pistils.

Because cross fertilization combines different genetic material and produces
stronger seed, cross pollinated plants are usually more successful than self
pollinated plants. Consequently, more plants reproduce by cross pollination
than self pollination.

There are plants which bear only male flowers (staminate plants) or bear
only female flowers (pistillate plants). Species in which the sexes are
separated into staminate and pistillate plants are called dioecious. Most
holly trees are either male or female plants. Therefore, to get berries it
is necessary to have a female tree and a male tree nearby that will provide
pollen. Monecious plants are ones which have separate male and female
flowers on the same plant. Corn plants and pecan trees are examples. Some
plants bear only male flowers at the beginning of the growing season but
later develop both sexes; for example, cucumbers and squash.

How Seeds Form   Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a
stigma. This may occur by wind or by pollinators. Wind pollinated flowers
lack showy floral parts and nectar since they don't need to attract a
pollinator. Flowers are brightly colored or patterned and contain a
fragrance or nectar when they must attract insects, animals or birds. In the
process of searching for nectar, these pollinators will transfer pollen from
flower to flower.

The stigma contains a chemical which excites the pollen, causing it to grow
a long tube down the inside of the style to the ovules inside the ovary. The
sperm is released by the pollen grain and fertilization typically occurs.
Fertilization is the union of the male sperm nucleus from the pollen grain
and the female egg found in the ovary. If fertilization is successful, the
ovule will develop into a seed.

Types of Inflorescences    Some plants bear only one flower per stem and are
called solitary flowers. Other plants produce an inflorescence, a term which
refers to a cluster of flowers and how they are arranged on a floral stem.
Most inflorescences may be classified into two groups, racemes and cymes. In
the racemose group, the florets, which are individual flowers in an
inflorescence, bloom from the bottom of the stem and progress toward the
top. Some examples of racemose inflorescence include spike, raceme, corymb,
umbel and head. A spike is an inflorescence in which many stemless florets
are attached to an elongated flower stem or peduncle, an example being
gladiolus. A raceme is similar to a spike except the florets are borne on
small stems attached to the peduncle. An example of a raceme inflorescence
is the snapdragon. A corymb is made up of florets whose stalks, pedicels,
are arranged at random along the peduncle in such a way that the florets
create a flat round top. Yarrow has a corymb inflorescence. An umbel is
similar except that the pedicels all arise from one point on the peduncle.
Dill has an umbel inflorescence. A head or composite inflorescence is made
up of numerous stemless florets which is characteristic of daisy
inflorescence.

The second group of inflorescences is called a cyme. In this case the top
floret opens first and blooms downward along the peduncle. A dischasium cyme
has florets opposite each other along the peduncle. Baby's breath
inflorescence is an example. A helicoid cyme is one in which the lower
florets are all on the same side of the peduncle, examples being freesia and
statice inflorescences. A scorpioid cyme is one in which the florets are
alternate to each other along the peduncle. Examples are tomato and potato
inflorescences.

-Fig-
Inflorescene Types
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,8>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Fruits
-Text-

Parts of Fruit    Fruit consists of the fertilized and mature ovules called
seeds and the ovary wall which may be fleshy as in the apple or dry and hard
as in a maple fruit. The only parts of the fruit which are genetically
representative of both the male flower and female flower are the seeds
(mature ovules). The rest of the fruit arises from the maternal plant and is
therefore genetically identical to that parent plant. Some fruits have seeds
enclosed within the ovary (apples, peaches, oranges, squash, cucumbers).
Others have seeds that are situated on the periphery of fruit tissue (corn
cob, strawberry flesh).

Types of Fruit    Fruits can be classified as simple fruits, aggregate
fruits, or multiple fruits. Simple fruits are those which develop from a
single ovary. These include fruits such as cherries, and peaches (drupe),
pears, and apples (pome), and tomatoes (berries). Tomatoes are a botanical
fruit since they develop from the flower as do squash, cucumbers, eggplant.
All of these fruits develop from a single ovary. Other types of simple fruit
are dry. The fruit wall in these fruits becomes papery or leathery and hard
as opposed to the fleshy examples just mentioned. Examples are peanut
(legumes) poppy (capsule) maple (samara) and walnut (nut). An aggregate
fruit comes from a single flower which has many ovaries. The flower appears
as a simple flower with one corolla, one calyx, and one stem but with many
pistils or ovaries. Examples are strawberry, raspberry, and blackberry. The
ovaries are fertilized separately and independently. If ovules are not
pollinated successfully, the fruit will be misshapen and imperfect.

-Fig-
Multiple Fruit
Aggregate Fruit
-Text-

Multiple fruits are derived from a tight cluster of separate, independent
flowers borne on a single structure. Each flower will have its own calyx and
corolla. Examples of multiple fruits are pineapple, fig, and the beet seed.
Multiple fruits are not common in Virginia.

-Fig-
Kinds of Fruit: Pome Simple
Kinds of Fruit: Drupe Simple
Kinds of Fruit: Dry Fruit Simple
Kinds of Fruit: Berry Aggregate
Kinds of Fruit: Cone
Kinds of Fruit: Multiple
-Text-

The seed or matured ovule is made up of 3 parts. The embryo is a miniature
plant in an arrested state of development. Most seeds contain a built-in
food supply called the endosperm (orchid is an exception). The endosperm can
be made up of proteins, carbohydrates or fats. The third part is the hard
outer covering, called a seed coat, which protects the seed from disease and
insects and prevents water from entering the seed and initiating the
germination process before the proper time.

-Fig-
Parts of a Seed: Beta Vulgaris
Parts of a Seed: Phaseolus Vulgaris
Parts of a Seed: Allium Cepa
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,9>
-Title-
 PLANT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
-SubTitle-
 Seedlings
-Text-

Germination is the resumption of active growth of the embryo. Prior to any
visual signs, the seed must imbibe water through the seed coat. In addition,
the seed must be in the proper environmental conditions; that is, exposed to
oxygen, favorable temperatures and for some, correct light. The radicle is
the first part of the seedling to emerge from the seed. It will develop into
the primary root from which root hairs and lateral roots will develop. The
portion of the seedling between the radicle and the first leaf-like
structure is called the hypocotyl. The seed leaves, cotyledons, encase the
embryo and are usually different in shape from the leaves that the mature
plant will produce. Plants producing one cotyledon fall into the group of
monocotyledons. Plants producing two seed leaves are called dicotyledon.

-Fig-
Germination: Dicot and Monocot
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,210>
-Title-
 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
-Text-

The three major plant functions that are the basics for plant growth and
development are photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration.

-Fig-
How a Plant Grows
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,11>
-Title-
 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
-SubTitle-
 Photosynthesis
-Text-

One of the major differences between plants and animals is the plant's
ability to manufacture its own food. To produce food for itself, a plant
requires energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide from the air, and water from
the soil. If any of these ingredients is lacking, photosynthesis, or food
production will stop. If any factor is removed for a long period of time,
the plant will die. Photosynthesis literally means "to put together with
light."

-Fig-
Photosythesis
-Text-

Plants can store the energy from light in carbohydrates such as sugars and
starches for use during days when light is limited or they can transport
these chemicals to the roots. Sugars and starches are converted back to
water and carbon dioxide and the stored energy is released to perform
activities necessary for growth in a process called respiration.

Only cells in the mesophyll layer of the plant leaves and stems can
manufacture energy.These cells, which contain chloroplasts, are located
between, and protected by, the upper and lower epidermis (skin) of the leaf.
The green pigment, chlorophyll, that is found in the chloroplasts of these
cells traps light energy so it can be used to manufacture sugar and
starches.

-Fig-
Leaf Cross Section
-Text-

Photosynthesis is dependent on the availability of light. Generally
speaking, as sunlight increases in intensity, photosynthesis increases. This
means greater food production. Many garden crops, such as tomatoes, respond
best to maximum sunlight. Tomato production is cut drastically as light
intensities drop. Only two or three varieties of tomatoes will produce any
fruit at all in greenhouses in late fall and early spring months when
sunlight is minimal.

Water plays an important role in photosynthesis in several ways. First, it
maintains a plant's turgor or the firmness or fullness of plant tissue.
Turgor pressure in a cell can be compared to air in an inflated balloon.
Water pressure or turgor is needed in plant cells to maintain shape and
insure cell growth. Second, water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by the
energy of the sun that has been absorbed by the chlorophyll in the plant
leaves. The oxygen is released to the atmosphere and the hydrogen is used in
the manufacture of carbohydrates. Third, water dissolves minerals from the
soil, transports them from the roots and throughout the plant where they
serve as raw materials in the growth of new plant tissues. The soil
surrounding a plant should be moist but not too wet or too dry. Water is
pulled through the plant by evaporation of water through the leaves, a
process called transpiration. When the guard cells in leaves shrink, thus
opening the stomata, water is lost from the leaf.

Photosynthesis also requires carbon dioxide (CO2) which enters the plant
through the stomata. Carbon dioxide is split into carbon and oxygen which
are used in the manufacture of carbohydrates. Carbon dioxide in the air is
plentiful enough so that it is not a limiting factor in plant growth.
However, since carbon dioxide is consumed in making sugars and is not
replenished by plants at a rapid rate, a tightly closed greenhouse in
midwinter may not allow enough outside air to enter the greenhouse to
maintain an adequate carbon dioxide level. Under these conditions improved
crops of roses, carnations, tomatoes, and certain other crops are produced
if the carbon dioxide level is raised with carbon dioxide generators or, in
small greenhouses, dry ice.

Although not a direct component in photosynthesis, temperature is an
important factor.Photosynthesis occurs at its highest rate in a temperature
range of 65 to 85 degrees F (18 to 27 degree C) and decreases with
temperatures above or below this range.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,12>
-Title-
 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
-SubTitle-
 Respiration
-Text-

Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis are of value to the plant when they
are converted to energy. This energy is used in the process of building new
tissues or growth of the plant. The chemical process by which sugars and
starches produced by photosynthesis are converted to energy is called
oxidation. It is similar to the burning of wood or coal to produce heat.
Controlled oxidation in a living cell is known as respiration and is shown
most simply by this equation:

-Fig-
Respiration Equation
-Text-

This equation is just the opposite of that used to illustrate
photosynthesis. Therefore, photosynthesis may be called a building process,
while respiration is a breaking down process.

          Photosynthesis                     Respiration

     1. Produces food                   1. Uses food for plant energy
     2. Energy is stored                2. Energy is released
     3. Occurs in cells that            3. Occurs in all cells
        contain chloroplasts
     4. Oxygen is released              4. Oxygen is used
     5. Water is used                   5. Water is produced
     6. Carbon dioxide is used          6. Carbon dioxide is produced
     7. Occurs in sunlight              7. Occurs in dark as well as light


By now it should be clear that respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis.
Unlike photosynthesis, respiration occurs at night as well as during the
day. Respiration occurs in all life forms and in all cells. The release of
accumulated carbon dioxide and the uptake of oxygen occurs at the cell
level. In animals, blood carries both carbon dioxide and oxygen to and from
the atmosphere by means of the lungs or gills. In plants, there is simple
diffusion into the open spaces within the leaf and exchange through the
stomates.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
-SubTitle-
 Transpiration
-Text-

Transpiration is the process by which a plant loses water primarily from
leaf stomata. Transpiration is a necessary process that involves the use of
about 90% of the water that enters the plant through the roots. The other
10% of the water is used in chemical reactions and in plant tissues.
Transpiration is necessary for mineral transport from the soil to the plant
parts, for the cooling of plant parts through evaporation, to move sugars
and plant chemicals, and for the maintenance of turgor pressure. The amount
of water lost from the plant depends on several environmental factors such
as temperature, humidity, and wind or air movement. As temperatures or air
movement increase, transpiration increases. As humidity decreases,
transpiration increases.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT PLANT GROWTH
-Text-

Plant growth and distribution are limited by the environment. If any one
environmental factor is less than ideal, it will become a limiting factor in
plant growth. Limiting factors are also responsible for the geography of
plant distribution. For example, only plants adapted to limited amounts of
water can live in deserts. Most plant problems are caused by environmental
stress, either directly or indirectly. Therefore, it is important to
understand the environmental aspects that affect plant growth. These factors
are light, temperature, water, humidity, and nutrition.

-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT PLANT GROWTH
-SubTitle-
 Effect of Light on Plant Growth
-Text-

Light has three principal characteristics that affect plant growth. These
are light quantity, light quality, and light duration. Light quantity refers
to the intensity or concentration of sunlight and varies with the season of
the year. The maximum is present in the summer and the minimum in winter.
The more sunlight a plant receives, up to a point, the better capacity it
has to produce plant food through photosynthesis. As the sunlight quantity
decreases, the photosynthetic process decreases. Light quantity can be
decreased in a garden or greenhouse by using cheesecloth shading above the
plants. It can be increased by surrounding plants with reflective material,
white backgrounds, or supplemental lights.

Light quality refers to the color or wavelength reaching the plant surface.
Sunlight can be broken up by a prism into respective colors of red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. On a rainy day, raindrops act as
tiny prisms and break the sunlight into these colors, producing a rainbow.
Red and blue light have the greatest effect on plant growth. Green light is
least effective to plants as they reflect green light and absorb none. It is
this reflected light that makes them appear green to us. Blue light is
primarily responsible for vegetative growth or leaf growth. Red light, when
combined with blue light, encourages flowering in plants. Fluorescent light
or cool white is high in the blue range of light quality and is used to
encourage leafy growth. Such light would be excellent for starting
seedlings. Incandescent light is high in the red or orange range, but
generally produces too much heat to be a valuable light source. Fluorescent
grow lights have a mixture of red and blue colors that attempts to imitate
sunlight as closely as possible, but they are costly and generally not of
any greater value than regular fluorescent lights.

Light duration refers to the amount of time that a plant is exposed to
sunlight or the lack of it and is designated photoperiod. When photoperiod
was recognized it was thought that the length of periods of light triggered
flowering. The various categories of response were named according to the
light length (i.e., short day and long day). It was then discovered that it
is not the length of the light period but the length of uninterrupted dark
periods that is critical to floral development. The ability of many plants
to flower is controlled by photoperiod. Plants can be classified into three
categories, depending upon their flowering response to the duration of light
or darkness. These are short-day, long-day, or day-neutral plants. Short-day
plants form their flowers only when the day length is less than about 12
hours in duration. Short-day plants include many spring and fall flowering
plants such as chrysanthemum and poinsettia. Long-day plants form flowers
only at day lengths exceeding 12 hours (shortnights).They include almost all
of the summer flowering plants such as rudbeckia and California poppy, as
well as many vegetables including beet, radish, lettuce, spinach, and
potato. Day-neutral plants form flowers regardless of day length. Some
plants do not really fit into any category but may be responsive to
combinations of day lengths. The petunia will flower regardless of day
length, but flowers earlier and more profusely under long daylight. Since
chrysanthemums flower under the short days of spring, or fall, the method of
manipulating the plant into experiencing short days is very simple. Iflong
days are predominant, a shade cloth is drawn over the chrysanthemum for 12
hours daily to block out light until flower buds are initiated. To bring a
long-day plant into flower when sunlight is not longer than 12 hours,
artificial light is added until flower buds are initiated.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT PLANT GROWTH
-SubTitle-
 Effect of Temperature on Plant Growth
-Text-

Temperature affects the productivity and growth of a plant, depending upon
whether the plant is a warm or cool season crop. If temperatures are high
and day length is long, cool season crops such as spinach will flower.
Temperatures that are too low for a warm season crop such as tomato will
prevent fruit set. Adverse temperatures also cause stunted growth and poor
quality vegetable production; for example, bitterness in lettuce which is
caused by high temperatures.

Sometimes temperatures are used in connection with day length to manipulate
the flowering of plants. Chrysanthemums will flower for a longer period of
time if daylight temperatures are 59 degrees F (15 degrees C). The Christmas
cactus forms flowers as a result of short days and low temperatures.
Temperatures alone also influence flowering. Daffodils are forced to flower
by putting the bulbs in cold storage in October at 35 to 40 degrees F (2 to
4 degrees C). The cold temperatures allow the bulb to mature. The bulbs are
transferred to the greenhouse in midwinter where growth begins. The flowers
are then ready for cutting in 3 to 4 weeks.

Thermoperiod refers to a daily temperature change. Plants respond to and
produce maximum growth when exposed to a day temperature that is about 10 to
15 degrees higher than a night temperature. This allows the plant to
photosynthesize (build up) and respire (break down) during an optimum
daytime temperature and to curtail the rate of respiration during a cooler
night. Temperatures higher than needed cause increased respiration,
sometimes above the rate of photosynthesis. This means that the products of
photosynthesis are being used more rapidly than they are being produced. For
growth to occur, photosynthesis must be greater than respiration.

Too low temperatures can produce poor growth. Photosynthesis is slowed down
at low temperatures. Since photosynthesis is slowed, growth is slowed, and
this results in lower yields. Not all plants grow best under the same
temperature range. For example, snapdragons grow best at nighttime
temperatures of 55 degrees F (12 degrees C) and the poinsettia at 62 degrees
F (17 degrees C). Florist cyclamen does very well under very cool conditions
while many bedding plants prefer a higher temperature. Recently it has been
found that roses can tolerate much lower nighttime temperatures than
previously believed. This has meant a conservation in energy for greenhouse
growers.

However, in some cases, a certain number of days of low temperature are
needed by plants in order to grow properly. This is true of crops growing in
cold regions of the country. Peaches are a prime example: most varieties
require 700 to 1,000 hours below 45 degrees F (7 degrees C) but above 32
degrees F (0 degrees C) before they break their rest period and begin
growth. Lilies need 6 weeks of temperatures at 33 degrees F (1 degree C)
before blooming.

Plants can be classified as either hardy or nonhardy depending upon their
ability to withstand cold temperatures. Winter injury can occur to nonhardy
plants if temperatures are too low or if unseasonably low temperatures occur
early in the fall or late in the spring. Winter injury may also occur
because of desiccation or drying out. Plants need water during the winter.
When the soil is frozen, the movement of water into the plant isseverely
restricted. On a windy winter day, broadleaf evergreens can become
water-deficient in a few minutes and the leaves or needles then turn brown.
Wide vari winter temperatures can cause premature bud break in some plants
and consequent fruit bud freezing damage. Late spring frosts can ruin entire
peach crops. If temperatures drop too low during the winter, entire trees of
some species are killed by freezing and splitting plant cells and tissue.

Review of Temperature Effects on Plant Growth:

Photosynthesis: increases with temperature to a point
Respiration: rapidly increases with temperature
Transpiration: increases with temperature
Flowering: may be partially triggered by temperature
Sugar storage: low temperatures reduce energy use and increase sugar storage
Break dormancy: after a period of low temperature, dormancy will be broken
                and the plant will resume active growth


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,17>
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT PLANT GROWTH
-SubTitle-
 Importance of Water
-Text-

As mentioned earlier, water is a primary component in photosynthesis. It
maintains the turgor pressure or firmness of tissue and transports nutrients
throughout the plant. In maintaining turgor pressure, water is the major
constituent of the protoplasm of a cell. By means of turgor pressure and
other changes in the cell, water regulates the opening and closing of the
stomates, thus regulating transpiration. Water also provides the pressure to
move a root through the soil. Among water's most critical roles is that of
solvent for minerals moving into the plant and for carbohydrates moving to
their site of use or storage. It is important in the chemical reactions of
photosynthesis and respiration. By its gradual evaporation from the surface
of the leaf near the stomate, water helps stabilize the temperature of the
plant.

Relative Humidity is the ratio of water vapor in the air at a given
temperature and pressure, to the amount of water the air could hold at that
temperature and pressure, expressed as a percent. For example, if a pound of
air at 75 degrees F could hold 4 grams of water vapor and there are only 3
grams of water in the air, then the relative humidity (RH) is :


         RH=water in air/ water air could hold (at constant temperature and
         pressure)

         or RH = 3/4 =.75 expressed as a % = 75%

Warm air can hold more water vapor than cold air, therefore, if the amount
of water in the air stays the same and the temperature increases, the
relative humidity decreases.

Water vapor will move from an area of high relative humidity to one of low
relative humidity. The greater the difference in humidity the faster water
will move.

The relative humidity in the air space between the cells within the leaf
approaches 100%, therefore, when the stomate is open the water vapor rushes
out. As water moves out a bubble of high humidity is formed around the
stomate. This bubble of humidity helps slow down transpiration and cool the
leaf. If winds blow the humidity bubble away, transpiration will increase.

-Fig-
Cross Section of Leaf
-End-


-Title-
 PLANT NUTRITION
-Text-

Many people confuse plant nutrition with plant fertilization. Plant
nutrition refers to the needs and uses of the basic chemical elements in the
plant. Fertilization is the term used when these materials are supplied to
the environment around the plant. A lot must happen before a chemical
element, supplied in a fertilizer, can be taken up and used by the plant.

Plants need 17 elements for normal growth. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are
found in air and water. Nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
phosphorous, and sulfur are found in the soil. The above six elements are
used in relatively large amounts by the plant and are called macronutrients.
There are eight other elements that are used in much smaller amounts and are
called micronutrients or trace elements. The micronutrients, which are found
in the soil, are iron, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt,
and chlorine. All 17 elements, both macronutrients and micronutrients, are
essential for plant growth.

Most of the nutrients that a plant needs are dissolved in water and then
absorbed by the roots. Ninety-eight percent of these plant nutrients are
absorbed from the soil solution and only about 2% are actually extracted
from the soil particles by the root. Most of the nutrient elements are
absorbed as charged ions, or pieces of molecules (which are the smallest
particle of a substance that can exist and still retain the characteristics
of the substance). Ions may be positively charged cations or negatively
charged anions. Positive and negative are equally paired so that there is no
overall charge. For example, nitrogen may be absorbed as nitrate
(NO<e6>3</e6><e7>-</e7>) which is an anion with one negative charge. The
potassium ion (K<e7>+</e7>) is a cation with one positive charge. Potassium
nitrate (K<e7>+</e7>NO<e6>3</e6><e7>-</e7>) would be one nitrate ion and one
potassium ion. However, calcium nitrate (Ca++(NO<e6>3</e6><e7>-</e7>
)<e6>2</e6> ) would have two nitrate ions and one calcium ion because the
calcium cation had two positive charges.

The balance of ions in the soil is very important. Just as ions of the
opposite charges attract each other, ions of similar charges compete for
chemical interactions and reactions in the environment. Some ions are more
active than others or can compete better. For example, both calcium
(Ca<e7>+</e7>+) and magnesium (Mg<e7>+</e7>+) are cations with two charges,
however, magnesium is more active. If both are in competition to be
absorbed, the magnesium will beabsorbed. This explains why the results of a
soil test may indicate that while there is sufficient calcium in the soil
the plant may still exhibit a calcium deficiency because of an excess of the
more active magnesium. What may be expressed as a deficiency in one
micronutrient may really be caused by an excess of another.

In order for the ions to be easily absorbed, they must first be dissolved in
the soil solution. Some combinations of ions are easily dissolved, such as
potassium nitrate. When other ions combine, they may precipitate or fall out
of solution and thus become unavailable to the plant. Many of the
micronutrients form complex combinations with phosphorous and calcium and
precipitate out of the soil solution so the nutrients cannot be easily taken
up by the plant. The pH, which is a measurement of acidity or alkalinity,
greatly affects these chemical reactions. If the soil pH is extremely high
(alkaline), many of the micronutrients precipitate out of the solution and
are unavailable to the plant. When the soil pH is extremely low (acid), some
of the micronutrients become extremely soluble and ion levels may become
high enough to injure the plant. The effect of pH varies with the ion, the
types of ions in the soil, and the type of soil. Therefore, not only is the
amount of the nutrient important, but also the soil pH.

The water and oxygen in the soil must also be in available form. Since
nutrients are taken up with water, there must be sufficient water for the
plant to absorb. Water is taken into the plant both passively and actively.
Water that is taken in passively requires no energy output by the plant. It
flows through the plant due to differences in concentration between the soil
solution and the liquid within the cell. Water that is actively absorbed
requires energy from the plant. If there is no oxygen available, sugar
cannot be burned to produce energy and therefore the nutrients cannot be
absorbed.

Anything that lowers or prevents the production of sugars in the leaves can
lower nutrient absorption. If the plant is under stress, due to low light or
extremes in temperature, nutrient deficiency problems may develop. The stage
of growth or how actively the plant is growing may also affect the amount of
nutrients absorbed. Many plants go into a rest or dormancy during part of
the year. During this rest period, few nutrients are absorbed. Plants may
also absorb different nutrients just as flower buds begin to develop.

Nutrients transported from the root to the cell by the vascular system move
into the cell across a cell membrane. There are three different ways this
happens. First, an entire molecule or ion pair may move through the
membrane. If the cell is using energy or active transport to absorb the ions
then only one of the ions of the pair is pulled into the cell. The other
will follow to keep the number of positive and negative charges even. Most
anions (negative ions) are actively absorbed.

The second way of keeping the charges inside the cell balanced and absorbing
a new ion is to exchange one charged ion for another one of the same charge.
The hydrogen ion (H+) is often released from the cell so that the cell can
absorb another positive ion such as the potassium ion (K+). Since this is a
simple exchange or passive, absorption energy may not be required. Cations
or positive ions may be passively absorbed by this method.

Both of the methods mentioned above may be passive or active. However, the
third method, the carrier system, is always active absorption, requiring
energy. Scientists have discovered that within the cell membrane there are
specialized chemicals that act as carriers. The carrier, through chemical
changes, attracts an ion outside the cell membrane and releases it inside
the cell. Once the ion is inside the cell, it is attached to other ions so
that it does not move out of the cell. Complex chemical reactions are
involved in the entire process. Although nutrients can be absorbed
passively, research has shown that active absorptionmust take place if the
plant is to grow and be healthy. The factors we discussed earlier about
absorption by the root are also true for absorption by the cell. Here is a
quick review of some of the factors that affect nutrient absorption: type of
ion, pH, solubility of ion pairs, water, soil oxygen, sugar supply, plant
stress, and temperature.

Foliar Absorption: A Special Case  Under normal growing conditions, plants
absorb most nutrients, except carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, from the soil.
However, some nutrients can also be absorbed by the leaves if a dilute
solution is sprayed on the leaves. The factors that affect absorption by the
cell are still important because the nutrient must enter the cell to be used
by the plant. Care must be taken that the concentration of the nutrient is
not too high or the leaf will be injured. Also, the leaf is covered by a
thin layer of wax called the cuticle that the nutrient must get around or
through before it can enter the cell.


-End-
-Title-
 MACRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

Nitrogen (N)
           absorbed as NO3-, NH4+
           leaches from soil especially NO3-
           mobile in plant.
Nitrogen excess:
           succulent growth, dark green color, weak spindly growth, few fruits,
           may cause brittle growth especially under high temperatures.
Nitrogen deficiency:
           reduced growth, yellowing (chlorosis), reds and purples may intensify
           with some  plants, reduced lateral breaks. Symptoms appear first on
           older growth.
action notes:
           in general best NH4<e7>+</e7>/NO3<e7>-</e7> ratio is 1/1.
           high NH4+ under low sugar conditions (low light) can cause leaf
             curl.
           uptake inhibited by high P levels.
           N/K ratio extremely important.
           indoors best N/K ratio is 1/1 unless light is extremely high.
           in soils with high CHO/N ratio more N should be supplied.

-End-
-Title-
 MACRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

Phosphorus (P)

           absorbed as H2PO4-, HPO4-
           does not leach from soil readily
           mobile in plant.
Phosphorus excess:
           shows up as micronutrient deficiency of Zn, Fe, or Co
Phosphorus deficiency:
           reduced growth, color may intensify, browning or purpling in foliage
           in some plants, thin stems, reduced lateral breaks, loss of lower
           leaves, reduced  flowering.
action notes:
           rapidly "fixed" on soil particles when applied under acid conditions
           fixed with Fe,Mg and Al. Under alkaline conditions fixed with Ca.
           Important for young plant and seedling growth. High P interferes
           with micronutrient absorption and N absorption. Used in relatively
           small amounts when compared to N and K. May leach from soil high in
           bark or peat.

-End-
-Title-
 MACRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

Potassium (K)

           absorbed as K+
           leaches from soil.
           mobile in plant.
Potassium excess:
           causes N deficiency in plant and may affect the uptake of other
           positive ions
Potassium deficiency:
           reduced growth, shortened internodes, marginal burn or scorch
           (brown leaf edges), necrotic (dead) spots in the leaf, reduction
           of lateral breaks and tendency to wilt readily.
action notes:
           N/K balance is important.
           high N/low K favors vegetative growth; low N/high K promotes
           reproductive growth (flower, fruit).

-End-
-Title-
 MACRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

Magnesium (Mg)

           absorbed as Mg++
           leaches from soil.
           mobile in plant.
Magnesium excess:
           interferes with Ca uptake.
Magnesium deficiency:
           reduction in growth, marginal chlorosis, interveinal chlorosis
           (yellow between the veins) in some species. May occur with middle
           or lower leaves, reduction in seed production, cupped leaves.
action notes:
           Mg is commonly deficient in foliage plants because it is leached
           and not replaced. Epsom salts at a rate of 1 teaspoon per gallon
           may be used 2 times a year. Mg can also be absorbed by leaves if
           sprayed in a weak solution. Dolomitic limestone can be applied in
           outdoor situations to rectify a deficiency.

-End-
-Title-
 MACRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

Calcium (Ca)

           absorbed as Ca++
           moderately leachable.
           limited mobility in plant.
Calcium excess:
           interferes with Mg absorption
           high Ca usually causes high pH which then precipitates many of the
           micronutrients so that they become unavailable to the plant.
Calcium deficiency:
           inhibition of bud growth, death of root tips, cupping of maturing
           leaves, weak growth, blossom end rot of many fruits, pits on root
           vegetables.
action notes:
           Ca is important to pH control and is rarely deficient if the
           correct pH is maintain`ed. Water stress, too much or too little,
           can affect Ca relations within the plant causing deficiency in the
           location where Ca was needed at the time of stress.

-End-
-Title-
 MACRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

Sulfur (S)

           absorbed as SO4<e7>-</e7>
           leachable.
           not mobile.
Sulfur excess:
           sulfur excess is usually in the form of air pollution.
Sulfur deficiency:
           S is often a carrier or impurity in fertilizers and rarely deficient.
           It may be  also absorbed from the air and is a by-product of
           combustion. Symptoms are a general yellowing of the affected leaves
          or the entire plant.

-End-
-Title-
 MICRONUTRIENT OUTLINE
-Text-

The majority of the micronutrients are not mobile thus the deficiency
symptoms are usually found on new growth. Their availability in the soil is
highly dependant upon the pH and the presence of other ions. The proper
balance between the ions present is important as many micronutrients are
antagonistic to each other. This is especially true of the heavy metals
where an excess of one element may show up as a deficiency of another. If
the pH is maintained at the proper level and a fertilizer which contains
micronutrients is used once a year, deficiency symptoms are rarely found on
indoor plants, with the exception of iron. Many of the micronutrients are
enzyme activators.

Iron  (Fe)
           absorbed as Fe++, Fe+++
Iron deficiencies:
           Interveinal chlorosis primarily on young tissue which may develop
           to white.
           Fe deficiency may be found under the following conditions even if
           Fe is in the soil:
                 soils high in Ca, poorly drained soil, soil high in Mn, high
                 pH, high P, soil high in heavy metals (Cu,Zn) oxygen
                 deficient soils or when nematodes attack the roots.
           Fe should be added in the chelate form, the type of chelate
           needed depends upon the soil pH.
Iron toxicity:
           rare except on flooded soils.

Boron  (B)
           absorbed as BO3-
Boron deficiency:
           failure to set seed, internal breakdown, death of apical buds.
Boron excess:
           blackening or death of tissue between veins.

Zinc (Zn)
           absorbed as Zn++
Zinc deficiency:
           "little leaf," reduction in size of leaves, short internodes,
           distorted or puckered leaf margins, interveinal chlorosis.
Zinc excess:
           appears as Fe deficiency.
           interferes with Mg.

Copper  (Cu)
           absorbed as Cu++, Cu+
Copper deficiency:
           new growth small, misshapen, wilted. May be found in some peat
           soils.
Copper excess:
           can occur at low pH. Shows up as Fe deficiency.

Manganese  (Mn)
           absorbed as Mn++
Manganese deficiency:
           interveinal chlorosis of leaves followed by brown spots
           producing a checkered effect
Manganese excess:
           reduction in growth, brown spotting on leaves. Shows up as Fe
           deficiency. Found under acid conditions.

Molybdenum  (Mo)
           absorbed as MoO4-
Molybdenum deficiency:
           interveinal chlorosis on older or midstem leaves, twisted leaves
           (whiptail)

Chlorine  (Cl)
           absorbed as Cl-
Chlorine deficiency:
           wilted leaves which become bronze then chlorotic then die; club
           roots.
Chlorine toxicity:
           salt injury, leaf burn, may increase succulence.

Cobalt (Co)
           absorbed as Co+
           needed by plants recently established
           essential for Nitrogen fixation
           little known about deficiency or toxicity symptoms

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-Text-

Fertilizers are materials containing plant nutrients, that are added to the
environment around the plant. Generally, they are added to the water or
soil, but some can also be added to the air or sprayed on the leaves.
Fertilizers are not plant food! Although it is common practice for many
fertilizers to be called plant food, this is a misnomer. Plants produce
their own food using water, carbon dioxide, and energy from the sun. This
food (sugars and carbohydrates) is combined with the plant nutrients to
produce protein, enzymes, vitamins and other elements essential to plant
growth. For more information see the fertilizer section of soils.

-End-
-Title-
 SOILS AND FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 SOIL COMPOSITION
-Text-

Soil is the result of parent materials (rock) having been acted upon by
climate and vegetation, over a period of time. It is weathered rock
fragments, with decaying remains of plants and animals (called organic
matter). Soil also contains varying proportions of air, water, and
micro-organisms. It furnishes mechanical support and nutrients for growing
plants.

A desirable surface soil in good condition for plant growth contains
approximately 50% solid material and 50% open or pore space. The mineral
component is usually made up of many different kinds and sizes of particles,
ranging from those visible to the unaided eye to particles so small that
they can only be seen with the aid of a very powerful (electron) microscope.
This mineral material is about 45 to 48% of the total volume. Organic
material makes up about 2 to 5% of the volume and may contain both plant and
animal material in varying stages or degrees of decomposition. Under ideal
or near ideal moisture conditions for growing plants, soil openings or pore
space contain about 25% air and 25% water based on total volume of soil.

Although most Virginia soils developed under forest vegetation, climatic
differences from south to north sides of Virginia and from sea level to the
highest mountains (elevation 5,729 feet) vary considerably and have had
rather marked effect on the soils that have formed.

The percentage of mineral matter and organic matter in a cubic foot of
surface soil varies from one soil to another, and within the same soil,
depending on kinds of crops grown, frequency of tillage, and wetness or
drainage of the soil. Organic matter will usually be high in soils that have
not been cultivated over long periods of time. Soils that are tilled
frequently and have relatively small amounts of plant residues left on and
worked into the soil are usually low in organic matter. Plowing and
otherwise tilling the soil increases the amount of air in the soil, which
increases the rate of organic matter decomposition. Soils with poor drainage
or high water tables usually have higher organic matter content than those
which are well drained, because the water excludes air from the soil mass.

Since either air or water fills pore spaces, the amount of air in a soil at
a particular time depends on the amount of water present in the pore spaces.
Immediately after a rain, there is more water and less air in the pore
spaces. Conversely, in dry periods a soil contains more air and less water.
Increasing organic matter content usually has the effect of increasing water
holding capacity, but addition of large amounts of undecomposed organic
material can reduce water capacity until the material has partially
decomposed. Dark brown or black soils usually have high organic matter
content.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,28>
-Title-
 SOIL HORIZONS OR LAYERS
-Text-

Most soils have three distinct principal layers or horizons. Each layer can
have two or more sub-horizons. The principal horizons (collectively called
the soil profile) are: A or surface soil, E or subsurface layer, B or
subsoil, and C or parent material. Beneath the soil profile lies the rock,
similar to that from which the soil developed, usually referred to as the R
layer. Horizons usually differ in color, texture, consistence, and
structure. In addition, there is usually considerable difference in chemical
characteristics or composition.

-Fig-
Soil Profile
-Text-

The surface soil and subsurface layer are usually the coarsest layers. The
surface soil contains more organic matter than the other soil layers.
Organic matter gives a grayish, dark-brownish, or blackish color to the
surface horizon, the color imparted depending largely upon the amount of
organic matter present. Soils that are highest in organic matter usually
have the darkest surface colors. This surface layer is usually more fertile
and has the greatest concentration of plant roots of any horizon of the
soil. Plants obtain much of their food and water from the surface soil.

The subsoil layer is usually finer and firmer than the surface soil. Organic
matter content of the subsoil is usually much lower than that of the surface
layer. Subsoil colors are strong and bright with shades of red, brown, and
yellow being frequently observed. The subsoil supports the surface soil and
may be considered the soil reservoir providing storage space for water and
food for plants, aiding in regulating the temperature of the soil and the
air supply for the roots of plants.

The bottom horizon or parent material is decomposed rock that has acquired
some characteristics of the subsoil and retained some characteristics of the
rock from which it weathered. It is not hard like rock but may show the form
or structure of the original rocks or layering if it is in a water-laid
deposit. The parent material influences soil texture, natural fertility,
rate of decomposition and thus rate of soil formation, acidity, depth and,
in some cases, topography (or lay of the land) on which the soil is formed.

-End-
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-Text-

The physical properties of a soil are those characteristics which can be
seen with the eye or felt between the thumb and fingers. They are the result
of soil parent materials being acted upon by climatic factors (such as
rainfall and temperature), and affected by relief(slope and direction or
aspect) and vegetation (kind and amount, such as forest or grass) over a
period of time. A change in any one of these influences usually results in a
difference in the soil formed or developed. Important physical properties of
a soil are color, texture, structure, drainage and depth.

Soil characteristics such as texture, structure, chemical composition,
drainage, and depth, and surface features such as stoniness, slope, and
erosion largely determine the suitability of a soil for use and its
management needs. To a limited extent, the fertility of a soil determines
what it may be used for, and to a larger extent the yields that may be
expected. However, fertility level alone is not indicative of its productive
capacity, since soil physical properties usually control the suitability of
the soil as growth medium. Fertility is more easily changed than soil
physical properties.

-End-
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Color
-Text-

When soil is examined, color is one of the first things noticed. In itself
it is of minor importance, but it indicates or reflects soil conditions that
are extremely important. In general, color is determined by: (1) organic
matter content; (2) drainage conditions; and (3) degree of oxidation or
extent of weathering.

Surface soil colors vary from almost white, through shades of browns and
grays, to black. Light colors indicate low organic matter content and dark
colors can indicate high content. Light or pale colors in the surface soil
are frequently associated with relatively coarse texture and highly leached
conditions, and occur in areas that have high annual temperature. Dark
colors may result from high water table conditions (poor drainage), low
annual temperatures, or other influences that induce high organic matter
content and at the same time slow the oxidation (burning) of organic
materials. Or they may result from colors imparted by the parent material.
Shades of red or yellow, particularly where associated with relatively fine
textures, usually indicate that subsoil material has been incorporated in
the surface or plow layer.

Subsoil colors, in general, indicate air, water, and soil relationships and
the degree of oxidation of certain minerals in the soil. Red and brown
subsoil colors indicate that the soil allows relatively free movement of air
and water. If these or other bright colors persist throughout the subsoil it
is indicative of favorable aeration.Some soils that are mottled (have mixed
colors) in the subsoil, especially where the colors are shades of red and
brown, are also well aerated.

Soils with yellow-colored subsoils usually have some drainage impediment.
Most soils that have mottling in the subsoil, especially where gray
predominates, have too much water and too little air (oxygen) much of the
time. The red to brown color of subsoils comes from iron coatings under well
aerated conditions. In wet soils with low oxygen levels the iron coatings
are chemically and biologically removed and the gray color of background
soil minerals shows.

-End-
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Texture
-Text-

The relative amount of different size soil particles, or the fineness or
coarseness of the mineral particles in the soil, is referred to as texture.
Soil texture depends on the relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay. In
each texture class, there is a range in the amount of sand, silt and clay
that class contains.

The coarser mineral particles of the soil are called sand. These particles
vary in size. Most sand particles can be seen without a magnifying glass.
All feel rough when rubbed between the thumb and fingers.

Relatively fine soil particles that feel smooth and floury are called silt.
When wet, silt feels smooth but is not slick or sticky. When dry, it is
smooth and if pressed between the thumb and finger will retain imprint. Silt
particles are so fine that they cannot usually be seen by the unaided eye
and are best seen with a microscope.

Clays are the finest soil particles. Clay particles can be seen only with
the aid of a very powerful (electron) microscope. They feel extremely smooth
when dry, and become slick and sticky when wet. Clay will hold the form into
which it is molded.

Loam is a textural class of soils that has moderate amounts of sand, silts
and clay. Loam contains approximately 7-27% clay, 28-50% silt and
approximately 50% sand.

Although there are about 20 kinds or classes of soil texture, most surface
soils in Virginia fall into five general textural classes. Each class name
indicates the size of the mineral particles that are dominant in the soil.
Texture is determined in the field by rubbing or feeling moist to wet soil
between the thumb and fingers. This is checked by laboratory or mechanical
analysis or separation into clay, silt, and various size sand groups (called
separates). Regardless of textural class, all soils in Virginia contain
sand, silt, and clay, although the amount of a particular particle size may
be small.

-End-
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Principal Surface Soil Classes Found in Virginia
-Text-

1. Loam - When rubbed between the thumb and fingers approximately equal
influence of sand, silt, and clay is felt.

2. Sandy loam - Varies from very fine loam to very coarse. Feels quite sandy
or rough, but contains some silt and a small amount of clay. The amount of
silt and clay is sufficient to hold the soil together when moist.

3. Silt loam - Silt is the dominant size particle in silt loam, which feels
quite smooth or floury when rubbed between the thumb and fingers.

4. Silty clay loam - Smooth to the touch when dry. When moist it becomes
somewhat slick or sticky, or both. Noticeable amounts of both silt and clay
are present in silty clay loam, but silt is a dominant part of the soil.

5. Clay loam - Clay dominates a clay loam, which is smooth when dry and
slick and sticky when wet. Silt and sand are usually present in noticeable
amounts in this texture of soil, but are overshadowed by clay.

Other textural designations of surface soils are sands, loamy sands, sandy
clay loams, and clays. In each textural class there is a range in the amount
of sand, silt, or clay that class may contain. Composition of each textural
class does not allow for overlap from one class to another.

Texture of soil influences many different characteristics. A brief
comparison between sandy and clay soils will highlight these points.
Coarse-textured or sandy soils allow water to enter at a faster rate than
fine-textured or clayey soils and to move more freely in the soil. In
addition, the relatively low water capacity and the large amount of air
present insandy soils allows them to warm up faster than fine-textured
soils. Sandy soils are also more easily tilled. They are best suited for the
production of special crops such as vegetables, flue-cured tobacco, peanuts,
and certain fruits.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,33>
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Structure
-Text-

Soil particles are grouped together in the formation processes to form
structural pieces called peds or aggregates. In surface soil the structure
will usually be granular unless it is disrupted. The soil aggregates will be
rounded and vary in size from very small shot to large pea. If organic
matter content is low and if the soil has been under continuous cultivation,
the soil structure may be quite indistinct. If the soil is fine-textured
with high organic content, it may have a blocky surface structure.

Structure of the soil is closely related to air and water movement within
it. Good structure allows favorable movement of air and water, while poor or
no structure slows down this movement. Water can enter a surface soil that
has granular structure more rapidly than one that has little structure.
Since plant roots move through the same channels in the soil as air and
water, good structure allows extensive root development while poor structure
discourages it. Water, air, and plant roots move more freely through
subsoils that have blocky structure than those with platy or flaky
horizontal structure. Good structure of the surface soil is promoted by an
adequate supply of organic matter, and by working the soil when its moisture
conditions are correct.

Growing plants also change the soil structure as they send their roots into
the soil for mechanical support and to gather water and food. The roots of
plants, as they grow, tend to enlarge the openings in the soil. When they
die and decay, they leave channels for movement of air and water. In
addition to the plants that we see, there are bacteria molds and other very
small plants growing in the soil which can be seen only with the aid of a
microscope. Even these plants enrich the soil as they die.

-Fig-
Soil Structures
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,34>
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Drainage
-Text-

Soil drainage is defined as rate and extent of water movement in the soil.
Included is movement across the surface as well as downward through the
soil. Slope or lack of slope is a very important factor in soil drainage.
Other factors include texture, structure, and physical condition of surface
and subsoil layers. Soil drainage is indicated by soil color. Clear, bright
colors indicate well-drained conditions. Mixed, drab, and dominantly gray
colors indicate imperfection in drainage. Low lying areas within the
landscape receive run-off water, in addition to that which falls upon them.
Frequently, the water from these areas must escape by lateral movement
through the soil or by evaporation from the surface, as poor structure and
other physical influences do not allow drainage through the soil.

-Fig-
Slope of Land - A
-Text-

Too much or too little water in the soil is equally undesirable. With too
much water, most plants will suffocate. Where there is too little water,
plants will wilt and eventually die. The most desirable soil moisture
situation is one in which approximately one-half of the pore space of the
surface soil is occupied by water.

-Fig-
Slope of Land - B
-End-
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Soil Depth
-Text-

The effective depth of a soil for plant growth is the vertical distance into
the soil from the surface to a layer that essentially stops the downward
growth of plant roots. The barrier layer may be rock, sand, gravel, heavy
clay, or a partially cemented layer.

Terms that are used to express effective depth of soil are:


      VERY SHALLOW - soil is less than 10" to a layer that retards root
                     development.

      SHALLOW - soil is 10 to 20" to a layer that retards root development.

      MODERATELY DEEP - soil is 20 to 36" to a layer that retards root
                        development.

      DEEP - soil is 36 to 60" to a layer that retards root development.

     VERY DEEP - soil is 60" or more to a layer that retards root development.


Soils that are deep, well drained, and have desirable texture and structure
are suitable for the production of most crops. Deep soils can hold much more
plant food and water than shallow soils with similar textures. Depth of soil
and its capacity for nutrients and water frequently determine the yield from
a crop, particularly annual crops grown through the summer months.
Plants growing on shallow soils also have less mechanical support than those
growing in deep soils. Trees growing in shallow soils are more frequently
blown over by wind than those growing in deep soils.

-End-
-Title-
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Erosion
-Text-

The principal reasons for soil erosion in Virginia are: insufficient
vegetative cover, overexposure through the use of cultivated crops on soils
not suited to cultivation, and use of improper equipment and methods in
preparation and tillage of the soil. Soil erosion can be held to a minimum
by using the soil to produce crops to which it is suited, using adequate
fertilizer and lime to promote vigorous growth of plants, and using thorough
soil preparation and proper tillage methods or mulch.

Soils that have lost part or all of their surface are usually harder to till
and have lower productivity than those that have desirable thickness of
surface soil. To compensate for surface soil loss, better fertilization,
liming, and other management practices should be used. Increasing the
organic matter content of an eroded soil often improves its tillage
characteristics, as well as its water and nutrient capacity.

-End-
-Title-
 COMPONENTS OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Soil Organic Matter
-Text-

Organic matter in soil consists of the remains of plants and animals. When
temperature and moisture conditions are favorable in the soil, earthworms,
insects, bacteria, fungi, and other types of plants and animals use the
organic matter as food, breaking it down into humus (the portion of organic
matter that remains after most decomposition has taken place) and soil
nutrients. Through this process, materials are made available for use as
foods by growing plants.

The digested and decomposing organic material also helps develop good
air-water relationships. In sandy soil, organic material occupies some of
the space between the sand grains,thus binding these together and increasing
water-holding capacity. In a clay soil, organic material creates aggregates
of the fine soil particles, allowing water to move more rapidly. This
grouping of the soil particles into small pieces (aggregates or peds) causes
it to feel mellow and makes it easy to work.

Organic matter content depends primarily on the kinds of plants that have
been growing on a soil, the long term management practices, temperature and
drainage. Soils that had native grass cover for long periods usually have
relatively high organic matter content in the surface area. Those that had
native forest cover usually have relatively low organic matter content. In
either case, if the plants have grown on a soil that is poorly drained, the
organic matter content is usually higher than where the same plant is grown
on a well-drained soil--due to differences in available oxygen and other
substances needed by the organisms that attack and decompose the organic
material. Soils in a cool climate have more organic matter than those in a
warm climate.

-End-
-Title-
 COMPONENTS OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Water and Air in the Soil
-Text-

All water in the soil ultimately comes from precipitation (rain, snow, hail,
or sleet). As rain falls, some of it enters the soil through cracks, holes,
and openings between the soil particles. As the water enters, it pushes the
air out. If air is unavailable to plant roots for too long the plant
suffocates.

Plants use some water, some is lost by evaporation, and some moves so deep
into the soil that plant roots cannot reach it. If it rains very hard or for
a long time, some of it is lost by run-off.

When organic matter decomposes in the soil, it gives off carbon dioxide.
This carbon dioxide replaces some of the oxygen of the air in the soil. As a
result, soil air contains less oxygen and more carbon dioxide than the air
above the surface of the soil.

Carbon dioxide is dissolved by water in the soil to form a weak acid. This
solution reacts with the minerals in the soil to form compounds that can be
taken up and used as foods by the plants.

-End-
-Title-
 COMPONENTS OF SOIL
-SubTitle-
 Plant Nutrients in the Soil
-Text-

Plants need 17 elements for normal growth. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
(which come from air and water) and nitrogen (which is in the soil) are the
4 elements that make up 95% of plant solids. Although the atmosphere is 78%
nitrogen, it is unavailable for plant use. However, certain bacteria that
live in nodules on the roots of legumes are able to fix nitrogen from the
air into a form available to plants.

The other 13 essential elements are iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
copper, sulphur, magnesium, manganese, zinc, boron, chlorine, cobalt and
molybdenum. These elements come from the soil. With the exception of
calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium, there is usually enough of
these elements in the soil for cultivation of crops.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,40>
-Title-
 SOIL pH
-Text-

A pH is a reading taken from a scale that measures the hydrogen (acid
forming) ion activity of soil or growth media. The reading expresses the
degree of acidity or alkalinity in terms of pH values, very much like heat
and cold are expressed in degrees Centigrade or Fahrenheit. The Centigrade
temperature scale is centered around zero degrees or the freezing point of
water, and thermometers are used to measure intensities of heat and
coldabove and below this point. The scale of measuring acidity or alkalinity
contains 14 divisions known as pH units. It is centered around pH 7 which is
neutral. Values below 7 constitute the acid range of the scale and values
above 7 make up the alkaline range.

-Fig-
Alkaline Range
-Text-

The measurement scale is not a linear scale but a logarithmic scale. That
is, a soil with a pH of 8.5 is ten times more alkaline than a soil with a pH
of 7.5, and a soil with a pH of 4.5 is ten times more acid than a soil with
a pH of 5.5.

The pH condition of soil is one of a number of environmental conditions that
affect the quality of plant growth. A near neutral or slightly acid soil is
generally considered ideal for most plants. Some type of plant growth can
occur anywhere in a 3.5 to 10.0 range. With some notable exceptions, a soil
pH of from 6.0 to 7.0 requires no special cultural practices to improve
plant growth.

The major impact that extremes in pH have on plant growth is related to the
availability of plant nutrients and the soil concentration of the
plant-toxic minerals. In highly acid soils, manganese can concentrate at
toxic levels. Also at low pH values, calcium, phosphorous and magnesium
become tied up and unavailable. At pH values of 7 and above, phosphorus,
iron, copper, zinc, boron and manganese become less available.

-Fig-
Range of Alkalinity
-Text-

By the application of certain materials to the soil, adjustments can be made
in pH values. To make soils less acid apply a material that contains some
form of lime. Ground agricultural limestone is the most frequently used. The
finer the grind the more rapidly it becomes effective. Different soils will
require a different amount of lime to adjust the reaction to the proper
range. The texture of the soil, organic matter content, the crop to be grown
and soil type are all factors to consider in adjusting pH. For example,
soils low in organic matter require much less lime than soils high in
organic matter to make the same pH change.

Wood ashes are often used as a soil amendment. They contain potash
(potassium), phosphate, boron, and other elements. Wood ashes can be used to
raise soil pH with twice as much ash applied as limestone for the same
effect. Ashes should not come into contact with germinating seedlings or
plant roots as they may cause root damage. Spread on a thin layer during the
winter, and incorporate into the soil in the spring. Check pH yearly if you
use wood ashes. Never use coal ashes or large amounts of wood ash (no more
than 20 lbs. per 1000 square feet), as toxicity problems may occur.

If pH is too high, elemental sulfur or aluminum sulfate can be added to the
soil to reduce alkalinity. Most ornamental plants require slightly to
strongly acid soil. These species develop iron chlorosis when grown in soils
in the alkaline range. Iron chlorosis is often confused with nitrogen
deficiency since the symptoms (a definite yellowing of the leaves) are
similar. This problem can be corrected by applying chelated iron sulfate to
the soil to reduce the alkalinity and add iron.

The term chelate comes from the Greek word for claw. Chelates are chemical
claws that help hold metal ions, such as iron, in solution, so that the
plant can absorb them. Different chemicals can act as chelates from
relatively simple natural chelates like citrate, to more complex
manufactured chemicals. When a chelate metal is added to the soil, the
nutrient held by the chelate will remain available to the plant.

Most nutrients do not require the addition of a chelate to help absorption.
Only a few of the metals, such as iron, benefit from the addition of
chelates. The types of chelate used will depend on the nutrient needed and
the soil pH.

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-Text-

There are 17 elements essential to plant growth. Nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium are considered fertilizer macronutrients because plants require
them in quantity for maximum growth. Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur are
secondary macronutrients but usually are either present in sufficient
quantities or are added coincidentally with other materials (e.g., lime).
The others, called micronutrients, are just as important but are necessary
in smaller amounts. If plants lack any of these elements, they exhibit signs
of nutrient deficiency. Some of these symptoms are given in the discussion
of nutrients in the chapter on botany.

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Fertilizer Analysis
-Text-

The fertilizer analysis refers to how much of an element there is in a
formulation based on percentage of weight. All fertilizers are labeled with
three numbers. These three numbers give the percentage by weight of nitrogen
(N), phosphate (P2O5), and potash (K2O). Often, to simplify matters, these
numbers are said to represent nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, or N-P-K.
We should remember that it is not N-P-K, but N-P2O5K2O. For example, if we
have a 100 pound bag of fertilizer labeled 10-10-10, there are 10 pounds of
N, 10 pounds of P2O5, and 10 pounds of K2O. To convert the P205 to actual
phosphorousmultiply it by 0.43 and to convert K20 to actual potassium,
multiply it by 0.83.

The other 70 pounds is filler. Filler is important so that we can evenly
spread the fertilizer and avoid burning plants with too much fertilizer. A
100 pound bag of fertilizer labeled 0-20-10 would have 0 pounds of N, 20
pounds of P2O5, 10 pounds of K2O, and 70 pounds of filler.

For many years there has been a model label law which many states have
adopted for the classification of fertilizers. The law also establishes
minimum levels of nutrients allowable and provides specific labeling
requirements. To date, model label legislation has not met with total
acceptance, so there are still differences from state to state as to what
constitutes a fertilizer and the type of information on labels. Even so, the
information contained on fertilizer labels has been well standardized, and
the consumer is protected by state laws requiring manufacturers to guarantee
the claimed nutrients.

The law only requires that the manufacturer guarantee what is claimed on the
label, so in some cases, a fertilizer will contain secondary nutrients or
micronutrients not listed on the label because the manufacturer does not
want to guarantee their exact amounts. The gardener-consumer can rest
assured that nutrients listed on the label are actually contained in the
fertilizer.

Some mention should be made of the initials or designations W.I.N. and
W.S.N. on fertilizer labels. These stand for water insoluble nitrogen and
water soluble nitrogen, respectively. The W.S.N. dissolves readily and is
usually in very simple form such as ammoniacal nitrogen (ammonia) or nitrate
nitrogen. Nitrogen which will not dissolve readily may exist in other forms
in the fertilizer. These are usually organic forms of nitrogen (with the
exception of urea) that must be broken down into simpler forms before it can
be used. Water insoluble nitrogen (W.I.N.) is referred to as a slow release
nitrogen source and delivers nitrogen at different rates according to the
amount and kind of material in its composition.

The best analysis to use depends on many factors, such as what nutrients are
needed, what the soil structure and chemistry is and the method of applying
the fertilizer.

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Complete vs Incomplete Fertilizers
-Text-

A fertilizer is said to be complete when it contains nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium. The manufactures of commercial fertilizers are required to
state the amounts of nutrients on the container as a guaranteed analysis.
Examples of commonly used fertilizers are 10-10-10, 16-16-16, 20-10-5.. An
incomplete fertilizer will be missing one of the major components. Examples
of incomplete fertilizers are indicated on the following chart.

    COMMON INCOMPLETE FERTILIZERS OR FARM-TYPE FERTILIZERS

                                   Nitrogen      Phosphorus      Potassium

  Ammonium nitrate                    34              0              0
  Ammonium sulfate                    21              0              0
  Mono-ammonium phosphate             11             48              0
  Muriate of potash (potassium
    chloride)                          0              0             60
  Potassium sulfate                    0              0             52
  Super phosphate                      0             20              0
  Triple super phosphate               0             45              0
  Urea                                46              0              0
  Ureaformaldehyde                    38              0              0

The blending of incomplete fertilizers is used to make complete fertilizers.
As an example, if 100 pounds of urea (46-0-0) were combined with 100 pounds
of triple super phosphate (0-45-0), and 100 pounds of muriate of potash
(0-0-60), a fertilizer grade of 15-15-20 would result.

Example:
            Fertilizer                      Formulation        Amount

            Urea                            46 - 0 - 0        100 pounds
            Triple super phosphate           0 -45 - 0        100 pounds
            Muriate of Potash                0 - 0- 60        100 pounds
            -------------------------------------------------------------
            Produces                        46 -45 -60        300 pounds

            or the equivalent of            15 -15 -20        100 pounds


This tells us that 100 pounds of urea fertilizer originally contains 46
pounds of nitrogen; triple super phosphate has 45 pounds of phosphorus; and
muriate of potash has 60 pounds of potash. When these three quantities are
combined, each quantity is diluted by the other two by one-third, provided
each bag has equal weight.

The fertilizer ratio indicates the proportion of nitrogen, phosphate, and
potash contained in the fertilizer. The specific fertilizer ratio you will
need depends on the soil nutrient level. For example, a 1-1-1- ratio
(10-10-10, 15-15-15, 20-20-20) is widely used at the time of lawn
establishment, but established lawns generally respond better to fertilizer
ratios high in nitrogen. Two of the most common complete fertilizers used by
homeowners are 10-10-10 and 5-10-10.


-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Special Purpose Fertilizers
-Text-

When fertilizer shopping, you will find fertilizers packaged for certain
uses or types of plants such as Camellia Food, Rhododendron and Azalea Food,
or Rose Food. The camellia and rhododendron-azalea fertilizers belong to an
old established group, the acid plant foods. Some of the compounds used in
these fertilizers are chosen because they have an acid reaction, so they are
especially beneficial to acid-loving plants where soil is naturally neutral
or alkaline. The other fertilizers packaged for certain plants do not have
as valid a background of research. Compare, for example, the fertilizer
ratios of three different brands of rose foods.

A soil test should be performed before the purchase of any expensive special
purpose fertilizers. It is not possible to make a blanket statement that one
fertilizer is best for every area of the state. It is true that different
plants use different nutrients at different rates. What is unknown is the
reserve of nutrients already in the soil. This changes with every soil type
and location.

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Slow Release Fertilizers
-Text-

Plants can take up fertilizers continuously, so it is beneficial to provide
them with a balance of nutrients throughout their growth. Perhaps the most
efficient way to achieve this is to apply a slow-release fertilizer, which
is supposed to release nutrients at the samerate they are taken up by the
plants. Slow-release fertilizers contain one or more essential elements.
These elements are released or made available to the plant over an extended
period.

Slow release fertilizers can be categorized by the way in which the
fertilizer is released. The three major types of nutrient release are: (1)
materials that dissolve slowly, (2) materials from which the nitrogen is
released by microorganisms, and (3) granular materials with membranes made
of resin or sulfur that control the rate of nutrient release from the
granules into the soil.

Sulfur-coated urea is a slow release fertilizer with a covering of sulfur
around each urea particle. Different thicknesses of sulfur control the rate
of release of nitrogen which becomes more rapid as temperature increases.
Watering does not affect its release rate. Sulfur-coated urea applied to the
soil's surface releases more slowly than it does if it is incorporated into
the soil. This material generally costs less than other slow release
fertilizers and it supplies the essential element, sulfur.

When fertilizer products coated with multiple layers of resin come into
contact with water, the layers swell and increase the pore size in the resin
so that the dissolved fertilizer can move into the soil. Release rate
depends on the coating thickness, temperature, and water content of the
soil. There is often a large release of fertilizer during the first two or
three days after application. Release timing can be from 0 to 6 months
depending on the coating.

Slow release fertilizers need not be applied as frequently as other
fertilizers, and higher amounts can be applied without danger of burning.
Plants may use the nitrogen in slow release fertilizers more efficiently
than in other forms since it is continually being released over a longer
period of time than conventional fertilizers. Slow release fertilizers are
generally more expensive than other types. The real benefit, however, is the
frequency of application, which is much lower than with conventional
fertilizers.

Urea formaldehyde and sulfur-coated urea have been used as turf fertilizer
while resin coated fertilizers are predominantly used in container growing.

Caution should be used in applying slow release fertilizers around trees or
shrubs as they may keep the plant in growth late in the summer. The late
season growth may not harden off completely and excessive winter damage may
occur.

The table below compares slow release fertilizers and conventional
fertilizers.

    Comparison of Slow Release Fertilizers and Conventional Fertilizers

                        Slow Release Fertilizer

          Advantages                           Disadvantages

    1. Fewer applications                 1. Unit cost is high
    2. Low burnm potential                2. Availability limited
    3. Release rates vary depending       3. Release rate governed
       on fertilizer characteristics         by factors other than
    4. Comparatively slow release rate       plant need

                        Conventional Fertilizer

          Advantages                           Disadvantages

    1. Fast acting                        1. Greater burn potential
    2. Some are acid forming              2. Solidifies in the bag
    3. Low cost                              when wet
                                          3. N leaches readily

                       Manures or Sewage Sludge

          Advantages                           Disadvantages

    1. Low burn potential                 1. Salt could be a problem
    2. Relatively slow release            2. Bulky, difficult to handle
    3. Contains micronutrients            3. Odor
    4. Conditions soil                    4. Expensive per pound of actual
                                             nutrient
                                          5. Weed seeds a problem
                                          6. Heavy metals may be present in
                                             sewage sludge

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Organic Fertilizers
-Text-

The word organic applied to fertilizers simply means that the nutrients
contained in the product are derived solely from the remains, or a
by-product of a once-living organism. Urea is a synthetic organic
fertilizer, an organic substance manufactured from inorganic materials.
Cottonseed meal, blood meal, bone meal, hoof and horn meal, and all manures
are examples of organic fertilizers. Most of these products packaged as
fertilizers will have the fertilizer ratios stated on the package labels.
Some organic materials, particularly composted manures and sludges are sold
as soil conditioners and do not have a nutrient guarantee although small
amounts of nutrients are present. Most are high in one of the three major
nutrients and low or zero in the other two, although you may find some
fortified with nitrogen, phosphorus, or potash for a higher analysis. Many
are low in all three. In general, organic fertilizers release nutrients over
a fairly long period; the potential drawback is that they may not release
enough of their principal nutrient at a time to give the plant what it needs
for best growth. Because organic fertilizers depend on soil organisms to
break them down to release nutrients, most of them are effective only when
soil is moist and soil temperature is warm enough for the soil organisms to
be active.

Cottonseed meal is a by-product of cotton manufacturing. As a fertilizer it
is somewhat acid in reaction. Formulas vary slightly, but generally contain
7 percent nitrogen, 3 percent phosphorus, and 2 percent potash. Cottonseed
meal is more readily available to plants in warm soils, but there is little
danger of burn. For general garden use apply 2 to 5 pounds per 1000 square
feet. Cottonseed meal is frequently used for fertilizing acid-loving plants
such as azaleas, camellias, and rhododendrons.

Blood meal is dried, powdered blood collected from cattle slaughterhouses.
It is a rich source of nitrogen, so rich, in fact, that it may do harm if
used in excess. The gardener must be careful not to exceed the recommended
amount suggested on the label. In addition to nitrogen, blood meal supplies
certain of the essential trace elements, including iron.

Fish emulsion, a well-rounded fertilizer, is a partially decomposed blend of
finely pulverized fish. No matter how little is used, the odor is intense,
but it dissipates within a day or two. Fish emulsion is high in nitrogen and
is a source of several trace elements. In the late spring, when garden
plants have sprouted, an application of fish emulsion followed by a deep
watering will boost the plant's early growth spurt. Contrary to popular
belief, too strong a solution of fish emulsion can burn plants, particularly
in containers.

Manure is a complete fertilizer, but low in the amounts of nutrients it can
supply. Manures vary in nutrient content according to the animal source and
what the animal has been eating, but a fertilizer ratio of 1-1-1 is typical.
Manures are best used as soil conditioners instead of nutrient suppliers.
Commonly available manures include horse, cow, pig, chicken, and sheep. The
actual nutrient content varies widely: the highest concentration of
nutrients is found when manures are fresh. As it is aged, leached, or
composted, nutrient content is reduced.

Even though fresh manures have the highest amount of nutrients, most
gardeners prefer to use composted forms of manure to ensure a lesser amount
of salts, thereby reducing the chance of burning plants. Fresh manure should
not be used where it will contact tender plant roots. Typical rates of
manure applications vary from a moderate 70 pounds per 1000 square feet to
as much as one ton per 1000 square feet.

Sewer sludge is a recycled product of municipal sewage treatment plants. Two
forms are commonly available, activated and composted. Activated sludge has
higher concentrations of nutrients (approximately 6-3-0) than composted
sludge, and is usually sold in a dry, granular form for use as a general
purpose, longlasting, nonburning fertilizer. Composted sludge is used
primarily as a soil amendment and has a lower nutrient content
(approximately 1-2-0). There is some question about the long term effect of
using sewage sludge products in the garden, particularly around edible
crops. Heavy metals, such as cadmium are sometimes present in the sludge,
and may build up in the soil. Possible negative effects vary, not only with
the origin of the sludge, but also with the characteristics of the soil
where it is used.

The following table shows the approximate nutrient content of manures and
suggested yearly rates of application per 1000 square feet of garden area.
Rates given are for materials used singly; if combinations of two or more
materials are used, the rate should be reduced accordingly.


                   Chicken Manure   Steer Manure   Dairy Manure
                         Dry            Dry            Dry

Nitrogen %           2.0 - 4.5        1.0 - 2.5     0.6 - 2.1

Phosphorus %         4.6 - 6.0        0.9 - 1.6     0.7 - 1.1

Potassium %          1.2 - 2.4        2.4 - 3.6     2.4 - 3.6

Suggested Amounts       125              450           600
of Material
(Pounds) per 1000
Square Feet of
Garden Area

Compared to synthetic fertilizer formulations, organic fertilizers contain
relatively low concentrations of actual nutrients, but they perform other
important functions which the synthetic formulations do not. Some of these
functions: increasing organic content of the soil; improving physical
structure of the soil; increasing bacterial and fungal activity,
particularly the mycorrhiza fungus which alone makes other nutrients more
available to plants.


-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Fertilizers Combined with Pesticides
-Text-

The major reason for buying a fertilizer combined with a pesticide is
convenience. It is very convenient to combine everything you need in one
application, but it is also very expensive. The problem is that the timing
for a fertilizer application often does not coincide with the appearance of
a disease or an insect problem. Sometimes, in the case of a number of
turfgrass diseases, a primary cause of disease infestation is a lack of
proper fertilizer. A fertilizer-insecticide combination will do an adequate
job of controlling a turf pest plus give the grass "a shot in the arm" and
help it in its recovery.

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Fertilizer Formulation
-Text-

Fertilizers come in many shapes and sizes. The type or form the fertilizer
comes in is called the formulation. Different formulations are made to
facilitate types of situations in which fertilizer is needed. All
formulations must give the amount of nutrients and sometimes it tells how
quickly a nutrient is available. Some of the formulations available to the
homeowner include: water soluble powders, slow release pellets, slow release
collars or spikes, liquids, tablets, and granular solids.

Liquid fertilizers come in a variety of different formulations, including
complete formulas and special types that offer just one or two nutrients.
All are made to be diluted with water; some are concentrated liquids
themselves, others are powder or pellets. Growers of container plants often
use liquid fertilizers at half the recommended dilution twice as frequently
as recommendations suggest so that the plants receive a more steady supply
of nutrients.

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Applying Fertilizer
-Text-

Computing the amount of fertilizer needed for a given area is rather tricky
at first, but after a few times the logic falls into place and becomes
second nature. The following are some examples of fertilizer determinations
for lawns and gardens.

  Example 1. Determine the amount of ammonium sulfate a 5000
  square foot lawn needs if the lawn requires 1 pound of nitrogen
  per 1000 square feet.

          Lawn: 5000 square feet
          Fertilizer: ammonium sulfate (21-0-0)
          Rate: 1 pound of nitrogen per 1000 square feet

(1) Ammonium sulfate is 21 percent nitrogen (round to 20 percent)
(2) 20 percent is the same as 0.20 or 1/5th
(3) This means for every 5 pounds of fertilizer there is 1 pound of
    nitrogen so 5 pounds of fertilizer = 1 pound nitrogen
(4) We need 1 pound nitrogen every 1000 square feet
       Since: 1 pound N = 5 pounds fertilizer
       5 pounds fertilizer = 1 pound nitrogen per 1000 square feet.
(5) We are fertilizing 5000 square feet (5 x 1000 square feet) 5 x  5
       pounds of fertilizer = 25 pounds fertilizer per 5000 square  feet.




Total Fertilizer Needed

   N application rate   lawn size
    (lb/1000 sq. ft.) x  sq. ft.   =   1  x 5000 =   5  = 25 lbs.
   -----------------     ------      ----   ----   ----
   N content of fer-      1000       0.20   1000   0.20   fertilizer
   tilizer as a decimal

  Example 2. Determine how much 20-10-5 needs to be applied to get 2
  pounds of phosphorus per thousand square feet in a garden that
  measures 20 x 10 feet.

          Garden: 20 x 10 = 200 square feet
          Fertilizer: 20-10-5 = 10 percent phosphorus
          Rate: 2 pounds of phosphorus per 1000 square feet


Total N Needed

    2 lbs. Phosphorus x  200 =   2  x  200 = 20 x 0.20 = 4 lbs.
    ----------------    -----   ---   ----
          0.10          1000   0.10   1000               20-10-5

Recommendations for fertilizing vegetables are usually stated: "Apply 3 to 4
pounds of 5-10-10 fertilizer per 100 square feet of garden space." All that
is fine, as long as you are using a 5-10-10 formula. If the fertilizer you
want to use has a different formula, say one with a higher nitrogen content
as indicated by the first number in the formula, the rate of application
should be reduced to avoid nitrogen burn. A high phosphorus fertilizer such
as 6-18-6 is often recommended for vegetables as a starter food. In the
following chart you see how the amount to be applied decreases as the
percentage of nitrogen decreases. The percentage of nitrogen is indicated by
the first number in each series:

                 Formula            Pounds per 100 square feet

                 5-10-10                      3.5
                 6-18- 6                      2.8
                 8- 4                         2.0
                12- 6- 6                      1.4
                16-16-16                      1.0

Nitrogen fertilizers do not burn or damage plants if they are applied
correctly. Fertilizers are salts, much like our familiar table salt except
that they contain various plant nutrients. When a fertilizer (salt) is
applied to a soil, nearby water begins to move very gradually towards the
area where the fertilizer has been applied. Salts and the fertilizer begin
to diffuse or move away from the place where they had been applied. This
dilutes the fertilizer and distributes it through a much larger area. If
tender plant roots are close to the placement of a fertilizer, water is
drawn from these roots, as well as surrounding soil. The more salt or
fertilizer applied, the more water is drawn from nearby roots. As water is
drawn from the roots, plant cells begin to dehydrate and collapse and the
plant roots burn or dehydrate to a point where they cannot recover. If soil
moisture is limited, most of the water drawn towards the salt will come from
plant roots and the damage will be severe.

Two rules should be kept in mind when applying a fertilizer during hot
weather when soil moisture is limited. 1) do not over apply nitrogen
fertilizers and; 2) make sure adequate moisture is present after applying
fertilizers high in salts. The following table is a chart of commonly used
garden fertilizers high in salt content or burn potential. The last column
is the practical measure of relative saltiness. A higher number indicates
greater saltiness.


Material                     Nutrient Level             Relative Saltiness
                                                      Per Weight of Nutrient

Ammonium nitrate           33 percent Nitrogen                 1.49
Ammonium sulfate           21 percent Nitrogen                 1.63
Potassium nitrate          14 percent Nitrogen                 2.67
Natural Organic Ferti       5 percent Nitrogen                 0.40
Urea formaldehyde          38 percent Nitrogen                 0.13
Urea                       45 percent Nitrogen                 0.81
Superphosphate             20 percent Phosphoru                0.20
Potassium Chloride         60 percent Potash                   0.87
Potassium Sulfate          50 percent Potash                   0.43
Dolomite                   30% Calcium, 20% Magnesium          --
Gypsum                     33 percent Calcium                  0.12
Epsom salts                16 percent Magnesium                1.38


Soluble salts will accumulate on top of the soil in a container and form a
yellow to white crust. A ring of salt deposits may form around the pot at
the soil line or around the drainage hole. Salts will also build up on the
outside of clay pots.

Soluble salts build up when fertilizer is applied repeatedly without
sufficient water to leach or wash the old fertilizer or salts through the
soil. It also occurs when water evaporates from the soil and minerals or
salts stay behind. As the salts in the soil become more and more
concentrated, plants find it harder and harder to take up water. If salts
build up to an extremely high level, water can be taken out of the root tips
causing them to die.

Soluble salts problems commonly occur on plants in containers but are rarely
a problem in the garden. The best way to prevent soluble salt injury is to
stop the salts from building up. Water correctly. When water is applied,
allow some water to drain through and then empty the drip plate. Water equal
to one-tenth the volume of the pot should drain through each time you water.
Do not allow the pot to sit in water. If you let the drained water be
absorbed by the soil, the salts that were washed out are taken back into the
soil. Salts can be reabsorbed through the drainage hole or directly through
a clay pot.

Pot plants should be leached every 4 to 6 months. Leach a plant before
fertilizing to avoid washing away all newly added fertilizer. Leaching is
done by pouring a lot of water on the soil and letting it drain completely.
The amount of water used for leaching should equal twice the volume of the
pot. A 6 inch pot will hold 10 cups of water so 20 cups of water are used to
leach a plant in a 6 inch pot. Keep the water running through the soil to
wash the salts out. If a layer of salts has formed a crust on top of the
soil, you should remove the salt crust before you begin to leach. Do not
remove more than 1/4 inch of soil. It is best not to add more soil to the
top of the pot. If the soluble salt level is extremely high or the pot has
no drainage, repot the plant.

The level of salts that will cause injury varies with the type of plant and
how it is being grown. A plant grown in the home may be injured by salts at
concentration of 200 ppm. The same plant growing in a greenhouse where the
light and drainage are good will grow with salts 10 times that level, or
2000 ppm. Some nurseries and plant shops leach plants to remove excess salts
before the plant is sold. If you are not sure that has been done, leach a
newly purchased plant the first time you water it.


-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Timing of Fertilizer Application
-Text-

Soil type dictates the frequency of fertilizer application. Sandy soils
require more frequent applications of nitrogen and other nutrients than clay
type soils. Other factors affecting frequency of application include the
crop being grown and what we want the crop to do, frequency, and amount of
irrigation or water applied, and type of fertilizer applied and its release
rate.

The crop influences timing and frequency of application since some crops are
heavier feeders of some nutrients than others. Root crops require less
nitrogen fertilization than leafy crops. Corn is a heavy feeder of nitrogen
while most trees and shrubs are generally light feeders. Corn may require
nitrogen fertilization every four weeks while most trees and shrubs perform
nicely with one good, well-placed application every year. A general rule of
thumb is that nitrogen is for leafy top growth; phosphorus is for root and
fruit production; and potassium is for cold hardiness, disease resistance,
and general durability.

Proper use of nutrients can control plant growth, rate, and character.
Nitrogen is the most critical nutrient in this regard. If tomatoes are
fertilized heavily with a nitrogen fertilizer into the summer, the plants
may be all vine and no fruit. This is also the case with potatoes which will
show excess vining and poor tuber formation. If slow release fertilizers or
heavy amounts of manure are used on crops that form fruit or vegetables, it
will keep the plant producing leaf or vine growth and fruit or vegetable
development will occur very late in the season.

Remember that a nitrogen application will have its greatest effect for three
to four weeks after application. If tomatoes are fertilized heavily on June
1, there may be no flower production until July 1 which will delay fruit
ripening in late August. For this reason it is important to plant crops with
similar fertilizer needs close together to avoid improper rates of
application.

Late fertilization (after July 1) of trees and shrubs can cause new flushes
of growth to occur on woody plants that are normally adjusting themselves
for the coming winter. This may delay dormancy of woody plants and cause
severe winter dieback in new growth.

The following suggestions about groups of garden plants are given as general
guides. Gardeners should be aware that individual species within these
groups vary considerably. After each group of plants, the need for the
primary nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) is indicated as
high, medium or low.

                Vegetables                         High
                Herbs                              Medium to Low
                Lawns                              Medium to High
                Fruits                             Medium
                Annual flowers                     Medium
                Perennial flowers                  Medium to Low
                Deciduous shrubs                   Medium to Low
                Evergreen shrubs                   Low
                Deciduous shade trees              Medium to Low
                Evergreen shade trees              Low

-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZERS
-SubTitle-
 Application Methods
-Text-

There are different methods of applying fertilizer depending on the
formulation and the crop needs.

Broadcasting  A recommended rate of fertilizer is spread over the growing
area and left to filter into the soil or incorporated into the soil with a
rototiller or spade. Broadcasting is used over large garden areas or when
time or labor is a limitation.

Banding  Narrow bands of fertilizer are applied in furrows 2 to 3 inches
from the garden seeds and 1 to 2 inches deeper than the seeds or plants that
are to be planted. Careless placement of the fertilizer band too close to
the seeds will burn the roots of the seedlings. The best technique is to
stretch a string where the seed row is to be planted. With a corner of a
hoe, dig a furrow 3 inches deep, 3 inches to one side of, and parallel with
the string. Spread the fertilizer in the furrow and cover with soil. Repeat
the banding operation on the other side of the string, then sow seeds
underneath the string.

For plants widely spaced, such as tomatoes, fertilizers can be placed in
bands 6 inches long for each plant or in a circle around the plant. Place
the bands 4 inches from the plant base. If used in the hole itself, place
the fertilizer at the bottom of the hole, work it into the soil, place a
layer of soil about 2 inches deep over the fertilized soil and then put the
plant in the hole.

Banding is one way to satisfy the need of many plants (especially tomatoes)
for phosphorus as the first roots develop. When fertilizers are broadcast
and worked into soil, much of the phosphorus is locked up by the soil and is
not immediately available to the plant. By concentrating the phosphorus in
the band, the plant is given what it needs even though much of the
phosphorus stays locked up.

Starter solutions  Another way to satisfy the need for phosphorus when
setting out transplants of tomatoes, eggplant, peppers or cabbage is through
the use of a liquid fertilizer high in phosphorus as a starter solution.
Follow directions on the label.

Side Dressing  Dry fertilizer is applied as a side dressing after plants are
up and growing. Scatter fertilizer on both sides of the row 6 to 8 inches
from the plants. Rake it into the soil and water thoroughly.

Foliar Feeding  Used when insufficient fertilizer was used before planting;
a quick growth response is wanted; micronutrients (such as iron or zinc) are
locked into the soil; or when the soil is too cold for the plants to extract
or use the fertilizer applied to the soil. Foliar applied nutrients are
absorbed and used by the plant quite rapidly. Absorption begins within
minutes after application and, with most nutrients, it is completed within 1
to 2 days. Foliar nutrition can be a supplement to soil nutrition at a
critical time for the plant, but not a substitute. At transplanting time, an
application of phosphorus spray will help in the establishment of the young
plant in cold soils. For perennial plants, early spring growth is usually
limited by cold soil, even when the air is warm. Under such conditions, soil
microorganisms are not active enough to convert nutrients into forms
available for roots to absorb; yet, if the nutrients were available, the
plants could grow. A nutrient spray to the foliage will provide the needed
nutrients immediately to the plants, allowing them to begin growth.

-End-
-Title-
 IMPROVING SOIL STRUCTURE
-Text-

In special cases, coarse sand, vermiculite and perlite are added to heavy
clays to help improve the soil texture or structure. However, these inert
materials can be expensive and large quantities are needed to do any good.
In some cases they can make the situation worse by causing clays to "set up"
similar to concrete. Compost, manures and other organic amendments are
usually more effective and economical for modifying the soil structure.

Organic matter is a great soil improver for both clay and sandy soils. Good
sources of organic matter include manures, leaf mold, sawdust, and straw.
These materials are decomposed in the soil by soil organisms. Various
factors, such as moisture, temperature, and nitrogen availability determine
the rate of decomposition through their effects on these organisms. Adequate
water must be present, and warm temperatures will increase the rate at which
the microbes work. The proper balance of carbon and nitrogen in the material
is needed for rapid decomposition. The addition of nitrogen may be necessary
if large amounts of undecomposed high-carbon substances such as dried
leaves, straw, or sawdust are used. Fresh green wastes, such as grass
clippings, are higher in nitrogen than dry material. Nitrogen is used by the
microbes in the process of breaking down the organic matter and may cause a
nitrogen deficiency in the plants by using up the available nitrogen, if it
is not present in sufficient amounts.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,53>
-Title-
 BUILDING A COMPOST PILE
-Text-

-Fig-
Building a Compost Pile
-Text-

The use of compost is one way to get around the tying up of nitrogen during
decomposition. Compost is usually made by the gardener from plant wastes.
Correct composting is an art which can result in a valuable nutrient and
humus source for any garden. The basis of the process is the microbial
decomposition of mixed raw organic materials to humus, a dark, fluffy
product resembling rich soil, which is then spread and incorporated into the
garden soil.

Start the compost pile with a 3-inch layer of coarse plant material such as
small twigs or chopped corn stalks. This will aid in aeration and drainage.
On top of this, put a layer of plant and kitchen refuse - leaves, straw,
weeds, waste from garden plants, husks, coffee grounds, crushed egg shells,
canning wastes, etc. It is a good idea not to use meat wastes because they
will attract digging animals. Next, add a layer of nitrogen-rich material.
This can be fresh manure if available, fresh grass clippings (not too thick
a layer, as they will mat) or fresh hay. If you don't have enough
nitrogenous materials, there will not be enough nitrogen for the
microorganisms to make proteins. Add more in the form of synthetic nitrogen
fertilizer (1/2 cup 10-10-10 per 6" layer will do), blood meal (also 1/2 cup
per 6" layer), or cottonseed meal (1 cup per 6" layer). The latter two are
expensive if purchased in the typical five-pound bags available in garden
centers, but cottonseed meal can be found at a very reasonable price if
purchased in bulk at a farm supply store.

If a more alkaline compost is desired, add 1 pint of ground limestone per
square yard of surface area. Liming will also help reduce odors and keep
compost "sweet."

It was formerly recommended that a 1" layer of soil be added for each 6"
layer of plant wastes to supply microorganisms for the composting process,
but research has shown that this is not necessary under certain conditions.
Enough soil is generally included on roots of plants and in manure to
inoculate the compost pile. Compost starters are also unnecessary. If the
wastes are free of soil for the most part, however, a sprinkling of soil or
a starter at each layering may be beneficial.

Repeat the layers of plant material and nitrogenous material as many times
as needed to use all the plant refuse available. If you are using a
ready-made composter, follow the manufacturer's instructions. The top of the
pile should be low in the center to cause water to move into the pile rather
than to run off.

Water the pile as often as necessary to keep the contents moist, but not
soaking wet. Within a few days, the pile should heat up significantly, to
about 160 degrees F. This temperature will kill many weed seeds and harmful
organisms, and is a necessary stage in composting. If the pile fails to heat
(like grass clippings do when left in the sun in a black plastic bag), there
is not enough nitrogen in the pile (or perhaps not enough moisture), and
more should be added. The pile will also decrease in size after a few weeks
if it is composting properly.

If you smell ammonia it may mean that the materials in the pile are too
tightly packed or that the pile is too wet; i.e., there is not enough air.
Turn the heap, adding some coarser material, and start over.

The pile should be forked over after about a month (two weeks if the
material is shredded), putting the outside materials on the inside and vice
versa to make sure everything gets broken down. Turn again 5-6 weeks later.
The plant materials should decompose into good compost in about 4 or 5
months in warm weather, but may take longer under cool or dry conditions.
Composting may be completed in 1 or 2 months if the materials are shredded,
kept moist, and turned several times to provide good aeration.

When compost is finished it will be black and crumbly, like good soil, with
a pleasant, earthy smell. Only a few leftover corncobs or stalks will remain
undecayed. These can be sifted out and added to the next batch. For use in
potting mixtures, a relatively fine sieve (1/4" hardware cloth) will take
out the larger chunks. Otherwise, the compost can be spread in the garden as
it is and dug or tilled under.

If you need only a small amount of compost, you can use a plastic trash bag
to compost relatively fine material such as leaves, lawn clippings or
chopped garden refuse. Make layers as in a compost pile, or mix all
materials together. Add 2 quarts of water to dry material (one quart if it
is quite moist or succulent). Tie the bag and turn it over every few weeks
to aerate the material and distribute the moisture.

Another source of inexpensive soil improvement that should not be
underestimated is the cover crop. Green manures, or cover crops, such as
annual rye or ryegrass are planted in the garden in the fall for
incorporation in the spring. For best results, seed should be sown a little
before the first killing frost. In a fall garden, plant cover crops between
the rows and in any cleared areas. Cover cropping provides additional
organic matter, holds nutrients that might have been lost over the winter,
and helps reduce erosion and loss of topsoil. Legume cover crops can
increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil and reduce fertilizer needs. A
deep-rooted cover crop allowed to grow for a season in problem soil can help
break up a hardpan and greatly improve tilth. Incorporate green manures at
least two weeks before planting vegetables. They should not be allowed to go
to seed.

The regular addition of manures, compost, cover crops and other organic
materials can raise the soil nutrient and physical level to a point at which
the addition of synthetic fertilizers is greatly reduced. This highly
desirable soil quality does not come about with a single or even several
additions of organic material, but rather requires a serious soil-building
program.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL TESTING
-Text-

The purpose of a soil test is to supply the homeowner with enough
information to make a wise fertilizer purchase. A soil test from Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University will provide information on soil
texture, pH, salt content, lime content, and available phosphorus and
potassium. The results of the soil test are mailed to the homeowner with
recommendations as to what kind of fertilizer should be applied for
economical growth of the desired crop. Soil tests should be performed if
such tests have never been done before. A soil test need not be performed
more often than every 3 to 4 years. The sample should be submitted in the
fall prior to planting or tilling so that needed lime can be changing the pH
over the winter. Fertilizers should be incorporated the next spring.

The accuracy of the soil test is a reflection of the sample taken. Be sure
the sample is representative of the area to be treated. Sample the soil from
10 random areas of the garden to a depth of 6-12 inches. Avoid sampling
unusual areas such as those near gravel roads, manure or compost spots,
brush piles or under eves. Place the samples in a clean pail or container
and mix the soil thoroughly then transfer a pint of mixed soil to a
container and take it to the local Extension Office.

-End-
-Title-
 BASICS OF ENTOMOLOGY
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

Insects and mites are among the oldest and most numerous animals on earth.
Nobody knows just how many types of insects there are, but it is estimated
that over 100,000 different kinds live in North America. In the typical
backyard, there are probably 1,000 insects at any given time. While those
insects which cause problems for man are the ones heard about most often,
the vast majority are either beneficial or harmless. Insects pollinate most
fruits and vegetables. They provide food for birds and fishes. Some produce
such useful products as: honey, wax, shellac, and silk. They feed upon other
insects.

The insects that cause damage eat about one tenth of our crops each year and
spread plant diseases to an unknown portion. They spread diseases among
people as well. If it were not for chemical and cultural control methods,
our losses would be much greater than they are.

This chapter is designed to present the basic principles that apply to
identification of insects and mites on horticultural crops, and the more
commonly encountered insects.

-End-
-Title-
 BASICS OF CLASSIFICATION
-Text-

The Animal Kingdom has major divisions known as phyla. Several of the phyla
which contain agricultural pests are:
          *    Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crayfish, millipedes)

          *    Aschelminthes (roundworms, trichina)

          *    Platyhelminthes (flatworms, flukes, tapeworms)

          *    Mollusca (snails, slugs, clams)

This chapter is primarily concerned with the Arthropoda, which represents
more than three fourths of the animal species known to exist. Arthropods
have certain characteristics in common; they are segmented and their
skeletons are on the outside of their bodies.

The Arthropods are divided into classes. Table 1 describes a few of the more
important classes. The more important orders of the class Insecta are
described in Table 2.

Most of the names of insect orders have the ending "ptera" which means that
the insect possesses wings in the adult stage. The characteristics which
separate insects into various orders are easily seen without magnification.
Mouthparts, wings, and type of metamorphosis are identifying
characteristics.

Each order consists of several families. The family is the next and more
finite grouping of very closely related insects. Family names end with
"idae." Aphidae (aphids), Muscidae (houseflies), and Blattidae (cockroaches)
are examples of families of insects.


Classes of the Phylum Arthropoda

Table 1.

                               Body       Pairs    Agricultural
  Class       Examples       Segments    of Legs    Importance

Crustacea   Crayfish,           2           5      Sow bugs can
            Sow bugs                               be minor
                                                   pests

Arachnida   Spiders,            2           4      Some mites
            Mites, Ticks,                          are major
            Daddy Longlegs                         plant pests

Symphyla    Symphalans          2          12      Symphylans
                                                   can be
                                                   serious pests

Insecta     Bugs, Beetles,      3          13      Large number
            Butterflies                            are pests


Orders of the Class Insecta

Table 2.

                Common       Metamor-
   Order         Name         phosis    Mouthparts     Wings

Collembola    Springtails    None       Chewing       None

Orthoptera    Crickets,      Gradual    Chewing       2 pairs
              Grasshoppers

Isoptera      Termites       Gradual    Chewing       2 pairs

Thysanoptera  Thrips         Gradual    Rasping-      2 pairs
                                        Sucking

Hemiptera     True Bugs      Gradual    Piercing-     2 pairs
                                        Sucking

Homoptera     Aphids,        Gradual    Piercing-     2 pairs
              Scale                     Sucking

Coleoptera    Beetles,       Complete   Chewing       2 pairs
              Weevils

Lepidoptera   Butterflies,   Complete   Chewing or    2 pairs
              Moths                     Siphoning

Hymenoptera   Bees, Wasps,   Complete   Chewing       2 pairs
              Ants                                    or none

Diptera       Flies          Complete   Chewing or    1 pair
                                        Piercing-
                                        Sucking

Siphonoptera  Fleas          Complete   Chewing or    None
                                        Piercing-
                                        Sucking

Dermoptera    Earwigs        Gradual    Chewing       2 pairs

Thysamera     Silverfish     Gradual    Chewing       None



Families are further divided into Genus and Species. The most commonly found
insects also acquire common names by which most people know them. Sometimes
one species will have several common names. Heliothis zea is an example; on
corn it is called the corn earworm, but when it is a pest on tomatoes it is
the tomato fruitworm. The housefly, Musca domestica, serves here as an
example of classification:

                        Phylum: Arthropoda
                        Class: Insecta
                        Order: Diptera
                        Family: Muscidae
                        Genus: Musca
                        Species: domestica
                        Common name: housefly

Most common names of insects refer to large groups, such as families or
orders, rather than individual species. The term beetle refers to the entire
order Coleoptera, which includes thousands of different species. However,
the name fly and bug are used for insects in more than one order. When the
bug of an insect's name is written separately (for example, stink bug or
lace bug), the insect belongs to the order Hemiptera, which is often
referred to as the true bugs.

Since there are many insect species, and because many of them are small and
seldom encountered, relatively few have common names. Those which do are
either particularly showy insects, such as the luna moth and tiger
swallowtail, or they are economically important species like the honey bee
and the southern pine beetle.

-End-
-Title-
 INSECT FORM AND STRUCTURE - MORPHOLOGY
-Text-

Insects possess the following characteristics: a) three body regions; b)
three pairs of legs; c) one pair of antennae; and d) none, one or two pairs
of wings. Legs and other appendages are often greatly modified to suit the
environment in which the insect lives.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,58>
-Title-
 INSECT FORM AND STRUCTURE - MORPHOLOGY
-SubTitle-
 The Insect Body
-Text-

Head, Thorax, Abdomen   While the adult insect's body is made up of three
parts (head, thorax, and abdomen), the division is not always obvious
between thorax and abdomen. An insect's body is not supported by a bony
skeleton but by a tough body wall or exoskeleton. The tough covering of skin
is referred to as the cuticle. The cuticle contains a layer of wax which
determines its permeability to water (even to insecticides) and prevents
desiccation or drying. The cuticle of each segment is formed into several
hardened plates called sclerites, separated by infolds or sutures which give
it flexibility. The cuticle of the larva is not usually as hardened as that
of the adult.

The thorax is made up of three segments: prothorax, mesothorax, and
metathorax. Each of these segments bears a pair of legs. The wings are
attached to the mesothorax and metathorax, never to the prothorax or first
segment. The thickened front wings of beetles serve as protective covering,
and cover the wings when not flying.

-Fig-
Parts of an Insect
-Text-
The abdomen may have eleven or twelve segments, but in most cases they are
difficult to distinguish. Some insects have a pair of appendages at the tip
of the abdomen. They may be short, as in grasshoppers, termites, and
cockroaches; or extremely long, as in mayflies; or curved, as in earwigs.

Legs   The most important characteristic of insects is the presence of three
pairs of jointed legs. These are almost always present on adult or mature
insects and are generally present in the other stages as well. In addition
to walking and jumping, insects often use their legs for digging, grasping,
feeling, swimming, carrying loads, building nests, and cleaning parts of the
body. The legs of insects vary greatly in size and form and are much used in
classification.

-Title-
 INSECT FORM AND STRUCTURE - MORPHOLOGY
-SubTitle-
 Leg Adaptations of Some Insects.
-Text-

A. Running (ground beetle); B. Jumping (cricket); C. Digging (mole cricket);
D. Walking on grass (walkingstick); E. Swimming (whirligig beetle); F.
Grasping (praying mantid); G. Hanging on to hairs (louse); H. Suction cups
(diving beetle).

-Fig-
Leg Adaptations of Some Insects
-Text-
Prolegs (fleshy body projections) occur only in larvae and are used for
clinging to plants.

-Fig-
Prolegs
-Text-
Wings   Venation, or arrangement of the veins of the wings, is different for
each species of insect; thus, it serves as a means of identification.
Systems have been devised to designate the venation for descriptive
purposes. Wing surfaces are covered with fine hairs or scales, or they may
be bare. It will be noted that the names of the orders in the majority of
cases end in "ptera", which comes from the Greek word meaning wing. Thus,
each of these names denotes some feature of the wings. Hemiptera means half
winged; Hymenoptera means membrane winged; Diptera means two winged.

-Fig-
Some Insect Wings Showing Venation.
-Text-

Antennae and Mouthparts   The main features of the insect's head are the
eyes, antennae, and mouthparts. The antennae are a prominent and distinctive
feature of insects, and one pair is always present on the adult's head
(except in the scale insects at times); they are usually located between or
in front of the eyes. Antennae are segmented, vary greatly in form and
complexity, and are often referred to as horns or feelers, which is
misleading. They are primarily organs of smell but serve other functions in
some insects.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,59>
-Title-
 INSECT FORM AND STRUCTURE - MORPHOLOGY
-SubTitle-
 Some Types of Insect Antenna
-Text-

A. Cockroach (ciliate); B. Longhorn Beetle; C. Assassin Bug (filiform); D.
Stylopid; E. Bark Beetle (capitate); F. Scarab Beetle (lamellate); G.
Butterfly (clubbed); H. Moth (bipectinate); I. Chironomid Fly (plumosa); J.
Horse Fly; K. Mosquito: male on left, female on right.

-Fig-
Types of Insect Antenna
-Text-
The most remarkable structural feature of insects and the most complicated
is the mouth. There are many variations in form and function of the
mouthparts, but they fall into two basic types: those for chewing and those
for sucking. The chewing type is the more primitive and is better developed.
While they differ considerably in appearance, the same basic parts are
generally found in both types, (though sucking types may be greatly
modified).

There are intermediate types of mouthparts: rasping-sucking, as found in
thrips; and chewing-lapping, as found in honey bees, wasps, and bumble bees.
Sucking types are greatly varied. Piercing-sucking mouthparts are typical of
the Hemiptera (bugs), Homoptera (aphids, scales, mealybugs), blood-sucking
lice, fleas, mosquitoes, and the so-called biting flies. In the siphoning
types, as seen in butterflies and moths, the mandibles are wanting and the
labial and maxillary palpi greatly reduced. Houseflies have sponging
mouthparts.

The mouthparts of immature insects tend to be more varied than in the
adults, although nymphs have mouthparts similar to those of the adults.
Larval forms generally have the chewing type regardless of the kind
possessed by the adults. For some adult insects the mouthparts are vestigial
(no longer used for feeding).

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,61>
-Title-
 INSECT FORM AND STRUCTURE - MORPHOLOGY
-SubTitle-
 Some Types of Insect Mouthparts
-End-

-Fig-
A. Chewing (beetle-top view)
B. Chewing-lapping (bee-front view) with proboscis retracted
C. Siphoning (butterfly-side view), with proboscis uncoiled
D. Sponging (house fly-side view)
E. Piercing-sucking (flea-front view)
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,62>
-Title-
 INSECT DEVELOPMENT - METAMORPHOSIS
-Text-

One of the distinctive features of insects is the phenomenon called
metamorphosis. The term is a combination of two Greek words: meta, meaning
change and morphe, meaning form. It is commonly defined as a marked or
abrupt change in form or structure and refers to all stages of development.
In the case of complete or complex metamorphosis the stages are: egg, nymph,
and adult. In some insects, fertilization of the egg by sperm is not
necessary for reproduction. This type of reproduction is known as
parthenogenesis. Bees, ants, wasps, and aphids are notable examples of
insects that can reproduce by parthenogenesis. In higher animals, the most
important development takes place before birth (in the embryonic stage); in
insects, it occurs after birth. The larval period is primarily one of
growth, of feeding and storing up food for the pupal and adult stages which
follow. Many insects feed very little, some not at all during their adult
lives.

The young insect (larva or nymph) sheds its coat (molts) at various stages
of growth, since it outgrows the hard covering or cuticle more than once.
Most insects do not grow gradually as many other animals do. They grow by
stages. When the old coat gets too tight, it splits open and the insect
crawls out, protected by a new and larger coat that has grown underneath the
old one. The stage of life between each molt is called an instar. Following
each molt, the insect increases its feeding. This is noticeable in the
damage done to plants and in the size of the insect's fecal pellets. The
number of instars, or frequency of molts, varies considerably with species
and to some extent with food supply, temperature, and moisture.

The pupal stage is one of profound change, a transformation from larva to
adult. Many tissues and structures, such as prolegs, are completely broken
down and true legs, antennae, wings, and other structures of the adult are
formed.

Hibernation takes place during the winter season. It may occur in the egg,
larval, pupal, or adult stage, according to species. It is the insect's way
of adjusting to low temperatures and dwindling food supply. Many insects
start preparing for winter before the end of summer. This behavior is
triggered by seasonal variation in the amount of daylight (photoperiod).

The adult insect does not grow in the usual sense, but it does change since
many insects are not mature when they emerge from the pupa. The adult period
is primarily one of reproduction and is sometimes of short duration. Their
food is often entirely different from that of the larval stage.

Some insects do not go through a metamorphosis but rather gradually increase
in size while maintaining the same characteristics. Others experience a
gradual metamorphosis, going through a nymph stage.

-Fig-
Insects Without Metamorphosis
Insects With Gradual Metamorphosis
Insects With Incomplete Metamorphosis
Insects With Complete Metamorphosis
-End-

-Title-
 IDENTIFYING INSECTS
-Text-

Most home gardeners can classify an insect by the common name of its order,
identifying it as a beetle or wasp or butterfly. Knowing the insect orders
allows access to much valuable information typical to many insects in the
same order. This information would include the type of mouthparts the insect
has (this tells us how it feeds and gives clues towards methods of control),
its life cycle (and proper timing for best control), and type of habitation.
As the interested person leaves the category of family, however, it becomes
very difficult to identify all but the most common of the insect correctly
without a magnifying instrument such as a dissecting microscope and a good
insect key. A key is a list of traits used to facilitate identification.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,64>
-Title-
 SPECIFIC INSECT ORDERS
-Text-

In this section insect orders are divided into two sections: those orders
that contain insects important to the home gardener and orders that contain
insects of lesser importance to the home gardener.

Insect Orders Important to the Gardener
       a. Coleoptera - Beetles, Weevils.

          (1)  Adults have hardened, horny outer skeleton.

          (2)  Adults have two pairs of wings, the outer pair hardened and the
               inner pair membranous. (A few beetles are practically wing-
               less,and some have only an outer hard pair of wings.)

          (3)  Chewing mouthparts.

          (4)  Adults usually have noticeable antennae.

          (5)  Larvae with head capsule, 3 pairs of legs on the thorax with
               no legs on the abdomen. (Weevil larvae lack legs on the
               thorax).

          (6)  Complete metamorphosis.

-Fig-
Metamorphosis of a Beetle
Coleoptera
-Text-

       b. Dermaptera - Earwigs.

          (1)  Adults are moderately sized insects.

          (2)  Chewing mouthparts.

          (3)  Gradual metamorphosis.

          (4)  Elongate, flattened insects with strong, movable forceps on
               the rear end.

          (5)  Short, hardened outer wings and folded, membranous inner wings.

          (6)  Adults and nymphs similar in appearance.

-Fig-
Metamorphosis of an Earwig
-Text-
       c. Diptera - Flies, Mosquitoes, Gnats, Midges.

          (1)  Adults have only one pair of wings, are rather soft-bodied and
               often hairy.

          (2)  Adults have sponging (housefly) or piercing (mosquito) mouthparts

          (3)  Larvae may have mouth hooks or chewing mouthparts.

          (4)  Most larvae are legless.

          (5)  Larvae of advanced forms, housefly and relatives, have no head
               capsule, possess mouth hooks, and are called maggots; lower
               forms such as mosquito larvae and relatives have a head capsule.

          (6)  Complete metamorphosis.

-Fig-
Diptera
Metamorphosis of a Fly
-Text-

       d. Hemiptera - Stinkbug, Plant Bug, Squash Bug, Boxelder Bug.

          (1)  Have gradual metamorphosis. Stages are egg, nymph, adult.

          (2)  Have two pairs of wings; the second pair is membranous, the
               first pair membranous and thickened on basal half.

          (3)  Adults and nymphs usually resemble one another.

          (4)  Have piercing-sucking mouthparts.

          (5)  Adults and nymphs are both damaging stages.

-Fig-
Metamorphosis of a Bug
Hemiptera
-Text-

       e. Homoptera - Scale Insects, Mealybugs, Whiteflies, Aphids, Cicadas,
          Leafhopper.

          (1)  Generally small, soft bodied insects; cicadas may be large and
               hard bodied.

          (2)  Winged and unwinged forms.

          (3)  All stages have sucking mouthparts.

          (4)  Have gradual metamorphosis.

          (5)  Many are carriers of plant pathogens.

-Fig-
Metamorphosis of an Aphid
Homoptera
-Text-

       f. Hymenoptera - Bees, Ants, Wasps, Sawflies, Horntails.

          (1)  Adults with two pairs of membranous wings.

          (2)  Larvae with no legs (wasps, bees, ants), or with legs
               on thorax and abdomen (some sawflies).

          (3)  Generally with chewing mouthparts.

          (4)  Rather soft bodied or slightly hardened bodied adults.

          (5)  Complete metamorphosis.

-Fig-
Hymenoptera
Metamorphosis of an Ant
-Text-

       g. Lepidoptera - Butterflies, Moths.

          (1)  Adults soft bodied with four well developed membranous wings
               covered with small scales.

          (2)  Larvae with chewing mouthparts.

          (3)  Adult mouthparts are a coiled, sucking tube. Adults feed on
               nectar.

          (4)  Larvae are caterpillar, worm like, variable in color and
               voracious feeders.

          (5)  Larvae generally have legs on the abdomen, as well as the
               thorax.

          (6)  Complete metamorphosis.

-Fig-
Lepidoptera
Metamorphosis of a Moth
-Text-

       h. Neuroptera - Lacewings, Antlions, Snakeflies, Mentispids,
          Dobsonfly, Dustywing, Alderfly.

          (1)  Insect predators, many are aquatic.

          (2)  Two pair of similar wings.

          (3)  Chewing mouthparts.

          (4)  Complete metamorphosis.

-Fig-
Neuroptera
-Text-

       i. Orthoptera - Grasshopper, Cricket, Praying Mantid.

          (1)  Adults are moderate to large, often rather hard bodied.

          (2)  Have simple metamorphosis.

          (3)  Adults usually have two pairs of wings. Forewings are
               elongate, narrow and hardened; hindwings are membranous
               with extensive folded area.

          (4)  Chewing mouthparts. Both adults and nymphs are damaging.

          (5)  Hind legs of forms other than cockroaches and walking
               sticks enlarged for jumping.

          (6)  Immature stages are called nymphs and resemble adults,
               except for being wingless.

-Fig-
Metamorphosis of a Grasshopper
Orthoptera
-Text-

       j. Thysanoptera - Thrips.

          (1)  Adults are small, soft bodied insects.

          (2)  Mouthparts are rasping-sucking.

          (3)  Varied metamorphosis (a mixture of complete and gradual).

          (4)  Found on flowers or leaves of plants.

          (5)  Wings in two pairs, slender, fringed with hairs.

-Fig-
Thysanoptera
-Text-

        Insect Orders of Lesser Importance to the Home Gardener

                Order                     Examples

            ( 1) Anoplura              sucking lice
            ( 2) Collembola            springtails
            ( 3) Diplura               no common examples
            ( 4) Ephemeroptera         Mayflies
            ( 5) Embioptera            webspinners
            ( 6) Isoptera              termites
            ( 7) Mallophaga            chewing lice
            ( 8) Mecoptera             scorpionflies
            ( 9) Odonata               dragonflies and damselflies
            (10) Plecoptera            stoneflies
            (11) Protura               no common examples
            (12) Psocoptera            booklice
            (13) Siphoneptera          fleas
            (14) Strepsiptera          no common examples
            (15) Thysanura             silverfish and bristletails
            (16) Trichoptera           caddisflies
            (17) Zoraptera             no common examples

-End-
-Title-
 SPECIFIC INSECT ORDERS
-SubTitle-
 Other Insect Like Creatures
-Text-

    A number of noninsect pests may be found in the field and home. These
    include:

      1. Spiders, Spider Mites, Ticks, and Scorpions - ARACHNIDA

         a. Spider mites: tiny, soft bodied animals with two body regions,
            thick waists, four pairs of legs, and are without antennae.

            Common species:

              (1) The two spotted mites and near relatives, the Pacific,
                  Atlantic, and McDaniel spider mites: the mites have two
                  spots on the back and have tail end spots in some species.
                  They may be clear, green, orange, or reddish. Usually hard
                  to observe without a hand lens.

              (2) The European red mite: This mite is carmine red with white
                  spines.

              (3) The brown mite and clover mite: these mites are brownish or
                  grayish, flat and have very long front legs.

         b. Spiders: Resemble mites except that most are larger and the two
            body regions are more clearly distinct from one another (thin
            waist). Most spiders are beneficial predators.

            Common pest species:

              (1) The black widow spider: This is a dangerous spider. It is a
                  shy individual that likes dank, dark places and spins a
                  characteristically messy web. It is normally a shiny black,
                  moderately sized spider with a reddish or orange hourglass
                  marking on the underside of the abdomen. Males and immature
                  females can have stripes of red, yellow, and black on the
                  abdomen.

              (2) The brown recluse spider: This is a very poisonous spider
                  which is often confused with harmless wolf spiders and other
                  hunting spiders. It can easily be recognized by a distinct
                  brown fiddle case on a light brown or grayish background.

         c. Ticks: Resemble large mites and are important in agriculture and
            medicine in that they are parasites of man and animals.

      2. Millipedes - DIPLODA

         These are elongate invertebrates with two visible body regions, a
         head and a body.  They are generally rounded in cross section and,
         with the exception of the first four or five segments, all of the
         body segments possess two pairs of legs. They are also relatively
         slow moving. Millipedes are generally inoffensive creatures that feed
         on fungus and decaying plant material. At times, they can be fairly
         destructive to vegetables or other plants in greenhouses.

      3. Centipedes - CHILOPODA

         Centipedes strongly resemble millipedes. They are different in that
         they have longer antennae, are flattened in cross section, have but
         one pair of legs on each body segment, and move rapidly. They are
         beneficial in that they are predators of other arthropods.

      4. Sowbugs and Pillbugs - CRUSTACEA

         These are oval with a hard convex outer shell made up of a number of
         plates.  Sowbugs are highly dependent on moisture. Generally, they
         feed on decaying plant material, but they will attack young plants
         in greenhouses and gardens.

      5. Garden Centipede or Symphylan - SYMPHYLA

         Members of this group resemble tiny centipedes. Generally, they are a
         pest of plants that grow in damp soils rich in organic matter.

-End-
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Injury by Chewing Insects
-Text-

Insects take their food in a variety of ways. One method is by chewing off
the external parts of a plant. Such insects are called chewing insects. It
is easy to see examples of this injury. Perhaps the best way to gain an idea
of the prevalence of this type of insect damage is to try to find leaves of
plants which have no sign of injury from chewing insects. Cabbageworms,
armyworms, grasshoppers, the Colorado potato beetle, the pear slug, and the
cankerworm are common examples of insects that cause injury by chewing.

-End-
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Injury by Piercing Sucking Insects
-Text-

A second important way in which insects feed on growing plants is by
piercing the epidermis (skin) and sucking out the sap from the cells within.
In this case, only internal and liquid portions of the plant are swallowed,
although the insect itself remains externally on the plant. These insects
have a slender and sharp pointed portion of the mouthpart which is thrust
into the plant and through which sap is sucked. This results in a very
different looking, but nonetheless severe injury. The hole made in this way
is so small that it cannot be seen with the unaided eye, but the withdrawal
of the sap results in either minute spotting of white, brown, or red on
leaves, fruits or twigs; curling of the leaves;deforming of the fruit; or a
general wilting, browning and dying of the whole plant. Aphids, scale
insects, the squash bug, leafhoppers, and plant bugs are well known examples
of piercing sucking insects.

-End-
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Injury by Internal Feeders
-Text-

So long as an insect feeds externally upon crops, it can usually be
destroyed by application of the proper insecticide. But many of the worst
pests feed within the plant tissues during a part or all of their
destructive stages. They gain entrance to the plant either by having the egg
thrust into the tissues by the sharp ovipositor of the parent insect or by
eating their way in after they hatch from the eggs. In either case, the hole
by which they enter is almost always minute, often invisible. A large hole
in a fruit, seed, nut, twig, or trunk generally indicates where the insect
has come out and not the point where it entered.

The chief groups of internal feeders are indicated by their common group
names: (a) borers in wood or pith; (b) worms or weevils in fruits, nuts or
seeds; (c) leaf miners; and (d) gall insects. Each group, except the third,
contains some of the foremost insect pests of the world. In nearly all of
them, the insect lives inside the plant during only a part of its life
stages, sooner or later emerging, usually as an adult. Control internal
insects by dusting or spraying adults before their progeny gain entrance to
the plant.

A number of internal feeders are small enough to find comfortable quarters
and an abundance of food between the upper and lower epidermis of a leaf.
These are known as leaf miners, injurious examples include the beet leaf
miner and the spinach leaf miner.

Gall insects sting the plant which causes the plant to produce a structure
of deformed tissue, within which they find not only shelter but also
suitable and abundant food. We do not know as yet exactly what it is that
makes the plants, when attacked by the insect, grow these curious, often
elaborate structures which are absolutely foreign to them in the absence of
the gall insect. However, it is clear that the growth of the gall is
initiated by the oviposition of the adult and its continued development
results from the secretions of the developing larva. The same species of
insect on different plants causes galls that are similar, while several
species of insects attacking the same plant cause galls that are greatly
different in appearance. Although the gall is entirely plant tissue, the
insect controls and directs the form and shape it takes as it grows.

-End-
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Injury by Subterranean Insects
-Text-

Almost as secure from man's attack as the internal feeders are those insects
that attack plants below the surface of the soil. These include chewers, sap
suckers, root borers, and gall insects. The attacks differ from the above
ground forms just described, only in their position with reference to the
soil surface. Subterranean insects may spend their entire life cycle below
ground, e.g., the woolly apple aphid. This insect, as both nymph and adult,
sucks the sap from the roots of apple, causing the development of tumors and
the subsequent decay of roots at the point of attack. More often there is at
least one life stage of the insect that has not taken up the subterranean
habit, as in the case of wireworms, root maggots, pillbugs, strawberry root
weevil, and grape and corn rootworms. The larvae are root feeders while the
adults live above ground.


-End-
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Injury by Laying Eggs
-Text-

Probably 95% or more of direct injury to plants is caused by insects feeding
in the variousways just described. In addition, most insects lay their eggs
in exactly the right place so that their young will have the best chance to
survive. Sometimes this provision for the young leads to serious injury to
plants. The periodical cicada deposits her eggs in the one year old growth
of fruit and forest trees, splitting the wood so severely that the entire
twig beyond this point often dies. It is interesting to note that these are
purely egg laying sites. As soon as the young hatch, they desert the twigs
and injure the plant no further. In other cases, the young subsequently feed
upon the plant attacked by the egg laying act. For example, the plum
curculio ruins the fruits of apple, plum, peach, and cherry by her
characteristic egg laying procedures.

-End-
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Use of Plants for Nest Materials
-Text-

Besides laying eggs in plants, insects sometimes remove parts of the plant
for the construction of nests or for provisioning nests elsewhere, though
they do not feed on these materials. This injury is more interesting than it
is serious. Leaf cutter bees nip out rather neat circular pieces of rose and
other foliage which are carried away and fashioned together to form thimble
shaped cells one above the other in a tunnel previously made in the stem of
a plant.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,72>
-Title-
 TYPES OF INJURY
-SubTitle-
 Insects as Disseminators of Plant Diseases
-Text-

Since 1892, when it was first proved that a plant disease (fire blight of
fruit trees) may be spread by an insect (the honeybee), the knowledge of
this subject has grown rapidly. At present there is evidence that more than
200 plant diseases are disseminated by insects. The majority of them, about
150, belong to the group known as viruses, 25 or more are due to parasitic
fungi, 15 or more are bacterial diseases, and a few are caused by protozoa.

Insects are responsible for spreading plant diseases in a number of
different ways: (a) by feeding or laying eggs or boring into plants, they
make an entrance point for a disease that is not actually transported by
them; (b) they have been found to disseminate the pathogens on or in their
bodies, from one plant to a susceptible surface of another plant, such as a
blossom or to a wound made by some other agent; (c) they carry pathogens on
the outside or inside of their bodies and inject plants hypodermically as
they feed; (d) they harbor pathogens inside their bodies during adverse
periods, such as winter or a period of drought or host plant scarcity,
protecting them from the adverse climatic condition and from natural
enemies; (e) they may be essential hosts for an incubation period, for
increase in numbers of the pathogen, or for some part of its life cycle that
cannot be completed elsewhere.

-Fig-
Insects and Injury
-Text-

                Examples of Insect Vectored Plant Diseases

                 Disease                           Vector

           Dutch Elm Disease (fungus)           Small Beetle
           Fireblight (bacterial)               Pollinating Insects
           Tomato Curly Top (virus)             Beet Leafhopper
           Cucumber Mosaic (virus)              Aphids

-End-
-Title-
 BENEFITS AND VALUE OF INSECTS
-Text-

Insects need to be studied carefully to distinguish the beneficial from the
harmful. People have often gone to great trouble and expense to destroy
quantities of insects, only to learn later that the insect destroyed was
not only harmless but was actually engaged in saving their crops by eating
the destructive insects. Most entomologists have had correspondents send in
the larvae of lady beetles with the complaint that they were injuring plants;
at the same time overlooking the smaller aphids which were causing the injury
and which these larvae were continually devouring.

Insects are beneficial to the gardener in several ways:

    1. Insects aid in the production of fruits, seeds, vegetables, and flowers,
       by pollinizing the blossoms. Most common fruits are pollinized by
       insects. Melons, squash, and many other vegetables require insects to
       carry their pollen before fruits set. Many ornamental plants, both in
       the greenhouse and out of doors, are pollinated by insects
       (chrysanthemums, iris, orchids, and yucca).

    2. Parasitic insects destroy other injurious insects by living on or in
       their bodies and their eggs. Insects also act as predators, capturing
       and devouring other insects.

    3. Insects destroy various weeds in the same ways that they injure crop
       plants.

    4. Insects improve the physical condition of the soil and promote its
       fertility by burrowing throughout the surface layer. Also, the dead
       bodies and droppings of the insects serve as fertilizer.

    5. Insects perform a valuable service as scavengers by devouring the
       bodies of dead animals and plants and by burying carcasses and dung.

Many of the benefits from insects enumerated above, although genuine, are
insignificant compared with the good that insects do fighting among
themselves. There is no doubt that the greatest single factor in keeping
plant feeding insects from overwhelming the rest of the world is that they
are fed upon by other insects. It is easy to see how the industry of insects
and their devotion to purpose, when coupled with almost unlimited numbers,
can benefit us when they seek and devour myriads of pests scattered over a
farm or a forest.

Insects that eat other insects are considered in two groups known as
predators and parasites. Predators are insects (or other animals) that catch
and devour smaller or more helpless creatures (called the prey), usually
killing them in getting a single meal. The prey is generally smaller,
weaker, or less intelligent than the predator. Parasites are forms of living
organisms that live on or in the bodies of living organisms (called the
hosts) from which they get their food, during at least one stage of their
existence. The hosts are usually larger, stronger, or more intelligent than
the parasites and are not killed promptly but continue to live during a
period of close association with the parasite. Predators are typically very
active and have long life cycles; parasites are typically sluggish and tend
to have very short life cycles.

-End-
-Title-
 PEST CONTROL WITH A MINIMUM OF CHEMICALS
-Text-

Home gardeners often use more pesticides per square foot in their gardens
than farmers do in the fields, thinking that if a little is good, more will
be better. This is a mistake, and a serious misuse of pesticides. Overuse of
pesticides has a number of adverse effects: it makes food less safe to eat,
especially if there are residues at harvest time; it makes handling the
plants dangerous; beneficial insects, earthworms, birds, even pets may be
harmed or killed along with harmful insects. Each time gardeners spray, they
are exposed to the dangers of inhalation or absorption of the toxin.
Pesticides used near water may contaminate water supplies; continuous use of
certain pesticides may induce resistance in the pests, thus requiring the
use of more toxic substances; some pesticides break down slowly and can
remain in the environment for years.

Growing public concern over the use and misuse of pesticides has led
increasing numbers of home gardeners to seek means of natural pest control.
Although some people do not have the time or knowledge to practice all
available alternative methods for controlling pests, there are many cultural
practices which will help reduce losses. Because the gardener does not have
to live up to perfect market standards, pesticide use may be reduced to a
minimum with a little research and effort. If the choice is between minor
insect damage and a possible pesticide residue, consider accepting the
visible blemish that can be removed. Proper soil preparation, careful plant
selection, and good garden practices can be combined with biological and
mechanical controls to reduce the need for chemical pesticides.

-End-
-Title-
 PEST CONTROL WITH A MINIMUM OF CHEMICALS
-SubTitle-
 Soil Preparation
-Text-

Maintain a slightly acid soil (around pH 6.5). If in doubt, have a soil
analysis done through your local Extension Office, by a private lab, or with
a soil test kit. The appropriate pH allows vegetable plants to have access
to all the necessary soil nutrients and provides a suitable environment for
earthworms and microorganisms. Follow recommended fertilizer practices.
Supplement chemical fertilizers with organic material or compost (see Pub.
426-313, Soil Preparation) to help assure that all trace elements are
available, as well as major nutrients. Feed the soil, not just the plants;
providing an appropriate environment for all soil life will result in
healthy plants which can resist pests and diseases.

When using manure and compost, be sure they are well worked into the soil.
Otherwise, millipedes, white grubs, and other pests may be encouraged. If
these insects become a problem, you may be using too much; consider other
means of adding organic matter, such as cover cropping or mulching.

When diseased plant material is added to compost to be used on the garden,
delay using the compost until all material has decayed beyond recognition.
Compost piles must be hot (140 degrees F.) to kill disease organisms, insect
eggs, and weed seeds.

Till in the fall to expose those stages of pests which live near the surface
of the soil to natural enemies and weather, and to destroy insects in crop
residues. If you do not till in the fall, do so early enough in the spring
to give remaining vegetation time to degrade before planting time.

-End-
-Title-
 PEST CONTROL WITH A MINIMUM OF CHEMICALS
-SubTitle-
 Plant Selection
-Text-

Plant crops that are suited to the soil and climate of your area. If you do
plant vegetables or fruits that are not normally grown in your area, do your
best to provide necessaryconditions. For example, watermelon prefers a
light, warm, well drained soil; don't try to plant in heavy clay without
first adding copious amounts of compost or other soil lightening material,
and allow the soil to warm up before seeding or setting plants out.

Use disease and insect free, certified seed, if available. Select disease
and insect resistant or tolerant species and varieties (see Table 3 for
examples of vegetables).


Table 3.   Vegetable Varieties that Show Some Resistance
 to Specific Insect Pests


Vegetable     Variety             Insect Resistance

Bean (snap)   Wade           Mexican bean beetle

Broccoli      De Cicco       Striped flea beetle

Cabbage       Early Globe    Cabbage looper and
              Red Acre       Imported cabbageworm
              Round Dutch

Cabbage       Michili        Diamondback moth
(Chinese)

Collard       Georgia        Striped flea beetle, harlequin bug

Corn (sweet)  Golden         Corn earworm
              Security

Cucumber      Ashley         Pickleworm, spotted cucumber beetle
              Piccadilly     Pickleworm
              Poinsett       Spotted cucumber beetle

Kale          Vates          Diamondback moth

Mustard       Florida        Diamondback moth and
              Broadleaf      Striped flea beetle

Potato        Centennial     Sweet potato flea beetle and
(sweet)       Jewel          Southern potato wireworm


Radish        Cherry Belle   Diamondback moth, harlequin bug
              White Icicle   Harlequin bug

Squash        Early Prolific Pickleworm, striped cucumber beetle
              (straightneck)
              White Bush     Pickleworm, striped cucumber beetle
              Scallop        Pickleworm, striped cucumber beetle
              Zucchini       Striped cucumber beetle

Turnip        Seven Top      Diamondback moth and
                             Striped flea beetle

Rutabaga      American       Diamondback moth and
              Purple Top     Striped flea beetle

Watermelons   Crimson Sweet  Pickleworm, spotted cucumber beetle





Resistance in plants is likely to be interpreted by the layman as meaning
immune to damage. In reality, it distinguishes plant varieties that exhibit
less insect or disease damage when compared with other varieties under
similar circumstances. Some varieties may not taste as good to the pest or
may possess certain physical or chemical properties which repel or
discourage insect feeding or egg laying, or may be able to support insect
populations with no appreciable damage or alteration in quality or yield.

Select plants that are sturdy and have well developed root systems. Diseases
and insects in young seedlings may start in greenhouses or plant beds and
cause heavy losses in the garden. Buy plants from a reputable grower who can
assure you that they are disease and insect free, or grow your own from
seed.

Avoid accepting houseplants, shrubs, etc. from friends if there is any
chance of their containing insects and/or disease.

-End-
-Title-
 PEST CONTROL WITH A MINIMUM OF CHEMICALS
-SubTitle-
 Garden Practices
-Text-

The most effective and most important of all practices is to observe what is
going on in the garden! Many serious disease or insect problems can be
halted or slowed down early by the gardener who knows what to look for and
regularly visits the garden for the purpose of trouble shooting.

Rotation   Do not grow the same kind of produce in the same place each year.
Use related crops in one site only once every three or four years. Some
related crops are as follows: (a) chives, garlic, leeks, onions, shallots;
(b) beets, Swiss chard, spinach; (c) cabbage, cauliflower, kale, collards,
Brussels sprouts, broccoli, kohlrabi, turnips, rutabagas, Chinese cabbage,
mustard; (d) peas, broad beans, snap beans, lima beans; (e) carrots,
parsley, celery, celeriac, parsnips; (f) potatoes, eggplant, tomatoes,
peppers; (g) pumpkins, squash, watermelons, cucumbers, muskmelons; and (h)
endive, salsify, lettuce.

Interplantings    Use interplantings as opposed to solid plantings of a
crop. Avoid placing all plants of one kind together by alternating groups of
different plants within rows or patches. If an insect lays eggs or otherwise
attacks a specific species, the presence of other species in the area can
interrupt progress of the attack by such methods as diluting the odor of the
preferred plants. This can slow the spread of diseases and pests, giving
more time to deal with them.

Thinning   Thin young plants to a proper stand. Overcrowding causes weak
growth and subsequent insect and disease problems.

Watering   Water in the morning so that plants have time to dry before the
cool evening. Drip irrigation prevents foliage from getting wet at all when
watering. For plants susceptible to fungus infections, such as late blight
on tomatoes, leave extra space between plants to allow good air flow; orient
rows so that prevailing winds will help foliage dry quickly after a rain or
watering. While this may reduce the number of plants per square foot, yields
may still be higher due to reduced disease problems.

To prevent spreading diseases, stay out of the garden when the plants are
wet with rain or dew.

Time Planting   Time plantings in such a way that the majority of the crop
will avoid the peak of insect infestations. For example, plant squash as
early as possible to avoid borers, which lay eggs in July. Keep a record of
the dates insect problems occur. Also, by planting warm weather crops after
the soil has warmed, problems with seed and root rots will be avoided;
growth will be more vigorous, as well.

Sanitation   Do not use tobacco products such as cigarettes or cigars when
working in the garden. Tomatoes, pepper, and eggplant are susceptible to a
mosaic virus disease common in tobacco and may be spread by your hands.
Remove infected leaves from diseased plants as soon as you observe them.
Dispose of severely diseased plants before they contaminate others. Clean up
crop refuse as soon as harvesting is finished if possible. Old sacks,
baskets, decaying vegetables, and other rubbish which may harbor insects and
diseases should be kept out of the garden.

Staking plants or planting them in wire cages prevents the fruit from
touching the soil. This also helps prevent fruit rots. Caging helps reduce
sun scald often seen in staked tomatoes, since caged plants do not require
as much pruning, leaving a heavier foliage cover. Boards or a light, open
mulch such as straw placed beneath melons will prevent rotting.

Avoid injury to plants. Cuts, bruises, cracks and insect damage are often
the site for infection by disease causing organisms. In cases where fruits
are difficult to remove (such as cucumbers and watermelons) cut them off
instead of pulling them off the plant. If you cultivate your garden, avoid
cutting into the plant roots.

Mulching   Use a mulch to reduce soil splash, which brings soil borne
diseases into contact with lower leaves.

Weed control  Control weeds and grass. They often harbor pests and compete
for nutrients and water. They provide an alternate source of food and can be
responsible for pest build up. They provide cover for cut worms and slugs.

-End-
-Title-
 PEST CONTROL WITH A MINIMUM OF CHEMICALS
-SubTitle-
 Mechanical Control
-Text-

Handpicking   Inspect plants for egg clusters, bean beetles, and
caterpillars and other insects as often as possible. Handpick as many as
possible. Knocking insects and egg clusters into a coffee can with a small
amount of water in it and then pouring boiling water over them is a way to
kill insects if you don't like squashing them. Kerosene is often
recommended, but there is a disposal problem once you have finished;
besides, water is cheaper.

Traps   Use appropriate insect traps to reduce certain insect populations. A
simple, effective Japanese beetle trap can be made from two one gallon milk
jugs or a gallon milk jug and a plastic bag. The bait used to attract the
beetles is available at most farm and garden supply centers. Place traps
away from desirable plants.

Light traps, particularly blacklight or bluelight traps (special bulbs that
emit a higher proportion of ultraviolet light that is highly attractive to
nocturnal insects) are a good insect monitoring tool but provide little or
no protection for the garden. True, they usually capture a tremendous number
of insects, however, a close examination of light trap collections shows
that they attract both beneficial and harmful insects that would ordinarily
not be found in that area. Those insects attracted but not captured remain
inthe area, and the destructive ones may cause damage later. Also some
species that are wingless and those active only during the day (diurnal, as
opposed to nocturnal) are not caught in these traps. Consequently, the value
of a blacklight or simple light trap in protecting the home garden is
generally of no benefit and in some instances, detrimental.

Upturned flower pots, bamboo length, boards, etc. will trap earwigs and
sowbugs; collect them every morning and feed to pet frogs, toads, turtles,
and fish, or destroy with boiling water. Slugs can also be caught by these
means and can be killed. Indoors, white flies can be caught with sticky
yellow traps, made with boards painted yellow and lightly coated with oil or
grease. There are also commercial sticky traps available through some
catalogs.

Barriers   Aluminum foil and other reflective mulch has been proven to repel
aphids. However, the environmental impact and energy consumption involved in
making aluminum foil deserves consideration. Where slugs are a problem, use
methods described under trapping above, and try to create drier conditions.
Heavy mulches will encourage slugs. Spread crushed eggshells or hydrated
lime around affected plants.

Exclusion   Various materials can be used to physically block or repel
insects and keep them from damaging plants. Place wood ash, cardboard tubes
or orange juice cans around seedlings to keep cutworms away from plant
stems. Use paper bags over ears of corn to keep birds and insects out; do
not cover until pollination is complete. Net covered cages over young
seedlings will help prevent insect, bird and rabbit damage. Cheesecloth
screens for cold frames and hot beds will prevent insect egg laying; sticky
barriers on the trunks of trees and woody shrubs will prevent damage by
crawling insects.

-End-
-Title-
 PEST CONTROL WITH A MINIMUM OF CHEMICALS
-SubTitle-
 Biological Controls
-Text-

Predators, Parasites and Pathogens   The garden and immediate surroundings
are alive with many beneficial organisms that are there naturally; however,
they may not be numerous enough to control a pest before its damage is done.
Actually, parasites and predators (usually other types of insects) are most
effective when pest populations have stabilized or are relatively low. Their
influence on increasing pest populations is usually minimal since any
increase in parasite and predator numbers depends on an even greater
increase in pest numbers. Disease pathogens, however, seem to be most
effective when pest populations are large.

Take advantage of the biological control already taking place in your garden
by encouraging natural predators, such as preying mantises, ladybugs,
lacewings, ground beetles, and others. Purchased natural predators are often
ineffective, however, since they tend not to remain in the place where they
are put. Research the likes and dislikes of these helpers as to foods,
habitat, etc. Provide these conditions where possible. Learn to recognize
the eggs and larvae of the beneficial insects and avoid harming them. You
can often find preying mantis egg cases in weedy lots; just bring the twig
with the cluster into the garden and set it in a place where it will not be
disturbed. Spiders, toads, and dragonflies are also beneficial and should
not be a source of fright to the gardener; in most cases they are harmless
to people.

Learn to recognize parasites and their egg cases; for example, the tomato
hornworm is often seen with a number of white egg cases, a little larger
than a grain of rice, on its back. These were laid by a parasitic wasp. The
hornworm will die and more wasps will emerge. Obviously, it is to your
advantage to leave the worm in the garden.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES
-SubTitle-
 Nonsynthetic
-Text-

Botanicals   Natural pesticidal products are available as an alternative to
synthetic chemical formulations. Some of the botanical pesticides are toxic
to fish and other cold blooded creatures and should be treated with care.
Safety clothing should be worn when spraying these even though their
toxicity is low to warm blooded animals. Botanical insecticides break down
readily in soil and are not stored in plant or animal tissue. Often their
effects are not as long lasting as those of synthetic pesticides.

     Insecticide          Use Against

      Pyrethrum           Pickleworms, aphids, leaf-hoppers, spider mites,
                          harlequin bugs, cabbageworms.

      Rotenone            Spittlebugs, aphids, potato beetles, harlequin
                          bugs, chinch bugs, spider mites, carpenter ants.

      Ryania              Codling moths, Japanese beetles, squash bugs,
                          potato aphids, onion thrips, corn earworms,
                          silkworms.

      Sabadilla           Grasshoppers, codling moths, moths, armyworms,
                          aphids, cabbage loopers, blister loopers,
                          blister beetles.

Some of these products may be very difficult to find.

In addition to botanical insecticides, some biological products can help in
the battle against insects. Bacillus thuringiensis is an effective product
commonly used against moth larvae; B.t., as it is known, is a bacterium that
gives the larvae a disease, and is most effective on young larvae.
Presently, there is research underway to develop strains that work against
other types of insect larvae. Several formulations are available to the
homeowner under different trade names which provide effective control of
several caterpillars but which are harmless to man and domestic animals.
More than 400 insect species are known to be affected by this important
insect pathogen. Bacillus thuringiensis is quite slow in its action. For
example, caterpillars that consume some of the spores will stop eating
within 2 hours, but may continue to live and move around until they die,
which may be as long as 72 hours. When this occurs the untrained gardener
may assume the material was ineffective because of the continued pest
activity and impatiently apply a chemical pesticide to correct his mistake.
Nosema locustae is a disease organism which shows some promise for
controlling grasshoppers. There are claims that this parasite may be
effective for up to five years after initial application. In some areas,
this parasite is available commercially under different trade names. It is
still too early to make extensive claims about its effectiveness in home
gardens.

Enlist the aid of birds in your garden. In rural areas, chickens, guineas,
and other domestic fowl are released in unused areas of the garden to eat
grubs and insects. Wild birds will also help, but aren't as controllable.
Provide appropriate conditions (i.e., shelter, nesting material, water) to
encourage insect eating birds.

Soaps   Commercial insecticidal soap (a special formulation of fatty acids)
has been proven effective against aphids, leafhoppers, mealybugs, mites,
pear psylla, thrips, and whiteflies. Homemade soap sprays also work to some
extent: use three tablespoons of soap flakes (not detergent) per gallon of
water and spray on plants till dripping. Repellent sprays, such as garlic
sprays and bug sprays (made from a puree of bugs) have been found useful by
some gardeners, but their effectiveness is questionable. Some researchers
believe that bug sprays may work if a disease is present in the insect,
which is spread through the spray to other insects.


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES
-SubTitle-
 Synthetic
-Text-

Synthetic pesticides, by their simplest definition, are those made or
synthesized by man in chemical laboratories or factories. Examples of these
include the insecticides such as malathion and methoxychlor. The real surge
of development came with World War II and began with the discovery of DDT.
More will be covered in the unit called Pesticides.


SUMMARY

Insects constitute one order of the phylum, Arthropoda, and yet they are one
of the largest groups in the animal kingdom. The insect world is made up of
individuals that vary greatly in size, color, and shape. Although most
insects are harmless or beneficial to man, the few that cause damage have a
tremendous impact due to their number. The harmful species can usually be
recognized with some basic knowledge of their host plants, habits, life
cycle, and the type of damage they inflict. Feeding damage varies with the
type of mouthparts an insect has. Harmful insects can be checked in many
ways before resorting to the use of pesticides. Good cultural practices and
proper selection of plant varieties coupled with mechanical and biological
controls are all measures that will control insect populations.


-End-
-Title-
 ENTOMOLOGY GLOSSARY
-Text-

Abdomen: The hindmost of the three major divisions of the body, composed of
not more than 11 segments and without either legs or wings.

Antennae: Segmented appendages on the head, carrying sense organs and acting
as feelers.

Compound eye: An eye of an arthropod composed of many individual elements or
ommatidia, each of which is represented externally by a facet.

Honeydew: Anal secretions of aphids and other Homoptera; exudate of some
galls.

Larva: The active feeding and growing stages of one of the higher insects,
preceding the pupal or resting stage.

Mandibles: The strong, chewing pair of mouthparts.

Metamorphosis: The changes through which an insect passes from the young
form to the adult.

Molt: The shedding of the skin during growth. The cast skin is called the
exuvia; the intervals between molts are called stages or stadia; the form
assumed during a particular stage is known as an instar.

Nymph: The active feeding and growing young stage of one of the less highly
evolved insects. Insects with nymphs do not have a resting or pupal stage.

Ovipositor: Tube or valves from which the female deposits (oviposits) eggs.

Parthenogenesis: A form of asexual reproduction; development of egg without
fertilization.

Parasite: an organism that lives on or in another (host) organism and
obtains all of its nutrients from that host, contributing nothing of benefit
to the host.

Pheromone: Substance emitted by an animal which causes a specific response
from others of the same species (or colony in the case of honey bees).

Predator: An animal living at the expense of others; an insect predator
differs from a parasite in that it usually requires more than one host.

Prolegs: Fleshy unjointed false legs of caterpillars and the larvae of some
sawflies, used in clinging to surfaces and for support in locomotion.

Pupa: The transformation stage between larva and adult of the more advanced
insects.

Thorax: Group of three segments behind the head and in front of the abdomen
and known, respectively, as the prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each
segment has one pair of legs; in addition the mesothorax and metathorax each
may carry one pair of wings. The large shield-like top side of the prothorax
is known as the pronotum. The thorax is largely filled with powerful flight
muscles.

Vector: An insect that carries a disease organism from one plant to another.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANT PATHOLOGY
-Text-

The organisms which cause plant disease can destroy crops from the time the
seed is put into the ground until the crop is harvested and in storage. Some
diseases are capable of totally destroying a crop while others may cause
only cosmetic damage. However, cosmetic damage may be equivalent to total
destruction in the case of ornamental plants or fruit blemishes in the super
market.

While many biological entities can cause plant diseases, the vast known
majority are caused by fungi. Disease control with chemicals is tricky
because it involves killing one plant, the fungus, without killing another
plant, the host.

A basic understanding of diseases and how they develop will give the reader
an appreciation for the complexity of the problem, and will demonstrate the
importance of cultural practices in control of diseases.


-End-
-Title-
 PLANT DISEASES IN HISTORY
-Text-

Certain diseases have had tremendous impacts on our society. Perhaps
foremost among these is Phytophthora late blight which caused the potato
famine (1845) in Ireland, resulting in many deaths and a mass immigration to
the United States. Approximately 2 million people either starved to death or
immigrated to the U.S.

Botrytis grey mold devastated the French wine industry until Bordeaux
mixture was found quite be accident to control the fungus.

Two forest tree diseases which caused great economic losses in America are
Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. Both were introduced accidentally to
the United States and while the former continues its destruction, the latter
completely destroyed the most valuable trees in the Appalachians.

These examples are prominent because they caused so much damage. However,
plant diseases cause variable amounts of damage from year to year, depending
often on weather patterns.


-End-
-Title-
 DISEASE DEFINED
-Text-

Plant disease is the rule rather than the exception. Every plant has disease
problems of one sort or another. Fortunately, plants either tolerate these
maladies or they are not very serious in most years. Plant pathologists
consider almost any abnormal growth pattern by a plant to be evidence of
disease.

Plant disease is caused by a large array of biotic (living) agents such as
fungi, nematodes, bacteria, and viruses; by a large array of abiotic
(nonliving) factors such as nutrient deficiencies and water or temperature
stress; or sometimes by a combination or complex of them. These agents cause
abnormal and harmful physiological processes in the host plant.

It is important to understand the difference between infectious disease,
caused by biotic agents and noninfectious disease, caused by abiotic agents.

Infectious organisms can be defined as follows:

Fungus: an organism (plant) with no chlorophyll that reproduces by means of
structures called spores and usually has filamentous growth; e.g., molds,
yeasts, mushrooms

bacterium: a single-celled, microscopic organism with cell walls and no
chlorophyll that reproduces by fission

mycoplasma: a microscopic bacteria-like organism that lacks a cell wall, and
therefore appears filamentous

virus: a submicroscopic, subcellular particle that requires a host cell in
which to multiply; it is not known if a virus is a living or nonliving agent

viroid: a viruslike particle that lacks the outer protein coat of a virus
particle

nematode: a microscopic roundworm, usually living in soil, many of which
feed on plant roots

parasitic seed plant: a higher plant with chlorophyll that lives
parasitically on other plants, e.g., mistletoe

Fungi and bacteria cause such plant diseases as leaf spots and fruit, stem
or root rots. Plant viruses, viroids and mycoplasmas often cause growth
distortion, stunting and abnormal coloration. Nematodes can cause stunting
and root distortion. Parasitic seed plants cause a general weakening of the
host plant.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,86>
-Title-
 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR DISEASE
-Text-

In order for disease to occur, three conditions must be met. First it is
necessary to have a susceptible host plant. Each species of plant is capable
of being infected by only certain organisms (pathogens). The plant must also
be in a stage of development susceptible to infection by the disease agent.

The second requirement is the presence of a living active pathogen. If there
is no pathogen present, there can be no disease. Also, the pathogen must be
in a stage of development conducive to infecting the host plant.

The third condition is an environment suitable for the pathogen to infect
the plant.

Presence of disease and its growth depends on three factors. The first
figure shows graphically how a disease might be slight because the
environment is not just right. The second figures shows how the disease can
be severe when conditions are just right.
-Fig-
Disease: Slight and Severe
-End-
-Title-
 SYMPTOMS, SIGNS, SYNDROMES
-Text-

A symptom is the physical expression of disease by the plant. Examples of
symptoms are:

* blights - sudden death of twigs, foliage, and/or flowers
* cankers - dead places on bark and cortex of twigs or stems; often discolored
            and raised or sunken
* galls - abnormal, localized swellings on leaf, stem or root tissue
* rots - general decomposition and destruction of tissue
* necrosis - death of tissue
* spots - circular or irregular lesions on above ground tissue
A sign is the visible body or presence of the pathogen, such as fruiting
bodies or oozes associated with the disease. Some examples are:

* conks - fungal fruiting structures formed on rotting woody plants (shelf or
          bracket fungi)
* mycelia - masses of fungal threads (hyphae) which compose the vegetative
            body of the fungus
* ooze - (or flux) - viscid mass of juices composed of host and parasite
         substances occasionally found exuding from a diseased plant
* pycnidia - minute, usually globose and black, fungal asexual fruiting
             structures formed on plant surfaces
* rhizomorphs - string-like strands of fungal mycelia sometimes found under
                bark of trees

A disease syndrome is the group of signs and symptoms which collectively
characterize a disease. Familiarity with just signs or just symptoms is not
enough to diagnose a disease; it is necessary to know the syndrome and case
history. Seeing a spot on a leaf doesn't tell you much, but finding pycnidia
in that spot and knowing the plant species and recent weather conditions
might be sufficient information to diagnose the disease. Other times
laboratory work is necessary for diagnosis.

-End-
-Title-
 DISEASE DEVELOPMENT
-Text-

It is important to understand how plant diseases develop in order to control
disease. By the time it becomes obvious a plant has a disease, it is
generally too late to do anything about it in that growing season. Plants
cannot be cured in the way people expect their own ills to be cured.

The process by which diseases develop can be summarized into five distinct
phases:

* inoculation - This is the introduction of the pathogen to the host plant
tissue. Wind or rain or running water can move pathogens, as can birds,
insects, people or equipment, and introduce pathogens to a host plant. Some
pathogens move themselves short distances, but most rely on other means.

* incubation - This is a period of development during which the pathogen
undergoeschanges to a form which can penetrate or infect the new host plant.
Some fungi, for instance, grow a structure called a penetration peg that can
grow through the cell walls of the plant.

* penetration - This is the process of getting inside the plant. It may be
an active or passive process. Some pathogens produce enzymes to dissolve the
cutin and cellulose layers of plant material between them and the cell
contents. Some pathogens can swim through water on a plant's surface and
into the plant through natural openings (such as stomata, lenticels, or
hydathodes) or through wounds. Some pathogens are put inside the plant by
insects or by pruning tools or by driving rain.

* infection - When the pathogen invades the plant tissue and establishes a
parasitic relationship between itself and the host, infection has occurred.

* disease - When the host plant responds to the presence of the pathogen, a
disease exists. The host's response results in symptoms of the disease, such
as chlorosis or necrosis, etc.

-End-
-Title-
 CONTROL OF DISEASES
-Text-

The importance of understanding the dissease development process becomes
obvious when considering control options. By the time symptoms are
expressed, the pathogen (with few exceptions) is already inside the host
plant and is relatively safe. Therefore, control efforts in most cases must
occur before penetration has taken place. The overall principle in effective
disease control is to keep the inoculum density of the pathogen at very low
levels.

Success in controlling plant disease will occur when a combination of the
following methods of control are used:

* avoidance - A grower can avoid certain diseases by choice of geographic
area or by choice of planting site in a local area. Diseases can be avoided
by planting at a time that does not have favor disease. Using disease-free
planting stock or modifying cultural practices also helps to avoid disease.

* exclusion - A grower can inspect planting stock for signs of disease and
reject or treat any which is suspect. Plant quarantines are designed to
exclude certain pests from areas that are free of that pest. Elimination of
insect vectors can exclude a disease.

* eradication - Once a disease is established in an area, eradication is
unlikely. However, significant reduction in disease inoculum can be attained
by destroying disease plants or alternate hosts, by rotating crops, or by
certain soil treatments.

* protection - Spraying or dusting plants with fungicides or bactericides is
done to protect them from disease. Sometimes modifying the environment or
cultural practices may protect the crop. Control of insect vectors will also
protect plants.

* resistance - Breeding and selection are used to develop resistant crops,
and resistance can be enhanced through proper culture of a crop. Resistance
is not immunity. Improper culture of a resistant variety may negate that
resistance.

* therapy - Surgical removal of diseased parts of a plant will sometimes
control thedisease. There are a few diseases which can be treated with
chemicals or heat to gain a degree of control.

Familiarity with crops and the diseases and insects that affect them is
useful in planning control prorgams. Some diseases occur every season;
others occur sporadically. Some can be controlled easily by using proper
methods; others must be tolerated. Knowing which problem falls into which
category comes with experience. Knowing the proper method to use at the
proper time is a part of integrated pest management.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANT PATHOLOGY
-Text-

SUMMARY

Diseases of plants are to be expected. The truly devastating diseases are
those which cause tremendous losses. Fortunately, there are few of these in
most years.

For disease to occur, there must be a susceptible host, a suitable
environment, and a living pathogen. When all three conditions are met,
disease occurs. Severity of disease depends on the degree to which the
conditions are met.

Disease development follows a precise course of events. Inoculation occurs
first, usually followed by incubation. Penetration of the host is next.
Infection occurs when the pathogen invades the host tissue. Only when the
host responds has disease taken place. By this time, it is usually too late
to control the disease.

Control involves more than the use of chemicals for protection. Avoidance,
eradication, exclusion, resistance, and therapy all have a role in disease
control. A combination of these will give best results. Growers must manage
their plants and pests to be successful in the production of a high quality
product that will be attractive and competitive at the market place.

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO URBAN PLANT PROBLEMS
   Mary Ann Hansen, Plant Disease Diagnostician and Dan Hilburn, Insect
   Diagnostician
-SubTitle-
Introduction: How to Use the Diagnostic Key:
-Text-

Diagnosis of plant problems is often a very difficult task since there can
be many different causes for a given symptom, not all of which are
pathogenic organisms. Soil nutrition and texture, weather conditions,
lighting and many other environmental and cultural conditions influence the
overall health of a plant. Insect damage can sometimes be confused with
plant disease caused by microorganisms or abiotic factors. Knowing a
complete history of the plant is essential to making an accurate diagnosis.
Also, a plant specimen should be in the early stages of deterioration when
it is examined in order for an accurate diagnosis to be made. Once it has
decayed, secondary organisms invade the tissue and evidence of the primary
pathogen is often obscured.

For these reasons, it is difficult to construct a foolproof key for the
diagnosis of plant problems. Even with the necessary laboratory equipment at
one's disposal, it is often difficult to determine the exact cause of a
plant's problem. The following pages provide a key to some of the common
problems of urban plants. This key was constructed for Master Gardeners to
help solve homeowner plant problems. It is not meant for diagnosis of
commercial problems or use by laboratory diagnosticians. The key is by no
means comprehensive and other resources will be needed in addition to this
one for many of your diagnoses.

Much of the information for the key was taken directly from The Ortho
Problem Solver, 2nd ed. Other resources used were "Diseases of Vegetables"
published by Penn State, the compendium series published by the American
Phytopathological Society, Wescott's Plant Disease Handbook, The Gardener's
Bug Book, and Insects That Feed on Trees and Shrubs, in addition to the
personal experience of the authors who are plant disease and insect
diagnosticians at Virginia Tech. If you have the resources listed above at
your disposal, they should be consulted for more detail on particular
problems. The Ortho Problem Solver is particularly useful as it contains
color pictures. References are listed at the end of this chapter.

The key is modeled after The Ortho Problem Solver. Each plant category
(e.g., Vegetables, Fruits, Trees, Flowers) has a general section for
problems common to many plants in that category and a specific section for
problems specific to certain plants. Be sure to check both the section on
general problems and the section specific to the plant in question each time
you make a diagnosis. If the symptom is not in the specific category, it may
be in the general section.

The list should help you, as a Master Gardener, to ask the right questions
to determine the cause of the problem or, at least, to narrow down the
possibilities. For example, since both dry weather and excess fertilizer can
cause marginal leaf burn, you would want to ask the grower about recent
rainfall in the area and fertilizer application. Or, since wilt can result
from both dry and waterlogged soil, you would want to ask about rainfall and
how well the soil drains. In many cases you will not be able to determine
what caused the problem, but if you can narrow down the possibilities and
mention these when you send the sample to a diagnostic laboratory, you will
save the diagnostician a lot of time.

-End-
-Title-
 CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS
-Text-

The control recommendations listed in the key are abbreviated for the sake
of saving space. A more complete explanation of each control is provided in
the following paragraphs. You will notice that many of the cultural
controls, such as rotation, removing old plant debris, and planting in
well-drained soil, are repeated many times throughout the key. These are
good general practices and it can never hurt to recommend them. Use of
fungicides or other pesticides is only listed for problems for which there
is a pesticide registered for legal use in Virginia. Note that
recommendations for other states may be different. Use of resistant
varieties is only recommended for problems for which resistance has been
developed.

"Rotate" means to plant a crop in a different area for 2-3 years, unless
longer time periods are stated. This practice helps reduce the amount of
inoculum of pathogens and insects that survive in the soil or on plant
debris. It is best to grow plants of a completely different family in the
area from which plants are removed or rotated, since some diseases affect
different species of the same family (e.g., late blight of tomato and
potato).

"Remove plant debris" means to remove diseased or insect infested plant
debris at the end of the season and destroy either by burning or burying.
Composting old, diseased plant debris should kill any surviving pathogens;
however, if the compost is not turned properly, inoculum may build up.
Burying old plant debris deeply works for some foliar and fruit pathogens
that do not survive in the soil, but burning is best for stem and root
pathogens, if burning is allowed in your area. "Remove affected plants"
means it is important to remove diseased plants right away to prevent the
spread of a disease to unaffected plants. This is often recommended for
viral diseases.

"Use registered pesticides" means to use a pesticide (either fungicide,
bactericide, insecticide, or herbicide) according to the label. The name of
the plant to be treated must be on the label for legal use. Be sure to pay
attention to how soon fruits or vegetables can be safely eaten after they
have been sprayed. Remember that most fungicides act as a physical barrier
to infection and must be applied on a regular basis to be effective. They
should be applied more often during rainy periods both because rain washes
the chemical off and because pathogens are more active during rainy weather.

"Resistant varieties" are ones that have been developed for resistance to
certain diseases. A resistant variety is not resistant to all diseases, but
only to those for which it has been developed. Also, one must understand
that a variety sold as "resistant" is not immune, and can, under certain
circumstances, become infected with the pathogen to which it is resistant.
"Tolerant varieties" are not completely susceptible to the disease. Consult
Extension publications for information on which varieties are resistant to
which diseases. Resistant varieties have not been developed for every
disease.

"Pruning" means to cut out affected plant parts. This is used as a control
measure for cankers or galls on trees. Pruning tools should be disinfested
with diluted liquid bleach (1 part bleach to 9 parts water) or rubbing
alcohol, between cuts. Cuts should be made back to live tissue. Pruned
branches should be buried or burned, if burning is allowed in your area.

"Soil fumigation" means to apply a registered fumigant or soil sterilant
(soil drench) to thesoil before replanting. The chemical acts as a biocide
and will kill nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. Of course, it can kill
beneficial microorganisms as well as pathogens, and should only be used if
rotation or other cultural practices are not effective in controlling the
disease. Few soil fumigants are available for use by homeowners. Soil
fumigants can only be used as a preplant treatment and it is best if they
are applied by a professional applicator.

"Soil test" means to submit a soil sample for analysis. Most soil analysis
laboratories will test for pH, the major nutrients, potassium and
phosphorous, and magnesium. Unfortunately, there is no accurate test for
available nitrogen. Soluble salts level and tests for minor elements, such
as zinc and manganese, must usually be requested as special tests. Remember
that nutrient inavailability is often caused by improper pH (soil acidity)
and not actually a low level of nutrients in the soil. Apply lime or
fertilizer as recommended.

"Weed control" is important for controlling virus diseases. Weeds can be
asymptomatic carriers of certain viruses and the viruses can be spread by
insects from weeds to garden plants. Weeds can be controlled by hand picking
or by registered herbicides. For home gardens, hand picking is the safest
method.

"Insect control" can also be important for controlling some plant diseases.
Viruses, viroids (virus like particles), mycoplasmas, bacteria, and even
fungi can be spread by insects.

"Mulching" is a good control for diseases that are brought on by lack of
adequate moisture in the soil or for diseases brought on by plant contact
with the soil. Mulch keeps moisture in the soil and prevents leaves and
fruits from being in direct contact with soil pathogens.

"Submit sample for laboratory diagnosis" means that the disease is difficult
to diagnose from symptoms or information alone and more sophisticated
techniques, such as microscopy or culturing are necessary to diagnose the
problem. The diagnostician will provide a control recommendation. Remember
that a good specimen and adequate information are of paramount importance to
the diagnostician. It is not worth the mailing cost to send a dead twig, a
few shriveled leaves, or a diagnostic form without such critical information
as when symptoms were first noticed, how much of the plant(s) is affected,
and so on. The diagnostician does not have the advantage of being able to
see the plant in its own environment, so it is very important to submit good
specimens. The back of the VPI & SU plant disease and insect diagnostic
forms explain how to prepare a good sample. A sample of the diagnostic forms
is available from your Extension agent.

A final note on the control recommendations is that not all the controls
listed need be used to control a given disease. You should recommend all
possible controls; then the grower can decide which ones he or she would
like to use. For example, both fungicides and resistant varieties may be
listed in the key for one particular disease; however, if resistant
varieties are used, fungicides should not be necessary. You may want to
suggest a fungicide treatment for the current season and resistant varieties
for the following season.

You will certainly learn from working with plant problem diagnosis that
experience is the best teacher. The key should be of use to you as you are
gaining experience. Good Luck!

-End-
-Title-
 REFERENCES
-Text-

 1  Anderson, H.W. 1956. Disease of Fruit Crops. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
        Inc. 491 pp.

 2  Anonymous. 1983. Virginia Pest Control Guide-1983. Va. Coop. Ext. Ser.
        Pub. 456-001. VPI & SU. Blacksburg, VA 432 pp. (Published annually).

 3  Chuup, C. and A.F. Sherf. 1960. Vegetable Diseases and Their Control.



        The Ronald Press Co., New York, New York. 693 pp.

 4  Hagedorn, D.J. (ed.) 1984. Compendium of Pea Diseases. American Phyto-
        pathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 57 pp.

 5  Hooker, W.J. (ed.) 1981. Compendium of Potato Diseases. American Phyto-
        phathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 125 pp.

 6  Horst, R.K. 1978. Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold
        Co. New York, NY 803 pp.

 7  Horst, R.K. (ed.) 1983. Compendium of Rose Diseases. American Phytopatho-
        logical Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 50 pp.

 8  Johnson, W.T. and H.H. Lyon. 1976. Insects that Feed on Trees and Shrubs.
        Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 464 pp.

 9  Jones, R.K. and R.C. Lambe (ed.) 1983 Diseases of woody ornamental plants
        and their control in nurseries. Reg. Ext. Bull. NCSU Coop. Ext. Div AG
        286. 135 pp.

10  Maas, J.L. (ed.) 1984. Compendium of Strawberry Diseases. American Phyto-
        pathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 138 pp.

11  MacNab, A.A., A.F. Sherf, and J.K. Springer. 1983. The Pennsylvania State
        University, University Park, Pennsylvania. 62 pp.

12  Pirone, P.P. 1978. Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants. 5th Edition John
        Wiley and Sons. New York. 566 pp.

13  Shurtleff, M.C. (ed.) 1980. Compendium of Corn Diseases. American Phyto-
        pathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 105 pp.

14  Smith, M.D. (ed.) 1984. The Ortho Problem Solver. Chevron Chemical Co.,
        San Francisco, California, 2nd Edition. 1040 pp.

15  Stipes, R.J. and R.J. Campana (eds.) 1981 Compendium of Elm Diseases.
        American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, Minnesota. 96 pp.

16  U.S.D.A. 1972. Tomato Diseases and Their Control. Agriculture Handbook
        no. 203. Agricultural Research Service, U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C.
        109 pp.

17  Wescott, C. 1973. The Gardener's Bug Book. Doubleday and Co., Inc., Garden
        City, New York. 689 pp.

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY
-SubTitle-
 VEGETABLES
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS & COMMENTS

ALL VEGETABLES

Poor fruit yield;     --Uneven moisture        --Supply water
fruit may be small                               during dry periods
and have poor taste   --Poor soil fer-         --Soil test
                        tility

Plants grow slowly;   --Insufficient light     --Thin plants; do not
leaves light green                               plant in shade
                      --Cool weather
                      --Poor soil fertility    --Soil test
                      --Improper pH            --Soil test
                      --Excess water           --Do not overwater; improve
                                                 drainage

Seedlings don't       --Dry soil               --Supply water
emerge                --Seeds washed away
                      --Damping-off (fungal    --Do not overwater;
                        problem)                 treat seed with
                                                 registered fungicide
                      --Incorrect planting
                        depth
                      --Slow germination due
                        to weather
                      --Root maggots           --Use registered soil insec-
                                                 ticide

Wilted seedlings;     --Dry soil               --Supply water
seedlings fall over   --Damping off (fungal    --Do not overwater;
                        disease)                 treat seed with
                                                 registered fungicide
                      --Cutworms               --Use registered soil insec-
                                                 ticide
                      --Root maggots           --Use registered soil insec-
                                                 ticide

Chewed seedlings      --Rodents, rabbits, or   --Place fence around
                        birds                    garden
                      --Slugs                  --Use slug bait (beer or
                                                 commercial slug bait)
                      --Various insects        --Use registered insecticide

Wilted plants;        --Dry soil               --Water
bottom leaves may     --Root rot (fungal       --Do not overwater;
turn yellow             disease)                 remove old plant debris;
                                                 rotate
                      --Vascular wilt (fun-    --Resistant varieties;
                        gal disease: mainly      rotate
                        affecting tomato,
                        potato, eggplant,
                        pepper)
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Resistant varieties;
                        problem)                 rotate; soil fumigation
                      --Various root-feeding   --Submit soil sample for
                        nematodes                nematode analysis; soil
                                                 fumigation

                      --Walnut wilt (main-     --Do not plant near walnut
                        ly affecting tomato)     or butternut trees; sever
                                                 tree roots bordering gar-
                                                 den and place barrier be-
                                                 tween tree and garden
                      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage

General leaf yel-     --Nutrient or mineral    --Soil test
lowing; no wilting      deficiency
                      --Insufficient light     --Thin plants

Leaves stippled       --Spider mites           --Treat with registered
with tiny white                                  miticide
spots                 --Air pollution (ozone)

Leaf margins turn     --Dry soil               --Supply water
brown and shrivel     --Salt damage            --Do not place garden where
                                                 deicing salt may have been
                                                 applied on nearby concrete

                      --Fertilizer burn        --Soil test for soluble salts
                                                 level; do overapply fertilizer;
                                                 flush soil with water
                      --Potassium deficiency   --Soil test
                      --Cold injury

Discrete brown        --Fungal or bacterial    --See controls under specific
spots on leaves;        leaf spot disease        disease; submit sample for
some spots may                                   laboratory diagnosis if
coalesce                                         necessary
                      --Chemical injury        --Do not apply chemicals that
                                                 are not registered for use
                                                 on the plant; apply chemi-
                                                 cals at registered rates;
                                                 some chemical injury occurs
                                                 from drift

White powdery growth  --Powdery mildew         --Use registered fungicide
on upper leaf sur-      (fungal disease)
faces

Leaves shredded or    --Hail damage
stripped from plant   --Rodents                --Place fence around garden
                      --Slugs                  --Use slug bait (either beer
                                                 or commercial bait)
                      --Dead tissue dropping   --Use registered fungicide
                        out after fungal         before problem reaches
                        infection                this stage
                      --Various insects        --Identify insect then use
                                                 appropriate insecticide

Leaves with yellow    --Virus disease          --Resistant varieties if
and green mosaic or                              available; weed control;
mottle pattern;                                  remove affected plants; re-
leaves may be puck-                              move old plant debris
ered and plants stunted

Leaves curled, puck-  --Herbicide injury       --If lawn herbicides are used,
ered, or distorted      (common on tomato,       apply after wind has died
                        cucumber)                down and do not apply in
                                                 heat of day
                      --Virus disease          --Same controls as above
                      --Aphids (insects)       --Treat undersides of leaves
                                                 with registered insecticide

==========================================================================
-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 ASPARAGUS

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Tops turn yellow,     --Rust (fungal dis-      --Cut tops close to
brown, and die back;    ease)                    ground in fall and
reddish-brown, or-                               destroy; use registered
ange, or black pus-                              fungicide; resistant
tules appear on                                  varieties
stems and leaves

Shoots wilt, turn     --Fusarium wilt          --Destroy infected plants;
yellow, then brown;     (fungal disease)         rotate for 2-4 years; soil
roots are reddish                                fumigation
color
                      --Root rot (fungal       --Rotate; remove old plant
                        disease)                 debris; plant in well-
                                                 drained area

Small spears          --Immature plants        --Asparagus produces small
                                                 spears for the first 2-3
                                                 years after planting
                      --Overharvested plants   --Do not harvest late into
                                                 the season, plants cannot
                                                 store enough food for
                                                 following season
                      --Poor fertility         --Soil test
                      --Poor drainage          --Do not overwater; plant
                                                 in well-drained area

Spears crooked        --Mechanical injury
                        from windblown sand
                        or mishandling
                      --Insect injury          --Control asparagus beetles
                                                 with registered insecti-
                                                 cide

Spears turn brown     --Frost injury           --Protect spears with mulch
and soft                                         on nights when cold tem-
                                                 peratures are expected
                      --Root rot (fungal       --Remove old plant debris;
                        disease)                 rotate; plant in well-
                                                 drained area

Leaves chewed; slime  --Slugs (emerge at       --Use slug bait (either beer
may be present on       night and hide dur-      or commercial bait)
leaves; no evidence     ing the day)
of insects

Spears and leaves     --Asparagus beetles      --Use registered insecticide
chewed or scarred

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 BEAN
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Plants wilt or are    --Dry soil               --Supply water
stunted; leaves may   --Root rot (fungal dis-  --Remove old plant debris;
turn yellow             ease)                    rotate; plant in well-
                                                 drained area
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Rotate; soil fumigation
                        problem)
                      --Poor fertility         --Soil test

Failure to set pods   --High temperatures,
                        causing blossoms
                        to drop
                      --Dry soil               --Supply water
                      --Wet soil, causing      --Do not overwater; plant
                        lack of oxygen to        in well drained soil
                        roots
                      --Mature pods left on    --Pick pods regularly
                        vines, causing seed
                        production rather
                        than pod set

Rust-colored pow-     --Rust (fungal disease)  --Resistant varieties;
dery spots surroun-                              use registered fungicide;
ded by yellow haloes                             remove old plant debris
form on leaves, stems
and pods

Soft, watery spots    --White mold (fungal     --Use registered fungicide;
on leaves, stems,       disease)                 rotate; remove old plant
and pods; white                                  debris
moldy growth on
these plant parts;
plants wilt and die

Thin, white powdery   --Powdery mildew (fun-   --Resistant varieties;
growth on leaves        gal disease)             use registered fungicide;
and pods                                         rotate; remove old plant
                                                 debris

Small, brown spots    --Bacterial blight       --Avoid overhead watering
surrounded by yellow                             which spreads the disease;
haloes on leaves;                                use fixed copper bactericide
leaves wither                                    if available locally

Brown spots without   --Fungal disease (any    --Submit sample for labora-
yellow haloes appear    of several)              tory diagnosis
on leaves and pods;
leaves wither

Leaves skeletonized;  --Mexican bean beetle    --Hand pick the beetles and
copper-colored bee-                              grubs or use registered
tles with black spots                            insecticide
or yellow grubs with
spines

Leaves with shiny     --Spider mites           --Use registered miticide
white spots

Young leaves curled,  --Aphids                 --Use registered insecticide
distorted, and yel-
low; clusters of tiny
insects on leaves and
stems

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 BEETS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Small, circular spots --Cercospora leaf spot   --Pick off and destroy
with light centers      (fungal disease)         affected leaves, fungi-
and dark borders on                              cides not warranted;
leaves

Roots cracked; black  --Boron deficiency       --Soil test; main-
areas on surface and                             tain pH between 6 and 7;
inside root; plants                              apply solution of house-
stunted                                          hold borax if necessary
                                                 (1 T. household borax per
                                                 12 gal water per 100 ft
                                                 row)

Leaf margins rolled   --Virus disease          --Control leafhoppers that
upward; leaves brit-                             spread the disease; weed
tle and puckered                                 control
along veins; plants
stunted

Misshapen roots       --Overcrowding           --Thin beets early
                      --Lumpy soil

Leaves with many      --Flea beetles           --Treat early with regis-
small holes                                      tered insecticide

Irregular, tan        --Leafminer (insect)     --Use registered insecticide;
blotches on leaves                               root is still edible

Root scarred or       --Carrot weevil,         --Destroy infected plants;
tunneled                carrot rustfly, or       next year, work in a soil
                        wireworms                insecticide at planting
                                                 time
=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 CARROTS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Brown spots on        --Fungal or bacter-      --Submit sample for lab-
leaves; spots may       ial disease (any of      oratory diagnosis
appear on carrots       several)
also

Inner leaves yel-     --Aster yellows (my-     --Remove affected plants;
lowed; outer leaves     coplasma disease)        weed control; leafhopper
reddish purple; roots                            control with registered
stunted and bitter                               insecticide

Root tops green       --Root tops exposed      --Cover exposed roots with
                        to sunlight              soil or mulch

Roots misshapen       --Overcrowding           --Thin carrots early
                      --Lumpy soil
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Submit soil sample for
                        problem)                 nematode analysis; rotate;
                                                 soil fumigation if neces-
                                                 sary

Plants stunted and    --Root knot (nematode    --See control above
yellowed; roots mis-    problem)
shapen; small knots
on fibrous roots

Tiny holes on leaves  --Flea beetles           --Use registered insecticide

Light brown blotch-   --Leafminer              --Use registered insecticide
es or tunnels in
leaves

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 CELERY
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Stalks tough and      --High temperatures
bitter                --Dry soil               --Celery requires high
                                                 moisture
                      --Poor fertility         --Soil test
                      --Overmaturity           --Harvest when tender

Plants stunted and    --Aster yellows (my-     --See control under carrots
yellowed; stalks        coplasma disease)
twisted and brittle

Plants wilted; soft,  --Fungal or bacterial    --No adequate controls;
watery rot on leaves    crown rot                rotate and remove old
and stalks; heart of                             plant debris
plant may be black    --Black heart (due to    --Calcium deficiency results
                        calcium deficiency)      from uneven water supply
                                                 or improper pH: water du-
                                                 ring dry periods; soil test
                                                 maintain soil pH between
                                                 6.5 and 8

Brown or gray spots   --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
on leaves and stalks    leaf spot                tory diagnosis

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 COLE CROPS (CABBAGE, BROCCOLI, TURNIP, CAULIFLOWER, BRUSSELS SPROUTS)
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Cracking of cabbage   --Excess water taken     --Harvest heads as soon as
heads                   up by plant causes       mature
                        head to burst

Poor heading          --Overcrowding           --Thin plants early
                      --Dry soil               --Supply water
                      --High temperatures
                      --Poor fertility         --Soil test
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Check roots for knots;
                        problem)                 rotate; soil fumigation
                      --Clubroot (fungal       --Check roots for large swel-
                        disease)                 lings (larger than root
                                                 knots); rotate cole crops
                                                 out of affected area for 7
                                                 years
                      --Root rot (fungal       --Rotate; remove old plant
                        disease)                 debris; plant in well-
                                                 drained soil

Discolored cauli-     --Exposure to sun        --Tie leaves over head when
flower heads                                     heads form

Brown spots on        --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for laboratory
leaves                  disease (any of se-      diagnosis
                        veral)

Plants wilt and turn  --Clubroot (fungal       --7-year rotation
yellow; roots have      disease)
large swellings (not
to be confused with
smaller root knots)

Plants wilt and turn  --Blackleg (fungal       --Use western grown hot-
yellow; roots are       disease)                 water-treated seed; ro-
discolored and poorly --Wirestem (fungal         tate; remove old plant
developed; roots may    disease)                 debris
be hard and brittle   --Cabbage maggot         --Work in a registered soil
                                                 insecticide at planting
                                                 time

Plants stunted and    --Dry soil               --Supply water
yellowed (esp. cab-   --Poor fertility         --Soil test
bage); roots not      --Fusarium yellows       --Resistant varieties;
discolored              (fungal disease)         rotate
                      --Cabbage maggot         --Work in a soil insecticide
                                                 at planting time

Heads soft and rot-   --Soft rot of broccoli   --Grow broccoli varieties
ted                     (bacterial disease)      that shed water (conical head)
                      --Bottom rot of cab-     --Rotate; plant in well
                        bage (fungal disease)    drained soil

Rough, brown, raised  --Oedema, physiologi-    --Water during dry periods
areas on undersur-      cal problem due to
face of leaves          uneven water supply

Leaves riddled with   --Flea beetles           --Use registered insecticide
shotholes

Leaves chewed         --Imported cabbage-      --Identify insect; use regis-
                        worm, cabbage looper,    ered insecticide
                        diamondback moth, or
                        cross-striped cab-
                        bageworm, flea beetle

Some leaves curled    --Aphids                 --Use registered insecticide
and yellowed; clus-
ters of small gray or
green insects

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 CORN
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Ears not complete-    --Poor pollination       --Plant in blocks of at least
ly filled with ker-                              3-4 short rows instead of 1
nels                                             long row; hand pollinate
                      --Birds                  --Put paper bag over ear after
                                                 pollination

White smooth or       --Smut (fungal disease)  --Cut off galls before they
black powdery galls                              turn black; remove old
on stalk, leaves,                                plant debris; tolerant va-
ears, or tassels                                 rieties

Brown lesions on      --Fungal stalk and       --No adequate controls; re-
stalks near joints;     ear rot (any of se-      move old plant debris
stalks rotted inside;   veral)
kernels pink or brown
and moldy

Plants wilted and     --Bacterial wilt         --Control flea beetles and
stunted; long, irre-                             cucumber beetles; remove
gular brown streaks on                           affected plants; tolerant
leaves; brown cavities                           varieties
in stalks near soil
line

Yellowish or tan el-  --Fungal leaf spot       --Submit sample for labora-
liptical spots on       (any of several)         tory diagnosis
lower leaves first
and older leaves later

Plants stunted with   --Maize dwarf mosaic     --Weed control, esp. John-
yellow and green        (virus disease)          songrass; aphid control;
stripe or mosaic pat-                            destroy affected plants;
tern; older leaves                               do not handle healthy
pale yellow                                      plants after affected ones

Small pustules con-   --Rust (fungal disease)  --Resistant varieties; re-
taining rust colored,                            move old plant debris
powdery substance on
leaves

Numerous tiny brown   --Fungal leaf spot       --Submit sample for labora-
spots on leaves         (any of several)         tory diagnosis

Leaves reddish on     --Phosphorus deficien-   --Soil test
margins                 cy
                      --Virus disease          --Weed control before corn
                                                 emerges; aphid control;
                                                 remove affected plants

Distorted leaf or     --Herbicide injury
stalk: leaves may
fail to unfurl or
stalk may be bent

Caterpillar feeding   --Corn earworm           --Apply registered insecti-
on the tip of the                                cide during silking to
ear                                              prevent infestation

Young plants chewed   --Cutworms               --Use registered insecticide
off at ground level

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 CUCURBITS (CUCUMBER, CANTALOUPE, PUMPKIN, SQUASH, WATERMELON)
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
No fruit produced     --Poor pollination       --Be patient, male and fe-
                                                 male flowers are not pro-
                                                 duced at the same time at
                                                 first; bee activity may be
                                                 low due to cool weather or
                                                 use of insecticides; spray
                                                 insecticides in late after-
                                                 noon

Misshapen or bitter   --Poor pollination       --See above for no fruit pro-
fruit                                            duced
                      --Dry soil               --Supply water
                      --Poor soil fertility    --Soil test

Watersoaked, sunken,  --Calcium deficiency     --Water during dry periods;
brown or black spot     usually caused by un-    calcium foliar spray
at blossom end of       even soil moisture
fruit only              and poor supply of
                        calcium to fruit du-
                        ring early development

Watersoaked, sunken,  --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
brown or black spot     fruit rot                tory diagnosis
on fruit not restric-
ted to blossom end

Wilted plants         --Dry soil               --Supply water
                      --Bacterial wilt         --Control cucumber beetles
                      --Root rot (fungal       --Improve drainage; rotate;
                        disease)                 remove old plant debris
                      --Fusarium wilt          --Tolerant varieties if
                        (fungal disease)         available; rotate
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Soil fumigation; rotate
                        problem)

Wilted plants; if     --Bacterial wilt         --Control cucumber beetles
a cut stem piece is
propped up in a glass
of water so the cut end
remains above the bot-
tom of the glass, a
white, milky substance
streams out within 15
minutes (make sure this
is not just dirt)

Circular or irregular --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
brown spots on leaves   disease (any of se-      tory diagnosis
and/or fruit            veral)

White, powdery growth --Powdery mildew (fun-   --Resistant varieties; use
on leaves; may be on    gal disease)             registered fungicide; re-
both leaf surfaces                               move old plant debris

Yellow spots on upper --Downy mildew (fungal   --Resistant varieties; use
leaf surfaces; gray-    disease)                 registered fungicide; re-
ish, fuzzy growth on                             move old plant debris
underside of spots

Yellow and green mot- --Virus disease          --Weed control before plants
tle pattern on leaves;                           emerge; aphid control; re-
leaves have strapped                             move affected plants
appearance, i.e. ab-  --Herbicide              --Do not spray lawn herbicides
normally narrow with                             on hot days; spray after
leaf veins stretched                             wind has died down
out at leaf margins
so leaves appear fea-
thery

Holes chewed in       --Cucumber beetles       --Use registered insecticide
leaves and stalks;
yellow-green beetles
with black stripes
or spots

Squash and pumpkin    --Squash bug             --Use registered insecticide
leaves wilt, even-
tually become black
and crisp; dark gray
bugs 1/2 inch long
present

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 EGGPLANT
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Blossoms drop; no     --Poor pollination due   --Be patient, fruit will set
fruit develops          to unfavorable tem-      when temperatures become
                        peratures                more favorable

Plants wilt; bottom   --Dry soil               --Supply water
leaves may turn yel-  --Verticillium wilt      --Rotate; remove old plant
low                     (fungal disease)         debris; do not plant tomatoes,
                                                 potatoes, strawberries, or
                                                 brambles in same area
                      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Check roots for knots; rotate;
                        problem)                 remove old plant debris;
                                                 soil fumigation

Plants wilt; bottom   --Verticillium wilt      --Rotate; remove old plant
leaves may turn yel-    (fungal disease)         debris
low; brown discolora- --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage
tion inside stem      --Walnut wilt            --Do not plant garden near
                                                 walnut or butternut trees;
                                                 sever roots between garden
                                                 and tree and place barrier
                                                 there

Circular or irregu-   --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
lar brown spots on      disease (any of se-      tory diagnosis
leaves and/or fruit     veral)

Leaves riddled with   --Flea beetles           --Use registered insecticide
tiny holes

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 LETTUCE
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Bolting; may taste    --Weather too hot        --Lettuce is a cool season
bitter                                           crop; plant early or late

Sunken, water-soaked  --Rhizoctonia bottom     --Rotate; remove old plant
spots appear on low-    rot (fungal disease)     debris; plant in well-
er leaves, which turn                            drained area
brown and slimy; head --Sclerotinia drop       --Same cultural controls
turns brown             (fungal disease)         as for bottom rot; fungi-
                                                 cides are available for
                                                 Sclerotinia drop

Sunken, water-soaked  --Sclerotinia drop       --See above
spots appear on low-    (fungal disease)
er leaves, which turn
brown and slimy; head
turns brown and slimy;
hard black, pea-sized
pellets found in mold
between dead leaves

Stem and lower leaves --Botrytis gray mold     --Rotate; remove old plant
rotted; dense, fuzzy    (fungal disease)         debris; plant in well-
gray mold on affected                            drained area
areas

Yellow or light green --Downy mildew (fun-     --Rotate; use registered
blotches on upper       gal disease)             fungicide
leaf surfaces; white,
fuzzy mold on under-
side of blotches;
spots eventually turn
brown

Plants stunted, yel-  --Aster yellows (my-     --Remove affected plants;
lowed; youngest         coplasma disease)        weed control; insect
leaves curled; head                              control
soft                  --Mosaic virus           --Remove affected plants;
                                                 weed control; insect
                                                 control
                      --Nutrient deficiency    --Soil test

Leaf veins and area   --Big vien (viroid       --Plant in well-drained
adjacent to veins       disease)                 soil: viroid (virus-like
turns light yellow                               particle) is spread by
causing a "big vein"                             a soil fungus; remove
effect                                           affected plants; rotate
                                                 out of area for 10 years

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 ONION
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Watersoaked spots     --Purple blotch (fun-    --Use registered fungicide
appear on leaves and    gal disease)
rapidly turn brown;
spots become pur-
plish with a dark
margin and surroun-
ded with a yellow
zone; spots become
covered with brown,
dusty mold in moist
weather

Numerous small white  --Botrytis blast (fun-   --Use registered fungicide
flecks on leaves;       gal disease)
leaves die from tips  --Downy mildew (fun-     --Use registered fungicide
back and turn brown     gal disease)
                      --Onion thrips (insect)  --Use registered insecticide

White flecks form on  --Downy mildew (fungal   --Rotate; use registered
leaves and expand       disease)                 fungicide
into elongated leaf
lesions; white to
purplish mold deve-
lops on spots during
moist weather;
leaves drop over and
dry up

Leaves yellow and     --Fungal or bacterial    --Rotate; remove old plant
die back from tips;     bulb rot (any of se-     debris; plant in well-
bulbs are soft and      veral)                   drained soil
rotted

Dark green or black   --Smudge (fungal dis-    --Rotate; remove old plant
smudge up to 1 inch     ease)                    debris; plant in well-
in diameter on bulb                              drained soil
or neck; dark smudge
is covered with stiff
bristles

Plants grow slowly,   --Onion maggot           --Work registered insecti-
wilt, and die; white                             cide into soil; destroy
maggots inside bulb                              infested onions

White streaks or      --Onion thrips           --Use registered insecticide
blotches on leaves

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 PEAS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Plants stop produ-    --Hot weather            --Peas are cool season
cing pods; leaves                                vegetables: plant early
turn yellow, then                                in spring; plant heat-
brown and die                                    resistant varieties
                      --Root rot (several      --Rotate; plant in well-
                        fungi)                   drained soil; remove old
                                                 plant debris;
                      --Fusarium wilt (fun     --Resistant varieties; rotate;
                        gal disease)             remove old plant debris

Plants stunted;       --Fusarium wilt (fun-    --Resistant varieties; rotate;
lower leaves yel-       gal disease)             remove old plant debris
lowed; internal stem  --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage
tissue discolored
brown

White, powdery mold   --Powdery mildew (fun-   --Rotate; remove old plant
develops on upper       gal disease)             debris
and then lower sur-
faces of leaves;
leaves and pods may
be distorted

Brown spots on        --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for laboratory
leaves, pods, and/or    disease (any of se-      diagnosis
stems                   veral)

Yellowish areas on    --Pea enation mosaic     --Resistant varieties; weed
leaves; blister-like    virus                    control; insect control;
ridges on undersides                             remove affected plants
of leaves and on pods;
pod distortion

Light colored leaf    --Pea stunt virus        --Weed control; insect control;
veins; rosetting of                              remove affected plants
shoot tips; plants
stunted with poor
pod set

Yellow and green      --Virus disease (any     --Resistant varieties; weed
mottle or mosaic        of several)              control; insect control
pattern on leaves;
plants stunted

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 PEPPERS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Large, sunken, tan,   --Blossom end rot,       --Calcium deficiency is
watersoaked spot        caused by calcium        a problem when developing
develops on blossom     deficiency to deve-      fruits receive uneven
end of fruit; spot      loping fruits            moisture: supply water
turns black and mold                             during dry periods; mulch
may grow on surface

Thin, wrinkled tan    --Sunscald               --Control leaf diseases with
areas develop on                                 registered pesticides to
fruit and become                                 prevent leaf drop which
white and papery                                 exposes fruit to sun

Dark brown, sunken    --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for laboratory
spots develop on        disease (any of seve-    diagnosis
fruit (not restric-     ral)
ted to blossom end)
and leaves

Small tan to dark     --Bacterial spot         --Use fixed copper bactericide
brown spots develop                              (e.g. Kocide) if available;
on leaves; small                                 use chlorox-treated or wes-
brown, dry raised                                tern grown hot water-treated
spots appear on                                  seed; avoid overhead watering
fruit

Tiny, brown specks    --Stink bug injury       --Submit sample for labora-
with pale white ha-                              tory diagnosis
loes develop on       --Bacterial canker       --Submit sample for labora-
fruit; fruit may be                              tory diagnosis
distorted around
specks

Brown spots on        --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for laboratory
leaves                  disease (any of seve-    diagnosis
                        ral)

Plants stunted;       --Virus disease (any     --Resistant varieties are
leaves curled with      of several)              available for some virus
yellow and green                                 diseases of pepper; weed
mottle; fruit mis-                               control; insect control;
shapen with brown                                remove old plant debris
streaks, rings, or
yellow, green, and
red mottle

Plants wilted; dark   --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
brown canker at base    disease (any of seve-    tory diagnosis
of stem                 ral)

Plants wilted; dark   --Southern blight (fun-  --Rotate; remove old plant
brown canker at base    gal disease)             debris
of stem; small, hard,
brown pellets form
on soil and on rotted
plant tissue

Plants wilt; lower    --Fungal or bacterial    --Rotate; remove old plant
leaves may turn yel-    vascular wilt disease    debris
low                   --Dry soil               --Supply water
                      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage
                      --Root rot (fungal       --Rotate; remove old plant
                        disease)                 debris; plant in well-
                                                 drained soil

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 POTATO
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Potato tuber is       --Exposure to sun        --Mound soil up around
green                                            plants; do not eat green
                                                 part of potatoes

Brown spots on        --Various fungal         --Submit sample for labora-
leaves and/or stems     diseases                 tory diagnosis

Plants wilt; bottom   --Dry soil               --Supply water
leaves may turn yel-  --Vascular wilt (fun-    --Rotate; remove old plant
low                     gal disease)             debris
                      --Root rot (fungal       --Rotate; remove old plant
                        disease)                 debris; plant in well-
                                                 drained soil
                      --Root knot (nematode    --Check roots for knots;
                        problem)                 rotate; soil fumigation
                                                 if necessary
                      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage

Plants wilt; dark     --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for laboratory
brown or black can-     disease (any of seve-    diagnosis
ker at base of stem     ral)

Brown corky scabs     --Scab (bacterial dis-   --Soil test; acidify soil
or pits on tubers;      ease)                    with aluminum sulfate if
plants do not wilt                               necessary to maintain pH
                                                 of 5.0-5.5; rotate out of
                                                 area for 3-4 years; toler-
                                                 ant varieties; use certi-
                                                 fied seed pieces

Plants stunted;       --Root knot (nematode    --Rotate; soil fumigation
leaves turn bronze      problem)
to yellow color;
plants wilt; tubers
have raised, knotty
areas

Shoot tips stunted,   --Ring rot (bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
forming rosette;        disease)                 tory diagnosis: these two
leaves turn yellow,   --Brown rot (bacterial     diseases are difficult to
then brown between      disease)                 distinguish; discard infec-
veins; leaf margins                              ted tubers; plant certified
curl upward; indivi-                             seed pieces
dual shoots may wilt;
tubers show dark
brown discolored ring
internally when cut
open

Tubers show irregu-   --Hollow heart, caused   --Do not overfertilize or
lar white or brown      by plants growing too    plant too far apart
cavities when cut       rapidly
open

Irregular brown       --Early frost
discoloration inside  --Drought                --Supply water
tubers                --Virus disease (any     --Tolerant varieties; weed
                        of several)              control; insect control

Tubers have slimy,    --Soft rot (bacterial    --Plant in well-drained soil;
smelly rot              disease)                 hill plants to encourage
                                                 water runoff; wait until
                                                 vines turn yellow and die
                                                 to dig; store properly

Leaves roll upward,   --Leaf roll (virus       --Plant certified seed pieces;
turn light green to     disease)                 insect control; weed control
yellow and leathery;
plants stunted

Leaves roll upward,   --Aster yellows (my-     --Leafhopper control; weed
turn purple or yel-     coplasma disease)        control
low; plants stunted;
aerial tubers form

Tunnels bored into    --Wireworm               --Use a soil insecticide at
tubers                                           planting time

Leaves chewed; fat,   --Colorado potato        --Hand pick beetles or use
red, humpbacked         beetle                   registered insecticide
grubs or orange
beetles with black
stripes present

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 RADISH
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Yellow spots deve-    --Downy mildew (fun-     --Remove old plant debris;
lop on upper leaf       gal disease)             rotate
surfaces and later
turn brown with
bluish-black lace-
like markings; white
mold develops on
undersurface of
spots; inner root
tissue may be dis-
colored

Purple to black       --Black root (fungal     --Plant in well-drained
spots develop on        disease)                 soil; rotate; remove
root surface; black                              old plant debris
discoloration ex-
tends inward in
radial streaks;
roots remain firm

Leaves riddled with   --Flea beetles           --Use registered insecti-
tiny holes                                       cide

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 SPINACH
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Bolting               --Hot weather and long   --Spinach is a cool-season
                        days                     crop: plant in early
                                                 spring

Pale yellow spots     --Downy mildew (fungal   --Fungicides are registered
appear on upper         disease)                 but usually not practical;
leaf surfaces;                                   remove affected leaves and
grayish purple                                   old plant debris
mold develops on
underside of spots;
whole leaves may
wither

White, blisterlike    --White rust (fungal     --Fungicides are registered
spots with a yellow     disease)                 but usually not practical;
border appear on                                 remove old plant debris;
undersides of leaves;                            3-year rotation
upper surfaces are
pale green to yellow

Irregular tan blotch- --Leafminer              --Use registered insecti-
es or tunnels appear                             cide before leaves be-
on leaves                                        come infected

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 SWEET POTATO
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Large cracks in       --Growth cracks, caused  --Supply water during dry
potato skin             by moisture extremes     periods

Brown or black        --Various fungal dis-    --Submit sample for labora-
spots on potato         eases                    tory diagnosis
skin; discoloration
extends beneath skin

Brown, irregular      --Scurf (fungal dis-     --3-4 year rotation; use
blotches on potato      ease)                    disease-free slips; use
skin; discoloration                              infected potatoes immedi-
does not extend be-                              ately since they will dry
neath surface                                    out rapidly

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 DIAGNOSTIC KEY TO PROBLEMS OF SPECIFIC VEGETABLES
-SubTitle-
 TOMATO
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS
Uniformly small       --Septoria leaf spot     --Use registered fungicide;
(1/8") chocolate        (fungal disease)         remove old plant debris
brown spots or dark   --Bacterial spot         --Not as common as Septoria
spots with tan cen-                              leaf spot, so you will be
ters develop on                                  safe to recommend Septoria
leaves from bottom                               controls;control for bac-
of plant to top;                                 terial spot is to use
spots sometimes form                             chlorox treated seed and
on stems but never on                            Kocide spray if available.
fruits; leaves shri-                             It is very important, how-
vel                                              ever, to distinguish be-
                                                 tween the two in commer-
                                                 cial operations.

Dark brown irregular  --Early blight (fungal   --Resistant varieties; use
spots with target       disease)                 registered fungicide; re-
rings and yellow                                 move old plant debris
haloes develop on     --Phoma rot (fungal      --Phoma rot is not as com-
leaves, stems and       disease)                 mon as early blight and
fruit; spots on fruit                            you will be safe recommen-
are often at stem                                ding early blight controls
end and are sunken

Light tan spots on    --Gray leaf mold (fun-   --Mainly a greenhouse prob-
upper leaf surfaces;    gal disease)             lem: provide adequate
dense olive green                                ventilation to avoid high
moldy growth on                                  humidity; fungicides used
undersurface of spots                            to control other diseases
                                                 will control this disease
                                                 in the garden

Small (1/8") choco-   --Bacterial spot         --Use chlorox-treated seed;
late brown spots on                              avoid overhead watering;
leaves and fruit;                                use fixed copper bacteri-
spots on fruit are                               cide (e.g. Kocide) if
aised                                            available locally; remove
                                                 old plant debris; rotate

Very tiny raised      --Bacterial speck        --Same controls as for
specks on fruit;                                 bacterial spot
no white haloes
around spots

Very tiny raised      --Bacterial canker       --Difficult to diagnose
specks surrounded                                without fruit spots;
by white haloes on                               same controls as for
fruit; plants wilt;                              bacterial spot and speck
center of stem ap-
pears discolored
brown when cut
longitudinally

Brown spots on        --Various fungal leaf    --Submit sample for labora-
leaves that do not      spots                    tory diagnosis
fit above descrip-
tions

Dark brown, leathery  --Blossom end rot,       --Calcium deficiency is a
spot on blossom         caused by calcium        problem when fruits receive
end of fruit only;      deficiency to deve-      uneven moisture during early
mold may grow on spot   loping fruits            development: supply water
                                                 during dry periods; apply
                                                 calcium foliar sprays

Dark brown sunken     --Various fungal         --Submit sample for labora-
spots on fruits         fruit rots               tory diagnosis

General browning of   --Internal browning      --Resistant varieties (to
tomato skin; brown      (virus disease)          tobacco mosaic virus);
speckling of walls                               weed control; do not han-
between seed cavi-                               dle healthy plants after
ties apparent when                               diseased ones; remove af-
fruit is cut open                                fected plants

Extreme malforma-     --Catfacing, caused
tion and scarring       by cool weather or
of fruit                herbicide injury
                        during fruit forma-
                        tion

Yellow-orange         --Sunscald               --Prevent foliar diseases
blotches that do                                 that cause leaf drop and
not ripen at stem                                expose fruits to sun
end of fruit or
white papery spot
on side of fruit
facing sun

Leaves distorted      --Herbicide injury       --Do not spray lawn herbi-
with "strapped" or                               cides during hot weather;
feathery look                                    spray after wind has died
(leaves narrower                                 down in late afternoon
than normal, tips     --Cucumber mosaic        --It is impossible to distin-
stretched out into      (virus disease)          guish these two problems
thin projection,                                 based on symptoms alone;
veins very close                                 however, if sample comes in
together)                                        during spring when lawn
                                                 herbicides are being sprayed,
                                                 strongly suspect herbicide
                                                 injury; virus is controlled
                                                 by removing affected plants,
                                                 weed control and aphid control

Leaves roll upward,   --Excess water           --Common physiological disorder
feel leathery, but                               after wet periods; varieties
remain green; plants                             Big Boy, Floramerica, and
are not stunted                                  Beefsteak are especially
                                                 susceptible

Plants wilted;        --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
bottom leaves may       vascular wilt            tory diagnosis: resistant
turn yellow; brown                               varieties are available
discoloration inside                             depending on which disease
stem                                             it is
                      --Walnut wilt, caused    --Do not plant tomatoes near
                        by toxin from walnut     walnut or butternut trees;
                        tree                     sever roots bordering gar-
                                                 den and place barrier be-
                                                 tween tree and garden
                      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage

Plants stunted,       --Root knot (nematode    --Rotate; remove old plant
wilted, and yellow;     problem)                 debris; soil fumigation if
nodules on roots                                 necessary

Young plants cut      --Cutworms               --Use cutworm collars or
off at ground level                              use registered insecticide

Young plants with     --Flea beetles           --Tomatoes will tolerate
many tiny holes in                               a lot of flea beetle damage
leaves                                           if they are healthy; when
                                                 necessary, use registered
                                                 insecticide

Tiny white winged     --Whiteflies             --Yellow sticky boards
insects on under-                                (smeared with grease) will
sides of leaves                                  attract and trap adults
                                                 or use registered insecti-
                                                 cide
=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS

PROBLEMS COMMON TO MANY TREES BEARING FRUITS AND NUTS

Premature fruit drop   --Natural thinning      --Many trees produce more
                                                 fruit than they need and
                                                 thin themselves naturally
                       --Spring frost          --Frost often kills developing
                                                 fruits or buds
                       --Poor pollination      --Tree may require other trees
                                                 nearby to pollinate it; be
                                                 careful not to kill bees with
                                                 insecticides
                       --Environmental stress  --Drought, cold, or heat can
                                                 cause fruit drop
                       --Disease stress        --See controls under specific
                                                 diseases
                       --Use of Sevin          --Sevin causes some fruit thin-
                         insecticide             ning; do not misuse
                       --Various insects       --Submit insect for laboratory
                                                 identification

Poor fruit deve-       --Poor pollination      --Tree may require other trees
lopment (small                                   nearby to pollinate it; be
number of fruit on                               careful not to kill bees with
tree)                                            insecticides

                       --Biennial bearing      --Apples and pears naturally
                                                 bear a heavy crop one year
                                                 and few fruits the following
                                                 year
                       --Improper pruning      --Do not prune off fruit-
                                                 bearing wood during the
                                                 dormant season; consult
                                                 pruning manual for proper
                                                 instructions on pruning
                       --Frost injury

Fruits too small       --Failure to prune      --Peaches, nectarines, plums,
                                                 and apples tend to produce
                                                 many small fruits if not
                                                 pruned; consult pruning
                                                 manual for proper pruning
                       --Poor soil fertility   --Soil test

Many small twigs       --Squirrel damage       --Squirrels prune twigs for
broken off                                       nest-building and often
                                                 prune many more than they
                                                 need
                       --Wind breakage

Oozing sap on          --Natural gummosis      --Cherries, plums, apricots,
branches or trunk                                and peaches naturally ooze
                                                 sap
                       --Environmental stress  --Drought or waterlogging can
                                                 cause fruit trees to ooze
                                                 excessively
                       --Mechanical injury
                       --Disease or insect     --See section on specific
                         damage                  diseases

Large areas of         --Frost cracks          --Frost can split tree trunks
split bark; no decay                             if sap in trunk expands; use
evident                                          tree-wrap to protect bark
                                                 from sun to prevent extremes
                                                 in temperature
                       --Sunscald              --Thin-barked trees, e.g. young
                                                 ones, split when exposed to
                                                 intense sunlight; use tree-
                                                 wrap or block sun with board
                                                 on bright days
                       --Mechanical injury     --Dig up grass around trunk
                         e.g. lawnmower          and replace with mulch to
                                                 avoid mowing too closely
                                                 to base of tree
                       --Lightning injury

Large areas of         --Secondary decay of    --No adequate controls; remove
split bark; decay        any of the wounds       loose bark; water and ferti-
evident in wood          described above         lize tree when necessary
                       --Fungal or bacterial   --Same as for secondary decay
                         canker (any of seve-
                         ral)

Gray-white powdery     --Powdery mildew (fun-  --Use registered fungicide
growth on leaves;        gal disease)
leaves and fruit may
be distorted

Black, sooty growth    --Sooty mold (fungus    --Identify insect then con-
on leaves, stems,        that grows on honey-    trol with registered in-
and/or fruit             dew substance secre-    secticide
                         ted by aphids and
                         other insects)

Brown dead areas on    --Leaf scorch, caused   --Water tree deeply during
leaf margins             insufficient trans-     dry periods; scorch is
                         port of water to        usually caused by hot, dry
                         leaves                  weather, but root rots or
                                                 other root damage can also
                                                 be involved
                       --Cold injury

Tree wilted and        --Dry soil              --Water deeply during drought
may have poor color    --Root rot (fungal      --Improve drainage
                         disease)
                       --Root knnot or root-   --Submit soil sample for
                         feeding nematodes       nematode analysis
                       --Various fungal,       --Submit sample for laboratory
                         bacterial, or viral     diagnosis
                         diseases
                       --Waterlogged soil      --Improve drainage

Interveinal yel-       --Nutrient or mineral   --Soil test
lowing of leaves;        deficiency
no wilting             --Waterlogged soil      --Improve drainage
                         resulting in poor
                         transport of nutri-
                         ents to leaves

Large, corky galls     --Crown gall (bacterial --Some galls can be pruned
at base of tree and      disease)                out, but it is best to
on roots                                         consult an arborist; trees
                                                 may live for many years in-
                                                 spite of galls

Young leaves curled    --Aphids                --Use registered insecticide;
and distorted; clus-                             thorough coverage of under-
ters of insects on                               sides of leaves is neces-
undersides of leaves                             sary

Silk tents in branch   --Eastern tent cater-   --Physically remove tents or
crotches in spring       pillar                  use registered insecticide
                                                 when caterpillars are small

Silk tents on ends     --Fall webworm          --Same as for eastern tent
of branches in mid                               caterpillar
or late summer

Crescent-shaped        --Plum curculio         --Use registered insecticide
scars on fruit; whi-                             on a regular schedule
tish, legless grubs
with brown heads
present

Leaves with tiny       --Spider mites          --Use registered miticide
white spots, often
dirty with webbing

Bark encrusted with    --San Jose scale        --Use a dormant oil spray
tiny, slightly                                   or treat with registered
raised bumps; apples                             insecticide when eggs are
may have red spots                               hatching June 10-15, July
with white centers                               10-15, and Sept. 10-15

==========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 APPLE AND PEAR
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Leaf spots with       --Frogete leaf spot,     --Control fire blight disease
light tan centers       also called black        since black rot often in-
and brown borders;      rot (fungal dis-         vades fire blight cankers;
large rotted spots      ease)                    use apple/pear fungicide
with black pimple-                               spray program
like structures
appear on fruit;
cankers with black
pimplelike struc-
tures may appear
on twigs

Olive-brown vel-       --Scab (fungal          --Use apple/pear fungicide
vety spots on            disease)                spray program
leaves and young
fruit; fruit spots
develop into brown
corky lesions and
mature fruit is
distorted

Bright yellow spots    --Rust (fungal          --Use apple/pear fungicide
with orange or           disease)                program; do not plant
black centers on                                 cedar trees, which are al-
leaves; orange spots                             ternate hosts of the fun-
with small cuplike                               gus, in the area
structures on fruit

Brown, roughly         --Fungal leaf spot      --Submit sample for labora-
circular leaf spots      (any of several)        tory diagnosis
not fitting above      --Chemical injury       --Some fungicides can cause
descriptions                                     spotting on certain
                                                 varieties of fruit trees

Sunken, light brown    --Bitter rot (fungal    --Use apple/pear fungicide
circular spots with      disease)                program; prune out branches
salmon colored                                   with sunken lesions
specks (spore masses)
on fruit; apple
tastes bitter; sun-
ken lesions may ap-
pear on branches

Circular clusters of   --Fly speck and sooty   --Use apple/pear fungicide
tiny black specks and    blotch (two fungal      program; fruit is still
small sooty smudges      diseases that com-      edible; specks can be
on fruit                 monly occur together)   rubbed off

Sunken, dark green     --Quince rust (fungal   --Use apple/pear fungicide
lesions with a fea-      disease)                program
thery pattern on
fruit

Spots on fruit that    --Fungal disease        --Submit sample for labora-
do not fit above                                 tory diagnosis
descriptions           --Corking, a physio-    --Grimes Golden and York apple
                         logical problem         varieties are susceptible
                         associated with cer-
                         tain varieties
                       --Various insects       --Use apple/pear insecticide
                                                 program

Bark on young          --Measles, believed     --Soil test
branches is rough        to be a nutrient im-
and pimpled; tis-        balance
sue beneath bark
has brown spots

Sunken, black or       --Fire blight (bac-     --Prune out affected branches;
wine-colored cankers     terial disease)         use streptomycin antibiotic
on young twigs, lar-                             sprays with regular apple/pear
ger branches or                                  spray program; remove young
trunk; leaves wilt,                              suckers as they appear since
curl, and cling to                               they are very susceptible to
twigs; shoot tip                                 fire blight; do not plant
may be curved into                               apples near pears, which are
"shepherd's crook"                               highly susceptible
                       --Sooty mold (fungus    --Usually this can be easily
                         that grows on honey-    distinguished from fire
                         dew secreted by         blight: sooty mold can be
                         aphids and other in-    rubbed off but fire blight
                         sects)                  cannot

Tree breaks off at     --Poorly constructed    --Purchase young transplants
graft union during       graft                   from reliable dealer
strong winds           --Virus infection of    --Submit soil sample for nema-
                         graft union             tode analysis: some of these
                                                 viruses are transmitted by
                                                 nematodes in the soil

Pink-white worms       --Codling moth          --Use registered insecticide
bore into blossom                                on a regular schedule
end of apple; clus-
ters of round, brown
frass pellets inside
fruit

Apples dimpled with    --Apple maggot          --Use registered insecticide
faint brown streaks      ("railroad worm")       on a regular schedule

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 STONE FRUITS (APRICOT, CHERRY, PEACH, PLUM, AND NECTARINE)
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Small, angular leaf    --Bacterial spot        --No adequate controls;
spots (1/16-1/8"                                 spraying with basic
long) confined be-                               copper sulfate may
tween veins; spots                               reduce spread; however,
are green, then                                  basic copper sprays may
purple, then brown;                              cause severe toxic ef-
small, circular,                                 fects on fruit and leaves
depressed spots with                             and are usually too toxic
watersoaked margins                              to use; prune out affec-
on fruit; sunken                                 ted twigs
cankers may appear
on twigs

Small, olive-green     --Scab (fungal disease)  --Use fungicidal spray pro-
spots on young fruit;                             gram recommended for
spots eventually turn                             stone fruits; prune pro-
brown and velvety;                                perly so that sprays
similar spots on leaves                           penetrate the canopy

Purple spots appear    --Cherry leaf spot      --Resistant cherry varieties
on upper surfaces        (fungal disease)        (Meteor and Northstar);
of cherry leaves;                                use fungicidal spray
leaves become shot-                              program recommended for
holed and turn yellow;                           stone fruits
fruit may also be      --Shothole fungus       --Use stone fruit fungici-
spotted                                          dal spray program

Peach or nectarine     --Peach leaf curl       --Use registered dormant
leaves puckered,         (fungal disease on      spray fungicide before
thickened, and           peaches and necta-      buds begin to swell; do
curled from time         rines)                  not use this on anything
they first appear                                but peach or nectarine
in spring; leaves
red or orange at
first but turn yel-
low; shoots swollen
and stunted

Blossoms and young     --Brown rot (fungal     --Use stone fruit fungici-
twigs wilt and de-       disease common to       dal spray program; remove
cay during bloom;        all stone fruit)        all affected fruit on tree
sunken cankers with                              and on ground: decayed
gummy ooze develop                               fruit turns into a "mummy"
on twigs; circular                               on which the fungus over-
brown spots which                                winters
develop tufts of gray
spores during moist
weather form on fruit

Sunken cankers on      --Fungal or bacterial   --Submit sample for labora-
twigs, larger bran-      disease (any of se-     tory diagnosis
ches, and/or trunk;      veral)
leaves above canker
wilt

Swellings that split   --Black knot (fungal    --Use registered fungicide;
the bark appear on       disease of plum and     prune out affected twigs
plum or cherry bran-     cherry only)            at least 4" below knots;
ches and later turn                              destroy wild plum and
coal-black; leaves                               wild cherry trees in the
may wilt above swel-                             area
lings

Shoot tips stunted;    --Stem pitting (virus   --Submit soil sample for
leaves yellow and        disease, primarily of   nematode analysis: nema-
curled upward; severe    peach)                  todes can transmit the
defoliation; trees                               virus or it can come in
tend to break off                                on the transplants; remove
near ground in strong                            and destroy affected trees
winds; base of trunk   --Nutrient or mineral   --Soil test
may be swelled           deficiency
                       --Various other virus   --Submit sample for labora-
                         diseases                tory diagnosis

New growth at tip of   --Oriental fruit moth   --Use registered insecticide
twig wilts and dies;                             to prevent damage; peach
maturing fruit may                               will tolerate a lot of
contain 1/2 inch long                            natural pruning by this
pinkish worms                                    insect, so insecticides
                                                 may not be necessary

Gum oozes from holes   --Peach tree borers     --Use registered insecticide
at base of trunk or                              on bark only
lower branch crotches;
sawdust may be evident

Many small round       --Shothole borer        --Remove and destroy all
holes in twigs and                               dead or dying wood; use
branches                                         registered insecticide
                                                 to protect healthy trees

Tiny, white, flat      --White peach scale     --Use a dormant oil or treat
insects encrusting                               with registered insecti-
bark                                             cide May 1 and 10, July 1
                                                 and 10, and Sept. 1 and 10

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 PECAN
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Small, olive-col-      --Scab (fungal dis-     --Use pecan fungicide spray
ored spots on twigs      ease)                   program
and undersides of
leaves; tiny black
dots on shucks en-
large to form black
lesions; nuts drop
prematurely

Downy or frosty-       --Downy spot (fungal    --Use pecan fungicide spray
looking spots appear     disease)                program
on lower leaf surfa-
ces; later greenish-
yellow spots are evi-
dent on both leaf sur-
faces

Reddish-brown, irre-   --Brown leaf spot       --Use pecan fungicide spray
gular spots with         (fungal leaf spot)      program
grayish concentric
rings form on leaves

Brown leaf spots;      --Fungal or bacterial   --Submit sample for labora-
no spots on nuts         disease (any of se-     tory diagnosis
                         veral)
                       --Chemical injury

Empty nut shells       --"Pops", a problem of  --Environmental stress or
                         unknown cause           poor pollination are thought
                                                 to be causes; no controls
                                                 are known

Nutmeats (kernels)     --Feeding punctures     --No practical controls
have brown or black      several species of      known
blotches and may be      plant bugs
distorted

Small, cream-colored   --Hickory shuckworm     --Clean up and destroy
worms in immature                                fallen nuts to eliminate
nuts or in the green                             overwintering larvae
shucks after shells
have hardened

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 WALNUT
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
See section on general problems.  Most walnut diseases are difficult to
diagnose without consulting a diagnostic laboratory.

=========================================================================

SMALL FRUITS

PROBLEMS COMMON TO MANY SMALL FRUITS

Grayish-white moldy    --Powdery mildew (fun-  --Use fungicide program
growth on leaves         gal disease)

Galls at base of       --Crown gall (bacterial --Prune out galled canes;
plant, on roots, and     disease)                no chemicals will control
on canes; plants                                 this disease
stunted

Plants wilt; leaves    --Dry soil              --Supply water
may turn yellow        --Waterlogged soil      --Plant in well-drained area
                       --Venticillium wilt     --Resistant varieties; plant
                         (fungal disease)        new transplants in another
                                                 area; soil fumigation
                       --Root rot (fungal      --Plant in well-drained soil
                         disease)
                       --Root know (nema-      --Check roots for knots;
                         tode problem)           submit soil sample for
                                                 nematode analysis; soil
                                                 fumigation; rotate

Green and yellow       --Virus disease         --Purchase certified virus-
mosaic or mottle         (any of several)        free plants; prune out af-
pattern on leaves;                               fected canes; if more than
plants may be                                    20% of canes are infected,
stunted                                          remove entire planting;
                                                 control aphids with regis-
                                                 tered insecticide; remove
                                                 nearby related wild plants
                                                 (e.g. wild brambles)

Leaves rolled or       --Leafrolloers, leaf-   --Use registered insecticide
tied together; small     iers
caterpillars feeding
inside

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 BLUEBERRY
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Plants stunted and     --Soil pH too high      --Blueberries require acid
discolored                                       pH; soil test
                       --Nutrient deficiency   --Soil test
                       --Virus disease (any of --Submit sample for labora-
                         of several)             tory diagnosis

Berries turn red-      --Mummy berry (fungal   --Use blueberry fungicide
dish or tan color        disease)                program; destroy all old
as they ripen and                                mummies
become shriveled
and hard; blossoms
turn brown and
wither; centers of
new leaves are black

Brown blotches ap-     --Gray mold (fungal     --Do not plant too closely;
pear on flowers and      disease)                use blueberry fungicide
stems; fuzzy grayish                             program
mold forms on infec-
ted plant parts

Branches die back;     --Phomopsis dieback     --Prune out affected bran-
no cankers evident       (fungal disease)        ches; use wettable sulfur
externally; reddish                              spray after harvest
brown discoloration
deep into wood

Branches die back;     --Fungal cankers        --Submit sample for labora-
cankers may be evi-      of several)             tory diagnosis
dent externally;       --Winter injury         --Common in spring
internal discolora-
tion not reddish
brown

Ripening cherries      --Blueberry maggot      --Use registered insecti-
soft and mushy                                   cide on a regular sche-
                                                 dule

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 BRAMBLES
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Plants wilt; leaves    --Verticillium witl     --Use certified disease-
turn yellow at bot-      (fungal disease)        free plants; resistant
tom of plant first;                              varieties; 3-4 year ro-
stem turns dark blue                             tation
color at base;inter-
nal stem tissue may
be discolored

Plants wilt with       --Dry soil              --Supply water
symptoms as above      --Waterlogged soil      --Improve drainage
but blue stem symp-    --Verticillium wilt     --Use certified disease-
tom not evident                                  free plants; resistant
                                                 varieties; 3-4 year ro-
                                                 tation
                       --Root rot (fungal      --Improve drainage
                         disease)
                       --Root knot (nematode   --Check roots for knots;
                         problem)                rotate; soil fumigation

Ripening berries       --Fungal fruit rot      --Use bramble fungicide
covered with tufts       (any of several)        program; pick berries
of gray, green,                                  regularly and cool im-
white, or black                                  mediately
moldy growth

White or tan spots     --Anthracnose (fungal   --Submit sample for labora-
with purple borders      disease)                tory diagnosis; plant
appear on canes;                                 red raspberries far away
canes die back                                   from black raspberries
                                                 since black ones are more
                                                 susceptible
                       --Fungal canker (any    --Submit sample for labora-
                         of several)             tory diagnosis; prune out
                                                 cankered canes; prune out
                                                 old canes at the end of the
                                                 season

Leaves curl down-      --Leaf curl (virus      --Do not plant Cuthbert or
ward; leaves smal-       disease)                Cumberland varieties which
ler than normal;                                 are very susceptible; plant
internodes shorter                               certified virus-free stock;
than normal                                      prune out affected canes;
                                                 if more than 20% of canes
                                                 are affected, remove entire
                                                 planting; control aphids with
                                                 registered insecticide; remove
                                                 nearby wild brambles
                       --Aphids or black-      --Look for clusters of small
                         berry psyllid           gray insects on undersides
                                                 of leaves; control with
                                                 registered insecticide
                       --Herbicide injury

Blisterlike red-       --Rust disease (any     --Resistant varieties; remove
dish-orange pustules     of several related      and destroy affected plants
develop on lower leaf    fungal diseases)        immediately; fungicides are
surfaces                                         not effective; remove nearby
                                                 wild brambles

==========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 CURRANT
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Orange-brown blis-     --White pine blister    --Resistant varieties (Viking
ters containing yel-     rust (fungal disease    and Red Dutch); plant cer-
low spores appear        which has white pine    tified disease-free stock;
on undersides of         as an alternate host)   it is illegal to plant
leaves; leaves turn                              European black currant
yellow

Stems die back; can-   --Fungal dieback        --Prune out affected stems
kers with tiny black     (any of several)
pimple-like struc-
tures appear on stems

Brown leaf spots       --Septoria leaf spot    --Use registered fungicide
with tiny black pim-     (fungal disease)
ple-like structures

Brown leaf spots       --Fungal leaf spot      --Submit sample for labora-
without tiny black       (any of several)        tory diagnosis
pimple-like struc-
tures

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 GRAPE
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Brown spots with       --Black rot (fungal     --Use grape fungicide spray
dark borders on          disease)                program; remove mummied
leaves; grapes turn                              berries since fungus over-
black, shrivel up                                winters on them
like raisins, and
remain attached to
stem

Brown leaf spots       --Fungal leaf spot      --Submit sample for labora-
                         (any of several)        tory diagnosis

Small yellow spots     --Downy mildew (fun-    --Use grape fungicide spray
appear on upper leaf     gal disease)            program; Concord grape is
surfaces; white, cot-                            resistant
tony growth forms on
undersides of spots

Fruit rot not resem-   --Fungal fruit rot      --Submit sample for labora-
bling black rot          (any of several)        tory diagnosis

Canes die back;        --Fungal dieback        --Prune well below cankers;
dark lesions on          (most common one is     use grape fungicide spray
canes                    Phomopsis dieback)      program

Leaf resembles a       --Fan lead (virus       --Purchase certified virus-
fan: main veins are      disease)                free stock; submit soil
drawn together and                               sample for nematode analy-
teeth along margins                              sis; remove affected plants
are elongated; plants  --Herbicide injury      --Fan leaf and herbicide in-
stunted                                          jury symptoms are identical:
                                                 if symptoms occur in spring
                                                 when lawn herbicides are
                                                 being applied, herbicide
                                                 injury is a good bet; do
                                                 not apply lawn herbicides
                                                 in hot weather; wait to
                                                 apply herbicides until wind
                                                 has died down

Small, green, seed-    --Shot berry, caused    --No control
less grapes are in-      by environmental
termingled with ripe     stress or poor pol-
grapes in the cluster    lination

Grapes and/or leaves   --Grape berry moth      --Use registered insecticide
webbed together; some                            on regular schedule
grapes collapsed

Green or red irregu-   --Grape tomato gall     --Prune out and destroy
lar swellings on         (insect problem)        heavily infested leaves
leaves, canes or ten-                            and canes before the in-
drils                                            sects inside have matured

Small, rough galls     --Grape phylloxera      --Resistant varieties; no
the size of a small      (insect)                chemical controls
pea on undersides of
leaves; swellings on
roots

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS AND NUTS
-SubTitle-
 STRAWBERRY
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Small spots with       --Mycosphaerella leaf   --Resistant varieties;
white or tan centers     spot (fungal disease)   use strawberry fungicide
and reddish brown                                spray program
borders on leaves

Purplish or brown      --Fungal or bacterial   --Submit sample for labora-
spots on leaves not      leaf spot (any of       tory diagnosis
fitting above des-       several)
cription               --Chemical injury

White or gray crusty   --Slime mold (fungus)   --Slime molds grow on plant
material covering                                surfaces during wet wea-
leaves, stems, and/                              ther and disappear again
or fruits                                        in dry weather; no need
                                                 for control

Gray, fuzzy mold on    --Gray mold (fungal     --Do not crowd plants; do not
fruit, especially        disease)                apply fertilizer in spring
during wet periods                               since dense foliage delays
                                                 drying of berries after
                                                 rains; mulch; use straw-
                                                 berry fungicide program

Plants wilt; leaves    --Root rot (fungal      --If many plants show symp-
may turn brown at        disease)                toms, replant in another
margins; roots and                               area; plant in well-drained
crowns appear dis-                               area
colored when cut       --Nematode injury       --Submit soil sample for nema-
open                                             tode analysis

Fruit is hard and      --Leather rot (fungal   --Mulch; rotate if infection
leathery with brown      disease)                is severe
spots                  --Environmental stress  --Poor growing conditions can
                                                 cause berries to become dry
                                                 and hard

Fruit is soft with     --Fungal or bacterial   --Mulch; use strawberry fungi-
brown spots              fruit rot (any of       cide program
                         several)

Malformed berries:     --Fasciation, a re-     --Common in certain varieties
looks like several       sponse to environ-      in fall and spring
berries have grown       mental conditions
together

Berries seedy at       --Insect injury         --Use strawberry insecticide
tips                                             spray program
                       --Mites                 --Use registered miticide
                       --Frost injury          --Protect plants from frost
                                                 by mulching
                       --Nutrient deficiency   --Soil test
                       --Green petal myco-     --Use strawberry insecticide
                         plasma disease          spray program

Flower buds droop,     --Strawberry            --Use registered insecticide
turn brown and may       weevil                  during the bud stage
drop to ground

-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-Text-

Most ornamental tree and shrub problems can be diagnosed from the general
problems category; only very common problems specific to certain trees or
shrubs are listed in the specific categories.

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS

PROBLEMS COMMON TO MANY ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS

Many small twigs      --Squirrel damage           --Squirrels prune twigs for
broken off                                          nest-building and often
                                                    prune more than they need
                      --Wind breakage
                      --Twig pruner, twig         --Rake up and destroy fallen
                        girdler (insects)           twigs

Large areas of        --Frost cracks              --Frost can split trunks;
split bark; no decay                                use tree-wrap to protect
evident                                             bark from sun to prevent
                                                    extremes in temperature
                      --Sunscald                  --Thin-barked trees, e.g.
                                                    young ones, split when
                                                    exposed to intense sunlight;
                                                    use tree-wrap or block
                                                    sun with board on bright
                                                    days; avoid heavy ferti-
                                                    lization in late summer
                                                    and in fall
                      --Mechanical injury,        --Dig up grass around trunk
                        e.g. lawnmower injury       and replace with mulch to
                                                    avoid mowing too close to
                                                    base of tree
                      --Lightning injury          --Use lightning rod
Large areas of        --Secondary decay of        --No adequate controls;
split bark; decay       any of the wounds           remove loose bark; water
evident in wood         described above             and fertilize tree at
                                                    appropriate times
                      --Fungal or bacterial       --Submit sample for
                        canker (any of several)     laboratory for diagnosis

Gray-white powdery    --Powedry mildew (fungal    --Use registered fungicide
growth on leaves;       disease)
leaves may be dis-torted

Black, sooty growth   --Sooty mold (fungus that   --Identify the insect pest,
on leaves and/or        grows on honeydew           then control with regis-
stems                   substance secreted by       tered insecticide(s).
                        aphids and other insects)

Brown dead areas on   --Leaf scorch, caused by    --Water tree deeply during
leaf margins            insufficient transport      dry periods; scorch is
                        of water to leaves          usually caused by hot, dry
                                                    weather, but root rots or
                                                    other root damage can also
                                                    be involved
                      --Cold injury
                      --Chemical injury           --Chemical injury to trees
                                                    is not common on home lawns
                                                    but it does occur where
                                                    herbicides are used too
                                                    close to shrubs

Tree wilted and       --Dry soil                  --Water deeply during drought
may have poor color   --Root rot (fungal          --Improve drainage
                        disease)
                      --Root know or root-        --Submit soil sample for
                        feeding nematodes           nematode analysis
                      --Various fungal,           --Submit sample for labora-
                        bacterial, or viral         tory diagnosis
                        diseases
                      --Waterlogged soil          --Improve drainage
                      --Plant is rootbound        --Cut rootball in several
                                                    places before transplanting
                                                    so roots will grow out into
                                                    soil
                      --Girdling roots            --Plant's own roots have grown
                                                    around base of trunk and
                                                    strangled plant; take care
                                                    to plant properly
                      --Transplant shock          --Water regularly after
                        (on young transplants)      transplanting
                      --Bark beetles              --Prune out and destroy dead
                                                    or dying wood; protect near-
                                                    by trees of same species
                                                    with registered insecticide;
                                                    keep trees healthy and
                                                    growing vigorously

Interveinal yel-      --Nutrient or mineral       --Soil test
lowing of leaves;       deficiency
no wilting            --Waterlogged soil,         --Improve drainage
                        resulting in poor
                        transport of nutrients
                        to leaves
Large, corky galls    --Crown gall (bacterial-    --Some galls can be pruned
at base of tree and     disease)                    out, but it is best to
on roots                                            consult an arborist; trees
                                                    may live for many years
                                                    inspite of galls
Few or no flowers     --Cold injury
                      --Improper pruning          --Some plants flower only on
                                                    old wood: second year bran-
                                                    ches should not be pruned
                                                    out on these shrubs; dras-
                                                    tic pruning on any shrub
                                                    can reduce flowering; con-
                                                    sult pruning manuals
                      --Overfertilization         --This stimulates leaf pro-
                        with nitrogen               duction and reduces flower
                                                                     production
                      --Shade                     --Grow plants in proper
                                                    amount of light
                      --Incorrect fertility       --Consult Extension office
                                                    for recommendation

Galls on upper        --Fungal disease (and       --Submit sample for labora-
branches                of several)                 tory diagnosis; prune out
                                                    galled branches
                      --Various insects           --Most are harmless; prune
                                                    out galled branches

Proliferation of      --Insect injury             --For all of these, only con-
branches at speci-    --Fungal, viral, or           trol is to prune out affec-
fic points on the       mycoplasma disease          ted areas
plant, forming a      --Mistletoe
"witches' broom"
effect

Pustules contain-     --Rust (fungal disease)     --Use registered fungicide
ing yellow, orange,
or black powdery
substance on leaves;
may be on both leaf
surfaces

Brown, gray, green,   --Lichens                   --Lichens are a combination
or yellow crusty,                                   of algae and fungi; they
leaflike growths on                                 grow in moist, shady areas
trunk and branches                                  and do not harm the plant

Early leaf drop       --Environmental stress,
                        such as drought, com-
                        pacted soil, or trans-
                        plant shock
                      --Various insects or        --Submit sample for labora-
                        disease                     tory diagnosis

Browning of tips      --Ozone injury              --No controls
of conifer needles;
faint yellow bands
about 1/8" wide
across groups of
needles

General browning      --Drought                   --Water deeply during drought
of conifer needles                                --Do not use deicing salt
                                                    on sidewalks or roads near
                                                    trees or shrubs; flush soil
                                                    with water
                      --Gas leak                  --Check soil around roots for
                                                    gray, crumbly appearance and
                                                    foul smell indicative of gas
                                                    leak
                      --Pine wood nematode        --Submit lower branches for
                                                    nematode analysis; remove
                                                    and destroy affected trees;
                                                    control longhorn beetles
                      --Root-feeding nematodes    --Submit soil sample for
                                                    nematode analysis
                      --Waterlogged soil          --Improve drainage
                      --Transplant shock          --Water regularly after
                                                    transplanting
                      --Girdling roots            --Be sure main roots are not
                                                    wrapped when transplanting
                      --Plant is rootbound        --Cut rootball in several
                                                    places before transplanting
                      --Dog urine injury
                      --Fungal canker             --Check trunk and branches
                                                    for cankers; prune out af-
                                                    fected branches

Sour-smelling sap     --Slime flux                --Bore a small, slanted
oozes from cracks       (bacterial disease)         drainage hole through the
in bark                                             wood below the wound and
                                                    insert a 1/2" diameter
                                                    plastic tube for drainage

Yellow and green      --Virus disease             --No controls; removal of
mottle or mosaic                                    plant may be necessary if
pattern on leaves;                                  virus is easily spread
leaves may be dis-
torted

Sunken cankers on     --Fungal or bacterial       --Submit sample for labora-
trunk or branches;      canker                      tory diagnosis; prune out
plant may wilt or                                   affected branches well be-
have poor growth                                    low canker

Oozing sap on trunk   --Natural gummosis          --Some trees naturally ooze
                                                    sap
                      --Environmental stress      --Drought or waterlogging can
                                                    cause trees to ooze exces-
                                                    sively
                      --Mechanical injury         --Prevent lawnmower injury
                      --Disease or insect         --See section on specific
                        damage                      diseases

Brown leaf spots      --Fungal or bacterial       --See section on specific
                        disease (any of             diseases or submit
                        several)                    sample for laboratory
                                                    diagnosis
                      --Chemical injury           --Chemical injury to trees
                                                    is not common in home lawns

Leaves chewed or      --Various caterpil-         --Use registered insecticide
completely eaten        lars, sawflies, leaf        while insects are small
                        beetles, etc.               and before damage is ex-
                                                    tensive

Fish scale-like       --Various scale insects     --Submit sample for labora-
structures tight-                                   tory diagnosis; use dor-
ly attached to                                      mant oil
leaves, twigs, or
branches

Young leaves puck-    --Aphids                    --Use registered insecticide
ered, curled, or
distorted; clear,
sticky substance on
leaves; clusters of
small insects on
undersides of leaves

Leaves off-color      --Spider mites              --Use registered miticide
with tiny white or
yellow spots; may
appear dirty due to
fine webbing and
dust that leaves
collect

Galls (abnormal       --Various insects           --There are no chemical
growths on leaves,      or mites                    controls for
stems, or other tis-                                gall insects, but
sues                                                the plants will not be
                                                    seriously harmed

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 BIRCH
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Leaves sparse, es-    --Bronze birch borer        --Use registered insecti-
pecially at top of                                  cide on bark in mid-May,
tree; swollen ridges                                early, mid, and late June
in bark

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 BOXWOOD
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Large portions of     --Winter injury             --This is the most common
shrub turn yellow                                   problem the Plant Clinic
or brown; on some                                   receives in the spring;
leaves, the brow-                                   always suspect this if
ning may only be                                    problem occurred during
at leaf margins                                     winter; prune out dead
                                                    branches but wait until
                                                    June to be sure branches
                                                    are dead; water and fer-
                                                    tilize
                      --Phytophthora root         --Check for brown discolora-
                        rot (fungal disease)        tion in roots; improve
                                                    drainage; plant in another
                                                    area
                      --English boxwood de-       --Submit sample for labora-
                        cline (fungal dis-          tory diagnosis; only a
                        ease)                       problem on English boxwood;
                                                    replace shrub with Ameri-
                                                    can boxwood or plant Eng-
                                                    lish box in another area
                      --Volutella blight          --Prune out affected branches
                        (fungal disease)
                      --Root-feeding nema-        --Submit soil sample for nema-
                        todes                       tode analysis

Large portions of     --Phytophthora root         --Improve drainage; plant in
shrub turn yellow       rot (fungal disease)        another area
or brown; brown       --English boxwood de-       --Only a problem on English
discoloration evi-      cline (fungal dis-          boxwood; replace shrub
dent in wood when       ease)                       with American boxwood or
base of trunk is cut                                plant in another area
open

Leaves are brown and  --Macrophoma leaf spot      --Secondary problem: prune
have tiny black         (fungal problem)            out branches damaged by
specks on them                                      winter injury or disease

Leaves blistered;     --Boxwood leafminer         --Use registered insecti-
small yellowish mag-                                cide in early June
gots inside

Leaves at stem tips   --Boxwood psyllid           --Use registered insecti-
cupped                                              cide just as new growth
                                                    starts appearing

Tiny white or yel-    --Boxwood mite              --Use registered miticide
low flecks on leaves                                as soon as damage is no-
                                                    ticed
=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 COTONEASTER
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Individual twigs die  --Fire blight (bac-        --Prune out affected branches;
back, turn black, and   terial disease)            use streptomycin bactericide;
have curved tips; sun-                             if you do not observe the
ken cankers may be                                 blackening or curved tips,
evident on wood                                    problem could be drought or
                                                   root rot; black that can be
                                                   rubbed off is sooty mold

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 DOGWOOD
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Reddish brown spots   --Various fungal leaf       --Most common ones are
on leaves; leaves       spots                       anthracnose and Septoria
may be distorted                                    leaf spot; submit sample
                                                    for laboratory diagnosis

Brown, wrinkled       --Gray mold (fungal         --Use registered fungicide
patches form on         disease)
flowers; gray, fuz-
zy mold develops
on flowers

Leaves wilt and       --Scorch, due to hot        --Dogwood should be planted
leaf margins turn       dry weather                 in reduced sunlight; it is
brown                                               very susceptible to scorch
                      --Fungal canker             --No controls; water and
                                                    fertilize
                      --Dogwood borer, dog-       --Use registered insecti-
                        wood twig borer             to protect trees; prune
                                                    out dead and dying bran-
                                                    ches

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 ELM
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Leaves wilt, curl,    --Dutch elm disease         --Submit sample (many medi-
turn yellow, and        (fungal disease             um sized affected twigs)
drop off; branches      transmitted by bee-         for laboratory diagnosis
die back                tles)
                      --Various other fungal      --Submit sample for labora-
                        wilt diseases               tory diagnosis
                      --Phloem necrosis           --Submit sample for labora-
                        mycoplasma disease          tory diagnosis

Leaves eaten be-      --Elm leaf beetle           --Use registered insecticide
tween veins and ap-
pear lacy; may turn
brown and drop off

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 HEMLOCK
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Needles with brown    --Spruce mite               --Use registered insecticide
specks, especially
near base; fine web-
bing between nee-
dles; foliage gray
and dirty

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 HOLLY
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Tan winding trails    --Leafminers                --Use registered insecticide
or blotches on                                      in early June
leaves; tiny brown
dots on undersides
of leaves

Leaves with tiny      --Southern red mite         --Use registered miticide
yellow spots; leaves
small and off-color

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 JUNIPER
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Tips of branches      --Various fungal tip        --Submit sample for
turn brown; black       blights                     laboratory diagnosis;
pimplelike struc-                                   fungicides are regis-
tures can be seen                                   tered for some of these
on brown needles      --Root rot (fungal          --Submit sample for labora-
or stems                disease)                    tory diagnosis; fungicides
                                                    are registered for Phy-
                                                    tophthora root rot
                      --Winter injury             --Prune out dead branches
                      --Drought                   --Water deeply during dry
                                                    periods

Brick-red or brown    --Cedar-apple rust          --Pick off galls; the fun-
galls form on           (fungal disease)            gus spreads to apple trees
branches; in spring
orange, jellylike
horns form on the
galls; galls turn
black with age

Needles gray, dirty   --Spruce mite               --Use registered miticide
and covered with
tiny yellow specks

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 LILAC
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Brown spots appear    --Bacterial blight          --Prune out affected branches
on leaves in early    --Winter injury             --Prune out affected branches
spring; leaves are
distorted, turn
black and die; flow-
ers die

Stems swollen and     --Lilc borer                --Use registered insecticide
cracked near ground;                                on bark in early May and
sawdust may be pre-                                 mid June
sent

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 MAGNOLIA
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Twigs with powdery    --Magnolia scale            --Use registered insecticide
white or tan bumps                                  in early Sept. or dormant
the size of half a                                  oil
bean

=========================================================================

MAPLE

Large, irregular      --Zonate leaf spot          --No fungicides registered;
grayish blotches on     (fungal disease)            rake up and burn or bury
leaves; concentric                                  fallen leaves
ring pattern in spots
evident when leaves
are held up to light

Irregular, shiny      --Tar spot (fungal          --Use registered fungicide;
black, tar-like         disease)                    rake up and destroy fallen
spots, about 1/2" in                                leaves
diameter on upper
leaf surfaces

Irregular, brown      --Anthracnose (fungal       -Use registered fungicide;
spots on leaves;        disease)                   rake up and destroy fallen
on Norway maple,                                   leaves
brown areas follow    --Scorch, caused by         -Anthracnose can be confused
leaf veins; tree        hot, dry weather           with scorch if the leaf spots
otherwise healthy                                  have enlarged and coalesced;
                                                   in early stages, it should
                                                   be possible to distinguish
                                                   between the two; scorch is
                                                   mainly at leaf margins

Brown, dry areas      --Scorch, caused by         --Water tree deeply
on margins of leaves    hot, dry weather
only; tree otherwise
healthy

Leaves on tree sud-   --Verticillium wilt         --Fertilizing heavily with
denly wilt and may      (fungal disease)            nitrogen sometimes helps
turn yellow and drop                                tree to recover: distri-
off; wilt may occur                                 bute nitrogen in holes
on one side of tree                                 rather than on soil sur-
only; tree may die                                  face or grass may die;
suddenly or decline                                 if tree dies, do not re-
over period of years;                               plant in this spot; water
no external trunk or                                tree deeply
branch damage evi-    --Drought                   --Water tree deeply
dent; some branches
may have brown streaks
in wood

Tree shows "staghead- --Poor site                 --Maple is a shallow-rooted
ing", i.e. top bran-                                tree and cannot withstand
ches die back; leaves                               stresses such as soil com-
discolored and small                                paction, being planted near
                                                    roads and sidewalks, etc.
                      --Maple decline, a          --Watering and fertilizing may
                        disease thought to          help
                        be associated with
                        several pathogens
                        and environmental
                        stresses
                      --Fungal or bacterial       --Prune out cankered branches;
                        canker                      water and fertilize

Cottony egg sacs      --Cottony maple scale,      --Use registered insecticide
on twigs or leaves      cottony maple leaf          when egg sacs first appear
                        scale

Small, red, green or  --Gall mites                --No control, but the tree
black globular                                      will not be harmed
growths on upper leaf
surfaces

==========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 OAK
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
General yellowing     --Iron chlorosis, esp.      --Soil test; iron deficiency
of tree or yellow-      on pin and willow           can usually be corrected
ing of sections of      oak                         by adjusting soil pH to
tree; no wilting                                    6.0; in severe cases, in-
                                                    jections of iron can be made

Puckered, circular    --Oak leaf blister          --Rake up and destroy affected
areas, 1/2" in dia-     (fungal disease)            leaves
meter, on leaves;
blisters are yel-
lowish at first, then
turn brown; leaves
remain attached to
tree

Brown, dead areas on  --Anthracnose (fungal       --Use registered fungicide;
leaves, extending out   disease)                    rake up and destroy fallen
to leaf margins; no                                 leaves
trunk damage evident  --Scorch, caused by         --Anthracnose can be confused
                        hot, dry weather            with scorch if leaf lesions
                                                    have enlarged and coalesced;
                                                    if browning is mainly at
                                                    leaf margins, it is probably
                                                    scorch
                      --Various other fungal      --Submit sample for laboratory
                        leaf spots (anthrac-        diagnosis; rake up and
                        nose is probably the        destroy fallen leaves
                        most common one in
                        Virginia)

Leaves wilt, turn     --Dry soil                  --Water tree deeply
bronze color, and     --Oak wilt (fungal          --Submit sample for laboratory
drop off; no trunk      disease not common          diagnosis
damage evident          in Virginia)
                      --Soil compaction

Galls on leaves or    --Gall wasps                --Oaks are subject to attack
branches                                            by dozens of gall wasps.
                                                    The tree is not harmed even
                                                    by heavy infestations.

==========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 PINE
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Cream colored pus-    --Needle rust (fungal       --Fungicides usually not
tules containing        disease)                   necessary; remove golden-
bright orange spores                               rods and asters around pines:
form on needles;                                   these are alternate hosts of
sides of pustules are                              the fungus
papery in appearance;
needles may drop

Rough, elongated,     --White pine blister        --Submit sample for labora-
swollen areas with      rust (fungal disease)       tory diagnosis; remove all
yellowish orange                                    currant and gooseberry
color develop on                                    bushes in a 1000 ft radius
trunk and branches;                                 of the tree; prune out
sap may flow from                                   cankers
these cankers; nee-   --Various other fungal      --Submit sample for laboratory
dles turn brown         cankers                     diagnosis

Black, sooty sub-     --Sooty mold, fungus        -Not a disease; control aphids
stance covers nee-      very common on pine,       with registered insecticide
dles and stems          grows on honeydew
                        secreted by aphids and
                        other insects

Small, circular       --Brown spot or needle      --Submit sample for laboratory
spots or bands on       cast (two easily con-       diagnosis: time of fungicide
needles; some nee-      fused fungal diseases)      application depends on which
dles may be brown                                   disease it is
from a spot all the
way out to the tip

Needles turn reddish  --Pine wood nematode,       --Submit sample of lower
brown color and re-     esp. on Japanese            branches for nematode ana-
main attached to tree   black pine                  lysis; remove and destroy
                                                    affected trees immediately;
                                                    control longhorn beetles
                                                    with registered insecticide
                      --Dry soil                  --Water tree deeply
                      --Other environmental
                        stress, e.g. soil
                        compaction, gas leak
                      --Fungal canker             --Prune out cankers
                      --Ozone injury
                      --Fungal top blight         --Submit sample for labora-
                        (any of several)            tory diagnosis
                      --Root-feeding nematodes    --Submit soil sample for
                                                    nematode analysis

Needles turn brown    --Fungal tip blight         --Submit sample for labora-
from tips of branches   (any of several)            tory diagnosis
back                  --Dry soil                  --Water tree deeply

Tips of needles turn  --Ozone injury, esp.        --Tree will recover if damage
brown; yellow bands     on white pine               is not too severe
about 1/8-1/4" wide
appear across groups
of needles; tree is
otherwise healthy

Clusters of caterpil- --Sawflies                  --Use registered insecticide
lar-like insects fee-
ding on needles in
groups

Leader wilts, droops  --White pine weevil         --Prune out infested ter-
and dies                                            minals; spray leader
                                                    with registered insecti-
                                                    cide in early April

======================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 RHODODENDRON AND AZALEA
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Fleshy, thick white   --Azalea leaf and           --Pick off and destroy galls
galls form on leaves    petal gall (fungal
and/or flowers          disease)

General leaf yellow-  --Improper soil pH          --Soil test; rhododendron
ing on all or part                                  and azalea require acid
of plant                                            soil
                      --Nutrient deficiency       --Soil test

Small, pale, cir-     --Ovulinia petal            --Use registered fungicide
cular spots appear      blight (fungal
on undersides of        disease), mainly on
flower petals; spots    azalea
enlarge and appear
white on colored
flowers and brown
on white flowers;
flowers become limp
and covered with
white, fuzzy spore
mass

Marginal leaf brow-   --Winter injury             --Very common on rhododen-
ning; leaves curl                                   dron; always suspect this
downward on rhodo-                                  on samples submitted in
dendron                                             early spring
                      --Scorch, caused by         --Supply water
                        hot, dry weather
                      --Salt injury               --Do not overapply deicing
                                                    salt on sidewalks or drives
                                                    near shrubs or trees
                      --Phytophthora root         -Submit sample (include roots)
                        rot (fungal disease)        for laboratory diagnosis
                      --Phytophthora die-         --Submit sample for labora-
                        back (fungal disease        tory diagnosis
                        that attacks from
                        stem tips)
                      --Botryoshpaeria die-       --Submit sample for labora-
                        back (fungal disease)       tory diagnosis; prune out
                                                    dead branches; consult
                                                    pruning manual for proper
                                                    technique when doing rou-
                                                    tine pruning: the fungus
                                                    often invades pruning
                                                    wounds or stressed tissue;
                                                    protect plants from win-
                                                    ter injury

Brown spots on        --Various fungal leaf       --Submit sample for labora-
leaves                  spots                       tory diagnosis
                      --Physiological leaf        --Easily confused with fungal
                        spot, cause unknown         leaf spot

Leaves with yellow    --Lace bugs                 --Use registered insecticide
specks on upper sur-
face; black, shiny
spots on undersurface

=========================================================================


-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 ROSE
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Black, circular       --Black spot (fungal        --Use registered fungicide
spots with feathery     disease)
edges surrounded by
yellow halo on
leaves; leaves drop

Pustules containing   --Rust (fungal disease)     --Not usually a problem in
orange or brown pow-                                Virginia so no fungicides
dery spore masses ap-                               are registered
pear on lower leaf
surfaces first and
upper leaf surfaces
later

Small, circular leaf  --Cercospora leaf spot      --Fungicides to control black
spots with dull gray    (fungal disease)            spot should control this
centers and brown to                                disease
reddish brown margins
on leaves

Spots of various co-  --Various fungal leaf       --Submit sample for labora-
lors on leaves that     spots                       tory diagnosis
do not fit above
descriptions

Various patterns of   --Virus disease             --Common on roses; these
yellow and green on                                 viruses mainly enter through
leaves, including                                   grafts and are not trans-
streaks, rings, vein-                               mitted from plant to plant;
clearing (yellow                                    purchase healthy stock;
veins), or blotches                                 maintain shrub vigor by
                                                    watering and fertilizing;
                                                    not necessary to remove
                                                    shrub
                      --Nutrient deficiency       --Soil sample
                      --Waterlogged soil          --Improve drainage

Branches die back;    --Various fungal cankers    --Very common problem on rose;
sunken or swollen                                   prune out cankers; no fungi-
discolored areas                                    cides are registered; pre-
which may be covered                                vent stress from other dis-
with tiny black                                     eases and environmental
specks appear on                                    problems
branches

Plants wilt; lower    --Dry soil                  --Supply water
leaves may turn yel-  --Verticillium wilt         --Resistant varities; do not
low                     (fungal disease)            replant in same area
                      --Root knot (nematode       --Check roots for knots; soil
                        problem)                    fumigation; plant in another
                                                    area
                      --Waterlogged soil          --Improve drainage
                      --Transplant shock          --Water regularly after trans-
                                                    planting
Flowers wilt or fail  --Botrytis blight           --Remove and destroy affected
to open and become      (fungal disease)            flowers; fungicides for
covered with fuzzy,                                 black spot should control
grayish mold                                        this disease

Flower buds fail to   --Thrips                    --Use registered insecticide
open; blooms are de-
formed with brown
streaks or spots on
petals



Needles on branches   --Cytospora canker           --Prune dead branches back
near ground turn        (fungal disease),            to trunk
brown; branches die     esp. on Colorado
back; needles may       and Norway spruce
drop or remain at-    --Various fungal needle      --These diseases may start
tached; dried, white    cast diseases                from the bottom of the
pitch may ooze from                                  tree up, but do not cause
bark                                                  cankers; check for cankers
                                                      vs. no cankers + simple
                                                      spots on needles; submit
                                                      sample for laboratory
                                                      diagnosis

Older, inner needles  --Rhizosphaera needle         --Use registered fungicide
of branches appear      blight (fungal disease)
speckled with dull    --Other fungal needle         --If you don't see the
yellowish blotches;     blights                       black specks, you may have
later needles turn                                    a different fungal needle
brown or purple from                                  blight; submit sample for
tips back and drop;                                   laboratory diagnosis
tiny, black specks
in rows on needles
can be seen with a
hand lens

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ORNAMENTAL TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 WILLOW
-Text-

SYMPTOMS                 POSSIBLE CAUSES             CONTROL AND COMMENTS
Willow is very susceptible to a number of different fungal cankers. See
general section for description of canker symptoms. Prune out and destroy
cankered branches.


-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-Text-

Most flower problems can be diagnosed from the general problems category.
Only very common problems or those with very striking symptoms are listed in
the specific categories.

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS

PROBLEMS COMMON TO MANY ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS

Plants wilt; flow-    --Dry soil               --Supply water
ers may drop and      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage
leaves may turn       --Transplant shock       --Do not transplant in heat
yellow                                           of day; water regularly
                                                 after transplanting
                      --Verticillium wilt      --Submit sample for laboratory
                        (fungal disease)         diagnosis; replant in
                                                 another area
                      --Root and stem or       --Plant in well-drained soil;
                        corm rot (fungal or      destroy affected plants
                        bacterial disease)

Seedlings wilt;       --Damping-off (fungal    --Plant in well-drained soil
stems turn brown        disease)
and soft and may
be constricted at
the soil line

Plants fail to        --Wrong season           --Plants have specific day-
flower; foliage                                  length requirements for
looks healthy                                    flowering
                      --Cool weather
                      --Insufficient light     --Do not plant sun-loving
                                                 plants in shade
                      --Too much nitrogen      --Do not overfertilize; nitro-
                                                 gen stimulates foliage, not
                                                 flower, production
                      --Immature plants        --Biennials and perennials
                                                 often do not flower the
                                                 first year
                      --Undersized bulbs

Too many small        --Plants not disbudded   --Some flowers, e.g. chrysan-
flowers                                          themum, need to have some
                                                 buds removed to produce
                                                 large flowers

Tall, "leggy" plant;  --Insufficient light     --Pay attention to light re-
stem and foliage                                 quirements of plants
pale or yellow

General yellowing     --Nutrient deficiency    --Soil test
of leaves; yel-       --Virus disease          --Submit sample for laboratory
lowing may be                                    diagnosis
interveinal; plant
may be stunted; no
wilting

Grayish-white pow-    --Powdery mildew         --Use registered fungicide
dery growth on leaves   (fungal disease)

Pustules containing   --Rust (fungal dis-      --Resistant varieties if
orange, yellow, or      ease)                    available; use registered
brown powdery sub-                               fungicide
stance on leaves

Brown, dead spots on  --Fungal, bacterial,     --Submit sample for labora-
leaves                  or leaf nematode         tory diagnosis
                        disease (any of
                        several)

Brown, dead areas on  --Scorch due to hot,     --Supply water
margins of leaves       dry weather
                      --Salt injury            --Do not plant near sidewalks
                                                 drives that were deiced
                                                 in winter
                      --Chemical injury        --Not common in home gardens

Flowers wilt or       --Gray mold (fungal      --Pick off and destroy affected
fail to open; gray-     disease)                 flowers; use registered
ish mold appears on                              fungicide
flowers in moist
weather

Yellow and green      --Virus disease (any     --Remove affected plants; do
mottle or mosaic        of several)              not touch healthy plants
pattern on leaves                                after diseased ones; con-
                                                 trol insects

Tiny white flecks     --Ozone injury
or white inter-       --Spider mites           --Use registered miticide
veinal areas on
leaves

Clusters of insects   --Aphids                 --Use registered insecticide
on stems or under-
sides of leaves;
leaves may be curled
or distorted

Leaves chewed or      --Various insects        --Submit insect for labora-
completely eaten                                 tory identification
                      --Slugs                  --Use beer bait or commercial
                                                 slug bait

Light colored tun-    --Leafminers             --Use registered insecticide
nels or blotches in
leaves

Tiny white winged     --Whiteflies             --Use yellow sticky boards
insects on under-                                (smeared with grease) to
sides of leaves                                  trap them or use regis-
                                                 tered insecticide

White, cottony mas-   --Mealybugs              --Use registered insecticide
ses on leaves or
stems

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 CHRYSANTHEMUM
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Flowers distorted     --Virus disease (any     --Destroy affected plants;
and abnormally co-      of several)              insect control
lored; rosetting of
florets may occur;
yellow and green
mosaic, mottle, or
ring pattern may
appear on leaves

Green colored flow-   --Aster yellows (my-     --Destroy affected plants;
ers instead of nor-     coplasma disease)        control insects
mal color; upper
branches of flow-
ering stem are yel-
lowish and upright

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 DAY LILY
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Greenish yellow       --Russet spot, cause     --Common to certain varieties
spots that enlarge      unknown
and turn orange-      --Fungal or bacterial    --Submit sample for labora-
brown on leaves;        leaf spot (any of        tory diagnosis
flowers are normal      several)

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 GERANIUM
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Corky, raised spots   --Oedema, a physiolo-    --Do not overwater
on lower leaf sur-      gical problem asso-
faces                   ciated with over-
                        watering

Plants wilt; brown    --Fungal or bacterial    --Plant in well-drained
or black rotted area    root and stem rot        soil; remove dead plants
evident at base of      (any of several)
stem; brown spots
may be present on
leaves

Pie-shaped brown      --Bacterial stem rot     --Plant in well-drained soil;
areas on leaves;        and leaf spot            pick off affected leaves;
rot may be present                               avoid overhead watering
on lower stems

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 GLADIOLUS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
White streaked flow-  --Virus disease          --Destroy affected plants;
ers                                            control insects; do not
                                               plant near vegetable gar-
                                               den since two major glad
                                               viruses also infect plants
                                               in bean and cucumber family

Plants are thin with  --Aster yellows          --Destroy affected plants;
weak leaves that turn   (mycoplasma disease)     weed control; insect control
yellowish green;      --Poor growing condi-    --Aster yellows could be con-
flower spikes are       tions                    fused with poor growing
twisted and distor-                              conditions, but twisted
ted and may be green                             flowers is an indication of
                                                 disease

Plants stunted; flow- --Fusarium yellows       --Destroy affected plants;
ers small and faded;    (fungal disease)         rotate; soak corms in
leaves yellow from                               registered fungicide before
tips back; corm may                              planting
be rotted; corm dis-  --Various fungal corm    --Same as above
colored internally      rots
                      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage

Plants stunted and    --Penicillium corm rot   --Destroy all affected corms;
yellowed; corm rot-     (fungal disease)         store corms in cool, dry
ted with blue-green                              place before planting; dip
powdery mold on sur-                             corms in registered fungicide
face                                             before planting; rotate

Sunken, black lesions --Scab (bacterial        --Destroy affected corms;
covered with shiny,     disease)                 rotate
varnish-like substance
and surrounded by
raised, brittle rims
on corms; after plan-
ting, tiny, raised,
reddish brown specks
appear on leaf bases;
leaf specks become
soft

Whitish streaks on    --Gladiolus thrips       --Use registered insecticide
leaves; flowers de-
formed and disco-
lored

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 HOLLYHOCK
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Yellow to orange      --Rust (fungal disease)  --Pick off and destroy affected
spots on upper leaf                              leaves; use registered fungi-
surfaces; small,                                 cide; rust is mentioned here
brown pustules on                                because symptoms are slightly
corresponding low-                               different from those on other
er leaf surfaces                                 plants: symptoms on other
                                                 plants are described in the
                                                 general section. This rust
                                                 does not have an alternate
                                                 host. Destroy all diseased
                                                 plant tissue in the fall.

==========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 IRIS
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Leaves turn yellow    --Bacterial soft root,   --Dispose of infested plants
and wilt; if pulled     spread by iris borer     in fall; use registered
gently, leaves de-                               insecticide to control iris
tach from plant;                                 borer when plants are 5-6"
soft, slimy, smelly                              tall
rot at base of plant;
rhizomes may have
holes

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 MARIGOLD
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Plants wilt; leaves   --Fungal stem rot        --Destroy affected plants;
wither; lower stem                               rotate; plant in well-
discolored inside and                            drained soil
out                   --Fusarium wilt (fun-    --Same as for stem rot
                        gal disease)

Round, corky galls    --Crown gall (bacterial  --Destroy affected plants;
on lower stem and       disease)                 rotate
roots

Elongated, raised,    --Suspect herbicide      --Do not spray lawn herbi-
rough, brown areas      injury: marigolds        cides in heat of day;
on upper stems          are very sensitive to    spray after wind has died
                        some lawn herbicides     down; do not spray near
                                                 marigolds

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 PEONY
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
New shoots wilt and   --Gray mold (fungal      --Prune out affected plant
turn black; flowers,    disease)                 parts; use registered fun-
buds, leaves, and                                gicide
stems turn brown and  --Phytophthora blight    --Same as for gray mold ex-
leathery; gray fuzzy    (fungal disease)         cept severely affected
mold may appear in                               plants should be destroyed
wet weather                                      and new peonies should not
                                                 be planted in same spot
                      --Cold injury

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 PETUNIA
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Bands of bleached,    --Smog injury            --No control
dead tissue appear
on upper and lower
leaf surfaces; leaf
edges are pinched
or twisted

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 SNAPDRAGON
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Pale, yellow spots    --Rust (fungal disease)  --This is mentioned here
appear on upper leaf                             because it is slightly
surfaces; reddish                                different from other
brown pustules of                                rusts in that the pustules
spores appear on                                 form concentric rings;
upper leaf surfaces                              you may have already
in concentric rings                              diagnosed this from the
                                                 general problems section;
                                                 use registered fungicide

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 TULIP
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Stems are very        --Warm spring and/or     --Place tulip bulbs in paper
short and flowers       inadequate winter        bags in fall and chill in
bloom at ground         cooling                  refrigerator before re-
level                                            planting

Light or dark co-     --Botrytis blight        --Destroy affected plants;
lored spots on          (fungal disease)         rotate; do not plant spotted
leaves and flowers;                              bulbs; use registered fun-
spots enlarge to                                 gicide
form large, gray
blotches; fuzzy
brown or gray
growth appears on
spots during wet
weather; leaves
and stems are dis-
torted

Flowers streaked,     --Virus diseases (any    --Destroy affected plants;
spotted, or mottled     of several)              insect control; do not
in an irregular pat-                             plant variety Rembrandt
tern; leaves may al-                             near other tulips: its
so be streaked or                                showy streak patterns are
mottled                                          caused by virus which may
                                                 infect other plants; Parrot
                                                 tulips have streaking also
                                                 but this is genetic and not
                                                 caused by virus

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL FLOWERS
-SubTitle-
 ZINNIA
-Text-

SYMPTOMS              POSSIBLE CAUSES          CONTROLS AND COMMENTS
Small, dark brown,    --Bacterial spot         --Submit sample for labora-
angular spots on                                 tory diagnosis; use chlorox-
leaves and flowers;                              treated seed
flowers may be com-   --Various fungal         --Submit sample for labora-
pletely blighted        diseases                 tory diagnosis

Reddish brown, cir-   --Alternaria blight      --Use registered fungicide
cular spots with        (fungal disease)
grayish white cen-
ters; flowers may
also have spots

Plants wilt; no       --Dry soil               --Supply water
sign of root rot      --Waterlogged soil       --Improve drainage
                      --Bacterial wilt         --Submit sample for labora-
                                                 tory diagnosis

=========================================================================

-End-
-Title-
 UNDERSTANDING PESTICIDES
-SubTitle-
 TERMINOLOGY
-Text-

Pesticides may be useful when nonchemical methods fail to provide adequate
control of pests and when pest populations reach a level of economic injury.
The suffix "cide" literally means kill. The term pesticide refers to a
chemical substance that will kill pests. Since it is physically impossible
to eradicate an entire population of pests, pesticides are used as a tool to
control or manage pest populations to a level of tolerance. Because of
government regulations, chemicals used to attract or repel pests and to
regulate plant growth or function are also classed as pesticides. The
wording "insecticides and pesticides" is incorrect because insecticides are
pesticides. Types and functions of pesticides include the following:
        Insecticides - control insects
        Miticides - control mites
        Acaricides - control mites, ticks and spiders
        Nematicides - control nematodes
        Fungicides - control fungi
        Bactericides - control bacteria
        Herbicides - control plants (herbicides kill plants, not just weeds)
        Rodenticides - control rodents
        Avicides - control birds
        Piscicides - control fish
        Molluscicides - control mollusks, such as slugs and snails
        Predacides - control pest animals
        Repellents - keep pests away
        Attractants - lure pests
        Plant growth regulators - stop, speed up, or otherwise change normal
            plant processes
        Desiccants and defoliants - used to remove or kill leaves and stems
        Antitranspirants or antidesiccants - reduce water loss from plants;
            used to protect plants from winter damage, drought, wind burn,
            and transplant shock. However, effectiveness is being questioned
            by recent research.

Pesticides can be grouped according to how they work. Many work in more than
one way. For example:

        Contact poisons kill pests simply by touching them.
        Stomach poisons kill when swallowed.
        Systemics kill best by being taken into the blood of the animal
            or sap of the plant upon which the pest is feeding.
        Translocated herbicides move from the point of initial application
            to circulate throughout the plant. The circulation of toxin
            insures the kill of the entire plant.
        Fumigants are gasses which kill when they are inhaled or otherwise
            absorbed by pests.
        Selective pesticides kill only certain kinds of plants or animals,
            for example, 2,4,-D used for lawn weed control, kills broadleaf
            plants but leaves the grass unharmed.
        Nonselective pesticides kill most plants or animals.


The following terms describe when to apply pesticides:

             Preemergence - use before plants emerge from soil
             Preplant - use before crop is planted by applying to the soil
             Postemergence - use after the crop or weeds have germinated

Terms which describe how to use pesticides:

        Band - application to a strip over or along each crop row
        Broadcast - uniform application to an entire, specific area by
                    scattering a pesticide
        Dip - immersion of a plant in a pesticide
        Directed - aiming the pesticide at a portion of a plant, animal
                   or structure
        Drench - saturating the soil with a pesticide
        Foliar - application to the leaves of plants
        In-furrow - application to or in the furrow in which a plant is
                    growing
        Sidedress - application along the side of a crop row
        Spot treatment - application of a pesticide to a small section or
                         area of a crop


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
-Text-

The formulation describes the physical state of a pesticide and determines
how it will be applied. Pesticides are rarely applied full strength. The
chemical in the pesticide formulation that actually kills the pest(s) is
termed the active ingredient. The added chemical(s), those which make the
product easy and safe to formulate or apply, are termed the inert
ingredients. Common pesticide formulations follow.

Emulsifiable concentrates (EC or E): The active ingredient is mixed with an
oil base (often listed as petroleum derivatives) forming an emulsion which
is diluted with water for application. ECs are common in the home garden
trade, being easy to mix and use. They can cause a minor surface bronzing of
light colored fruit. They should be protected from freezing temperatures
which can break down the emulsifier.

Solutions (S): These formulations are premixed, ready to use. They are often
used in household pest products.

Flowables (F or L): A flowable, or liquid, can be mixed with water to form a
suspension in a spray tank.

Aerosols (A): These are very low concentrate solutions, usually applied as a
fine spray or mist. They are generally sold in aerosol cans and are a very
expensive source of pesticide.

Dusts (D): Dust formulations are made by adding the active ingredients to a
fine inert powder or talc. They are generally used dry.

Granules (G): Granular formulations are made by adding the active ingredient
to coarse particles (granules) of inert material like fired clay particles.

Wettable powders (WP or W): Wettable powder formulations are made by
combining the active ingredient with a fine powder. They look like dusts,
but they are made to mix with water. These formulations need continuous
agitation to maintain a suspension and are thus difficult for home gardeners
to use. When mixing a WP, first mix the measured quantity with a small
amount of water, forming a slurry, (a paper cup with a popsicle stick makes
agood disposable mixing container) then add it and the additional water to
the spray tank. The spray tank must be frequently shaken to maintain the
suspension.

Soluble powders (SP): A soluble powder formulation is made from an active
ingredient in powder form that dissolves in water.

Baits (B): A bait formulation is made by adding the active ingredient to an
edible or attractive substance. Baits are often used to control slugs,
snails, or small ground insects and rodents.

Gardeners often attempt to compare a spray with a dust. It should be noted
that dusts are a type of formulation, but sprays are not a formulation, they
are one means of applying several different formulations such as wettable
powders or emulsifiable concentrates that are mixed with water.


-End-
-Title-
 SURFACTANTS, ADDITIVES OR ADJUVANTS
-Text-

When added to a pesticide, a surfactant reduces the surface tension between
two unlike materials, such as a spray film and a solid surface. For example,
by adding a surfactant to a sprayer, oil and water will mix and can be
sprayed on plant surfaces. With increasing emphasis on safe application of
pesticides, such factors as droplet size, spray pattern, and pesticide drift
have focused more attention on surfactants to give ideal coverage for
pesticides.

Surfactants include: activators, compatibility agents, deflocculators,
detergents, dispersants, emulsifiers, foam and drift suppressants, and
spreading, sticking and wetting agents. These materials are added to a spray
mix to help keep the pesticide in suspension; improve cohesiveness and
dispersion of the spray; and increase the wetting (or coverage) of the
leaves, fruits, and stems.

This section focuses on surfactants that act as spreading, sticking and
wetting agents. They are most useful when spraying the hard-to-wet foliage
of such plants as azalea, boxwood, camellia, carnation, conifer, euonymus,
gardenia, gladiolus, holly, iris, narcissus, peony, rose, and yew. Whether a
spray rolls off or sticks to a plant surface depends on the physical and
chemical properties of the spray mixture and the physical properties of the
surface itself. If the surface tension of the mixture is high, or if the
plant surface is waxy, the spray droplets will roll off.

Spreader or Film Extender (spreader-activator)  A spreader is a substance
that, when added to a pesticide mix, increases the area that a given volume
of spray will cover and improves the contact between the pesticide and the
plant surface. A spreading agent builds spray deposits and improves
weatherability. Most wettable powder insecticides benefit from the addition
of a spreader.

Sticker or Adhesive   A sticker is a material that, when added to a spray
mix or dust, improves the adherence (tenacity) to a plant surface rather
than increasing the initial deposit. Commercial sticking agents are oily in
consistency and increase the amount of suspended solids retained on plant
surfaces by coating the particles with a resin or varnish-like film. Most
fungicides, especially wettable powders, benefit greatly from the use of
stickers. Stickers may be judged in terms of resistance to wind and water,
length of adherence, and mechanical or chemical action.

Wetting Agent  A wetting agent is a material that, when added to a
pesticide, lowers the interfacial tension between a liquid and a solid; in
this case, a plant surface. Effectiveness is measured by the increase in
spread of a liquid over a solid surface and the ability of the spray film to
make complete contact with it. When a wetting agent reduces surface tension,
spreading naturally occurs.

The pesticide label should state whether a surfactant is needed or should be
added to a spray mix for certain applications and should indicate
restrictions in the selection of compatible surfactants. In many cases,
surfactants have been designed specifically for use with fungicides,
insecticides, or herbicides.

All commercial spreading, sticking and wetting agents should be mixed
strictly according to label directions. Adding more surfactant than
recommended may cause excessive runoff, resulting in a poor spray deposit
and reduced pest control. In general, if the spray mix contains one or more
pesticides produced or formulated by the same company, use a surfactant sold
or recommended by that company. Surfactants are sold separately from
pesticides and are not subject to EPA registration.

Although choosing an effective surfactant to accompany a specific pesticide
is no simple task, the label will state whether a surfactant is needed and
the brand that should be used.


-End-
-Title-
 THE PESTICIDE LABEL
-Text-

All the printed information including the label on the product, brochures
and flyers from the company or its agent about a pesticide product is called
labeling. The label printed on or attached to a container of pesticide will
tell how to use the product correctly and what special safety measures need
to be taken. Specific parts of the label include the following:

Brand name: Each company uses brand names to identify its products. The
brand name shows up plainly on the front panel of the label.

Type of formulation: The same pesticide may be available in more than one
formulation

Ingredient statement: Each pesticide label must list the names and amounts
of the active ingredients and the amount of inert ingredients in the
product.

Common name and chemical name: Pesticides have complex chemical names
derived from their chemical composition. Some have also been given a shorter
name, or common name, to make them easier to identify. Pesticides may be
sold under several brand names, but you may find the same common name or
chemical name on all of them.

Net contents: The net contents tells how much is in the container. This can
be expressed in gallons, pints, pounds, quarts, or other units of measure.

Name and address of manufacturer: The law requires the maker or distributor
of a product to print the name and address of the company on the label.

Registration number: A registration number must be on every pesticide label.
It shows that the product has been approved by the E.P.A. for the uses
listed on the label.

Establishment number: The establishment number tells which factory made the
chemical.

Precautionary statements: A section  with a title similar to "Hazards to
Humans and Domestic Animals" will tell the ways in which the product may be
poisonous to man and animals. It will also describe any special steps
necessary to avoid poisoning, such as the kind of protective equipment
needed. If the product is highly toxic, this section will inform physicians
of the proper treatment for poisoning.

Environmental hazards: The label tells how to avoid damage to the
environment. Some examples are: "This product is highly toxic to bees
exposed to direct treatment or residues on crops." "Do not contaminate water
when cleaning equipment or when disposing of wastes," and "Do not apply
where runoff is likely to occur."

Physical and Chemical Hazards: lists specific fire, explosion, or chemical
hazards that the product may have.

Signal words and symbols: Some pesticides may be hazardous to people. You
can tell how toxic a product is by reading the Signal Word and Symbol on the
label.

     Signal                           Approximate human
     Words        Toxicity            lethal dosage            Symbol
     -------------------------------------------------------------------
     Danger       Highly toxic        A taste to a             Skull and
     Poison                           teaspoonful              Crossbones

     Warning      Moderately          A teaspoonful to
                  toxic               a tablespoonful

     Caution      Low toxicity        An ounce to more
                  relatively          than a pint
                  nontoxic


Highly toxic pesticides are generally not sold in the home garden trade. All
products must bear the statement "Keep Out of Reach of Children." In some
pesticide literature, the term LD50 is used to give an indication of
toxicity. LD50 stands for lethal dosage necessary to kill 50% of a test
population of animals. The LD50 values are measured from 0 up. The numbers
after the 50 represent the mgs. of the substance per kg of body weight
necessary to kill 50% of the test population. The lower the LD50 value the
more poisonous a pesticide is, for example an LD50 of 5 is more poisonous
than an LD50 of 20 because only 5 mgs. per kg of body weight are necessary
to kill 50% of the test population.

Statement of practical treatment: If swallowing or inhaling the product or
getting it in the eyes or on the skin would be harmful, the label contains
emergency first aid measures and states types of exposure requiring medical
attention. The pesticide label is the most important information you can
take to the physician when someone has been poisoned. Without the label, it
is difficult for the physician to help.

Directions for use will include:

        The pests the product will control
        The crops, animal or other item the product can be used on safely
        How the product should be applied
        How much to use
        Where and when the material should be applied

Application to harvest periods: When used on fruits or vegetables, there may
be a period of time that must pass from the time of application until it is
safe to pick and use the crop. Known as the application to harvest period
and expressed as "days to harvest," this is the time required for the
residue to drop to safe levels. It is often listed as a number in
parentheses following the crop name. It is a mistake to assume that a
residue can be washed off.

Misuse statement: This section will remind you that it is a violation of
Federal law to use a product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling.

Storage and disposal directions: Every pesticide should be stored and
disposed of correctly. This section will tell you how to store and dispose
of the product


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,156>
-Title-
 APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Using the same sprayer equipment for weed control and then for insect
control is neither safe nor desirable. No matter how well a tank is rinsed
after use of a herbicide, a residue will be left in the tank and in the
gaskets, hoses and parts. If the same tank is then used with an insecticide
to spray a plant, it is possible to kill the plant with the herbicide left
in the tank. The wisest policy is to maintain two sprayers, one for
herbicides and another for insecticides and fungicides. Have them clearly
labeled according to use. Always wash after each use.

Pesticide application equipment comes in all shapes, sizes, types and
prices. Select equipment according to common sense.

Proportioner or Hose-End Sprayer: These inexpensive small sprayers are
designed to be attached to a garden hose. A small amount of pesticide is
mixed with water, usually no more than a pint, and placed in the receptacle
attached to the hose. A tube connects this concentrate to the opening of the
hose. When the water is turned on, the suction created by the water passing
over the top of the tube pulls the pesticide concentrate up and into the
stream of hose water. The stream can reach into medium high trees if water
pressure is high. Problems are encountered from poor spray distribution, and
clogging of nozzles. The metering out of the concentrate into the stream of
hose water is very inaccurate, since it is determined by the water pressure.
Proportioners put out an excessively high volume of spray for most needs,
using excessive pesticide. These sprayers are popular due to low cost, but
the low purchase price is quickly negated by the cost of excessive
pesticides used. All hose-end proportioners should be equipped with an
antisiphon device to prevent back siphoning of toxic chemicals into the
water system.

Trombone Sprayer: The trombone sprayer is a medium size hand held piece of
equipment. A spray mixture in the correct dilution is prepared in a
container such as a bucket. The intake tube of the sprayer is inserted into
the mixture in the bucket. Pump pressure is created by operating the sprayer
in a trombone like motion. The pesticide is pulled up the hose and out the
end of the sprayer. A uniform concentration of the spray can be maintained
since the pesticide is mixed with a known quantity of water. When using a
wettable powder, agitate the spray mixture frequently to keep it in
suspension. Trombone sprayers are excellent for spraying trees and shrubs,
are easy to wash and keep clean, but require some effort to operate.

Compressed Air Sprayer (Knapsack or tank sprayer): Spray is mixed in a small
tank (generally 1 to 5 gallons) and the tank is carried over the shoulders.
A hand operatedpump supplies pressure during application. A uniform
concentration spray can be maintained since the pesticide is mixed with a
known quantity of water. Frequent agitation of the spray mixture is
necessary when using a wettable powder formulation. Applicator has excellent
control over coverage making this sprayer a good choice for treating dwarf
fruit trees, vegetables and ornamentals. Spray will not reach into tall
trees. As water weighs approximately 8.23 lbs per gallon, small tanks are
easier to use than large tanks.

Small Power Sprayers: These have the advantage of being motor driven so the
operator does not have to stop to pump up the tank. They are light weight
since the spray in the tank is concentrated and diluted with air as it is
sprayed. Power sprayers provide uniform pressure but are generally too
expensive for home garden use.

Hand Duster: The duster may consist of a squeeze tube or shaker, a plunger
that slides through a tube or a fan powered by a hand crank. Uniform
coverage of foliage is difficult to achieve with many dusters. Dusts are
more subject to drift than liquid formulations due to their light weight and
poor sticking qualities.

-Fig-
Types of Sprayers
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,157>
-Title-
 CALIBRATING SPRAYERS AND SPRAY PATTERNS
-Text-

The usual approach homeowners use when applying a pesticide over a given
area is to mix a tablespoon or two of a certain pesticide and apply it to a
problem area. This is acceptable if the label gives recommended rates in
teaspoons or tablespoons per gallon. But some pesticides, specifically
herbicides and insecticides for lawns, do not give rates in tablespoons or
teaspoons per gallon. Instead, they give rates of application in teaspoons
or tablespoons per 100 or 500 square feet. Unfortunately the homeowner all
too often solves this problem by guessing how much to use. This can be
dangerous; too concentrated may be too toxic; too little will not control
the problem. It is irresponsible of the homeowner to apply chemicals at
improper rates. It is dangerous to himself, his neighbors, and the
environment.

A better approach is to calibrate the sprayer. The calibration of a home
sprayer is relatively easy. Once it has been done, it has been done for the
life of the sprayer provided the nozzle remains unchanged, clean, and
adequate pressure is used. It must be kept in mind that the rate at which
the liquid is applied varies with the pressure and sizeof the opening in the
nozzle. High pressure and a large opening in the nozzle permit more liquid
to be applied over a given area than low pressure and/or smaller size
nozzle. For calibrating a sprayer, the procedure is as follows:

   1) Fully pressurize the sprayer and determine delivery time. This is done
by spraying water through the sprayer into a pint jar. Mark this delivery
time on the sprayer for future use.

   2) Calculate the area to be treated. Measure the area that is to be
sprayed. Multiply length times width to determine the area of a rectangle.
The area of a triangle is calculated by multiplying the base times the
height and dividing by 2. Most areas can be calculated by combining
rectangles and triangles or subtracting triangles from rectangles.

   3) If the area is large, divide it into sections equal to the size of the
delivery area.

   4) Spray an area with water, at normal working speed, for 30 seconds.
Measure the area sprayed. This tells how much area can be sprayed in 30
seconds and therefore the amount that is applied over that area (see item
1). For example, assuming that it has been established: 30 seconds of
spraying delivers 1/2 cup and 30 seconds of spraying will cover 100 square
feet; then, 1000 square feet require 5 cups spray (.5 x 10) delivered or, 1
quart + 1 cup or, 40 ounces (If the label calls for 3 tablespoons of
pesticide for 1000 square feet). Then, 3 tablespoons of pesticide must be
mixed with 40 ounces of water to achieve proper spray coverage. Many
commercial type chemicals are given in pounds to the acre or quarts to 100
gallons of water. To convert rates to equivalents used by a homeowner,
consult the pesticide conversion chart at the end of this chapter.

Either compressed air sprayers or hose end sprayers can be used. Hose end
sprayers do not meter out the pesticide as evenly as compressed air
sprayers. However, compressed air sprayers do not maintain pressure as
evenly as hose end sprayers unless frequently pumped. Some hose end sprayers
will not continue to spray pesticide if the thumb hole is not covered. Other
hose end sprayers use a trigger device to control the spraying.

The spray pattern best used to cover an area of ground is one which will
give uniform coverage with little spray overlap. Overlap can be a problem,
causing certain areas to end up with an extra dose of pesticide. The spray
pattern used to apply the pesticide should be continuous and uninterrupted.
If a herbicide is being applied, the sprayer should not be slowed down or
stopped at each weed. If the herbicide has been mixed correctly and the
sprayer is properly calibrated, the continuous uninterrupted flow of
chemical will be sufficient for good pest control.

The spray pattern should be directed so that the applicator does not walk
through it while spraying. The spray pattern should form an arc no more than
3-4 feet on either side of the operator. The sprayed area should have a
small amount of overlap to insure coverage. There can be a time when overlap
may be beneficial. If good spray coverage is questionable such as when using
hose end sprayers, cut the application rate in half and apply the pesticide
first in an east-west pattern, then in a north-south direction. This gives
better coverage with devices typically poor in their metering capabilities.

When the mixture on the label is in teaspoons or tablespoons per gallon and
the plants are upright such as shade trees, fruit trees, shrubs and
vegetables, spray the leaves until run off (pesticide solution drips from
the leaves). Don't forget to spray the underside of leaves for good
coverage.

-Fig-
Spray Pattern with a Single Application (A)
Spray Pattern with a Double Application (B)
-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDE APPLICATION
-Text-

When applying pesticides wear the protective clothing and equipment the
label recommends. To prevent spillage of chemicals, always check application
equipment for leaking hoses or connections and plugged, worn, or dripping
nozzles before adding pesticide. Before spraying, clear all people, pets,
and livestock from the area. To minimize drift, apply pesticides only on
days with no breezes. If moderate winds come up while you are working, stop
immediately. Reduce drift by spraying at a low pressure and using a large
nozzle opening. Generally the safest times of day to spray to reduce the
hazard of drift are early morning or late evening.

Vaporization is the evaporation of an active ingredient during or after
application. Pesticide vapors can cause injury. High temperatures increase
vaporization. Choose pesticide formulations that do not evaporate easily,
and spray during the cool part of the day to reduce vaporization. Some
products, like 2,4,-D, are very volatile and can move for miles under
favorable conditions. They should not be used near highly sensitive plants
like grapes and tomatoes. Do not apply when it is windy nor when
temperatures following application will reach above 85 degrees F.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDE APPLICATION
-SubTitle-
 Cleaning Equipment
-Text-

Thoroughly clean all equipment immediately after use. Pesticides should not
be stored mixed. If you have excess pesticide mixed which cannot be used,
spray it over an area that it will not harm. Check the pesticide label to
determine safe areas. Thoroughly clean all spray equipment inside and out
with clean water. Don't forget to flush the hoses and nozzles. Be careful
that the cleaning water does not damage crops. Do not dump the rinse water
in one place where it will be concentrated and may become a pollutant. Spray
the rinse water over a broad area so that the pesticide will be further
diluted. NEVER RINSE PESTICIDES DOWN THE DRAIN!

To clean 2,4,-D type herbicides from hand spray equipment such as a 3-gallon
garden sprayer, use household ammonia. Thoroughly rinse the equipment with
fresh water after spraying. Fill the spray equipment with an ammonia
solution, using one-half cup of ammonia to 3 gallons of water. Let the
equipment soak for 18 to 24 hours. Always spray part of this mixture through
the pump, hose and nozzles at the beginning and end of the soaking period.
NOTE: 2,4-D cannot be completely removed from a sprayer once used in it. DO
NOT USE THIS SPRAYER TO APPLY OTHER PESTICIDES TO DESIRABLE PLANTS.


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDE APPLICATION
-SubTitle-
 Storage and Disposal
-Text-

Gardeners should store all pesticides in their original containers, in a
locked cabinet.

No Exceptions If You Are Concerned about Children's Lives! They should be
protected from temperature extremes, some can be damaged upon freezing,
others can be altered by heat. Do not store pesticides in the home! Empty
containers are best placed in refuse cans destined for a sanitary landfill.
Wrap containers in newspaper and secure before disposal. Some states have
special chemical dumps for pesticides; however, Virginia does not have such
dump sites. The bottle should be rinsed out first, pouring the rinse water
into the spray tank. Rinse three times allowing 30 seconds to drain between
each rinse. Never use empty pesticide containers for other uses, never allow
children to play with empty containers. If possible, break the containers
before disposal. Do not burn paper containers.

-End-
-Title-
 USING PESTICIDES SAFELY
-SubTitle-
 Protective Clothing
-Text-

If special protective clothing is required, the label will tell you the kind
of protection to use. Pesticides sold in the home garden trade generally do
not require special protective clothing. Many professionally used and highly
toxic chemicals do. Anytime you handle pesticides, you should wear a long
sleeved shirt and long legged trousers, or coverall type garment and shoes.
Additional protection is available by wearing unlined neoprene or rubber
gloves, a wide-brimmed plastic hard hat that covers the back of the neck and
goggles or face shield to protect the eyes. Rubber gloves and goggles are
particularly important when mixing or pouring pesticides. Toxic commercial
pesticides may also require neoprene boots, chemical cartridge respirators,
face masks, neoprene suit, or even gas masks. These more toxic chemicals
should not be used in a home garden setting. After using any pesticide, wash
your hands and arms thoroughly with soap and water. Never eat, drink or
smoke before washing your hands. If you have been doing a lot of spraying or
dusting, remove your clothes, take a shower, and put on clean clothes.
Clothing should be laundered separately from the family wash. The washer
should be run empty with detergent after cleaning pesticide contaminated
clothing. If you get sprayed, change and shower immediately. Use first aid
procedures if necessary.

-End-
-Title-
 USING PESTICIDES SAFELY
-SubTitle-
 Safety Precautions
-Text-

Most pesticides can cause severe illness, or even death, if misused. But
every registered pesticide can be used safely. Many accidental pesticide
deaths are caused by eating or drinking the product, particularly by young
children. Some applicators die or are injured when they breathe a pesticide
vapor or get a pesticide on their skin. Pesticides can poison you in two
ways. Acute poisoning or toxicity measured by an LD50 number can kill or
injure you after one exposure. Chronic toxins will not produce an effect
until there have been a sufficient number of exposures. However, the number
of exposures necessary to produce an effect varies with the kind of
pesticide and the health and size of the person exposed. LD50 is not a
measure for chronic toxicity. If an applicator uses organophosphate
(diazinon, malathion) or carbamate (carbaryl, furadan) insecticides with any
regularity, it would be wise to ask a physician about a test to check the
cholinesterase level of the blood. These pesticides destroy this enzyme,
which is necessary to carry nerve impulses to the brain. Although chronic
toxicity is not poisonous immediately, over the long run it can be serious.
Always use safety precautions and treat all pesticides with respect. To
prevent accidents with pesticides, use and store pesticides away from
children, keep pesticides in their original containers, and take care to
always follow label directions.

-End-
-Title-
 USING PESTICIDES SAFELY
-SubTitle-
 Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning
-Text-

Awareness of the early symptoms and signs of pesticide poisoning is
important. Unfortunately, all pesticide poisoning symptoms are not the same.
Each chemical family (organophosphates, carbamates, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, etc.) attacks the human bod different way. Fumigants and
solvents can make a person appear to be drunk. The symptoms are poor
coordination, slurring of words, confusion and sleepiness. Common pesticides
like organophosphates and carbamates injure the nervous system. The symptoms
develop in stages, usually occurring in this order:

Mild Poisoning or Early Symptoms of Acute Poisoning   Fatigue, headache,
dizziness, blurred vision, excessive sweating and salivation, nausea and
vomiting, stomach cramps or diarrhea.

Moderate Poisoning or Early Symptoms of Acute Poisoning   Unable to walk,
weakness, chest discomfort, muscle twitches, constriction of pupil of the
eye, earlier symptoms become more severe.

Severe or Acute Poisoning   Unconsciousness, severe constriction of pupil of
the eye, muscle twitches, convulsions, secretions from mouth and nose,
breathing difficulty, death if not treated. Illness may occur a few hours
after exposure. If symptoms start more than 12 hours after exposure to a
pesticide, you probably have some other illness. Check with your physician
to be sure.

-End-
-Title-
 USING PESTICIDES SAFELY
-SubTitle-
 First Aid Procedures
-Text-

Read the "Statement of Practical Treatment" on each label. The directions
listed can save lives. If a pesticide gets on the skin remove the pesticide
as quickly as possible. Remove all contaminated clothing. Prompt washing may
prevent sickness even when the spill is very large. Detergents work better
than soap in removing pesticides. Don't forget the hair and fingernails. If
a pesticide is inhaled get to fresh air right away. Loosen all tight fitting
clothing. If needed give artificial respiration immediately. Do not stop
until victim is either breathing well or medical help arrives. Get the
victim to a physician. Do not administer anything to a poison victim unless
you are trained in first aid, otherwise you may compound the injury.

In case of poisoning, call a physician and give the following information:
describe the victim by name, age and sex, identify yourself and your
relationship to the victim. Have the package or poison in your hand and
identify what the victim took and how much was taken. Keep calm, you have
enough time to act, but don't delay unnecessarily. For information about
poison control centers in Virginia contact your extension agent about
publication 456-103 entitled, "Poison Control Centers." Poisoning
information is also available by contacting your local poison center.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
-SubTitle-
 Direct Kill
-Text-

Fine mists of herbicides can drift to nearby crops or landscape plants and
kill them. Bees and other pollinators can be killed if a crop is treated
with a pesticide when they are in the field. The natural enemies of pest
insects can also be killed by pesticides. Life in streams or ponds can be
wiped out by accidental spraying of ditches and waterways, runoff from
sprayed fields, and careless container disposal. If more than one pesticide
will control the pest, choose the one that is the least hazardous to the
environment and most useful for the situation. To protect beneficial
insects, avoid excessive use of insecticides, spray only when crop and pest
populations require.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
-SubTitle-
 Protecting Insect Pollinators
-Text-

Gardeners should give special consideration to protecting insect
pollinators, such as the honey bee, from insecticide poisoning. Insecticides
highly toxic to bees have restricted application times when being applied to
crops frequented by honey bees. Bees are not active in late evening and
early morning. Do not apply insecticides when temperatures are unusually low
because residues will remain toxic much longer.


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
-SubTitle-
 Persistence and Accumulation
-Text-

Although most pesticides break down quickly, remaining in the environment
only a short time before being changed into harmless products, some
pesticides break down slowly and stay in the environment for a long time.
These are called persistent pesticides. Some persistent pesticides can build
up in the bodies of animals, including man. These pesticides are called
accumulative. Most persistent pesticides have very limited usage or have
been removed from the market. For example, chlordane is a persistent
pesticide and its use is limited to termite and fire ant control.


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
-SubTitle-
 Pesticides Move in the Environment
-Text-

Pesticides become problems when they move off target. This may mean drifting
off the target if in the form of dust or mist, moving with soil particles by
erosion, leaching through the soil, being carried out as residues on crops
or livestock, or evaporating and moving with air currents.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
-SubTitle-
 Safe Use Precautions
-Text-

Following safety precautions and using common sense can prevent harm from
pesticides. Here are the minimum safety steps you should take.

Before buying a pesticide identify the pest to be controlled. Then find out
which pesticide will control it. If there is a choice of several, choose the
least hazardous product.

At the time of purchase read the label of the pesticide you intend to buy to
find out the following: that the host plant (and pest) are listed on the
pesticide label; the pesticide is not phytotoxic to the plant being
protected; safety conditions for use, such as special equipment, protective
clothing, restrictions on use, and environmental precautions needed.

Before applying pesticide read the label again to find out: the safety
measures including protective clothing and equipment needed, the specific
warning and precautions, with what it can be mixed, mixing instructions,
application to harvest period for fruit and vegetables, crops to which it
can or cannot be applied, and other special instructions.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
-SubTitle-
 Compatibility
-Text-

Compatibility occurs when two or more pesticides can be mixed together
without reducing their effectiveness or harming the target. For instance,
carbaryl or Sevin is often combined with a miticide such as Kelthane in
order to kill both insects and mites at one time. Synergism is the action of
two materials of the same type which used together produce a greater effect
than the sum of the materials when used alone. One of the materials when
used alone may not affect the pest, but greatly increases the total effect
of the two when used together. Example: Chemical A kills 60%, Chemical B
kills 20%, ChemicalA and B together kill 98% of the pests. Synergism may
increase control or require less chemical. It may also be more harmful to a
nontarget organism. A synergistic effect can also be undesirable causing
death or damage to the organism that is being protected. It should be
stressed that no chemicals should be mixed together unless the label
specifically says they are compatible.


-End-
-Title-
 HOME GARDEN VS COMMERCIAL PESTICIDES
-Text-

Some pesticides are packaged specifically for home garden use. These
products are packaged in small quantities, i.e., pints, quarts, ounces or
pounds. They are seldom highly toxic pesticides and are usually in low
concentrations. The label rate is given in spoonfuls per gallon or pounds
per 1000 square feet.

Because of the small label size, home garden products may not list all of
the plants and/or pests for which the product may be registered for use. For
example, one manufacturer sells Diazinon 25% EC as Fruit and Vegetable
Insect Control and Diazinon Insect Spray. Both are basically the same
product, but plants and pests listed vary greatly. This situation causes
some confusion in pesticide application and stimulates the purchase of
excessive amounts of pesticides.

Products packaged for the commercial grower may appear to be less expensive
but homeowners should not be tempted to use them. They are generally more
toxic than those for home use and require special protective clothing and
equipment for application. These products are more concentrated and in
larger size containers than the homeowner could expect to use or safely
store and are much more difficult to calibrate and mix correctly since rates
are usually based on a per acre system.

A few products extremely toxic to humans or the environment are classified
by the E.P.A. as RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDES. The label will state "restricted
use pesticides for retail sale to and application only by certified
applicators, or person under their direct supervision." A license from the
State Department of Agriculture is required by law for purchase and use of
restricted use pesticides. This licensing is intended for commercial growers
and does NOT automatically clear the use of these products by the home
gardener. If you use pesticides from the commercial trade, use extra caution
to protect yourself, your family and the environment.


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND ORGANIC GARDENING
-Text-

Although it is questionable whether we could raise all crops without the use
of pesticides, it is certainly true that we can reduce the amount of
pesticides we use by careful and efficient use. There are some steps to
consider before automatically turning to a pesticide. First, determine if
control measures are really needed. Is the problem severe enough to warrant
treatment? If the cost of treatment is less than the predicted loss, the
economic threshold has been reached and treatment is necessary. Consider
alternative control measures. Some examples are cultivating weeds instead of
using a herbicide, and removing and destroying diseased plant parts rather
than using a pesticide.

The next step is integrated control. This is probably the best answer to
pest control. In this situation the wise use of pesticides is combined with
alternative methods, such as conservation practices, to encourage natural
enemies of the pest. For example, a simple integrated control program could
be used on a golf course for grub proofing against Japanese beetle larvae. A
chemical pesticide would be used to protect the more valuablesodded areas of
the fairways. Milky spore disease, which is a commercially produced
biological control for Japanese beetle larvae, would be applied in the
roughs. The chemical pesticide would give immediate protection to the sodded
areas while the milky spore disease becomes established in the rough. Then,
as the chemical breaks down in the more valuable areas, milky spore disease
would move in. Once milky spore disease is established, no more chemical
treatment is usually needed to protect the turf.

-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDES AND THE LAW
-Text-

The registration and use of pesticides are governed by the E.P.A. and the
Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Under the amended
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (Federal Environmental
Control Act of 1972) it is illegal to use a pesticide on a crop, unless the
crop is listed on the label. You may not exceed the given rate of
application on the label. Fines and other penalties change and vary
according to laws broken.

Under the law you are liable for misuse of pesticides on your property.
Recent court rulings extend your liability to include misuse by commercial
applicators you hire. Serious misuse by gardeners usually results from
drift, or leaching of a pesticide onto non-target plants or the direct
treatment of the plant by a wrong pesticide.


-End-
-Title-
 PESTICIDE CONVERSION CHART
-Text-

Given below are approximate measurements and should be used as a guideline
if the directions for mixing small quantities are not given elsewhere.

LIQUID MEASURE:
Amount per 100 gaAmount per gallon

                 1/4 pint......................1/4 teaspoon
                 1 pint........................1 teaspoon
                 1 quart.......................2 teaspoons
                 1 gallon......................2 1/2 tablespoons
                 2 gallons.....................5 tablespoons
                 4 gallons.....................1/3 pint
                 11 gallons....................7/8 pint

DRY WEIGHT

                 Amount per 100 gallons        Amount per gallon

                 1/2 pound.....................1/12 ounce
                 1 pound.......................1/6 ounce
                 2 pounds......................1/3 ounce
                 3 pounds......................1/2 ounce
                 4 pounds......................2/3 ounce
                 6 pounds......................4/5 ounce
                 16 pounds.....................2 3/5 ounce
                 20 pounds.....................3 1/5 ounce

-End-
-Title-
 PLANT PROPAGATION
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

Plant propagation is the process of multiplying the numbers of a species,
perpetuating a species or maintaining youthfulness of a plant. There are two
types of propagation, sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction is the union
of the pollen and egg, drawing from the genes of two parents to create a
third new individual. Sexual propagation involves the floral parts of a
plant. Asexual propagation involves taking a part of one parent plant and
causing it to regenerate itself into a new plant. Genetically it is
identical to its one parent. Asexual propagation involves the vegetative
parts of a plant: stems, roots or leaves.

The advantages of sexual propagation are that it may be cheaper and quicker
than other methods; it may be the only way to obtain new varieties and
hybrid vigor; in certain species it is the only viable method for
propagation; and it is a way to avoid transmission of certain diseases.
Asexual propagation has advantages, too. It may also be easier and faster in
some species; it may be the only way to perpetuate some cultivars and it
bypasses the juvenile characteristics of certain species.

-End-
-Title-
 SEXUAL PROPAGATION
-Text-

Sexual propagation involves the union of the pollen from the male with the
egg of the female to produce a seed. The seed is made up of three parts, the
outer seed coat which protects the seed, the endosperm which is a food
reserve, and the embryo which is the young plant itself. When a seed is
mature and put in a favorable environment it will germinate, or begin active
growth. In the following section, seed germination and transplanting of
seeds will be discussed.

-End-
-Title-
 SEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Seed
-Text-

To obtain quality plants, start with good quality seed from a reliable
dealer. Select varieties to provide the size, color and habit of growth
desired. Choose varieties adapted to your area which will reach maturity
before an early frost. Many new vegetable and flower varieties are hybrids
which cost a little more than open pollinated types. However, hybrid plants
usually have more vigor, more uniformity, and better production than
nonhybrids and sometimes specific disease resistance or other unique
cultural characteristics as well.

Although some seeds will keep for several years if stored properly, it is
advisable to purchase only enough seed for the current year's use. Good seed
will not contain seed of any other crop or weeds and will have little
debris. Printing on the seed packet usually indicates essential information
about the variety, the year for which the seeds were packaged, and
percentage of the germination you may typically expect and notes of any
chemical seed treatment. If seeds are obtained well in advance of the actual
sowing date or are stored surplus seeds, keep them in a cool, dry place.
Laminated foil packets help ensure dry storage. Paper packets are best kept
in tightly closed jars or containers and maintained around 40 degrees F.
with a low humidity.

Some gardeners save seed from their own gardens; however, such seed is the
result of random pollination by insects or other natural agents and may not
produce plants typical of the parents. This is especially true of the many
hybrid varieties. (See Vegetables chapter for information on saving
vegetable seed.)

Most seed companies take great care in handling seeds properly. Generally,
do not expect more than 65 to 80 percent of the seeds sown to germinate.
From those seeds germinating, expect about 60 to 75 percent to produce
satisfactory, vigorous and sturdy seedlings.

-End-
-Title-
 SEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Factors Affecting Germination
-Text-

There are four environmental factors which affect germination: water,
oxygen, light and heat.

Water: The first step in the germination process is the imbibition or
absorption of water. Even though seeds have great absorbing power due to the
nature of the seed coat, the amount of available water in the germination
medium affects the uptake of water. An adequate, continuous supply of water
is important to ensure germination. Once the germination process has begun,
a dry period will cause the death of the embryo.

Light: Light is known to stimulate or to inhibit germination of some seed.
The light reaction involved here is a complex process. Some crops which have
a requirement for light to assist seed germination are ageratum, begonia,
browallia, impatiens, lettuce, and petunia. Conversely, calendula,
centaurea, annual phlox, verbena and vinca are examples of plants the seed
of which will germinate best in the dark. Other plants are not specific at
all. Seed catalogs and seed packets often list germination or cultural tips
for individual varieties. When sowing light requiring seed, do as nature
does and leave them on the soil surface. If they are covered at all, cover
them lightly with fine peat moss or fine vermiculite. These two materials,
if not applied too heavily, will permit some light to reach the seed and
will not limit germination. When starting seed in the home, supplemental
light can be provided by fluorescent lights suspended 6 to 12 inches above
the seeds for 16 hours a day.

Oxygen: In all viable seed, respiration takes place. The respiration in
nongerminating seed is low but some oxygen is required. The respiration rate
increases during germination, therefore, the medium in which the seeds are
placed should be loose and well aerated. If the oxygen supply during
germination is limited or reduced, germination can be severely retarded or
inhibited.

Heat: A favorable temperature is another important requirement of
germination. It not only affects the germination percentage but also the
rate of germination. Some seeds will germinate over a wide range of
temperatures, whereas others require a narrow range. Many seed have minimum,
maximum and optimum temperatures at which they germinate. For example,
tomato seed has a minimum germination temperature of 50 degrees F. and a
maximum temperature of 95 degrees, but an optimum germination temperature of
about 80 degrees. Where germination temperatures are listed, they are
usually the optimum temperatures unless otherwise specified. Generally, 65
to 75 degrees F. is best for most plants. This often means the germination
flats may have to be placed in special chambers or on radiators, heating
cables or heating mats to maintain optimum temperature. The importance of
maintaining proper medium temperature to achieve maximum germination
percentages cannot be over emphasized.

Germination will begin when certain internal requirements have been met. A
seed must have a mature embryo, contain a large enough endosperm to sustain
the embryo during germination process and contain sufficient hormones or
auxins to initiate the process.

-End-
-Title-
 SEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Methods of Breaking Dormancy
-Text-

One of the functions of dormancy is to prevent a seed from germinating
before it is surrounded by a favorable environment. In some trees and shrubs
dormancy is difficult to break, even when the environment is ideal. Various
treatments are performed on the seed to break dormancy and begin
germination.


Seed Scarification  Seed scarification involves breaking, scratching or
softening the seed coat so that water can enter and begin the germination
process. There are several methods of scarifying seeds. In acid
scarification, seeds are put in a glass container and covered with
concentrated sulfuric acid at about twice the volume of seed. The seeds are
gently stirred and allowed to soak from 10 minutes to several hours,
depending on the hardness of the seed coat. When the seed coat has become
thin, the seeds can be removed, washed and planted. Another scarification
method is mechanical. Seeds are filed with a metal file, rubbed with
sandpaper or cracked with a hammer to weaken the seed coat. Hot water
scarification involves putting the seed into hot water (170 - 212 degrees
F). The seeds are allowed to soak in the water, as it cools, for 12 to 24
hours and then planted. A fourth method is one of warm moist scarification.
In this case, seeds are stored in nonsterile warm damp containers where the
seed coat will be broken down by decay over several months.

Seed Stratification   Seeds of some fall ripening trees and shrubs of the
temperate zone will not germinate unless chilled underground as they
overwinter. This so called "after ripening" may be accomplished artificially
by a practice called stratification.

The following procedure is usually successful. Put sand or vermiculite in a
clay pot to about 1 inch from the top. Place the seeds on top of the medium
and cover with 1/2 inch of sand or vermiculite. Wet the medium thoroughly
and allow excess water to drain through the hole in the pot. Place the pot
containing the moist medium and seeds in a plastic bag and tie the bag using
a twist tie or rubber band. Place the bag in a refrigerator. Periodically
check to see if the medium is moist but not wet. Additional water will
probably not be necessary. After 10-12 weeks, remove the bag from the
refrigerator. Take the pot out and set it in a warm place in the house.
Water often enough to keep the medium moist. Soon the seedlings should
emerge. When the young plants are about 3 inches tall, transplant them into
pots to grow until time for setting outside.

Another procedure that is usually successful uses sphagnum moss or peat
moss. Wet the moss thoroughly, then squeeze out the excess water with your
hands. Mix seed with the sphagnum or peat and place in a plastic bag. Use a
twist tie or rubber band to secure the top and put the bag in a
refrigerator. Check periodically. If there is condensation on the inside of
the bag, the process will probably be successful. After 10-12 weeks remove
the bag from the refrigerator. Plant the seeds in pots to germinate and
grow. Handle seeds carefully. Often the small roots and shoots are emerging
at the end of the stratification period. Care must be taken not to break
these off. Temperatures in the range of 35-45 degrees F (2 -7 C) are
effective. Most refrigerators operate in this range. Seeds of most fruit and
nut trees can be successfully germinated by these procedures. Seeds of
peaches should be removed from the hard pit. Care must be taken when
cracking the pits. Any injury to the seed itself can be an entry path for
disease organisms.

-End-
-Title-
 SEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Starting Seeds
-Text-

Media   A wide range of materials can be used to start seeds, from straight
vermiculite or mixtures of soilless artificial media to the various amended
soil mixes. With experience, you will learn to determine what works best
under your conditions. However, keep in mind what the good qualities of a
germinating medium are. It should be rather fine and uniform, yet well
aerated and loose. It should be free of insects, disease organisms and weed
seeds. It should also be of low fertility or total soluble salts and capable
of holding and moving moisture by capillary action. One mixture which
supplies these factors is a combination of 1/3 sterilized soil, 1/3 sand or
vermiculite or perlite, and 1/3 peat moss.

The importance of using a sterile medium and container cannot be over
emphasized. The home gardener can treat a small quantity of soil mixture in
an oven. Place the slightly moist soil in a heat resistant container or pan
which can be covered, in an oven set at about 250 degrees F. Use a candy or
meat thermometer to ensure that the mix reaches a temperature of 180 degrees
F. for at least 1/2 an hour. Avoid over heating as this can be extremely
damaging to the soil and be aware that the process results in very
unpleasant odors. This treatment should prevent damping-off and other plant
diseases as well as eliminate potential plant pests. Wood or plastic growing
containers and implements should be washed to remove any debris, then rinsed
in a solution of 1 part chlorine bleach to 10 parts water. Avoid
recontamination of the medium and tools.

An artificial, soilless mix also provides the desired qualities of a good
germination medium. The basic ingredients of such a mix are sphagnum peat
moss and vermiculite, both of which are generally free of diseases, weed
seeds and insects. The ingredients are also readily available, easy to
handle, light weight and produce uniform plant growth.

Ready made "peat-lite" mixes or similar products are commercially available
or can be made at home using this recipe: 4 quarts of shredded sphagnum peat
moss, 4 quarts of a fine grade vermiculite, 1 tablespoon of superphosphate
and 2 tablespoons of ground limestone. Another recipe is 50 percent
vermiculite or perlite and 50 percent milled sphagnum moss with fertilizer.
Mix thoroughly. These mixes have little fertility so seedlings must be
watered with a diluted fertilizer solution soon after they emerge. Do not
use garden soil by itself to start seedlings as it is not sterile, is heavy
and will not drain well, and will shrink from the sides of containers if
allowed to dry out.

Containers:   Wooden or plastic flats and trays can be purchased or you can
make your own from scrap lumber. A convenient size to handle would be about
12 to 18 inches long and 12 inches wide with a depth of about 2 inches.
Leave cracks of about 1/8 of an inch between the boards in the bottom or
drill a series of holes to ensure drainage.

Flower pots of either clay or plastic can be used. You can also make your
own containers for starting seeds by recycling such things as cottage cheese
containers, the bottoms of milk cartons or bleach containers and pie pans,
as long as good drainage is provided.

Numerous types of pots and strips made of compressed peat are also on the
market which can be utilized to start seeds. Plant bands and plastic cell
packs are also available. Each cell or minipot holds a single plant which
reduces the risk of root injury when transplanting. Peat pellets, peat or
fiber based blocks and expanded plastic foam cubes can also be used for
seeding. Here the growing medium itself forms the container unit.

Seeding:   The proper time for sowing seeds for transplants depends upon when
plants may safely be moved out-of-doors in your area. This period may range
from 4 to 12 weeks prior to transplanting depending upon the speed of
germination, the rate of growth and thecultural conditions provided. A
common mistake is to sow the seeds too early and then attempt to hold the
seedlings back under poor light or improper temperature ranges. This usually
results in tall, weak and spindly plants which do not perform well in the
garden.

After selecting a container, fill it to within 3/4 of an inch from the top
with the moistened medium you have chosen. For very small seeds, at least
the top 1/4 inch should be of a fine, screened mix or a layer of
vermiculite. Firm the medium at the corners and edges with your fingers or a
block of wood to provide a uniform, flat surface.

For medium-to-large seeds, make furrows about 1 to 2 inches apart and 1/8 to
1/4 of an inch deep across the surface of the container using a narrow board
or pot label. By sowing in rows, good light and air movement results and, if
damping off fungus does appear, there is less chance of it spreading.
Seedlings in rows are easier to label and to handle at transplanting time
than those which have been sown in a broadcast manner. Sow the seeds thinly
and uniformly in the rows by gently tapping the packet of seed as it is
moved along the row. Lightly cover the seed with dry vermiculite or sifted
medium if they require darkness for germination. A suitable planting depth
is usually about twice the diameter of the seed.

Do not plant seeds too deeply. Extremely fine seed such as petunia, begonia
and snapdragon are not covered but lightly pressed into the medium or
watered in with a fine mist spray. If these seeds are broadcast, strive for
a uniform stand by sowing half the seeds in one direction, then sowing the
other way with the remaining seed.

Large seeds are frequently sown into some sort of a small container or cell
pack which eliminates the need for early transplanting. Usually 2 or 3 seeds
are sown per unit and later thinned to allow the strongest seedling to grow.

Seed Tape:   Most garden stores and seed catalogs offer indoor and outdoor
seed tapes. Seed tape has precisely spaced seeds enclosed in an organic,
water soluble material. When planted, the tape dissolves and the seeds
germinate normally. Seed tapes are especially convenient for tiny,
hard-to-handle seeds. However, tapes are much more expensive per seed. Seed
tapes allow uniform emergence of seedlings, eliminate overcrowding of
seedlings and permit sowing in perfectly straight rows. The tapes can be cut
at any point for multiple row plantings, and thinning is rarely necessary.

Pregermination:   Another method of starting seeds is pregermination. This
method involves sprouting the seeds before they are planted in pots or in
the garden. This reduces the time to germination as the temperature and
moisture are easy to control and guarantees a high percentage of germination
since none will be lost to environmental factors. Lay seeds between the
folds of cotton cloth on a layer of vermiculite or similar material in a
pan. Keep moist in a warm place. When roots begin to show, place the seeds
in containers or plant them directly in the garden. While transplanting
seedlings be careful not to break off tender roots. Continued attention to
watering is critical.

When planting seeds in a container that will be set out in the garden later,
place 1 seed in a 2-3" container. Plant the seeds only 1/2 the recommended
depth. Gently press a little soil over the sprouted seed and then add about
1/4" of milled sphagnum or sand to the soil surface. These materials will
keep the surface uniformly moist and are easy for the shoot to push through.
Keep the pots in a warm place and care for them just as for any other newly
transplanted seedlings.

A convenient way to plant small delicate pregerminated seeds is to suspend
them in a gel. You can make a gel by blending cornstarch with boiling water
to a consistency that isthick enough so the seeds will stay suspended. Be
sure to cool thoroughly before use. Place the gel with seedlings in a
plastic bag with a hole in it. Squeeze the gel through the hole along a
premarked garden row. Spacing of seeds is determined by the number of seeds
in the gel. If the spacing is too dense, add more gel; if too wide, add more
seeds. The gel will keep the germinating seeds moist until they establish
themselves in the garden soil.

Watering:   After the seed has been sown, moisten the planting mix
thoroughly. Use a fine mist spray or place the containers in a pan or tray
which has about 1 inch of warm water in the bottom. Avoid splashing or
excessive flooding which might displace small seeds. When the planting mix
is saturated, set the container aside to drain. The soil should be moist but
not wet.

Ideally, seed flats should remain sufficiently moist during the germination
period without having to add water. One way to maintain moisture is to slip
the whole flat or pot into a clear plastic bag after the initial watering.
The plastic should be at least 1-1 1/2 inches from the soil. Keep the
container out of direct sunlight otherwise the temperature may rise to the
point where the seeds will be harmed. Many home gardeners cover their flats
with panes of glass instead of using a plastic sleeve. Be sure to remove the
plastic bag or glass cover as soon as the first seedlings appear. Surface
watering can then be practiced if care and good judgement are used.

Lack of uniformity, overwatering or drying out are problems related to hand
watering. Excellent germination and moisture uniformity can be obtained with
a low pressure misting system. Four seconds of mist every 6 minutes or 10
seconds every 15 minutes during the daytime in spring seems to be
satisfactory. Bottom heat is an asset with a mist system. Subirrigation or
watering from below may work well, keeping the flats moist. However, as the
flats or pots must sit in a constant water level, the soil may absorb too
much water and the seeds may rot due to lack of oxygen.

Temperature and Light:   Several factors assuring good germination have
already been mentioned. The last item, and by no means the least important,
is temperature. Since most seeds will germinate best at an optimum
temperature that is usually higher than most home night temperatures,
special warm areas must often be provided. The use of thermostatically
controlled heating cables are an excellent method of providing constant
heat.


Seed Requirements


              Approximate
               Time to                               Germination
              Seed Before  Approximate  Germination       in
              Last Spring  Germination  Temperature   Light (L)
  Plant          Frost     Time (Days)   0 Deg. F.   or Dark (D)

Begonia       12 weeks       10 - 15        70             L
Browallia     or more        15 - 20        70             L
Geranium                     10 - 20        70             L
Larkspur                      5 - 10        55             D
Pansy (Viola)                 5 - 10        65             D
Vinca                        10 - 15        70             D

Dianthus      10 weeks        5 - 10        70             -
Impatiens                    15 - 20        70             L
Petunia                       5 - 10        70             L
Portulaca                     5 - 10        70             D
Snapdragon                    5 - 10        65             L
Stock                        10 - 15        70             -
Verbena                      15 - 20        65             D

Ageratum       8 weeks        5 - 10        70             L
Alyssum                       5 - 10        70             -
Broccoli                      5 - 10        70             -
Cabbage                       5 - 10        70             -
Cauliflower                   5 - 10        70             -
Celosia                       5 - 10        70             -
Coleus                        5 - 10        65             L
Dahlia                        5 - 10        70             -
Eggplant                      5 - 10        70             -
Head Lettuce                  5 - 10        70             L
Nicotiana                    10 - 15        70             L
Pepper                        5 - 10        80             -
Phlox                         5 - 10        65             D

Aster          6 weeks        5 - 10        70             -
Balsam                        5 - 10        70             -
Centurea                      5 - 10        65             D
Marigold                      5 - 10        70             -
Tomato                        5 - 10        80             -
Zinnia                        5 - 10        70             -

Cucumber       4 weeks        5 - 10        85             -
Cosmos         or less        5 - 10        70             -
Muskmelon                     5 - 10        85             -
Squash                        5 - 10        85             -
Watermelon                    5 - 10        85             -

After germination and seedling establishment, move the flats to a light,
airy, cooler location, at a 55 to 60 degree F. night temperature and a 65 to
70 degree F. day reading. This will prevent soft, leggy growth and minimize
disease troubles. Some crops, of course, may germinate or grow best at a
different constant temperature and must be handled separately from the bulk
of the plants.

Seedlings must receive bright light after germination. Place them in a
window facing south, if possible. If a large, bright window is not
available, place the seedlings under a fluorescent light. Use two 40-watt,
cool, white fluorescent tubes or special plant growth lamps. Position the
plants 6 inches from the tubes and keep the lights on about 16 hours each
day. As the seedlings grow, the lights should be raised.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED REQUIREMENTS
-SubTitle-
 Transplanting and Handling
-Text-

If the plants have not been seeded in individualized containers, they must
be transplanted to give them proper growing space. One of the most common
mistakes made by plant growers is leaving the seedlings in the seed flat too
long. The ideal time to transplant young seedlings is when they are small
and there is little danger from setback. This is usually about the time the
first true leaves appear above or between the cotyledon leaves (the
cotyledons or seed leaves are the first leaves the seedling produces). Don't
let plants get hard and stunted or too tall and leggy.

Seedling growing mixes and containers can be purchased or prepared similar
to those mentioned for germinating seed. The medium should contain more
plant nutrients than a germination mix, however. Some commercial soilless
mixes have fertilizer already added. When fertilizing, use a soluble house
plant fertilizer, at the dilution recommended by the manufacturer about
every 2 weeks after the seedlings are established. Remember that young
seedlings are easily damaged by too much fertilizer, especially if they are
under any moisture stress.

To transplant, carefully dig up the small plants with a knife or wooden
plant label. Let the group of seedlings fall apart and pick out individual
plants. Gently ease them apart in small groups which will make it easier to
separate individual plants. Avoid tearing roots in the process. Handle small
seedlings by their leaves, not their delicate stems. Punch a hole in the
medium into which the seedling will be planted. Make it deep enough so the
seedling can be put at the same depth it was growing in the seed flat. Small
plants or slow growers should be placed 1 inch apart and rapid-growing,
large seedlings about 2 inches. After planting, firm the soil and water
gently. Keep newly transplanted seedlings in the shade for a few days or
place them under fluorescent lights. Keep them away from direct heat
sources. Continue watering and fertilizing as was done in the seed flats.

Most plants transplant well and can be started indoors but a few plants are
difficult to transplant. These are generally directly seeded outdoors or
sown directly into individual containers indoors. Examples include zinnias
and cucurbits such as melons and squash.

Containers for transplanting   There is a wide variety of containers from
which to choose for transplanting seedlings. These containers should be
economical, durable, and make good use of space. The type selected will
depend on the type of plant to be transplanted and individual growing
conditions. Standard pots may be used. But they waste a great deal of space
and may not dry out rapidly enough for the seedling to have sufficient
oxygen for proper development.

There are many types of containers available commercially. Those made out of
pressed peat can be purchased in varying sizes. Individual pots or strips of
connected pots fit closely together, are inexpensive, and can be planted
directly in the garden. When setting out plants grown in peat pots, care
should be used to cover the pot completely. If the top edge of the peat pot
extends above the soil level, it may act as a wick and draw water away from
the soil in the pot. To avoid this, tear off the top lip of the pot and then
plant flush with the soil level.

Community packs are containers in which there is room to plant several
plants. These are generally made of pressed paper or fiber and are
inexpensive. The main disadvantage of a community pack is that the roots of
the individual plants must be broken or cut apart when separating them to
put out in the garden.

Compressed peat pellets, when soaked in water, expand to form little compact
individualpots. They waste no space, don't fall apart as badly as peat pots,
and can be set directly out in the garden. If you wish to avoid
transplanting seedlings altogether, compressed peat pellets are excellent
for direct sowing.

Community packs and cell packs, which are strips of connected individual
pots, are also available in plastic and are frequently used by commercial
bedding plant growers as they withstand frequent handling.

In addition, many homeowners find a variety of materials from around the
house useful for containers. These homemade containers should be deep enough
to provide adequate soil and have plenty of drainage holes in the bottom.

Hardening Plants   Hardening is the process of altering the quality of plant
growth to withstand the change in environmental conditions which occurs when
plants are transferred from a greenhouse or home to the garden. A severe
check in growth may occur if plants produced in the home are planted
outdoors without a transition period. Hardening is more critical with early
crops when adverse climatic conditions can be expected than it is for crops
planted later in the season.

Hardening can be accomplished by gradually lowering temperatures and
relative humidity and reducing water. This procedure results in an
accumulation of carbohydrates and a thickening of cell walls. A change from
a soft, succulent type of growth to a firmer, harder type is desired.

This process should be started at least 2 weeks before planting in the
garden. If possible, plants should be moved to a 45 to 50 degree temperature
indoors or outdoors in a shady location. A coldframe is excellent for this
purpose. When put outdoors, plants should be shaded then gradually moved
into sunlight. Each day, gradually increase the length of exposure. Don't
put tender seedlings outdoors on windy days or when temperatures are below
45 degrees F. Reduce the frequency of watering to slow growth but don't
allow plants to wilt. Even cold hardy plants will be hurt if exposed to
freezing temperatures before they are hardened. After proper hardening,
however, they can be planted outdoors and light frosts will not damage them.

The hardening process is intended to slow plant growth. If carried to the
extreme of actually stopping plant growth, significant damage can be done to
certain crops. For example, cauliflower will make thumb size heads and fail
to develop further if hardened too severely. Cucumbers and melons will stop
growth if hardened.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED REQUIREMENTS
-SubTitle-
 Propagation of Ferns by Spores
-Text-

Though ferns are more easily propagated by other methods, some gardeners
like the challenge of raising ferns from spores. One tested method for small
quantities is as follows.

Put a solid, sterilized brick (bake at 250 degrees F. for 30 minutes) in a
pan and add water to cover the brick. When the brick is wet throughout,
squeeze a thin layer of  moist soil and peat (1:1) into the top of the
brick. Pack a second layer (about an inch) on top of that. Sprinkle spores
on top. Cover with plastic (not touching the spores) and put in a warm place
in indirect light. It may take up to a month or more for the spores to
germinate. Keep moist at all times. A prothallus (one generation of the
fern) will develop first from each spore, forming a light green mat. Mist
lightly once a week to maintain high surface moisture; the sperm must be
able to swim to the archegonia (female parts). After about three weeks,
fertilization should have occurred. Pull the mat apart with tweezers in1/4
inch squares and space them 1/2 inch apart in a flat containing a two inch
layer of sand, 1/4 inch of charcoal and about two inches of soil/peat mix.
Cover with plastic and keep moist. When fern fronds appear and become
crowded, transplant to small pots. Gradually reduce the humidity until they
can survive in the open. Light exposure may be increased at this time.


-End-
-Title-
 ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
-Text-

Asexual propagation as mentioned earlier, is the best way to maintain some
species particularly an individual that best represents that species. Clones
are groups of plants that are identical to their one parent and that can
only be propagated asexually. The Bartlett pear (1770) and the Delicious
apple (1870) are two examples of clones that have been asexually propagated
for many years.

The major methods of asexual propagation are cuttings, layering, budding and
grafting. Cuttings involve rooting a severed piece of the parent plant;
layering involves rooting a part of the parent and then severing it; and
budding and grafting is joining two plant parts from different varieties.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,184>
-Title-
 ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Cuttings
-Text-

Many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous, are frequently propagated
by cuttings. A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the
parent plant in order to regenerate itself, thereby forming a whole new
plant.

Take cuttings with a sharp knife or razor blade to reduce injury to the
parent plant. Dip the cutting tool in rubbing alcohol or a mixture of one
part bleach and nine parts water to prevent transmitting diseases from
infected plant parts to healthy ones. Remove flowers and flower buds from
cuttings to allow the cutting to use its energy and stored carbohydrates for
root and shoot formation rather than fruit and seed production. To hasten
rooting, increase the number of roots, or to obtain uniform rooting except
on soft fleshy stems, use a rooting hormone, preferably one containing a
fungicide. Prevent possible contamination of the entire supply of rooting
hormone by putting some in a separate container for dipping cuttings.

Insert cuttings into a rooting medium such as coarse sand, vermiculite,
soil, water or a mixture of peat and perlite. It is important to choose the
correct rooting medium to get optimum rooting in the shortest time. In
general, the rooting medium should be sterile, low in fertility, drain well
enough to provide oxygen, and retain enough moisture to prevent water
stress. Moisten the medium before inserting cuttings, and keep it evenly
moist while cuttings are rooting and forming new shoots.

Place stem and leaf cuttings in bright but indirect light. Root cuttings can
be kept dark until new shoots appear.

Stem Cuttings   Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings. Some
can be taken at any time of the year, but stem cuttings of many woody plants
must be taken in the fall or in the dormant season.

Tip cuttings:  Detach a 2-6" piece of stem, including the terminal bud. Make
the cut just below a node. Remove lower leaves that would touch or be below
the medium. Dip the stem in rooting hormone if desired. Gently tap the end
of the cutting to remove excess hormone.Insert the cutting deeply enough
into the media to support itself. At least one node must be below the
surface.

Medial cuttings: Make the first cut just above a node, and the second cut
just above a node 2-6" down the stem. Prepare and insert the cutting as you
would a tip cutting. Be sure to position right side up. Axial buds are
always above leaves.

Cane cuttings:  Cut cane-like stems into sections containing one or two
eyes, or nodes. Dust ends with fungicide or activated charcoal. Allow to dry
several hours. Lay horizontally with about half of the cutting below the
media surface, eye facing upward. Cane cuttings are usually potted when
roots and new shoots appear but new shoots from dracaena and croton are
often cut off and rerooted in sand.

-Fig-
Tip, Medial, Cane Cuttings
-Text-


Single Eye:  The eye refers to the node. This is used for plants with
alternate leaves when space or stock material are limited. Cut the stem
about 1/2" above and 1/2" below a node. Place cutting horizontally or
vertically in the medium.

Double Eye:  This is used for plants with opposite leaves when space or
stock  material is limited. Cut the stem about 1/2" above and 1/2" below the
same node. Insert the cutting vertically in the medium with the node just
touching the surface.

Heel cutting:  This method uses stock material with woody stems efficiently.
Make a shield-shaped cut about halfway through the wood around a leaf and
axial bud. Insert the shield horizontally into the medium.

-Fig-
Single Eye, Double Eye, Heel Cutting
-Text-



Leaf Cuttings   Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few indoor
plants. Leaves of most plants will either produce a few roots but no plant,
or just decay.

Whole leaf with petiole:  Detach the leaf and 1/2-1 1/2" of petiole. Insert
the lower end of the petiole into the medium. One or more new plants will
form at the base of the petiole. The leaf may be severed from the new plants
when they have their own roots, and the petiole reused.

Whole leaf without petiole:  This is used for plants with sessile or
petioleless leaves. Insert the cutting vertically into the medium. A new
plant will form from the axillary bud. The leaf may be removed when the new
plant has its own roots.

Split vein:  Detach a leaf from the stock plant. Slit its veins on the lower
leaf surface. Lay the cutting, lower side down, on the medium. New plants
will form at each cut. If the leaf tends to curl up, hold it in place by
covering the margins with the rooting medium.

Leaf sections:  This method is frequently used with snake plant and fibrous
rooted begonias. Cut begonia leaves into wedges with at least one vein. Lay
leaves flat on the medium. A new plant will arise at the vein. Cut snake
plant leaves into 2" sections. Consistently make the lower cut slanted and
the upper cut straight so you can tell which is the top. Insert the cutting
vertically. Roots will form fairly soon, and eventually a new plant will
appear at the base of the cutting. These and other succulent cuttings will
rot if kept too moist.

-Fig-
Leaf Sections
-Text-

Root Cuttings   Root cuttings are usually taken from 2-3 year old plants
during their dormant season when they have a large carbohydrate supply. Root
cuttings of some species produce new shoots, which then form their own root
systems, while root cuttings of other plants develop root systems before
producing new shoots.

Plants with large roots:  Make a straight top cut. Make a slanted cut 2-6"
below the first cut. Store about 3 weeks in moist sawdust, peat moss or sand
at 40 degrees F. Remove from storage. Insert the cutting vertically with the
top approximately level with the surface  of the rooting medium. This method
is often done outdoors.

Plants with small roots:  Take 1-2" sections of roots. Insert the cuttings
horizontally about 1/2" below the medium surface. This method is usually
done indoors or in a hotbed.

-Fig-
Root Cuttings

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,185>
-Title-
 ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Layering
-Text-

Stems still attached to their parent plants may form roots where they touch
a rooting medium. Severed from the parent plant, the rooted stem becomes a
new plant. This method of vegetative propagation, called layering, promotes
a high success rate because it prevents the water stress and carbohydrate
shortage that plague cuttings.

Some plants layer themselves naturally, but sometimes plant propagators
assist the process. Layering is enhanced by girdling the stem where it is
bent, by wounding one side of the stem, or by bending it very sharply. The
rooting medium should always provide aeration and a constant supply of
moisture.

Tip layering: Dig a hole 3-4" deep. Insert the shoot tip and cover it with
soil. The tip grows downward first, then bends sharply and grows upward.
Roots form at the bend and the recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the
tip layer and plant it in the early spring or late fall. Examples: purple
and black raspberries, trailing blackberries.

Simple layering: Bend the stem to the ground. Cover part of it with soil,
leaving the last 6-12" exposed. Bend the tip into a vertical position and
stake in place. The sharp bend will often induce rooting, but wounding the
lower side of the branch or loosening the bark by twisting the stem may
help. Examples: rhododendron, honeysuckle.

Compound layering: This method works for plants with flexible stems. Bend
the stem to the rooting medium as for simple layering, but alternately cover
and expose stem sections. Wound the lower side of the stem sections to be
covered. Examples: heart-leaf philodendron, pothos.

Mound (stool) layering:  Cut the plant back to 1" above the ground in the
dormant season. Mound soil over the emerging shoots in the spring to enhance
their rooting. Examples: gooseberries, apple rootstocks.

Air layering:  Air layering is used to propagate some indoor plants with
thick stems, or to rejuvenate them when they become leggy. Slit the stem
just below a node. Pry the slit open with a toothpick. Surround the wound
with wet unmilled sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic or foil around the sphagnum
moss and tie in place. When roots pervade the moss, cut the plant off below
the root ball. Examples: dumbcane, rubber tree.

-Fig-
Layering: Tip, Simple, Compound, Mound, Air
-Text-

The following propagation methods can all be considered types of layering,
as the new plants form before they are detached from their parent plants.

Stolons and runners:  A stolon is a horizontal, often fleshy, stem that can
root, then produce new shoots where it touches the medium. A runner is a
slender stem that originates in a leaf axil and grows along the ground or
downward from a hanging basket, producing a new plant at its tip. Plants
that produce stolons or runners are propagated by severing the new plants
from their parent stems. Plantlets at the tips of runners may be rooted
while still attached to the parent, or detached and placed in a rooting
medium. Examples: strawberry, spider plant.

Offsets:  Plants with a rosetted stem often reproduce by forming new shoots
at their base or in leaf axils. Sever the new shoots from the parent plant
after they have developed their own root system. Unrooted offsets of some
species may be removed and placed in a rooting medium. Some of these must be
cut off, while others may be simply lifted off of the parent stem. Examples:
date palm, haworthia, bromeliads, many cacti.

-Fig-
Propagation by Runners and Offsets
-Text-

Separation:  Separation is a term applied to a form of propagation by which
plants that produce bulbs or corms multiple.

Bulbs.  New bulbs form beside the originally planted bulb. Separate these
bulb clumps every 3 to 5 years for largest blooms and to increase bulb
population. Dig up the clump after the leaves have withered. Gently pull the
bulbs apart and replant them immediately so their roots can begin to
develop. Small new bulbs may not flower for 2 or 3 years, but large ones
should bloom the first year. Examples: tulip, narcissus.

Corms.  A large new corm forms on top of the old corm, and tiny cormels form
around the large corm. After the leaves wither, dig up the corms and allow
them to dry in indirect light for 2 or 3 weeks. Remove the cormels, then
gently separate the new corm from the old corm. Dust all new corms with a
fungicide and store in a cool place until planting time. Examples:  crocus,
gladiolus.

-Fig-
Division
-Text-

Division:  Plants with more than one rooted crown may be divided and the
crowns planted separately. If the stems are not joined, gently pull the
plants apart. If the crowns are united by horizontal stems, cut the stems
and roots with a sharp knife to minimizeinjury. Divisions of some outdoor
plants should be dusted with a fungicide before they are replanted.
Examples: snake plant, iris, prayer plant, day lilies.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,186>
-Title-
 ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Grafting
-Text-

Grafting and budding are methods of asexual plant propagation that join
plant parts so they will grow as one plant. These techniques are used to
propagate cultivars that will not root well as cuttings or whose own root
systems are inadequate. One or more new cultivars can be added to existing
fruit and nut trees by grafting or budding.

The portion of the cultivar that is to be propagated is called the scion. It
consists of a piece of shoot with dormant buds that will produce the stem
and branches. The rootstock, or stock, provides the new plant's root system
and sometimes the lower part of the stem. The cambium is a layer of cells
located between the wood and bark of a stem from which new bark and wood
cells originate. (See Fruit chapter for discussion of apple rootstock).

Four conditions must be met for grafting to be successful: the scion and
rootstock must be compatible; each must be at the proper physiological
stage; the cambial layers of the scion and stock must meet; and the graft
union must be kept moist until the wound has healed.

Cleft grafting: Cleft grafting is often used to change the cultivar or top
growth of a shoot or a young tree (usually a seedling). It is especially
successful if done in the early spring. Collect scion wood 3/8-5/8" in
diameter. Cut the limb or small tree trunk to be reworked, perpendicular to
its length. Make a 2" vertical cut through the center of the previous cut.
Be careful not to tear the bark. Keep this cut wedged apart. Cut the lower
end of each scion piece into a wedge. Prepare two scion pieces 3-4" long.
Insert the scions at the outer edges of the cut in the stock. Tilt the top
of the scion slightly outward and the bottom slightly inward to be sure the
cambial layers of the scion and stock touch. Remove the wedge propping the
slit open and cover all cut surfaces with grafting wax.

-Fig-
Cleft Graft
-Text-

Bark grafting:   Unlike most grafting methods, bark grafting can be used on
large limbs, although these are often infected before the wound can
completely heal. Collect scion wood 3/8-1/2" in diameter when the plant is
dormant, and store the wood wrapped in moist paper in a plastic bag in the
refrigerator. Saw off the limb or trunk of the rootstock at a right angle to
itself. In the spring when the bark is easy to separate from the wood, or
slipping, make a 1/2" diagonal cut on one side of the scion, and a 1-1/2"
diagonal cut on the other side. Leave two buds above the longer cut. Cut
through the bark of the stock a little wider than the scion. Remove the top
third of the bark from this cut. Insert the scion with the longer cut
against the wood. Nail the graft in place with flat headed wire nails. Cover
all wounds with grafting wax.

Whip or tongue grafting:  This method is often used for material 1/4-1/2" in
diameter. The scion and rootstock are usually of the  same diameter, but the
scion may be narrower than the stock. This strong graft heals quickly and
provides excellent cambial contact. Make one2-1/2" long sloping cut at the
top of the rootstock and a matching cut on the bottom of the scion. On the
cut surface, slice downward into the stock and up into the scion so the
pieces will interlock. Fit the pieces together, then tie and wax the union.

-Fig-
Bark Graft and Whip or Tongue Graft
-Text-

Care of the Graft  Very little success in grafting will be obtained unless
proper care is maintained for the following year or two. If a binding
material such as strong cord, or nursery tape is used on the graft, this
must be cut shortly after growth starts to prevent girdling and later dying
of the graft. Rubber budding strips have some advantages over other
materials. They expand with growth and usually do not need to be cut as they
deteriorate and break after a short time. It is also an excellent idea to
inspect the grafts after a 2- to 3-week period to see if the wax has
cracked, and if necessary rewax the exposed areas. After this the union will
probably be strong enough and no more waxing will be necessary.

Limbs of the old variety which are not selected for grafting should be cut
back at the time of grafting. The total leaf surface of the old variety
should be gradually reduced as the new one increases until at the end of 1
or 2 years the new variety has completely taken over. Completely removing
all the limbs of the old variety at the time of grafting increases the shock
to the tree and causes excessive suckering. Also, the scions may grow too
fast making them susceptible to wind damage.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,187>
-Title-
 ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Budding
-Text-

Budding, or bud grafting, is the union of one bud and a small piece of bark
from the scion with a rootstock. It is especially useful when scion material
is limited. It is also faster and forms a stronger union than grafting.

Patch budding:  Plants with thick bark should be patch budded. This is done
while the plants are actively growing so their bark slips easily. Remove a
rectangular piece of bark from the rootstock. Cover this wound with a bud
and matching piece of bark from the scion. If the rootstock's bark is
thicker than that of the scion, pare it down to meet the thinner bark so
that when the union is wrapped the patch will be held firmly in place.

Chip budding:  This budding method can be used when the bark is not
slipping. Slice downward into the rootstock at a 45 degree angle through 1/4
of the wood. Make a second cut upward from the first cut, about one inch.
Remove a bud and attending chip of bark and wood from the scion shaped so
that it fits the rootstock wound. Fit the bud chip to the stock and wrap the
union.

T-budding:  This is the most commonly used budding technique. When the bark
is slipping, make a vertical cut (same axis as the root stock) through the
bark of the rootstock, avoiding any buds on the stock. Make a horizontal cut
at the top of the vertical cut (in a T shape) and loosen the bark by
twisting the knife at the intersection. Remove a shield-shaped piece of the
scion, including a bud, bark, and a thin section of wood.Push the shield
under the loosened stock bark. Wrap the union, leaving the bud exposed.

-Fig-
Budding: Patch, Chip, and T-Bud
-Text-

Care of buds:  Place the bud in the stock in August. Force the bud to
develop the following spring by cutting the stock off 3 to 4 inches above
the bud. The new shoot may be tied to the resulting stub to prevent damage
from the wind. After the shoot has made a strong union with the stock, cut
the stub off close to the budded area.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,188>
-Title-
 ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
-SubTitle-
 Plant Tissue Culture for the Home
-Text-

Although technical procedures for aseptic culture of plant cells, tissues
and organs are as diverse as the plant material on which they are practiced,
a simplified general procedure can be followed in the home. All that is
needed are a few basic supplies which can easily be obtained at the local
grocery store. The procedures outlined in this article can be used in the
home to propagate various species of plants which are either easy (African
violets, coleus, chrysanthemums) or difficult (orchids, ferns, weeping figs)
to propagate.

Medium Preparation  For 2 pints of medium, mix the following ingredients in
a one quart home canning jar:

        - 1/8 cup sugar
        - 1 tsp. all purpose soluble fertilizer mixture. Check the label to make
          sure it has all of the major and minor elements, especially ammonium
          nitrate. If the latter is lacking, add 1/3 tsp. of a 35-0-0 soluble
          fertilizer.
        - 1 tablet (100 mg) of inositol (myo-inositol) which can be obtained at
          most health food stores
        - 1/4 of a pulverized vitamin tablet which has 1 to 2 mg of thiamine
        - 4 Tbsp. coconut milk (cytokinin source) drained from a fresh coconut.
          The remainder can be frozen and used later.
        - 3 to 4 grains (1/400 tsp.!) of a commercial rooting compound which has
          0.1 active ingredient IBA
        - Fill the jar with distilled or deionized water. If purified water is
          not available, water that has been boiled for several minutes can be
          substituted.
        - Shake the mixture and make sure all materials have dissolved.

Baby food jars with lids, or other heat resistant glass receptacles with
lids can be used as individual culture jars. They should be half filled with
cotton or paper to support the plant material. The medium should be poured
into each culture bottle to the point where the support material is just
above the solution.

When all bottles contain the medium and have the lids loosely screwed on,
they are ready to be sterilized. This can be done by placing them in a
pressure cooker and sterilizing them under pressure for 30 minutes or in an
oven at 320 degrees F for 4 hours.  After removing them from the sterilizer,
place them in a clean area and allow the medium to cool. If the bottles will
not be used for several days, wrap groups of culture bottles in foilbefore
sterilizing and then sterilize the whole package. Then the bottles can be
removed and cooled without removing the foil cover. Sterilized water,
tweezers and razor blades, which will be needed later, can be prepared in
the same manner.

Plant Disinfestation and Culture  Once the growing medium is sterilized and
cooled, plant material can be prepared for culture. Because plants usually
harbor bacterial and fungal spores, they must be cleaned (disinfested)
before placement on the sterile medium. Otherwise, bacteria and fungi may
grow faster than the plants and dominate the culture.

Various plant parts can be cultured, but small, actively growing portions
usually result in the most vigorous plantlets. For example, ferns are most
readily propagated by using only 1/2 inch of the tip of a rhizome. For other
species, 1/2 to 1 inch of the shoot tip is sufficient. Remove leaves
attached to the tip and discard. Place the plant part into a solution of 1
part commercial bleach to 9 parts water for 8 to 10 minutes. Submerge all
plant tissue in the bleach solution. After this time period, rinse off
excess bleach by dropping the plant part into sterile water. Remember, once
the plant material has been in the bleach, it has been disinfested and
should only be touched with sterile tweezers.

After the plant material has been rinsed, remove any bleach damaged tissue
with a sterile razor blade. Then remove the cap of a culture bottle
containing sterile medium, place the plant part onto the support material in
the bottle making sure that it is not completely submerged in the medium,
and recap quickly.

Transferring should be done as quickly as possible in a clean environment.
Therefore scrub hands and counter tops with soap and water just before
beginning to disinfest plant material. Rubbing alcohol or a dilute bleach
solution can be used to wipe down the working surface.

-Fig-
Plant Disinfestation and Culture
-Text-

After all plants have been cultured, place them in a warm, well lit (no
direct sunlight) environment to encourage growth. If contamination of the
medium has occurred, it should be obvious within 3 to 4 days. Remove and
wash contaminated culture bottles as quickly as possible to prevent the
spread to uncontaminated cultures.

When plantlets have grown to sufficient size, transplant them into soil.
Handle as gently as possible because the plants are leaving a warm, humid
environment for a cool, dry one. After transplanting, water the plants
thoroughly and place in a clear plastic bag for several days. Gradually
remove the bag to acclimate the plants to their new environment; start with
one hour per day and gradually increase time out of the bag over a two week
period until the plants are strong enough to dispense with the bag
altogether.

-End-
-Title-
 PRUNING
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

To prune or not to prune? This is a question that faces gardeners often.
Most feel they ought, but are not sure why or how. Pruning is accepted
practice for the orchard, fairly frequently carried out in the rose garden,
but rather haphazard elsewhere. Most often it is only performed when a shrub
or tree begins to encroach on its neighbor, a path or a building.

Pruning is often looked upon as the answer to make a barren tree fruitful.
Carried out correctly, it will, eventually. However, years of neglect cannot
be rectified in one season. The unknowing pruner who cuts because he or she
thinks that it ought to be done but does not know how, often ends up with no
flowers at all due to excessive pruning or carrying out the operation at the
wrong time of the year.

What then is pruning? Why, when, and how should it be done? Pruning can be
described as the removal of a part or parts of a woody plant for a specific
purpose. This chapter explains the reasons for pruning, the proper
techniques and tools to use, and when various types of plants should be
pruned.

-End-
-Title-
 REASONS FOR PRUNING
-Text-

The reasons for pruning can be grouped under the four following categories:

    o    to train the plant
    o    to maintain plant health
    o    to improve the quality of flowers, fruit, foliage or stems
    o    to restrict growth

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,191>
-Title-
 REASONS FOR PRUNING
-SubTitle-
 Training the plant
-Text-

The first pruning after trees and shrubs are received consists of removing
broken, crossing, and pest infested branches.

Trees   With trees, the rule of pruning away one-third of the top growth at
transplanting to compensate for root loss is not necessary for properly
pruned nursery grown plants. Excessive pruning at transplanting, according
to research, reduces plant size and does not aid in plant survival.

As a rule, the central leader of a tree should not be pruned, unless a
leader is not wanted, as is the case with some naturally low-branched trees
or where multiple-stemmed plants are desired. Trees with a central leader
such as linden, sweet gum, or pin oak may need little or no pruning except
to eliminate branches competing with the central leader; these should be
shortened. Some pruning may be necessary to maintain desired shape and
shorten extra-vigorous shoots.

The height of the lowest branch can be from a few inches above the ground
for screeningor windbreaks, to seven to twelve feet or more above the ground
as needed near a street or patio. The removal of lower limbs is usually done
over a period of years beginning in the nursery and continuing for several
years after transplanting until the desired height of trimming is reached.

For greatest strength, branches selected for permanent scaffolds must have
wide angle of attachment with the trunk. Branch angles of less than 30
degrees from the main trunk result in a very high percentage of breakage
while those between 60 and 70 degrees have a very small breakage rate.

Vertical branch spacing and radial branch distribution are important. If
this has not been done in the nursery it can at least be started at
transplanting.

Major scaffold branches of shade trees should be spaced at least eight
inches and preferably twenty to twenty-four inches vertically. Closely
spaced scaffolds will have fewer lateral branches. The result will be long,
thin branches with poor structural strength.

-Fig-
Scaffold Branches
-Text-
Scaffold branches of trees should have proper
vertical and radial spacing on the trunk.

Radial branch distribution should allow five to seven scaffolds to fill the
circle of space around a trunk. Radial spacing prevents one limb from
overshadowing another, which in turn reduces competition for light and
nutrients. Remove or prune shoots that are too low, too close, or too
vigorous in relation to the leader and branches selected to become the
scaffold branches.

Shrubs   When deciduous shrubs are planted bare root, some pruning may be
necessary. Light pruning of roots may be needed if any are broken, damaged,
or dead. The branches of shrubs should be pruned by the thinning method
(covered later), not shearing, to reduce overall plant size by one-half or
more.

Shrubs transplanted with a ball of soil or from a container require little
if any pruning. Occasionally, branches may have been damaged in transit, and
these should be removed at the time of planting. Prune only to maintain
desired size and shape.

Most evergreen trees and shrubs are sold B & B (balled and burlapped) or in
a container and, as with deciduous shrubs, require little pruning of
branches.


-End-
-Title-
 REASONS FOR PRUNING
-SubTitle-
 Maintaining Plant Health
-Text-

In pruning to maintain plant health, first consider sanitation, which
includes the elimination of dead, dying, or diseased wood. Any dying branch
or stub can be the entry point or build-up chamber for insects or fungi that
could spread to other parts of the tree. When removing wood infected with a
disease, such as a fungal canker or fire blight, it is important that the
cut be made in healthy wood beyond the point of infection.

As was mentioned under training, the development of a sound framework will
help prevent branches from shading out other, lower branches on the plant.
Evergreen shrubs usually will benefit from an occasional thinning of
foliage. This thinning will allow penetration of light and air throughout
the shrub, resulting in even growth of the foliage.


-End-
-Title-
 REASONS FOR PRUNING
-SubTitle-
 Improving the Quality of Flowers, Fruit, Foliage or Stems
-Text-

The more flowers and fruit a plant produces, the smaller they become, as can
be witnessed on an unpruned rose bush or fruit tree. Pruning reduces the
amount of wood and so diverts energy into the production of larger, though
possibly fewer, flowers and/or fruit. Most flowering shrubs will bloom
either on last year's growth, or on new growth. Properly timed pruni

Some deciduous shrubs have colored barks which are especially delightful in
winter. The best color is produced on young stems and the greatest stem
length and most intense color results from hard pruning.


-End-
-Title-
 REASONS FOR PRUNING
-SubTitle-
 Restricting Growth
-Text-

Over time, trees and shrubs will often grow to sizes that exceed the space
allowed for them. Where space is limited, regular pruning becomes necessary
to keep plants in bounds. Regular pruning is necessary on formal hedges to
maintain a uniform growth rate. To reduce labor, select plants that will not
exceed allotted space.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,195>
-Title-
 PRUNING TOOLS
-Text-

Hand pruning shears are good for branches up to one-half inch in diameter.
Attempting to cut larger branches risks making a poor cut and/or ruining the
shears.

There are two styles of hand shears: 1) the scissor action; and 2) the anvil
cut. In the second style, a sharpened blade cuts against a broad, flat
blade. In the first, a thin, sharp blade slides closely past a thicker but
also sharp blade. The first one usually costs more, but makes cleaner,
closer cuts.

-Fig-
Pruning Tools
-Text-
Lopping shears have long handles and are operated with both hands. Even the
cheapest can cut one-half inch diameter material. The better ones can slice
through branches of two inches or more, depending on species and condition
(e.g., pin oak is tougher than linden and dead wood is tougher, until decay
sets in, than live wood).

Pole pruners have a cutter with one hooked blade above and a cutting blade
beneath. The cutter is on a pole and is operated by a lanyard pulled
downward. The poles can either be in sections, that fit together or
telescoping and can be made of several materials. Woodenpoles are heavy.
Aluminum poles are light but can conduct electricity if they touch an
overhead wire. Fiberglass, or some type of plastic compound is probably the
best answer. Poles can be fitted with saws, but these usually are very
frustrating to use.

Use of pole pruners can be dangerous, as material cut overhead can fall on
the operator (unless it hangs up in other branches). The user should
exercise caution and wear head and eye protection.

-Fig-
Pole Saw-Pruner
-Text-
Manual hedge shears have long, flat blades and relatively short handles, one
for each hand. Heavy duty shears with one blade serrated are good for
difficult jobs.

Power hedge shears are also available. The most common for home use are
electric models.

-Fig-
Hedge Shears
-Text-
There are many makes and models of hand pruning saws. Fineness of cutting
edge is measured in points (teeth per inch). An 8 point saw is for delicate,
close work on small shrubs and trees. Average saws are about 5 1/2 to 6
points, while 4 1/2 point saws are for fairly heavy limbs.

Folding saws either require a screwdriver (for a slotted-head holding screw)
or will have a protruding wingnut which can scar the trunk when a limb is
cut. If the saw suddenly folds while in use the operator's fingers can be
damaged. A fixed blade saw with a leather scabbard is safer.

Blades can be either straight or curved. Many prefer a curved blade that
cuts on the draw stroke. A double-edged saw has fine teeth on one side,
coarse on the other. These are difficult to use in densely branched plants.

Bow saws are good only where no obstruction exists for a foot or more above
the area to be cut.

-Fig-
Types of Saws
-Text-
Chain saws come in a variety of sizes, both gas and electric. However, in
general, chainsaws are not appropriate for pruning of live plant material.
They are better suited to the removal of trees and cutting of firewood.

Care of Tools  Clean and oil tools regularly, including wiping an oily cloth
on blades and other surfaces. Keep cutting edges sharp. Several passes with
a good oil stone will usually suffice. Wooden handles should be either
painted, varnished, or regularly treated with linseed oil. Use tools
properly. Don't twist or strain pruners or loppers. Keep the branch to be
cut as deeply in the jaws and near the pivot, as possible. Don't cut wires
with pruning tools.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,196>
-Title-
 PRUNING TECHNIQUES
-SubTitle-
 Twigs and Small Branches
-Text-

When pruning twigs and small branches, always cut back to a vigorous bud or
an intersecting branch.

When cutting back to a bud, choose a bud that is pointing in the direction
you wish the new growth to take. Be sure not to leave a stub over the bud or
cut too close to the bud.

-Fig-
Pruning Angle
-Text-
When cutting back to an intersecting (lateral) branch, choose a branch that
forms an angle of no more than 45 degrees with the branch to be removed.
Also, the branch that you cut back to should have a diameter of at least
one-half that of the branch to be removed.

-Fig-
Cutting Small Branches
-Text-
Make slanting cuts when removing limbs that grow upward; this prevents water
from collecting in the cut and expedites healing.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,197>
-Title-
 PRUNING TECHNIQUES
-SubTitle-
 Thick, Heavy Branches
-Text-

According to Dr. Alex Shigo, plant pathologist, USDA Forest Service, thick,
heavy branches should be removed flush to the collar at the base of the
branch, not flush with the trunk.

The collar is an area of tissue that contains a chemically protective zone.
In the natural decay of a dead branch, when the decay advancing downward
meets the internal protected zone, an area of very strong wood meets an area
of very weak wood. The branch then falls away at this point leaving a small
zone of decayed wood within the collar. The decay is walled off in the
collar. This is the natural shedding process when all goes according to
nature's plan. When the collar is removed, the protective zone is removed,
causing a serious trunk wound. Wood-decay fungi can then easily infect the
trunk. If the pruned branch is living, removal of the collar at the base
still causes injury.

For over half a century the recommendations for pruning have been to
flush-cut and paint. These recommendations have no basis in scientific fact.
The flush-cut increases the tree injury which the paint hides. The paint is
primarily cosmetic, a psychological treatment for the person doing the
pruning, to show that he or she has done something to "help" the tree. In
fact, paints or wound dressings may trap moisture and increase disease
problems.

When cutting branches over 1.5" in diameter, use a 3-part cut. This is
accomplished by first sawing an undercut from the bottom of the branch about
six to twelve inches out from the trunk and about 1/3 of the way through the
branch. Next, make a second cut from the top, about three inches further out
from the undercut, until the branch falls away. The resulting stub can then
be cut back to the collar of the branch. If there is danger of the branch
damaging other limbs below, or objects on the ground, it must be properly
roped and supported, then carefully lowered to the ground after the second
cut.

-Fig-
Cutting Large Branches
-End-

-Title-
 PRUNING TECHNIQUES
-SubTitle-
 Root Pruning
-Text-

A tree growing in the woods or landscape for several years may develop long
roots running fifteen to twenty-five feet or more away from the plant.
These, along with many-branched side roots, physically support the tree. The
area in a three-foot radius of the trunk of the tree contains very few of
the small feeding roots essential to gathering nourishment for the tree.
These roots are usually located quite some distance from the trunk,
branching off the long main roots. As a consequence, if the tree were to be
balled and moved, a major part of the necessary feeding roots would be cut
off in the balling operation and the tree might easily die when
transplanted. This is the reason nurserymen root-prune nursery plants, to
force them to grow a large number of small feeding roots near the base of
the plant which are moved in the balling operation and insure growth after
transplanting.

To make it possible to safely dig small trees or shrubs in the woods, such
trees should be root-pruned a year or so before they are moved. In the
spring, sever half the roots by forcing a sharp spade into the soil around
the plant alternately leaving a shovel width of untouched soil in between
cuts. The circle of cuts should be slightly smaller than the size of the
ball that will eventually be dug. In the fall sever the other half of the
roots, thus cutting all the roots that are at a depth of a foot or less. The
tree can then be moved the following spring. Another way of accomplishing
the same thing is to cut the roots all on one side in the spring, then on
the other side the following spring, moving it that fall.

Recent research indicates that most of the new roots grow from the cut end.
Therefore a root ball 4-6 inches larger than the rootpruned area must be dug
to get the newly developed roots.

Root pruning is also used to force a vigorous-growing fruit tree, Wisteria
vine, or Flowering Dogwood into bloom. Using a spade to cut the roots in a
circle about the plant early in the spring, as explained above, is all that
is sometimes necessary to force a tree, shrub or vine into bloom the
following year.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,199>
-Title-
 PRUNING SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Deciduous Shrubs
-Text-

The pruning recommended for most deciduous shrubs consists of thinning out,
gradual renewal and rejuvenation pruning. In thinning out, a branch or twig
is cut off at its point of origin from the parent stem, to a lateral side
branch, to be "Y" of a branch junction, or at ground level. This method of
pruning results in a more open plant and does not stimulate excessive new
growth. Considerable growth can be cut off without changing the plant's
natural appearance or habit of growth. Plants can be maintained at a given
height and width for years by thinning out. This method of pruning is best
done with hand pruning shears, loppers, or saw, but no hedge shears.
Thinning allows room for growth of side branches. Thin out the oldest and
tallest stems first.

-Fig-
Deciduous Shrubs
-Text-
GRADUAL RENEWAL

In gradual renewal pruning, a few of the oldest and tallest branches are
removed at or slightly above ground level on an annual basis. Some thinning
out pruning may be necessary to shorten long branches or maintain a
symmetrical shape.

To rejuvenate an old, overgrown shrub, one-third of the oldest, tallest
branches can be removed at or slightly above ground level before new growth
starts.

When the shrub to be pruned is grown for its flowers, the pruning must be
timed to minimize disruption of the blooming.

Spring flowering shrubs bloom on last season's growth and should be pruned
soon after they bloom. This allows for vigorous growth during the summer to
provide flower buds for the following year.

-Fig-
Pruning Procedure
-Text-
Some examples of shrubs that bloom on last season's growth:
       Cercis chinensis                             Chinese redbud
       Chaenomeles japonica                         Japanese quince
       Chionanthus virginicus                       Fringe tree
       Deutzia spp.                                 Spring flowering deutzias
       Exochorda racemosa                           Pearlbush
       Forsythia spp.                               All forsythia species
       Kerria japonica                              Kerria
       Lonicera spp.                                Honeysuckle
       Magnolia stellata                            Star magnolia
       Philadelphus spp.                            Mockorange species
       Pieris spp.                                  Andromeda species
       Rhododendron spp.                            Azaleas and rhododendrons
       Rosa spp.                                    Rambling rose species
       Spiraea spp.                                 Early white spirea species
       Syringa spp.                                 Lilac species
       Tamarix parviflora                           Small flowered tamarix
       Viburnum spp.                                Viburnum species
       Weigela florida                              Old fashioned weigela

Some shrubs that bloom after June usually do so from buds which are formed
on shoots that grow the same spring. Such shrubs should be pruned in late
winter to promote vigorous shoot growth in the spring.

Some examples of shrubs that bloom on current season's growth:
       Abelia x grandiflora                         Glossy abelia
       Buddleia davidii or globosa                  Butterfly bush
       Callicarpa japonica                          Japanese beauty bush
       Caryopteris x clandonensis                   Bluebeard
       Clethra alnifolia                            Summersweet
       Hibiscus syriacus                            Shrub althea
       Hydrangea arborescens                        Hills of Snow
       Hydrangea paniculata                         Peegee Hydrangea
       Hypericum spp.                               St. Johnswort
       Lagerstroemia indica                         Crape myrtle
       Rosa spp.                                    Bush rose
       Spiraea bumalda                              Anthony Waterer Spirea
       Spiraea japonica                             Mikado Spirea
       Symphoricarpos                               Coralberry and Snowberry
       Tamarix hispida                              Kashgar
       Tamarix odessana                             Odessa
       Vitex agnus-cactus                           Chaste tree

-End-
-Title-
 PRUNING SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Evergreen Shrubs
-Text-

For most evergreen shrubs, a thinning out type of pruning as described
earlier is the most desirable procedure. Some evergreens can be sheared when
a stiff, formal appearance is desired; however, they will still need to be
thinned occasionally.

Both evergreen and deciduous shrubs grown for foliage should be pruned in
late winter before new growth starts. Minor corrective pruning can be done
at any time.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,201>
-Title-
 PRUNING SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Hedges
-Text-

Hedges consist of plants set in a row so as to merge into a solid linear
mass. They have served gardeners for centuries as screens, fences, walls and
edgings.

A well-shaped hedge is no accident. It must be trained from the beginning.
The establishment of a deciduous hedge begins with the selection of nursery
stock. Choose young trees or shrubs one to two feet high, preferably
multiple-stemmed. When planting, cut the plants back to six or eight inches.
This will induce low branching. Late in the first season or before bud-break
in the next, prune off half of the new growth. In the following year, again
trim off half.

In the third year, start shaping. Trim to the desired shape before the hedge
grows to the desired size. Never allow the plants to grow untrimmed to the
final height before shearing. By that time it will be too late to get
maximum branching at the base. Lower branches must not be allowed to be
shaded out. After the hedge has reached the dimensions desired, trim closely
in order to keep within chosen bounds.

Evergreen nursery stock for hedging need not be as small as deciduous
material and should not be cut back when planted. Trim lightly after a
year or two. Start shaping as the individual plants merge into a continuous
hedge. Do not trim too closely because many needle-bearing evergreens do
not easily generate new growth from old wood.

Hedges are often shaped with flat tops and vertical sides. This unnatural
shaping is seldom successful. The best shape, as far as the plant is
concerned, is a natural form, rounded or slightly pointed top with sides
slanting to a wide base.

After plants have been pruned initially to induce low branching, the low
branching will be maintained by trimming the top narrower than the bottom,
so that sunlight can reach all of the leaves on the plant.

-Fig-
Hedge Pruning
-Text-
Rounded or peaked tops aid in the shedding of snow, which if left, may break
branches. Before shaping, some thought should be given to the shape of the
untrimmed plant. For example, naturally conical arborvitae does particularly
well in a Gothic arch shape. Common buckthorn, a spreading plant, is more
easily shaped to a Roman arch.

These questions often arise:  "How often should this hedge be trimmed?" and
"When should I trim?"  Answers depend to some extent on how formal an
appearance is desired. In general, trim before the growth exceeds one foot.
Hedges of slow-growing plants such as boxwood need trimming sooner.
Excessive untrimmed growth will kill leaves beneath, and also pull the hedge
out of shape. This is especially true with weak-stemmed shrubs. In the
mountain areas of Virginia, yews and other evergreens may need shearing only
once annually and then not before July; in milder areas two or even three
shearings may benecessary. Deciduous material should be trimmed earlier than
July, but after the spring flush of new growth, and will often need to be
trimmed once or twice more. Frequency depends on the kind of shrub, season,
and degree of neatness desired.

-Fig-
Hedge Types
-Text-
What can be done with a large, overgrown, bare-bottomed and misshapen hedge?
If it is deciduous, the answer is fairly simple. In the spring, before
leaves appear, prune to one foot below the desired height. Then trim
carefully for the next few years to give it the shape and fullness desired.
Occasionally hedge plants may have declined too much to recover from this
treatment and replacing them may be necessary.

Rejuvenating evergreen hedges is more difficult. As a rule, evergreens
cannot stand the severe pruning described above. Arborvitae and yew are
exceptions. Other evergreen hedges may have to be replaced.

Tools  What tools should be used to trim hedges? The traditional pair of
scissorhedge shears is still the best all-round tool. It will cut much
better and closer than electric trimmers which often break and tear twigs.
Hand shears can be used on any type of hedge, while electric trimmers do
poorly on large-leaved and wiry-twigged varieties, and sometimes jam on
thick twigs. Hand shears are also quieter and safer, less likely to gouge
the hedge or harm the operator.

Hand pruners are useful in removing a few stray branches, and are essential
if an informal look is desired. Large individual branches can be removed
with loppers and/or a pruning saw. Chain saws are not recommended for use on
hedges.

-End-
-Title-
 PRUNING SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Roses
-Text-

All roses need some type of pruning. If roses are not pruned for a number of
years, plants deteriorate in appearance and often develop more than the
usual disease and insect problems, while the flowers become smaller and
smaller.

Hybrid Tea, Grandiflora and Floribunda roses require annual pruning in the
spring after

winter protection has been removed. As a guide line follow the old saying
that roses are pruned when the forsythia blooms. If rosebushes are pruned
too early, injury from repeated frost may make a second pruning necessary.

Tools and Supplies  For small pruning jobs, the only tools necessary are
sharp hand pruning shears and gloves. If the rose collection is large, a
small saw with pointed blade and loppers will help. Loppers are used to
reach in and cut out large dead canes.

Reasons for Pruning  Prune to remove branches that are dead, damaged,
diseased, thin,weak and growing inward, and branches that cross or interfere
with other branches. Proper pruning encourages new growth from the base
making the plant healthy and attractive and resulting in large blossoms.

Steps in Pruning  Remove all dead and diseased wood by cutting at least one
inch below the damaged area. Remove all weak shoots. If two branches rub or
are close enough that they will do so soon, remove one. On old, heavy
bushes, cut out one or two of the oldest canes each year.

Cut back the remaining canes. The height to which a rose should be cut back
will vary depending upon the normal habit of the particular cultivar. The
average pruning height for Floribundas and Hybrid Teas is between twelve and
eighteen inches, but taller growing Hybrids and most Grandifloras may be
left at two feet.

Make cuts at a 45 degree angle above a strong outer bud. Aim the cut upward
from the inner side of the bush to push growth outward and promote healthy
shoots and quality flowers.

Other types of roses have special considerations in their pruning.

Standard or Tree Roses   A tree rose is a Hybrid Tea, Grandiflora, or
Floribunda budded at the top of a tall trunk. Prune tree roses as you do
Hybrid Teas, cutting the branches to within six to ten inches of the base of
the crown in order to encourage rounded, compact, vigorous new growth.

Miniature Roses   Miniatures are six to twelve inches high, with tiny blooms
and foliage. Miniature roses do not need special pruning. Just cut out dead
growth and remove the hips.

Ramblers   Old-fashioned Rambler roses have clusters of flowers, each
usually less than two inches across. They often produce pliable canes ten to
fifteen feet long in one season. Ramblers produce best on year-old wood, so
that this year's choice blooms come on last year's growth. Prune immediately
after flowering. Remove entirely some of the large old canes. Tie new canes
to a support for the next year.

Large-Flowering Climbers   Climbing roses have large flowers, more than two
inches across, borne on wood that is two or more years old. Canes are larger
and sturdier than those of Ramblers. Some flower just once in June, but
some, called ever-blooming climbers, flower more or less continuously. This
group should be pruned in autumn, any time before cold weather sets in.
First cut out dead and diseased canes. After this, remove one or two of the
oldest canes each season at ground level to make room for new canes. The
laterals, or side shoots, are shortened three to six inches after flowering.

If the plant is strong, keep five to eight main canes, which should be tied
to the trellis, fence, wall, or other support. If it is not strong, leave
fewer canes.

-End-
-Title-
 PRUNING SHADE TREES
-Text-

Young shade trees may not need to be pruned to develop a good framework.
Mature trees are generally pruned only for sanitation, safety, or reasons of
size restriction. Trees can be pruned at any time of the year. A few trees
bleed profusely when pruned in late winter. Among these are the sugar maple,
birch, black walnut, and flowering dogwood. The bleeding has no harmful
effect but is unsightly.

In winter, an experienced tree professional can easily distinguish between
live and dead

wood. Winter pruning is often preferred because it is easy to visualize
shaping when foliage is gone. Such work can also be done at lower cost in
winter because fewer precautions are necessary to avoid, garden and flower
bed damage and cleanup is easier.

-End-
-Title-
 PRUNING VINES AND GROUNDCOVERS
-Text-

The pruning of ornamental vines is similar to the pruning of ornamental
shrubs. Flowering vines are pruned according to flower production; those
that flower on new wood are pruned before new growth begins, those that
flower on last season's growth are pruned immediately after flowering.

Vines that are grown for foliage are pruned to control growth and direction.
Timing is less critical than for flowering vines.

Ground cover plants require very little pruning. Dead or damaged stems
should be removed whenever observed. Some trailing ground covers, such as
English ivy, may need pruning to prevent encroachment on lawn areas or other
plants. With liriope, a grass-like ground cover, appearance is improved by
an annual pruning. Before new leaves are one inch tall in each clump, remove
the dead leaves from the previous year. For large liriope plantings a
lawnmower set to cut above the new leaf tips will speed this early spring
job.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,205>
-Title-
 PRUNING APPLE TREES
-SubTitle-
 Training and Pruning of Nonbearing Apple Trees
-Text-

The objectives of training, the directing or modification of growth into a
desired tree form, include early fruit production and development of an
optimum tree structure for support of future crops and optimum fruit quality
conditions. These objectives can be met by maintaining a proper balance
between vegetative and potential fruiting wood. Excess shoot growth will
delay the onset of fruiting. Thus, excess pruning of young, nonbearing trees
will delay the beginning of fruit production in the life of that tree.
Training should be emphasized in the development of trees with pruning used
as a tool in the training process to redirect limbs, stimulate branching
when desired, or to remove growth that is in an undesirable location.
Pruning should not be used to invigorate growth in an attempt to compensate
for poor fertilization, poor weed control, or drought conditions.

Future pruning of an apple tree is greatly affected by early training. Much
of the pruning of young bearing trees is the result of errors made in
training in the early life of the tree. Thus, it is imperative that training
begin early. A delay for the first 3-4 years will result in a
poorly-developed, weak tree. Correction of such a problem, usually with
heavy pruning, will only further delay and decrease fruit production.

An integral part of a tree training program is limb spreading. Limb
orientation affects vigor in various ways (Fig. 1): a) An upright or
vertical limb produces the longest shoots near the apex and tends to exhibit
high vegetative vigor. Often, fruit hang down against the limb and are
subject to rub. b) As limbs are oriented away from vertical, they exhibit
reduced vigor of shoots near the apex, more uniform branching along the
shoot, and favordevelopment of fruiting spurs. Fruit hang along the limb and
are less prone to rub. A limb orientation around 60 degrees from vertical is
desired. c) However, horizontal orientation of limbs results in the
development of vigorous watersprouts along the upper surface of the limb, at
the expense of potential fruiting spurs.

-Fig-
Limb Orientation
-Text-
Thus, correct limb spreading (near 60 degrees from vertical) can be used to
develop a proper balance between vegetative and fruiting growth. Limb
spreading should begin early as many cultivars, such as Red Delicious
(particularly spur-types), naturally develop narrow

crotch angles. If these narrow crotch angles are not widened (greater than
35 degrees), a situation can quickly develop in which bark is trapped
between the trunk and scaffold (bark inclusion) (Fig. 2). This bark
inclusion prevents layers of annual wood from growing together and creates
the potential for splitting. If these narrow crotch angles with bark
inclusions are allowed to develop, later attempts at limb spreading may
result in splitting of the crotch. Two objectives exist for limb spreading:
1) development of a strong wide crotch angle (greater than 35 degrees) free
of bark inclusion and 2) limb orientation at 60 degrees from vertical to
balance vegetative and fruiting growth. To derive the benefits of limb
spreading, the crotch must be physically strong to undergo spreading without
splitting.

-Fig-
Wide Crotch Angles
Upright Limbs
-Text-
Poor pruning practices are not a wise substitute for proper limb spreading
in the training of upright scaffolds (Fig. 3, a). Improper pruning cuts will
not change the crotch angle, improve limb position, or aid in the control of
vegetative vigor. c) Scaffolds should be spread and lower lateral removed if
necessary.

At Planting   Trees must be pruned at planting for several reasons. The top
of the tree must be brought into balance with the root system which is
usually damaged in the nursery digging operation. Pruning forces the growth
of laterals from which future scaffolds will be selected.

Head spur types and semi-dwarfs to a height of 30 to 35". Standards are
headed to 40". If feathered (branched) trees are planted, they should be
headed to a strong bud to stimulate growth of the central leader. Feathers
desirably located can be retained as scaffolds andshould be headed.
Undesirable feathers should be removed.

First Growing Season   Scaffold selection can begin in the early summer,
especially on cultivars developing narrow crotch angles. Shoots developing
below the lowest desired scaffold should be removed. Generally, in the first
year, 2-4 good scaffolds can be selected that are evenly distributed and not
directly above one another (Fig. 4).

The vertical spacing between scaffolds can vary from 3-6 inches to 12 inches
depending on the ultimate size of the tree. Limbs with crotch angles less
than 35 degrees should be spread or removed. Hardwood toothpicks and
clothespins can be used if training is done in early summer while shoots are
soft. Short pieces of wire (#9) can also be used. Shoots undesirably located
can be completely removed at this time.

First Year Dormant Season   Select shoots to be retained as scaffolds if not
done earlier. Spread selected scaffolds before any pruning is done.
Spreading changes the shape of the tree and may influence pruning decisions.
Remove shoots that were not selected as scaffolds. The central leader should
be headed to maintain dominance and induce branching. This is done 3-5
inches above the point where the next layer or tier of scaffolds is desired.
Refrain from heading scaffolds unless they need to be shortened or
stiffened. Generally a one-year-old shoot naturally branches in the season
after development (Fig. 5). Spreading of that scaffold will encourage
uniform branching. However, a scaffold will often exhibit excess vigor and
upset the balance of the tree. Heading can also be used to encourage growth
and branching on spur types.

Second Growing Season   Limbs not previously trained can be easily spread
early in the growing season as wood is flexible then. Fruit developing on
the central leader should be removed to maintain vigor in the center of the
tree. The new tier of scaffold limbs can be selected and trained at this
time. These should be well spaced with the lower scaffolds in mind.

Second Year Dormant Season   Some of the scaffolds that were selected and
spread in the first year may turn up and resume vertical growth. Longer
spreaders can be used to spread the limbs back to the desired orientation.
The smaller spreaders can be moved further up into the tree. Again,
scaffolds should be spread before any pruning is done. The central leader
should be headed again to maintain vigor and stimulate branching.

-Fig-
First Season Scaffolds
Shoot Branching
-Text-
Succeeding Years  Continue training and pruning following the previously
discussed principles of central leader dominance and proper scaffold
selection and training. Scaffolds should be maintained in a 60 degree from
vertical orientation. A conical tree shape shouldbe maintained. Thus, the
upper scaffold should be shorter than the scaffold below it. After the third
year, upper scaffolds can be shortened with the use of thinning cuts
(Fig.6). Thinning cuts remove the entire shoot or branch at its junction
with a lateral scaffold or trunk. Thinning cuts are less invigorating than
heading cuts, improve light penetration, and can redirect the limb.

-Fig-
Thinning Limbs
Prune to Maintain Height
-Text-
Remove crossing branches and vigorous watersprouts. Shoots growing up into
the tree or shaded "hangers" should be removed.

Once the desired tree height is reached, the tree can be maintained by
annually cutting back to a weak lateral on the central leader (Fig. 7). This
will maintain vigor in the center top of the tree while maintaining desired
tree height.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,206>
-Title-
 PRUNING APPLE TREES
-SubTitle-
 Pruning Bearing Apple Trees
-Text-

When pruning is underway, older bearing trees should be pruned first. Young
nonbearing apple trees and stone fruits should not be pruned until after
February 1 to minimize chances of winter injury.

The balance between vegetative and fruiting growth is influenced by the crop
load, fertilization, and pruning. Fruiting may be poor because vigor is too
high or too low. Excessive vigor can be the result of inadequate
fertilization, no pruning, excessive cropping, or shading of fruiting wood.
Good fruiting wood requires moderate vigor and exposure to good light
levels.

Light is the source of energy that produces the crop. Bearing wood that is
shaded is low in vigor and produces small, poorly colored fruits. Good light
exposure is necessary for the development of flower buds as well as optimum
size, color, and sugar content of the fruit. Studies have shown that a
typical tree canopy is composed of different layers or zones in respect to
light exposure (Fig. 8): (a) an outside zone of leaves and fruit receives a
high proportion of direct light and light levels above those required for
good growth and fruiting; (b) a second zone receives adequate light
exposure; and (c) a third, inner zone receives inadequate light exposure and
is unproductive.

-Fig-
Light Zones in Apple Trees
Percent Shade Area Increases as Tree Size Increases
Tree Shape Influences Shaded Areas
-Text-
The relative proportion of these zones in a tree is influenced by tree size
and shape. As tree size increases, the percentage of the tree that is shaded
and unproductive (third zone) increases (Fig. 9). Trees that have wide tops
and narrow bottoms also have a high percentage of shaded areas in the tree
canopy (Fig. 10). Trees should be cone shaped or larger at the bottom than
the top to maximize adequate light exposure.

Good light exposure in the tree canopy can also be maintained by a good
pruning program. Ideally, pruning should remove unproductive wood and
develop a uniform distribution of vigor and light exposure throughout the
tree. Proper pruning can also help to maintain desired tree size and shape.

When pruning, a few basic concepts should be kept in mind:

(1) Pruning invigorates and results in strong growth close to the pruning
cut. Pruning reduces the number of shoots so remaining shoots are
stimulated. However, total shoot growth and size of the limb is reduced.

(2) Two types of pruning cuts are heading back and thinning out (Fig. 11):
(a) Heading is the cutting off of part of a shoot or branch. Heading
stimulates branching and stiffens the

limb. (b) Thinning cuts remove the entire shoot or branch at its junction
with a lateral, scaffold, or trunk. Thinning cuts are less invigorating,
improve light penetration, and can redirect the limb.

-Fig-
Types of Pruning Cuts
Limb Position Affects Fruiting and Vigor
-Text-
(3) Limb position affects vigor and fruitfulness (Fig. 12): (a) Vertical or
upright branches, typical in the tops of trees produce the longest shoots
near the end of the limb and tend to be excessively vigorous and not very
fruitful. Fruit are often of poor quality and subject to limb rub. (b) Limbs
growing slightly above horizontal are more apt to develop a uniform
distribution of vigor and fruitfulness. Light distribution tends to be even
and because fruit hang along the branch, they are less prone to limb rub.
(c) Limbs growing below horizontal tend to develop suckers along the upper
surface. Excess sucker growth will result in shading. (d) "Hangers" or limbs
developing on the underside of branches or scaffolds areheavily shaded and
low in vigor. Fruit developing on such wood is of poor size and color.

(4) Invigoration from pruning is, in part, a nitrogen response. Pruning
alters the balance between the tree top and root system. Removal of part of
the tree top increases the amount of nitrogen available for the remaining
growing points. Thus, a pruning program should be developed along with a
good fertilization program. Severe pruning and/or excess amount of
fertilization can disrupt the vigor of the tree and decrease fruiting.

Pruning should be on a regular basis and consist of moderate cuts made
throughout the tree to distribute vigor and provide good light penetration.
Heading cuts should only be used where branching is desired or in areas
where vigor is low. Drooping or low hanging branches should be removed or
pruned to a lateral that is positioned above horizontal (Fig. 13). Remove
crossing, dead, or damaged limbs. Watersprouts should be removed unless one
is needed for the development of new bearing surface. Watersprouts can be
easily removed by gloved hand as they develop in the summer.

-Fig-
Thin Out Low Hanging Branches
Avoid Bench Cuts
-Text-
Without regular annual pruning, trees often become overly thick and
irregular bearing may occur. Spray penetration is reduced and problems such
as scale may develop in the dense areas of the tree. With this type of tree,
make many thinning cuts throughout the tree with emphasis on the upper,
outer portions of the tree. This will open up areas into the tree canopy as
well as re-establish good tree shape.

Avoid bench cuts to outward growing limbs unless necessary. Such cuts result
in weak limbs and an umbrella shape that creates a sucker problem (Fig. 14).
Remove no more than one to two large limbs per year. If large amounts of
pruning are required, it should be spread over a 2-3 year period. In
addition, such pruning should be preceded and followed for 1-2 years by a
reduction or elimination of nitrogen application, depending on soil type,
variety, and grower experience.

The excess vigor that can result from severe pruning can decrease fruit
quality. The effect is much the same as from excessive nitrogen application
and may include excessively large, poorly colored, soft apples which will
not store well. Vegetative growth competes with fruit for calcium; thus,
under conditions of excessive vigor, cork spot may develop.

Hedging and topping should only be used to maintain tree size when trees are
at or near desired size. Such pruning is often used in an attempt to reduce
tree size. Misuse can result in a disruption of vigor and loss of yield
which may take several years to control. Hedging and topping (mainly heading
cuts), especially of one-year shoots, induce masses of shoots close to the
plane where cutting takes place. This localized invigoration of shoots can
shade and weaken inner areas of the tree.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,207>
-Title-
 PRUNING OTHER FRUIT TREES
-Text-

The general purpose of pruning fruit trees is to regulate growth, increase
yields, improve

fruit size and quality, and reduce production costs. Pruning is necessary to
shape trees for convenience of culture and repair of damage.

Most pruning is done during the dormant season, preferably just before
active growth begins in the spring. At this time, pruning wounds heal
quickly, flower buds can be easily recognized, and injury from low winter
temperature is avoided. Summer pruning may be done to help train trees to
the desired growth, and maintain small tree size. It should be remembered,
however, that all pruning has a dwarfing effect. For maximum yield of high
quality fruit, prune only as necessary to establish a tree with a strong
framework capable of supporting heavy crops annually without damage and to
maintain a tree sufficiently open to allow penetration of sunlight, air, and
spray material for good fruit development and pest control.

Pear trees are trained along the same general lines as those recommended for
apples. Tipping or heading back the long shoots slightly will encourage
development of side branches. Heading back after the framework has been
developed is undesirable because of the tendency of the tree to throw out
soft terminal shoots, which are highly susceptible to fire blight. It is
best to limit pruning to thinning-out cuts.

Sweet cherry trees are trained to the modified leader system recommended for
the apple. Special attention should be given to the selection of scaffold
limbs because sweet cherry is subject to winter injury and splitting at the
point where the limbs join the main stem of the tree. It is essential that
the crotch angles be as wide as possible to ensure a strong framework.

A sour cherry tree, with no strong branches at the time of planting, should
be headed to about twenty-four inches above the ground. Selection of
laterals can be made at the beginning of the second year's growth. If it has
some good laterals when planted, remove those lower than sixteen inches from
the ground. Select about three permanent lateral or scaffold limbs along the
leader, four to six inches apart and not directly over one another. Do not
head them back since this tends to stunt terminal growth.

In the following years, select side branches from the leader until there is
a total of five or six scaffold limbs well distributed above the lowest
branch along three or four feet of the main stem. The leader is then usually
modified by cutting to an outward-growing lateral. After fruiting begins,
pruning consists mainly of thinning out excessive and crowded growth each
year to allow sunlight to filter through the tree.

The plum may also be pruned in a manner similar to the apple. European and
prune types generally develop into well-shaped trees, even if little pruning
is done. Thinning out excessive growth constitutes the bulk of pruning after
heading back to thirty to thirty-six inches at the time of planting.
Varieties of the Japanese type are usually a little more vigorous, and may
need some heading back as well as thinning of excessive growth after they
come into bearing.

Peach trees are usually trained to the open center system. Newly planted
trees should be headed to about thirty inches in height, just above a
lateral branch or bud. If the tree is branched when it comes from the
nursery, select three or four laterals well spaced up and around the trunk
for the permanent scaffold limbs. The lowest limb should be about fifteen
inches and the highest about thirty inches from the ground. Cut these back
to two buds each, and remove all other laterals.

If no desirable laterals are available, head the tree to the desired height
and cut out all side branches to one bud. A number of shoots will develop
during the season from which you can select scaffold limbs. Selection can be
made during the summer or delayed until just before growth begins the second
season.

Once the scaffold system of the young peach tree is established, prune as
little as possible until the tree begins to bear. Remove all strong, upright
shoots growing in the center of the tree, and lightly head back terminal
growth on the scaffold limbs to outwardlaterals. This aids in the
development of an open center tree.

As fruit is borne on wood of the previous year's growth, it is necessary
that the peach be pruned annually to stimulate new growth and maintain
production near the main body of

the tree. Pruning of the mature peach tree consists mainly of moderate
thinning and heading back to outward-growing laterals to keep the tree low
and spreading. A height of eight or nine feet is usually preferred.

Special Training System   The foregoing suggestions for pruning fruit trees
are concerned with training for maximum production of high quality fruit. In
addition, many home gardeners prune for decorative purposes.

Numerous training systems, based on the art of espalier, originating in
France and Italy about 400 years ago, have been devised. Some are quite
elaborate, requiring considerable time and patience as well as detailed
knowledge of the plant's growth characteristics. The easiest espalier system
is the horizontal cordon. Apples, pears, and plums adapt well to this
system. The trees are usually supported by a wall, a fence, or a wire
trellis. Training to the four-tier cordon or four-wire trellis is relatively
easy.

An espalier system can serve to separate yard areas and to provide an
effective way of producing a large volume of high quality fruit in a limited
area. Trees trained in this fashion should be on dwarfing rootstock.
Otherwise, they tend to grow too large and are difficult to hold within
bounds.

A simple four-wire trellis may be constructed by setting eight foot posts
two feet in the ground, spacing them twelve feet apart, and running wires
through the posts at heights of 18, 36, 54, and 72 inches. Plant two
unbranched whips of the desired variety six feet apart between each two
posts.

-Fig-
First Winter
Second Winter
-Text-
Before growth begins in the spring, cut off the whip just above the first
bud below the point where the whip crosses the lowest wire. Usually three or
more shoots will develop near the point of the cut. Retain the uppermost
shoot and develop it as the central leader. The other two can be developed
into main scaffold branches to be trained along the lower wire, one on each
side of the central stem. Remove all other growth.

The two shoots selected for scaffold limbs should be loosely tied to the
wire as soon as they are ten to twelve inches long. Twine, plastic chainlink
ties, or other suitable material may be used. Tie the shoots so that they
are nearly horizontal. This reduces vegetative vigor and induces flower bud
formation. If the end of the shoot is tied below the horizontal, however,
new growth at the end will stop and vigorous shoots will develop along the
upper side. At the end of the first season, the lateral branches on the
lower wire should be established and the central leader should have grown
above the second wire.

During the dormant pruning at the end of the first winter, cut the central
leader off at a bud just below the second wire. Repeat the process of the
previous spring by developing two scaffold branches to tie to the second
wire and allow the central leader to grow above the third wire.

This process is repeated during the next two seasons, at which time a total
of eight scaffolds, four on each side of the tree, should be firmly
established. The leaders should be bent to form one of the scaffolds rather
than being cut off at the level of the top wire.

By the end of the fourth season, the trees should be in heavy production.
All pruning is then done during the spring and summer months. After new
growth in the spring is about two inches long, cut it off and also remove
about one-fourth of the previous season's growth. Terminals of the scaffold
are left untouched.

About the first of August or as soon as new growth reaches ten to twelve
inches in length, cut it back to two or three buds. Repeat about a month
later, if necessary. This encourages fruit bud formation and prevents
vigorous growth from getting out of bounds.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,208>
-Title-
 PRUNING SMALL FRUIT
-SubTitle-
 Training and Pruning Grapes
-Text-

For grapes to be most productive, they must be trained to a definite system
and pruned rather severely. There are several training systems used. The two
most common are the vertical trellis and the overhead arbor. Both of these
are satisfactory in the home planting if kept well pruned.

One of the many variations of the vertical trellis, the single trunk,
four-arm Kniffin system is the most popular. Posts are set fifteen to twenty
feet apart and extend five feet above the ground. Two wires are stretched
between the posts, the lower being about two and a half feet above the
ground and the upper wire, at the top of the posts. Set between the posts,
the vine is trained to a single trunk with four semipermanent arms, each cut
back to six to ten inches in length. One arm is trained in each direction on
the lower wire.

During annual winter pruning, one cane is saved from those that grew from
near the base of each arm the previous summer. This cane is cut back to
about ten buds. The fruit in the coming season is borne on shoots developing
from those buds. Select another cane from each arm, preferably one that grew
near the trunk, and cut it back to a short stub having two buds. This is a
renewal spur. It should grow vigorously in the spring and be the new
fruiting cane selected the following winter. All other growth on the vine
should be removed. This leaves four fruiting canes, one on each arm with
eight to ten buds each, andfour renewal spurs, one on each arm cut back to
two buds each.

The same training and pruning techniques may be effectively used in training
grapes to the arbor system. The only difference is that the wires supporting
the arms are placed overhead and parallel with each other instead of in a
horizontal position. Overhead wires are usually placed six to seven feet
above the ground.

-Fig-
Four-Arm Kniffen System
-Text-
If an arm dies or for any reason needs to be replaced, choose the largest
cane that has grown from the trunk near the base of the dead arm and train
it to the trellis wire. To renew the trunk, train a strong shoot from the
base of the old trunk to the trellis as though it were the cane of a new
vine. Establish the arms in the same manner as for a new vine, and cut off
the old trunk.

Pruning may be done anytime after the vines become dormant. In areas where
there is danger of winter injury, pruning may be delayed until early spring.
Vines pruned very late may bleed excessively, but there is no evidence that
this is permanently injurious.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,209>
-Title-
 PRUNING SMALL FRUIT
-SubTitle-
 Training and Pruning Blueberries
-Text-

Until the end of the third growing season, pruning consists mainly of the
removal of low spreading canes and dead and broken branches. As the bushes
come into bearing, regular annual pruning will be necessary. This may be
done any time from leaf fall until growth begins in the spring. Select six
to eight of the most vigorous, upright growing canes for fruiting wood and
remove all others.

After about five or six years of age, the canes begin to lose vigor, and
fruit production is reduced. At the dormant pruning, remove the older canes
of declining vigor, and replace with strong, vigorous new shoots that grew
from the base of the bush the previous season. Keep the number of fruiting
canes to six or eight, and remove the rest. Head back excessive terminal
growth to a convenient berry picking height.

-Fig-
Pruning Blueberries, Before and After
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,210>
-Title-
 PRUNING SMALL FRUIT
-SubTitle-
 Training and Pruning Brambles
-Text-

Trailing blackberries need some form of support. They may be grown on a
trellis, trained along a fence, or tied to stakes. Other brambles may either
be trained to supports, or with more severe pruning, grown as upright,
self-supporting plants. Red raspberries and erect-growing blackberries are
frequently grown in hedgerows.

A simple trellis, used in many home gardens, consists of two wires stretched
at three and five foot levels between posts set fifteen to twenty feet
apart. Fruiting canes are tied to these wires in the spring. The erect
varieties are tied where the canes cross the wires. Canes of trailing
varieties are tied horizontally along the wires or fanned out from the
ground and tied where they cross each wire.

Where stakes are used for support, they are driven into the ground about one
foot from each plant and allowed to extend four or five feet above the
ground. Canes are tied to the stake at a point about midway between the
ground and the tips of the canes, and again near the ends of the canes.

Canes of bramble fruits are biennial in nature; the crowns are perennial.
New shoots grow from buds at the crown each year. Late in the summer, the
new canes develop lateral branches with fruit buds on them. Early in the
second season, fruit-bearing shoots grow from these buds. After fruiting,
the old canes die, and new shoots spring up from the crowns.

These fruiting canes may be removed any time after harvest. They should be
cut off close to the base of the plant, removed from the planting, and
destroyed. Some growers, as a sanitation practice, do this immediately after
harvest. Most, however, wait until the dormant pruning.

The dormant pruning is usually delayed until danger of severe cold is past
and accomplished before the buds begin to swell. It consists of the removal
of all dead, weak, and severely damaged canes, and the selection and pruning
of the fruiting canes for the coming season. Where possible, fruiting canes
one-half inch or more in diameter are selected.

Black raspberries should be summer topped when the young shoots are about
24" high; purple raspberries, when about 30" high. Summer topping consists
of removing the top three to four inches of the new shoots by snapping them
off with the fingers or cutting them with shears or a knife. Where trained
to supports, let them grow six to eight inches taller before topping.

At the dormant pruning, thin each plant until only four or five of the best
canes remain. Cut the lateral branches of the black raspberry to nine to
twelve inches long; those of the purple raspberry to twelve to fifteen
inches long.

-Fig-
Pruning Black Raspberries, Before and After
-Text-
The following comments concerning red raspberries do not apply to the
Heritage variety.

Red raspberries should not be summer topped. Canes of everbearing varieties
are handled in the same manner as those of ordinary varieties. At the
dormant pruning, where the hill system of culture is used, thin until only
seven or eight of the best canes remain per hill.

If the plants are grown in hedgerows, keep the width of the rows to eighteen
inches or less, and remove all plants outside the row areas. Thin the number
of canes within the hedgerows to six to eight inches apart, saving the best
canes.

-Fig-
Pruning Red Raspberries, Before and After
-Text-
Where the canes are supported either by a trellis or stakes, cut the canes
back to a convenient height for berry picking, usually four or five feet.
Grown as upright, self-supporting plants, whether in hills or in hedgerows,
the canes should be cut back to about three feet in height. Any lateral
branches should be cut to about ten inches in length.

New shoots of erect blackberries should be summer topped when they are 30"
to 36" high.

To prevent the planting from becoming too thick and reducing yields, it may
be necessary to remove excess sucker plants as they appear. This can be done
either with a hoe or by hand. In the hedgerow type of culture, leave only
three or four shoots per running foot of row. Grown in hills, four to five
new shoots may be allowed to develop in each hill.

At the dormant pruning, where supports are used, head the canes to four or
five feet in height. Canes grown without support should be headed to three
feet. Cut lateral branches back to fifteen or eighteen inches long.

Trailing blackberries require little pruning. All dead and weak canes should
be removed after harvest or at the dormant pruning. They should be thinned
to seven or eight of the best canes per hill, cut to about five feet in
length, and tied to either a stake or trellis.

-End-
-Title-
 PRUNING SMALL FRUIT
-SubTitle-
 SUMMARY
-Text-

Pruning is the removal of a part or parts of a woody plant for a specific
purpose. These purposes include:  training the plant; maintaining plant
health; improving the quality of flowers, fruit, foliage or stems; and
restricting growth.

The basic pruning tools include:  hand pruning shears, lopping shears, pole
pruning shears, hedge shears and hand saws.

When pruning small branches, always cut back to a vigorous bud or
intersecting branch. When pruning a large branch, it is necessary to use a
3-part cut. The three ways to prune shrubs are thinning out, gradual
renewal, and rejuvenation pruning. Shrubs grown for flowers are pruned
either after flowering (spring flowering shrubs) or before they start to
grow (summer flowering shrubs).

-End-
-Title-
 HOUSE PLANTS
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is designed to familiarize you with the basic aspects of
tropical plant care rather then attempting to acquaint you with specific
cultural requirements of the more than 250 commonly grown plants in the
foliage industry. Bear in mind that in most cases, homes and offices are
environments poorly suited to the needs of tropical plants. Thus the task of
the house plant owner/enthusiast is to select plants that can best withstand
indoor conditions of a specific location.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING AN INTERIOR PLANT
-Text-

Select only those foliage plants which appear to be insect and disease free.
Check the undersides of the foliage and the axils of leaves for signs of
insects or disease. Select plants that look sturdy, clean, well potted,
shapely, and well covered with leaves.

Choose plants with healthy foliage. Avoid plants which have yellow or
chlorotic leaves, brown leaf margins, wilted or water soaked foliage, spots
or blotches and spindly growth. In addition, avoid leaves with mechanical
damage, and those which have been treated with "leaf shines" which add an
unnatural polish to the leaves.. Plants which have new flowers and leaf buds
along with young growth are usually of superior quality.

Remember that it is easier to purchase a plant which requires the same
environmental conditions your residence has to offer than to alter the
environment of your home or office to suit the plants.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING AN INTERIOR PLANT
-SubTitle-
 Transporting House Plants
-Text-

When transporting plants, remember the two seasons of the year that can
cause damage to the plants, the hot summer and the cold winter months. In
the summer avoid placing plants in a car and leaving the car shut up,
because temperature will rise and destroy the plant in a short period of
time. If you have to travel for any distance at all, the plant can be burned
by the sun shining on it even though the air conditioner is on and it's
comfortable in the car. Shade the plant from direct sun while it is in the
car.

During winter months wrap plants thoroughly before leaving the store to
carry them to your car. A short run from the store to the car in very low
temperatures can kill or severely damage plants. Wrap plants thoroughly with
newspaper or paper bags, and place in the front of the car and turn on the
heater. The trunk of most cars is too cold to carry plants safely during
winter months.

On an extended trip make special arrangements so that plants will not be
frozen or damaged by cold weather. Many foliage plants will be damaged
considerably if the temperature drops much below 50 F, so maintain as warm a
temperature as possible around these plants when transporting them from one
location to another.


-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING AN INTERIOR PLANT
-SubTitle-
 Acclimatization
-Text-

Research done in Florida in the late 1970's revealed an interesting
phenomenon. Tropical plants grown in full sun have leaves (so called sun
leaves) which are structurally different from the leaves of plants grown in
shade (shade leaves). Sun leaves have fewer chloroplasts and thus less
chlorophyll. Their chloroplasts are located deep inside the leaves and the
leaves are thick, small and large in number. Shade leaves have greater
numbers of chloroplasts and thus more chlorophyll, are thin, large and few
in number. When plants are grown in strong light they develop sun leaves
which are photosynthetically very inefficient. If these same plants are
placed in low light, they must either remake existing sun leaves or drop
their sun leaves and grow a new set of shade leaves which are
photosynthetically more efficient. To reduce the shock which occurs when a
plant with sun leaves is placed in shade, gradually reduce the light levels
it is exposed to. This process is called acclimatization. The homeowner
should acclimatize plants when placing them outdoors in summer by gradually
increasing light intensities and reverse the process before plants are
brought indoors in the fall. For newly purchased plants,  acclimatize them
by initially locating them in a high light (southern exposure) area of your
home and gradually moving them to their permanent darker location over a
four to eight week period.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-Text-

Light, water, temperature, humidity, ventilation, fertilization, and soil
are chief factors affecting plant growth, and any one of these factors in
incorrect proportions will prevent proper plant growth indoors.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Light
-Text-

Light is probably the most essential factor for house plant growth. The
growth of plants and the length of time they remain active depend on the
amount of light they receive. Light is necessary for all plants because they
use this energy source to photosynthesize. When examining light levels for
tropicals, consider three aspects of light: (1) intensity, (2) duration, and
(3) quality.

Light intensity influences the manufacture of plant food, stem length, leaf
color, and flowering. A geranium grown in low light tends to be spindly and
the leaves light green in color. A similar plant grown in very bright light
would tend to be shorter, better branched, and have larger, dark green
leaves. House plants can be classified according to their light needs, such
as high, medium, and low light requirements. The intensity of light a plant
receives indoors depends upon the nearness of the light source to the plant
(light intensity decreases rapidly as you move away from the source of
light). The direction the windows in your home face will affect the
intensity of natural sunlight that plants receive. Southern exposures have
the most intense light, eastern and western exposures receive about 60% of
the intensity of southern exposures, and northern exposures receive 20% of a
southern exposure. A southern exposure is the warmest, eastern and western
are less warm and a northern exposure is the coolest. Other factors which
can influence the intensity of light penetrating a window are the presence
of curtains, trees outside the window, weather, seasons of the year, shade
from other buildings and the cleanliness of the window. Reflective (light
colored) surfaces inside the home/office will increase the intensity of
light available to plants. Dark surfaces will decrease light intensity.

Day-length or duration of light received by plants is also of some
importance but generally only to those house plants which are
photosensitive. Poinsettia, kalanchoe, and Christmas cactus bud and flower
only when day-length is short (11 hours of daylight or less). Most flowering
house plants are indifferent to day-length.

Low light intensity can be compensated by increasing the time (duration) the
plant is exposed to light, as long as the plant is not sensitive to
day-length in its flowering response. Increased hours of lighting allow the
plant to make sufficient food to survive and/or grow. However, plants
require some period of darkness to develop properly and thus should be
illuminated for no more than sixteen hours. Excessive light is as harmful as
too little light. When a plant gets too much direct light, the leaves become
pale, sometimes sunburn, turn brown, and die. Therefore, during the summer
months, protect plants from too much direct sunlight.

Additional lighting may be supplied by either incandescent or fluorescent
lights. Incandescent lights produce a great deal of heat and are not very
efficient users of electricity. If artificial lights are to be used as the
only source of light for growing plants, the quality of light (wavelength)
must be considered. For photosynthesis, plants require mostly blues and reds
but for flowering, infrared light is also needed. Incandescent lights
produce mostly red, and some infrared light, but are very low in blues.
Fluorescent lights vary according to the phosphorus used by the
manufacturer. Cool white lights produce mostly blue light and are low in red
light. Foliage plants grow well under cool white fluorescent lights and
these lights are cool enough to position quite close to plants. Blooming
plants require extra infrared which can be supplied by incandescent lights,
or special horticultural type fluorescent lights.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Water
-Text-

Over and under watering account for a large percentage of tropical plant
losses. The most common question home gardeners ask is, "How often should I
water my plants?" There is not a good answer to this question. Some plants
like drier conditions than others. Differences in soil or potting medium and
environment influence water needs. Watering as soon as the soil crust dries,
results in overwatering.

House plant roots are usually in the bottom 2/3 of the pot, so do not water
until the bottom 2/3 starts to dry out slightly. You can't tell this by
looking. You have to feel the soil. For a six-inch pot, stick your index
finger about two inches into the soil (approximately to the second joint of
your finger). If the soil feels damp, don't water. Keep repeating the test
until the soil is barely moist at the two-inch depth. For smaller pots, one
inch into the soil is the proper depth to measure.

Water the pot until water runs out of the bottom. This serves two purposes.
First, it washes out all the excess salts (fertilizer residue). Second, it
guarantees that the bottom 2/3 of the pot, which contains most of the roots,
receives sufficient water. However, don't let the pot sit in the water that
runs out. After a thorough watering, wait until the soil dries at the
two-inch depth before watering again.

When you test for watering, pay attention to the soil. If your finger can't
penetrate two inches deep, you either need a more porous soil mix, or the
plant is becoming root-bound.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Temperature
-Text-

Most house plants tolerate normal temperature fluctuations. In general,
foliage house plants grow best between 70 degrees and 80 degrees F. during
the day and from 60 degrees to 68 degrees F. at night. Most flowering house
plants prefer the same daytime range but grow best at nighttime temperatures
from 55 degrees to 60 degrees F. The lower night temperature induces
physiological recovery from moisture loss, intensifies flower color, and
prolongs flower life. Excessively low or high temperatures may cause plant
failures, stop growth, or cause spindly appearance and foliage damage or
drop. A cooler temperature at night is actually more desirable for plant
growth than higher temperatures. A good rule of thumb is to keep the night
temperature 10 to 15 degrees lower then the day temperature.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,220>
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Humidity
-Text-

Atmospheric humidity is expressed as a percentage of the moisture saturation
of air. Two ways to provide increased humidity are by attaching a humidifier
to the heating or ventilating system in the home or placing gravel trays (in
which an even moisture level is maintained) under the flower pots or
containers. This will increase the relative humidity in the vicinity of the
containers. As the moisture around the pebbles evaporates, the relative
humidity is raised.

-Fig-
Raised Humidity
-Text-
Another way to raise humidity is to group plants close together. You can
also spray a fine mist on the foliage although it's of doubtful
effectiveness for total humidity modification. Do this early in the day so
that the plants will be dry by night. This lessens chance of disease since
cool dampness at night provides an ideal environment for disease infection.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Ventilation
-Text-

House plants, especially flowering varieties, are very sensitive to drafts
or heat from registers. Forced air dries the plants rapidly, overtaxes their
limited root systems, and may cause damage or plant loss. House plants are
sensitive to natural or blended gas. Some plants refuse to flower, while
others drop flower buds and foliage when exposed to gases. Blended gases are
more toxic to house plants than natural gases. Tomato plants are extremely
sensitive to gas. They will turn yellow before the escaping gas is detected
by household members and are sometimes used in greenhouses as indicator
plants for excessive ethylene gas resulting from incomplete combustion in
gas furnaces.


-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Fertilization
-Text-

House plants, like most other plants, need fertilizers containing three
major plant food elements: nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P), and potassium
(K). They are available in many different combinations and under a multitude
of brand names. Each brand should be analyzed on the label, indicating
specifically how much water soluble elemental nitrogen, phosphate, or potash
is available in every pound of the product. The majority of these
fertilizers are about 20-20-20. The first figure indicates available
nitrogen; the second, available phosphate; and the third, water soluble
potassium. Commercial fertilizers used for house plants are sold in
granular, crystalline, liquid, or tablet forms. Each should be used
according to instructions on the package label or even more dilute.
Frequency of fertilizer application varies somewhat with the vigor of growth
and age of each plant. Some need it every two weeks, while others will
flower well for several months without needing any supplement. As a general
rule, use a fertilizer recommended every two weeks from March to September.
During the winter months no fertilizer need be added at all because reduced
light and temperature result in reduced growth. Fertilizing at this time
could be detrimental to some house plants.

When applying fertilizer in a solution, make sure that some runs out of the
bottom of the pot. This prevents root burn and the buildup of soluble salts
or excess fertilizer and reduces the chance of burning the plant.

-End-
-Title-
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
-SubTitle-
 Soluble Salts
-Text-

Reduced growth, brown leaf tips, dropping of lower leaves, small new growth,
dead root tips, and wilting are all signs of high soluble salts. These salts
will accumulate on top of the soil forming a yellow to white crust. A ring
of salt deposits may be formed around the pot at the soil line or around the
drainage hole. Salts will also build up on the outside of clay pots.

Soluble salts are minerals dissolved in water. Fertilizer dissolved in water
becomes a soluble salt. When water evaporates from the soil the minerals or
salts stay behind. As the salts in the soil become more and more
concentrated, plants find it harder and harder to take up water. If salts
build up to an extremely high level, water can be taken out of the root tips
causing them to die.

High soluble salts damage the roots directly, and because the plant is
weakened, it is more susceptible to attack from insects and diseases. One of
the most common problems associated with high salt levels is root rot.

The best way to prevent soluble salt injury is to stop the salts from
building up. Water correctly. When you water, allow some water to drain
through and then empty the drip plate. Water equal to one-tenth the volume
of the pot should drain through each time you water. DO NOT ALLOW THE POT TO
SIT IN WATER. If you allow the drained water to be absorbed by the soil, the
salts that were washed out are taken back into the soil. Salts can be
reabsorbed through the drainage hole or directly through a clay pot.

Plants should be leached every 4 to 6 months. You should leach a plant
before you fertilize so that you don't wash away all the fertilizer you just
added. Leaching is done by pouring a lot of water on the soil and letting it
drain completely. The amount of water used for leaching should equal twice
the volume of the pot. A 6 inch pot will hold 10 cups of water so 20 cups of
water are used to leach a plant in a 6 inch pot. Keep the water
runningthrough the soil to wash the salts out. If a layer of salts has
formed a crust on top of the soil, you should remove the salt crust before
you begin to leach. Do not remove more than 1/4 inch of soil. It is best not
to add more soil to the top of the pot. If the soluble salt level is
extremely high or the pot has no drainage, repot the plant.

The level of salts that will cause injury varies with the type of plant and
how it is being grown. A plant grown in the home may be injured by salts at
concentrations of 200 ppm. The same plant growing in a greenhouse where the
light and drainage are good will grow with salts at 10 times that level, or
2,000 ppm. Some nurseries and plant shops leach plants to remove excess
salts before the plant is sold. If you are not sure that has been done,
leach a newly purchased plant the first time you water it.


-End-
-Title-
 MEDIA
-Text-

The potting soil or media in which a plant grows must be of good quality. It
should be porous for root aeration and drainage but also capable of water
and nutrient retention. Most commercially prepared mixes are termed
artificial which means they contain no soil. High quality artificial mixes
generally contain slow release fertilizers which take care of a plant's
nutritional requirements for several months. Commercial mixes are often
misleading as to content and unsatisfactory. It is better to mix your own if
possible.


-End-
-Title-
 MEDIA
-SubTitle-
 Preparing Artificial Mixes
-Text-

Artificial mixtures can be prepared with a minimum of difficulty. Most mixes
contain a combination of organic matter, such as peat moss or ground pine
bark, and an inorganic material like, washed sand, vermiculite or perlite.
Materials commonly used for house plants are the peat-lite mixtures,
consisting of peat moss and either vermiculite or perlite. Here are some
comments concerning the ingredients for these mixes.

Peat Moss  Readily available baled or bagged sphagnum peat moss is
recommended. Such materials as Michigan peat, peat humus, and native peat
are usually too decomposed to provide necessary structural and
water-drainage characteristics. Most sphagnum peat moss is acid in reaction,
with a pH ranging from 4.0 to 5.0 It usually has a very low fertility level.
Do not shred sphagnum peat moss too finely.

Vermiculite  This is a sterile, light-weight mica product. When mica is
heated to approximately 1800 F., it expands its plate- like structure.
Vermiculite will hold large quantities of air, water and nutrients needed
for plant growth. Its pH is usually in the 6.5 to 7.2 range. Vermiculite is
available in four particle sizes. For horticultural mixes, sizes two or
three are generally used. If at all possible, the larger-sized particles
should be used since they give much better soil aeration. Vermiculite is
available under a variety of trade names.

Perlite  This is a sterile material produced by heating volcanic rock to
approximately 1800 F. resulting in a very light-weight, porous material that
is white in color. Its principal value in soil mixtures is aeration. It does
not hold water and nutrients as well as vermiculite. The pH is usually
between 7.0 and 7.5. Perlite can cause fluoride burn on some foliage plants.
Fluoride damage is usually seen on the tips of the leaves. The burn
progresses from the tip up into the leaf. Fluoride burns can be prevented by
adding 1 1/2 times the recommended amount of lime when mixing the soil. A
good artificial mix, containing no outside garden soil follows.


Formula (The following materials will make two bushels of mix)

          1 bushel shredded peat moss
          2 bushels perlite or vermiculite
          1/2 cup finely ground agricultural lime
          1/3 cup 20% superphosphate
          1/2 cup 8-8-8 or similar analysis mixed fertilizer
          1 level teaspoon chelated iron

Artificial mixtures are usually very low in trace or minor elements,
therefore, it is important to use a fertilizer that contains these trace
elements.


-End-
-Title-
 MEDIA
-SubTitle-
 Soil Mixes for Specific Plants
-Text-

Soils must have the most efficient composition or makeup for the type of
plant or house plant that is to be grown in them. According to generally
accepted standards we can divide house plant soils into four distinct groups
according to the type of plant they are most suited to. Any soil containing
garden loam should be pasteurized. This can be done easily at home. Spread
the soil on a cookie tray and bake it at 180 degrees F for 30 minutes. Do
not heat it longer than 30 minutes.

Foliage Plants  This soil should be moderately rich, have a good base of
clay loam, and hold moisture and fertility adequately. It must be a crumbly,
well textured soil. It is generally made up of one part of good garden loam,
one part of clean sand or Perlite, and one-half to one part of either peat
moss, leafmold, or vermiculite. Mixing about 1 teaspoon of superphosphate
with each quart of mixed potting soil is desirable and encourages good root
growth after repotting. If the garden soil is alkaline, sphagnum peat mosses
will have enough acid reaction to neutralize the mixture. This soil is used
for all foliage house plants and some flowering house plants that do not
prefer a rich soil. Compost or leafmold can replace a part of the peat moss
in the mixture.

Flowering House plants  This soil is often referred to as humus soil because
it contains about 50 percent humus rich materials or similar ingredients. It
is important that the soil does not become so rich that it is soggy after it
is watered. Two parts of sphagnum or one part sphagnum and one part
vermiculite are added to one part garden loam and one part clean sand. Also
add 1 teaspoon of super-phosphate per quart of soil mixture. This soil is
used generally for African violets, gloxinias, begonias, calla lilies, and
other tropical flowering plants.

Cacti and Succulents  This soil does not need any humus material. It is
composed of equal parts of sand, garden soil, and vermiculite or Perlite. It
is preferred for cacti and other fleshy leaved, desert-type succulents.

Orchids  Fir tree bark or Osmundun fiber is generally used in glazed or
plastic pots. The container should be large enough so that new growth is one
to two inches from the rim of container. Broken clay pieces can make up the
lower inch in the container.


-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINERS
-Text-

There are many types of containers from which to choose. A good container
should be large enough to provide room for soil and roots, have sufficient
head room for proper watering, provide bottom drainage and be attractive
without competing with the plant it holds. Containers may be fabricated of
ceramics, plastic, fiberglass, wood, aluminum, copper, brass, and many other
materials.

Clay and Ceramic Containers   Unglazed and glazed porous clay pots with
drainage holes are widely used by commercial house plant growers and are
frequently left with the plant when it is purchased. Ornate containers are
often nothing but an outer shell to cover the plain clay pot. Clay pots
absorb and lose moisture through their walls. Frequently the greatest
accumulation of roots is next to the walls of the clay pot, because moisture
and nutrients accumulate in the clay pores. Although easily broken, clay
pots provide excellent aeration for plant roots and are considered by some
to be the healthiest type of container for a plant.

Ceramic pots are usually glazed on the outside, sometimes also on the
inside. They are frequently designed without drainage holes. This
necessitates careful watering practices. Containers with no drainage are not
good flower pots. Small novelty containers have little room for soil and
roots and are largely ornamental. They should be avoided. It should be noted
that putting pot chips, clay pot shards or gravel in the bottom of a pot
does not improve soil drainage; they only provide a small space beneath the
soil where some excess water can drain inside the pot.

Plastic and Fiberglass  Plastic and fiberglass containers are usually quite
light and easy to handle. They have become popular in recent years because
they are relatively inexpensive and quite attractive in shape and color.
Plastic pots are easy to sterilize or clean for reuse, and because they are
not porous as clay pots are, they need less frequent watering and tend to
accumulate fewer salts.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,228>
-Title-
 REPOTTING
-Text-

Actively growing house plants need repotting from time to time. This occurs
very rarely with some slower growing plants, more frequently with others.
Foliage plants require repotting when their roots have filled the pot and
are growing out the bottom of the pot.

-Fig-
Repotting Foliage Plants
-Text-
When repotting becomes necessary due to these indications by the plant, it
should be done without delay. The pot selected for repotting should be no
more than two inches larger in diameter than the pot the plant is currently
growing in; should have at least one drainage hole; may be either clay,
ceramic or plastic, and must be clean. Wash soluble salts from clay pots
with water and a scrub brush and wash all pots in a solution of 1 part
liquid bleach to 9 parts water.

Potting media used should be coarse enough to allow good drainage yet have
sufficient water retention capabilities. Most plants are removed easily from
their pot, if the lip of the container is knocked upside down against any
solid object. Hold your hand over the soil, straddling the plant between the
fore and middle fingers while knocking it out of its present container.

-Fig-
Repotting Plant
-Text-
Potting media should be moistened before repotting begins. To repot, place
drainage material in the bottom of the pot, if desired, and some new soil.
If the plant has become root bound it will be necessary to cut and unwind
any roots that circle the plant, otherwise the roots will never develop
normally. If the old soil surface has accumulated salts, the top inch should
be removed. Set the rootball in the middle of the new soil. Fill soil around
the sides between the rootball and pot. Do not add soil above the original
level on the rootball, unless the roots are exposed or it has been necessary
to remove some of the surface soil. Do not pack the soil, to firm or settle
it, tap the pot against a table top or gently press the soil with your
fingers.

-Fig-
Proper Repotting Techniques
-Text-
After watering and settling, the soil level should be sufficiently below the
level of the pot to leave headroom. Headroom is the amount of space between
the soil level and the top of the pot that allows for watering a plant. A
properly potted plant has enough headroom to allow water to wash through the
soil to thoroughly moisten it.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,229>
-Title-
 TRAINING AND GROOMING
-Text-

This includes a number of minor care activities that distinguish the
beginner from the more experienced house plant grower. Pinching is one of
them. Pinching is the removal of 1 inch or less of new stem and leaf growth.
When it is necessary, pinch to just above the node. This leaves the plant
attractive and stimulates new growth. It can be a one-time or continuous
activity, depending on the need and the desires of the plant owner. If a
plant should be kept compact, but well filled out, frequent pinching will
achieve this. Pruning is a similar activity.

-Fig-
Pinching Techniques
-Text-
Pruning includes removal of other than terminal shoot tips. Sometimes an
entire branch or section of a plant should be removed for the sake of
appearance. Disbudding is another related care activity. Certain flower buds
are removed either to obtain larger blooms from a few choice buds or to
eliminate flowering of a very young plant or recently rooted cutting that
should not bear the physical drain of flowering early. Ivies and hoya, as
well as philodendron and syngonium, are frequently grown in a formal
pattern. This can be easily achieved by training them on trellises. It is
important to keep plants clean and neat. It not only improves the appearance
of plants but reduces the incidence of insects and disease problems. Remove
all spent flowers, dying leaves, and dead branches. Keep leaves dust free by
washing plants with warm water and mild soap (cover pot to prevent soap from
entering the soil). If tips of leaves become brown and dry, trim them off
neatly with sharp scissors. Removal of alkali deposits at the soil surface
and replacement with clean soil does more for appearance than for the plant
itself.


-End-
-Title-
 CARE OF SPECIAL POTTED PLANTS
-Text-

Too little light, too high a temperature and improper watering are the usual
causes of failure in caring for gift plants. These plants are grown in a
greenhouse where the night temperatures are usually cool, there is ample
light, and the air is moist. When these plants are brought into a dry home
where the light is poor and the temperatures are maintained for human
comfort without consideration for the plants, results are frequently
disappointing. Do not expect to hold over a gift plant from year to year.
Enjoy them while they are attractive and in season and then discard.

Poinsettia Care  The poinsettia requires bright light and should be kept
away from drafts. A temperature between 65 and 70 degrees F. is ideal. Avoid
temperatures below 60 degrees and above 75 degrees. Keep plants well watered
but do not over-water. Some of the newer, long lasting varieties can be kept
attractive all winter.

Gardeners frequently ask whether they can carry their poinsettias over to
bloom again next year. It is questionable whether the results are worth the
effort as the quality of home-grown plants seldom equals that of
commercially grown plants. However, for those who wish to try, the following
procedure can be followed.

After the bracts fade or fall, set the plants where they will receive
indirect light and temperatures around 55 to 60 degrees. Water sparingly
during this time, just enough to keep the stems from shriveling. Cut the
plants back to within about five inches from the ground and re-pot in fresh
soil. As soon as new growth begins, place in a well lighted window. After
danger of frost, place the pot out of doors in a partially shaded spot.
Pinch the new growth back to get a plant with several stems. Do not pinch
after September first. About Labor Day, or as soon as the nights are cool,
bring the plant indoors. Continue to grow them in a sunny room with a night
temperature of about 65 degrees.

The poinsettia blooms only during short days. To initiate blooms, exclude
artificial light, either by covering with a light-proof box each evening or
placing in an unlighted room or closet for a minimum of 12 hours of
darkness. Plants require full light in the daytime, so be sure to return
them to a sunny window. Start the short day treatment in about mid September
to have blooms between December 1 and Christmas.

Azaleas  Azaleas require direct sunlight to remain healthy. A night
temperature of 60 degrees will prolong bloom. Keep the soil constantly
moist. If the leaves should turn yellow, the soil is not acid enough. Use an
acid fertilizer sold especially for azaleas. Do not use softened water. When
repotting, use a mixture high in acid peat moss.

Azaleas can be planted, pot and all, in a shady spot in the garden during
the summer months. Examine them frequently and keep them watered during dry
periods. Greenhouse azaleas are not hardy, and need to be brought indoors
before freezing weather.

Azaleas need a cool rest treatment before they are forced into bloom. Place
the plants in a room with a temperature between 35-50 degrees F and filtered
light. During this rest period, flower buds will develop. Then place in a
well lighted warm (65 F) room around January 1 and the plant will bloom.
Unless you have the proper growing conditions for the azalea, you should not
attempt to carry the plants over.

Gardenia  Gardenias grown indoors need special care. They demand an acid
soil and should receive the same nutritional care as azaleas. The night
temperature should be near 60 degrees and the humidity around the plant
should be kept high. High temperature and low light intensity will result in
flower bud drop.

Amaryllis  The secret of growing amaryllis is to keep the plants actively
growing after they finish blooming. Keep the plants in full sun, with a
night temperature above 60 degrees. As soon as danger of frost has passed,
set the plants in the garden in a semishaded spot. In the fall, before
danger of frost bring them in and store them in a cold dark place to rest.
They will be ready to force again about January 1. Bring them into a warm
light room and water moderately to begin new growth.

Christmas Cactus  The Christmas cactus has become increasingly popular with
the development of several new varieties. At least three related species are
sold in addition to a number of cultivars. All have similar cultural
requirements.

The secret of good bloom seems to be one of temperature and photoperiod
control. They will develop buds and bloom if given bright light, short days,
and night temperatures between 55 and 65 degrees F. Christmas cacti bloom
best when somewhat pot bound. repotting is necessary only about once in 3
years. Full sunlight is beneficial in midwinter, but bright sun during
summer months can make plants look pale and yellow. These plants grow
naturally shaded by a canopy of leaves.

Christmas cacti require less water from October to March than they do when
growth is active from April to September. A rest period is very important if
plants are to bloom abundantly. Dormancy should be started about the middle
of September and continued for 8 weeks. Care should be taken that soil never
becomes water logged during the dark days of winter.

Cyclamen  Cyclamen require full sunlight and a night temperature of between
50 and 60 degrees. They are heavy users of water and must be watered
whenever the surface of the soil is dry. Flower buds will fail to develop if
night temperature is too high or if light is poor.

Cyclamen can be carried over, but as with the poinsettia, homegrown plants
are seldom equal to those grown by a commercial grower. Let the plants die
down after they finish flowering. Repot the fleshy corm in June with the top
of the corm above the soil line. Allow resting bulbs to dry but not become
shrivelled.


LIGHT REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED HOUSE PLANTS

PLANT (BY COMMON NAME)       DIRECT  BRIGHT   AVG.   LOW
                             SUN     LIGHT   LIGHT   LIGHT
ALUMINUM PLANT                        X       X
ARECA PALM                            X       X       X
ASPARAGUS
   Sprengeri                  X       X
   Meyeri                     X       X
BOSTON FERN                           X       X
ALOE VERA                             X       X
BURRO'S TAIL                  X       X
CHINESE EVERGREEN                     X       X       X
COLEUS                        X       X
CORN PLANT                            X       X
CROTON                                X       X
DUMB CANE                     X       X       X
DEVIL'S IVY                   X       X       X
FIDDLELEAF FIG                        X       X
FALSE ARALIA                          X       X
GERMAN IVY (GREEN)                    X       X
GERMAN IVY (VARIEGATED)               X       X
GOLD DUST DRACENA                     X       X
GRAPE IVY                             X       X
HEARTLEAF PHILODENDRON                X       X       X
JADE PLANT                    X       X
JAPANESE ARALIA                       X       X
KANGAROO IVY                          X       X
MAIDENHAIR FERN                               X       X
MOSES-IN-THE-CRADLE                   X       X
NORFOLK ISLAND PINE                   X
PARLOR PALM                           X       X       X
PEPEROMIA                             X       X
PIGGYBACK                             X       X
PONYTAIL PALM                 X       X
RUBBER PLANT                  X       X
SCHEFFLERA                    X       X       X
SNAKE PLANT                   X       X       X       X
SPIDER PLANT                          X       X
STRAWBERRY BEGONIA                    X
SWEDISH IVY                   X       X       X
TAHITIAN BRIDAL VEIL          X       X       X
VELVET PLANT                  X       X
WANDERING JEWS                X       X       X
WEEPING FIG                           X


-End-
-Title-
 TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED HOUSE PLANTS
-Text-

Cool Temperature plants are those that grow best at a 50 to 60 degrees F
during the day and at 45 to 55 degrees F at night.

      Azalea                               Hyacinth
      Cacti and succulents *@              Hydrangea
           (during winter rest             Japanese aralia
           periods only)                   Jasmine
      Camellia                             Jerusalem cherry
      Cast-iron plant*                     Miniature rose
      Chrysanthemum                        Mock orange
      Citrus (grapefruit, lemon,           Norfolk Island pine
           orange)                         Persian violet
      Creeping fig                         Primrose
      Daffodil, narcissus                  Tulip
      Easter lily*                         Tree ivy
      Euonymus japonica (spindle tree)     Wandering Jew
      Ivy*                                 White Calla lily
                                           Zephyr lily

Medium Temperature plants are those that grow best at 60 to 65 degrees F
during the day and at 55 to 60 degrees F at night.

      Amaryllis                            German ivy
      Asparagus fern                       Gold-dust tree
      Avacado                              Hibiscus
      Baby's tears                         Kangaroo vine @
      Begonia                              Living stones @
      Bird's nest fern                     Palms
                                           Panda plant
      Bromeliads @                         Pepperomia
      Bush violet                          Piggyback plant
      Cacti and succulents +@              Pilea
      Cast-iron plant +                    Podocarpus
      Christmas cactus                     Purple passion plant @
      Citrus +                             Schefflera
      Coleus                               Shamrock plant
      Crown of thorns @                    Snake Plant @
      Earth star @                         Staghorn fern @
      Easter lily +                        Strawberry begonia
      English ivy +                        Wax plant


High Temperature plants are those that grow best at 70 to 80 degrees F
during the day and 65 to 70 degrees F at night;

      African violets                      Geranium
      Bromeliads                           Golden Pothos
      Cacti and succulents *@              Hen and Chicks
      Caladium                             Impatiens
      Calathea (peacock plant)             Kangeroo vine *
      Chinese evergreen                    Living stones *
      Coconut palm                         Peace lily
      Copperleaf                           Philodendron
      Cordyline                            Prayer Plant
      Croton                               Purple velvet plant *
      Crown of thorns *                    Sensitive plant
      Dracena                              Snake plant
      Earth star *                         Staghorn fern *
      False aralia                         Swiss cheese plant
      Ficus                                Veitch screw pine
      Flame violet

                    @ Will also do well at high temperatures.
                    * Will also do well at medium temperatures.
                    + Will also do well at cool temperatures.


-End-
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 PLANTS FOR SPECIFIC INDOOR GARDENING USES
-Text-

Plants That Will Grow in Water

Scientific Name                      Common Name

Aglaonema modestum                   Chinese Evergreen
Crassula arborescens                 Jade Plant
Dieffenbachia (all varieties)        Dumbcane
Hedera helix                         English ivy
Hemigraphis colorata                 Hemigraphis
Hoya carnosa                         Wax plant
Monstera deliciosa                   Cutleaf Philodendron
Pellionia pulchra                    Satin Pellionia
Philodendron cordatum                Philodendrons (all
Philodendron micans                  climbing types)
Piper nigrum                         Black Pepper
Piper ornatum                        Celebes Pepper
Scindapsus aureus                    Devil's Ivy
Scindapsus pictus                    Painted Devil's Ivy
Stephanotis floribunda               Stephanotis
Syngonium podophyllum                Arrowhead, Syngonian
Tradescantia (all varieties)         Wandering Jew


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Plants That Will Withstand Most Adverse House Conditions and Abuse

Aglaonema modestum                   Chinese Evergreen
Anthurium aemulum                    Climbing Anthurium
Aspidistra elatior                   Iron Plant
Chamaedorea elegans 'bellas'         Dwarf Parlor Palm
Cissus rhombifolia                   Grape Ivy
Crassula arborescens                 Jade Plant
Dieffenbachia amoena                 Dumbcane
Dracaena fragrans                    Massange Dracaena
Euphorbia mili                       Crown of Thorns
Ficus elastica                       Indian Rubber Tree
Ficus benjamina 'Exotica'            Java Fig
Hemigraphis colorata                 Hemigraphis
Howeia belmoreana                    Kentia Palm
Pandanus veitchii                    Screw pine
Peperomia obtusifolia                Peperomia
Philodendron cordatum                Philodendron
Sansevieria trifasciata              Snakeplant
Sansevieria laurentii                Goldenstripe
Sansevieria zeylanica                Sansevieria
Scindapsus aureus                    Devil's Ivy
Syngonium podophyllum                Arrowhead, Syngonium


-End-
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-Text-

Plants That Do Well Under Average Home Conditions

Acanthus montanus                    Mountain Acanthus
Aechmea calyculata                   Bromeliad
Aechmea orlandiana                   Bromeliad
Asparagus sprengeri                  Sprenger Asparagus
Araucaria heterophylla               Norfolk Island Pine
Begonia aconitifolia                 Begonia
Begonia ulmifolia                    Elm-leaved Begonia
Beloperone guttata                   Shrimp plant
Caladium bicolor                     Fancy-leaved Caladium
Cissus antarctica                    Kangaroo Vine
Cissus rhombifolia                   Grape Ivy
Cordyline australis                  Grass Palm
Cyrptanthus acaulis                  Earth Star
Cyrtomium falcatum                   Holly Fern
Dieffenbachia x bausei               Dumbcane
Dieffenbachia picta                  Dumbcane
Euphorbia milii                      Crown of Thorns
Fatsia japonica                      Japanese Fatsia
Fatshedera lizei                     Botanical Wonder
Ficus benghalensis                   Banyan Fig
Ficus eburnea                        Ivory Fig
Ficus religiosa                      Bo-tree Fig
Grevillea robusta                    Silky Oak
Hedera helix (all varieties)         English Ivy
Pedilanthus                          Slipper Flower or
  tithymaloides                      Red Bird Flower
Peperomia clusiaefolia               Peperomea
Peperomia crassifolia                Peperomea
Peperomia obtusifolia                Variegated Peperomia
   'Variegated'
Peperomia sandersii                  Watermelon Peperomia
Pereskia aculeata                    Lemon Vine
Philodendron cordatum                Heartleaf Philodendron
Philodendron 'dubia'                 Philodendron
Philodendron giganteum               Giant Philodendro
Philodendron imbe                    Imbe philodendron
Philodendron x mandaianum            Philodendron
Philodendron panduraeforme           Panda Plant
Philodendron erubescens              Redleaf Philodendron
Philodendron selloum                 Philodendron
Philodendron tripartitum             Trileaf Philodendron
Philodendron wendlandii              Philodendron
Pilea involucrata                    Artillary Plant
Piper nigrum                         Black Pepper
Piper ornatum                        Celebes Pepper
Polyscias balfouriana                Balfour Aralia
Polyscias filicifolia                Fernleaf Aralia
Polyscias paniculata                 Jagged-leaf Aralia
   'Variegata'
Rhoeo spathacea                      Moses in the cradle
Sansevieria trifaciata 'Hahni'       Hahn's Sansevieria
Sansevieria parva                    Parva Sansevieria
Sansevieria subspicata               Rededge Sansevieria
Saxifraga sarmentosa                 Strawberry geranium
Schismatoglottis picta               Painted Tongue
Scindapsus aureus                    Devils Toy Pathos
Spathiphyllum 'Clevelandii'          Spathiphyllum
Syngonium  podophylum                Variegated Arrowhead
   'Emerald Gem'
Tradescantia (all                    Wandering Jew
  varieties)


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 PLANTS FOR SPECIFIC INDOOR GARDENING USES
-Text-

Plants Well Suited for Large Tubbed Decorative Specimens

Acanthus mollis                      Artists Acanthus
Acanthus montanus                    Mountain Acanthus
Alocasia cuprea                      Giant Caladium
Alsophila australis                  Australian Tree Fern
Codiaeum pictum                      Croton
Dieffenbachia amoena                 Spotted Dumbcane
Fatshedra lizei                      Botanical Wonder
Fatsia japonica                      Japan Fatsia
Ficus eburnea                        Ivory Fig
Ficus elastica 'variegata'           Variegated India Rubber
Ficus lyrata                         Fiddleleaf Fig
Monstera deliciosa                   Cutleaf Philodendron
Pandanus veitchii                    Screwpine
Philodendron elongatum               Philodendron
Philodendron giganteum               Giant Phildendron
Philodendron x mandaianum            Philodendron
Philodendron panduraeforme           Philodendron
Philodendron selloum                 Philodendron
Philodendron wendlandii              Philodendron
Polyscias paniculata 'variegata'     Jagged-leaf Aralia
Schefflera digitata                  Schefflera
Strelitzia reginae                   Bird of Paradise


Low Creeping Plants for Ground Covers In Interior Planting Boxes

Episcia cupreata                      Episcia
Ficus pumila                          Creeping Fig
Ficus radicans                        Climbing Fig
Fittonia verschafeltii                Silver Fittonia
Hedera helix                          Hahn's Star English Ivy
Hemigraphis colorata                  Hemigraphis
Pellionia daveauana                   Pellionia
Pellionia pulchra                     Pellionia
Philodendron cordatum                 Heartleaf
                                      Philodendron
Pilea nummulariifolia                 Creeping Artillery Plant
Saxifraga sarmentosa                  Strawberry Begonia
Scindapsus aureus                     Devil's Ivy
Tradescantia (all varieties)          Wandering Jew
Vinca major 'variegata'               Variegated Vinca


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-Text-

Plants That Withstand Dry, Warm Locations

Bromeliads -- all species and varieties Cacti -- all species and varieties

Vines and Trailing Plants for Totem Poles and Trained Plants

Anthurium almulum                    Climbing Anthurium
Cissus antarctica                    Kangaroo Vine
Cissus discolor                      Begonia Cissus
Cissus rhombifolia                   Grape Ivy
Clerodendrum Balfouri                Glorybower
Ficus pumila                         Creeping Fig
Vanilla fragrans 'Marginata'         Vanilla


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-Text-

Plants Suitable For Hanging Baskets

Achimenes grandiflora                 Bigpurple Achimenes
Aeschynanthus parasiticus             Lobecup Basketvine
Aeschynanthus parasiticus             Black Pagoda Basketvine
  'Black Pagoda'
Aeschynanthus radicans                Lobbs Basketvine; Lipstick plant
Aeschynanthus pulcher                 Scarlet Basketvine
Asarina erubescens                    Creeping Gloxinia
Asparagus plumosus                    Fern Asparagus
Asparagus sprengeri                   Sprengeri Fern
Begonia 'Elsie M. Frey'
Begonia x hiemalis                    Winter Flowering Begonias
Callisia elegans                      Striped Inch plant
Ceropegia woodii                      String of Hearts;
                                      Rosary Vine
Chlorophytum bichetii                 St. Bernard's Lily
Chlorophytum comosum                  Green Lily
   'Variegatum'
Chrysanthemum morifolium              Daisy Cascade
   'Anna'
Chrysanthemum morifolium              Daisy Cascade
   'Jane Harte'
Cissus quadrangula                    Winged Treevine
Codonanthe crassifolia                Central American
                                      Bellflower
Coleus rehneltianus                   Trailing Coleus
   'Trailing Queen'
Columnea x banksii                    Goldfish Vine
Columnea microphylla                  Small-leaved Goldfish Vine
Commelina communis                    Variegated Widows Tear
   aurea-striata
Cyanotis kewensis                     Teddy Bear Plant
Cyanotis somaliensis                  Pussy Ear
Cymbalaria muralis                    Kenilworth Ivy
Davallia fejeensis                    Rabbit's Foot Fern
   plumosa
Episcia cupreata                      Amazon Flame Violet
   'Amazon'
Episcia cupreata                      Carpet Plant
   'Chocolate Soldier'
Episcia cupreata                      Ember Lace Episcia
Episcia cupreata                      Emerald Queen Episcia
   'Emerald Queen'
Episcia cupreata                      Silver Sheen Episcia
   'Silver Sheen'
Episcia dianthiflora                  Lace Flower Vine
Episcia 'Moss Agate'                  Panama Episcia
Erythrorhipsalis pilocarpa            Bristletufted
                                      twig cactus
Euphorbia mammillaris                 Corncob Plant
Fittonia verschaffeltii               Mosaic Plant
Fittonia verschaffeltii               Silvernerve Fittonia
Fittonia verschaffeltii               Snake Skin Plant
   var. Pearcei
Fuchsia 'Jubilee'                     Jubilee Fuchsia
Fuchsia 'Swingtime'                   Swingtime Fuchsia
Fuchsia triphylla                     Honeysuckle Fuchsia
   'Gartenmeister
    Bohnstedt'
Hatiora salicornioides                Drunkard's Dream
Hedera helix 'Hahns                   Variegated Hahn's
    Variegated'                       English Ivy
Hedera helix 'Ivalace'                Ivalace English Ivy
Hemigraphis colorata                  Red Ivy
Hemigraphis Exotica                   Waffle Plant
Hoya australis                        Porcelain Flower
Hoya bella                            Miniature Wax Plant
Hoya carnosa'Compacta'                Compact Wax Plant
Hoya carnosa 'Exotica'                Exotic Wax Plant
Hoya carnosa 'Krinkle Curl'           Hindu Rope Plant
Hoya carnosa 'Tri-color'              Variegated Wax Plant
Hoya imperialis                       Honey Plant
Hoya keysi                            Pubescent Wax Plant
Hoya longifolia shepherdii            Shepherd's Wax Plant
Hoya motoskei                         Spotted Wax Plant
Hoya purpureo-fusca                   Silver Pink Wax Plant
Hypocyrta nummularia                  Miniature Pouch Flower
Hylocereus undatus                    Nightblooming Cereus
Ipomoea batatas                       Blackleaf Sweet Potato
Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri           Life Plant
Kalanchoe manginii                    Mangin Kalanchoe
Kalanchoe pubescens                   Jinglebells Kalanchoe
Kalanchoe uniflora                    Miniature Kalanchoe
Mammillaria elongata                  Lace Mammillaria
Nephrolepis exaltata bostoniensis     Boston Fern
Nephrolepis exaltata 'Rooseveltii'    Tall Featherfern
Pelargonium x frangrans               Scented Geranium
Pellonia daveauana                    Trailing Watermelon Vine
Pellonia pulchra                      Satin Pellonia
Peperomia acuminata                   Mexico Pepperface
Peperomia cubensis                    Cuban Pepperface
Peperomia glabella                    Variegated Waxprivet
   'Variegata'                        Peperomia
Peristrophe hyssopifolia              Marble-leaf
   'Aurea-Variegata'
Philodendron micans                   Velvet-leaf Vine
Philodendron oxycardium               Heart-leaf Philodendron
Pilea nummulariifolia                 Creeping Charley
Platycerium alcicorne                 Elkhorn Fern
Plectranthus coleoides                Candle Plant
   'Marginatus'
Plectranthus oertendahli              Prostrate Coleus
Plectranthus purpuratus               Moth King
Plectranthus tomentosus               Succulent Coleus
Polypodium aureum                     Hare's Foot Fern
Portulacaria afra                     Rainbow Bush
   'Variegata'
Rhipsalis capilliformis               Treechair Rhipsalis
Rhipsalis cassutha                    Mistletoe Rhipsalis
Rhipsalis houlletiana                 Snowdrop Cactus
Rhipsalis paradoxa                    China Rhipsalis
Rhipsalis pentaptera                  Fivewing Rhipsalis
Rhipsalis trigona                     Triangle Rhipsalis
Ruellia makoyana                      Monkey Plant
Schlumbergera bridgesii               Christmas Cactus
Schlumbergera gaertneri               Easter Cactus
Scindapsus aureus                     Devil's Ivy
Sedum morganianum                     Burro Tail
Senecio herreianus                    Green Marblevine
Setcreasea purpurea                   Purple Heart
Stapelia gigantea                     Giant Toadplant
Stenotaphrum secundatum               Variegated
  variegatum                          St. Augustine Grass
Streptocarpus saxorum                 False African Violet
Tradescantia albiflora                Giant White Inch
  'Albovittata'
Tradescantia sillamontana             White Velvet; White Gossamer


-End-
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 PLANTS FOR SPECIFIC INDOOR GARDENING USES
-Text-

Plants suitable for Tropical Terrariums

Aglaonema commutatum                  Chinese evergreen
Begonia boweri                        Miniature begonias
Chamaedorea elegans                   Neanthe bella, parlor palm
Cissus antarctica                     Dwarf kangaroo ivy
   'Minima'
Coffea arabica                        Arabian coffee plant
Cordyline terminalis                  Dwarf ti plant
  minima 'Baby Ti'
Cryptanthus bivittatus                Dwarf rose-stripe earth star
  minor
Dizgygotheca elegantissima            False aralia
Dracaena sanderana                    Belgian evergreen
Dracaena surculosa                    Gold dust dracaena
Ficus
   diversifolia                       Mistletoe fig
   pumila 'Minima'                    Dwarf creeping fig
Fittonia verschaffeltii               Mosaic plant
Maranta leuconeura kerchoveana        Prayer plant
Nephrolepis exaltata cvs.             Boston fern
Peperomia sandersii                   Watermelon pepporonia
Pilea
  cadierei 'Minima'                   Aluminum plant
  depressa                            Miniature pilea
  microphylla                         Artillary plant
  nummulariifolia                     Creeping Charlie
Pteris spp.                           Brake or table ferns
Saintpaulia cvs.                      Miniature African violets
Selaginella                           Club moss, moss fern
  kraussiana                          Creeping club moss
  emmeliana                           Sweat plant
Sinningia pusilla (and other          Miniature gloxinias
   miniature cvs.)
Sngonium                              Arrowhead vine, Nephthytis


-End-
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-Text-

Plants suitable for Desert Dish Gardens

Adromischus                         Calico hearts, leopard spots
Aloe                                Medicine Plant
Astrophytum myriostigma             Bishop's cap
Cephalocereus nobilis               Cylinder cactus
Cereus peruvianus 'Monstrosus'      Curiosity plant
Crassula                            Jade plant
   lycopodioides                    Toy cypress, watch chain
   rupestris                        Rosary Vine
Echeveria
   Derenbergi                       Painted lady
   elegans                          Mexican snowball
   secunda var. glauca              Hen and chickens
Echinocactus Grusonii               Golden barrel cactus
Echinocereus pectinatus var.        Rainbow cactus
   neomexicanus
Echinocereus reichenbachii          Lace cactus
Echinocereus micromeris             Button cactus
Euphorbia lactea cristata           Crested euphorbia, frilled fan
Faucaria tigrina                    Tiger jaws
Gasteria liliputana                 Miniature gasteria, miniature
                                    ox tongue
Haworthia                           Pearl plant, wart plant
   fasciata                         Zebra haworthia
   margaritifera                    Pearl plant
Lithops spp.                        Living stones
Mammillaria
   bocasana                         Powder puff cactus
   elongata                         Golden star cactus
   fragilis                         Thimble cactus
Opuntia
   erectoclada                      Dominoes, pincushion cactus
   microdasys                       Bunny ears
   vilis                            Dwarf tree oputia
Portulacaria
   afra                             Elephant bush
   afra variegata                   Rainbow bush
Rebutia
   kupperiana                       Scarlet crown cactus
   minuscula                        Red crown cactus
Sedum                               Stonecrop
   acre                             Golden carpet, gold moss
   adolphi                          Golden sedum
   dasyphyllum                      Golden glow
   lineare                          Carpet Sedum
   morganianum                      Burro's tail
   multiceps                        Miniature Joshua tree
   pachyphyllum                     Jelly beans
   X rubrotinctum                   Christmas cheer
   Stahlii                          Coral beads

-End-
-Title-
 THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 PLANNING GUIDELINES
-Text-

When planning your garden, it is important to ask a few basic questions:

Who will be doing the work? Will the garden be a group project with family
members or friends who will work willingly through the season to a fall
harvest, or will you be handling the hoe alone, in between camping and
swimming? Remember, a small weed-free garden will produce more than a large
weedy mess.

What do you and your family like to eat? Although the pictures in the garden
catalog look delicious, there is no value in taking up gardening space with
vegetables that no one eats. Make a list of your family's favorite
vegetables, ranked in order of preference. This will make a useful guide in
deciding how much to plant of each. Successive plantings of certain crops,
such as beans, will give a longer harvest period and increase your yield.
List recommended varieties and planting dates.

How do you plan to use the produce from your garden? If you plan to can,
freeze, dry or store part of the produce, this will be a factor not only in
planning the size of the garden but also in selecting the varieties grown.
Some varieties have much better keeping quality than others. Care should be
used in choosing the seeds, making sure the varieties you select are adapted
to your area and intended use.

How much space is available? That is, how much area can be converted into
usable garden space, not simply how much empty ground is available.

-End-
-Title-
 THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 SOME ADDITIONAL PLANNING HINTS
-Text-

 * Plan the garden on paper first. Draw a map showing arrangement and
spacing of crops. If you wish to keep the garden growing all season, you may
need a spring, summer, and fall garden plan. (See Publication 426-335,
Intensive Gardening Methods.)

 * Plan the garden and order seeds by January or February. Some plants may
be started indoors as early as mid-February.

 * In your plan, place tall and trellised crops on the north side of the
garden so they won't shade the shorter vegetables.

 * Group plants by length of growing period. Plant spring crops together so
that later crops can be planted in these areas when the early crops mature.
Consider length of harvest as well as time to maturity. Place perennial
crops to the side of the garden where they will not be disturbed by annual
tillage.

-End-
-Title-
 THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 LOCATING THE GARDEN
-Text-

 * Vegetables grow best in a level area with loose, well-drained soil, and
at least six hours of sun (8-10 hours is ideal).

 * Use contour rows or terraces on sloped or hillside sites to avoid
erosion. South-facing slopes are warmer and less subject to damaging frosts.

 * Avoid placing the garden in low spots, at the base of a hill, or at the
foot of a slope bordered by a solid fence. Such areas are slow to warm up in
the spring and frost settles in these places since cold air naturally drains
into low areas. If there is a creek nearby, the water table may be very high
or the area subject to flooding.

 * Avoid windy locations; if you must plant in a windy spot, build or grow a
windbreak.

 * Locate near a good and easily accessible supply of water if possible.

 * Choose a spot near your home so it is convenient to work in the garden
when you have a few minutes.

 * Avoid planting near trees and shrubs; they compete for nutrients and
water, and may cause excessive shading.

 * Sites too near buildings may result in plants not receiving enough
sunlight. Observe shading patterns through the growing season if possible
before starting the garden. If you have a shaded area you wish to use
anyway, plant it in shade-tolerant crops. Increase effective light if needed
by providing reflective surfaces around plants.

 * Try not to plant related vegetables in exactly the same location in the
garden more often than once in three years. Rotation prevents the buildup of
insects and disease. Use old plans as guides for rotating crops.

 * Avoid locations near busy roads. Airborne lead from automobile exhaust
can contaminate vegetables, especially leafy types. If you must plant in a
lead-prone area, try planting a hedge to trap lead in the air.

 * Avoid locating the garden on a site where buildings with lead paint have
stood; soil lead may be present in toxic amounts. If you are unsure about
your chosen location, have the soil tested for lead content, or have tissue
analyses done on some leafy vegetables.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL PREPARATION
-Text-


The ideal vegetable garden soil is deep, friable, well drained, and has high
organic matter content. Proper soil preparation provides the basis for good
seed germination and subsequent growth of garden crops. Careful use of
various soil amendments can improve garden soil and provide the best
possible starting ground for your crops.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL PREPARATION
-SubTitle-
 SOIL TESTING
-Text-

Check soil fertility and pH by having your soil analyzed at least once every
three years. Soil pH measures the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the
soil. Vegetables vary to some extent in their requirements, but most garden
crops will do well with a soil pH of 6.2-6.8. This is a little below neutral
or slightly acid (sour). If soil pH is too high or low, poor crop growth
will result, largely due to the effects of pH on the availability of
nutrients to plants. A soil test will also give you a relative idea of the
nutrient level in the soil.

Soil test kits are available for checking soil at home. Soil samples may
also be sent to your local Extension Service for testing. The Extension
Service will mail results to you with recommendations for correcting any
deficiencies or other problems that may exist. Private companies also do
soil testing; these give detailed reports and recommendations inmany cases,
but may be expensive ($30 is not unusual). For best results, carefully
follow the instructions given for taking the soil test.

Make basic nutrients and pH adjustments to the soil by adding required
fertilizers and lime (or acidifiers). In new garden spots remove sod with a
spade and use it to patch your lawn or put it in a compost pile to decay.
Plow, spade, or rotary till the soil. Work only when soil moisture
conditions are right. To test, pick up a handful of soil and squeeze it. If
it stays in a mud-ball it is too wet. If it crumbles freely it should be
about right. Excessively dry soil is powdery and clumpy and may be difficult
to work. Take samples at the surface and at a 2-3" depth in several
locations in the garden plot. If soil sticks to a shovel, or if when
spading, the turned surface is shiny and smooth, it is still too wet.
Working soils when excessively wet can destroy soil structure, which may
take years to rebuild. Plowing with a tractor when the soil is wet is
especially damaging, causing the formation of a compaction layer that will
inhibit root growth. Soils with adequate humus levels generally allow more
leeway because of their improved structural qualities.

Just prior to planting, break up large clods of soil and rake the bed level.
Small-seeded vegetables germinate best in smooth, fine-surfaced soil. Do not
pulverize the seedbed soil. This destroys the structure and promotes
crusting and erosion problems.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL PREPARATION
-SubTitle-
 EQUIPMENT
-Text-

The type of equipment used to prepare your garden will depend on the size of
the garden, your physical ability, time and budget. Options include
hand-digging with a spade or shovel, tilling with a power rotary tiller,
using a small garden tractor, or a full-sized farm tractor.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL PREPARATION
-SubTitle-
 TILLING THE SOIL
-Text-

It was once assumed that gardens should be turned yearly with a moldboard
plow, mostly for weed and other pest control. While garden plowing is still
a common practice, turning the soil completely over has been found in some
cases to be detrimental, causing soil compaction, upsetting balances of
microorganisms, and often causing layers of coarse organic material to be
buried below the influence of insects and microbes which would otherwise
cause breakdown of the material. Chisel plowing, which does not have this
disruptive effect, is one alternative, but it is limited to sandy or loamy
soils and many farmers who work gardens do not have chisel plows. In
addition, gardeners in less-than-rural areas have trouble finding a farmer
who will come to plow and disk the garden for a reasonable price (or at
all). Roto-tilling most home gardens is sufficient, as long as plant debris
accumulation is not out of hand. Rotary tilling mixes the upper layers of
soil rather than completely turning the soil over, and the effects produced
are generally desirable. One possible harmful effect of roto-tilling is the
formation of a compaction layer just beyond the reach of the tines. This
also occurs when a moldboard plow is used to the same depth every year, but
at a somewhat deeper level. Use of deep-rooted cover crops (see below) or
double-digging can do much to prevent or alleviate this problem when it
exists. Small gardens can be designed using raised beds which may be worked
entirely by hand if the area is small enough.

Gardeners often wonder whether to have plowing or tilling done in the spring
or fall. Working of the soil in fall has several advantages over the
traditional spring plowing. It allows earlier spring planting, since the
basic soil preparation is already done when spring arrives. The turning
under of large amounts of organic matter is likely to result in better
decomposition when done in the fall, since autumn temperatures are higher
than those of early spring, and there is more time for the process to take
place. Insects, disease organisms, and perennial weeds may be reduced by
killing or inactivating them throughburial or exposure to harsh winter
weather. The physical condition of heavy clay soils may be improved by the
alternate freezing and thawing, which breaks up tightly aggregated
particles. Also, snow is trapped between the hills of roughly-plowed soil,
so more moisture is retained than on flat, bare ground. Incorporation of
limestone or rock fertilizers in the fall gives them time to become
integrated with the soil and influence spring plant growth.

Fall plowing alone is not recommended for hillside or steep garden plots,
since soil is left exposed all winter, subject to erosion when spring rains
come. If a winter cover crop is grown to improve soil and prevent erosion,
the ground will have to be tilled in the fall to prepare the soil for seed,
and again in spring to turn under the green manure. Spring plowing is better
for sandy soils and those where shallow tilling is practiced. Generally,
most gardens must be disked or rotary-tilled in the spring to smooth the
soil for planting.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL AMENDMENTS
-Text-

Any addition to the soil which improves its physical or chemical condition
is considered a soil amendment. Many types of amendments are available to
the home gardener.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL AMENDMENTS
-SubTitle-
 Amendments to Change pH and Nutrient Levels
-Text-

Lime, sulfur, and gypsum are common amendments used to change soil pH. The
correct soil pH is essential for optimum plant growth. Dolomitic limestone
adds calcium and magnesium as it increases pH. Gypsum adds calcium and some
sulfur. Sulfur itself may acidify alkaline soil. The amount to add depends
on the current and desired pH, one good reason to have garden soil checked
periodically.

Wood ashes are often used as a soil amendment. They contain potash
(potassium), phosphate, boron, and other elements. Wood ashes can be used to
raise soil pH with twice as much ash applied as limestone for the same
effect. Ashes should not come into contact with germinating seedlings or
plant roots as they may cause root burn. Spread in a thin layer over the
winter, and incorporate into the soil; check pH yearly if you use wood
ashes. Never use coal ashes or large amounts of wood ash (no more than 20
lbs. per 1000 square feet), as toxicity problems may occur.

Other amendments are added specifically to improve soil nutrient levels.
Greensand and granite meal are sources of potassium. Granite meal is finely
ground granite rock which releases its potassium slowly. Greensand is
relatively low in potassium which is readily dissolved. Neither should be
considered a sole nutrient source. Both materials may be hard to find in
some areas. Other nutritional amendments that can be purchased for garden
use include cottonseed meal, kelp meal, leather meal, and worm castings, as
well as an array of synthetic fertilizers. The organic amendments are
particularly useful where a trace element deficiency exists, while synthetic
fertilizers are generally more available, less expensive, and have quicker
results.

-End-
-Title-
 SOIL AMENDMENTS
-SubTitle-
 Amendments to Improve Soil Qualities
-Text-

In special cases, coarse sand, vermiculite and perlite are sometimes added
to heavy clays to help improve soil texture (the ratio of sand: silt: clay)
or structure. However, these inert materials can be expensive and large
quantities are needed to do any good. Compost, manures and other amendments
usually serve the purpose more economically and just as well.

Organic matter is a great soil improver for both clay and sandy soils. Good
sources of organic matter include manures, leaf mold, sawdust, straw, and
others. These materials aredecomposed in the soil by soil organisms. Various
factors, such as moisture, temperature, and nitrogen availability determine
the rate of decomposition through their effects on these organisms. Adequate
water must be present, and warm temperatures will increase the rate at which
the microbes work. The proper balance of carbon and nitrogen in the material
is needed to insure adequate nutrient availability both to growing plants
and decomposing organisms. Adding nitrogen may be necessary if large amounts
of undecomposed leaves, straw, sawdust or other high-carbon substances are
used. Nitrogen is used by the decayers to make proteins for their own
bodies, and if it is not present in sufficient amounts, the microbes have no
qualms about stealing the plants' share. Generally, fresh green wastes, such
as grass clippings, are higher in nitrogen than dry material.

The use of compost is one way to get around the decomposition problem.
Compost is usually made by the gardener from plant and/or animal wastes.
Correct composting is an art which can result in a valuable nutrient and
humus source for any garden. The basis of the process is the microbial
decomposition of mixed raw organic materials to a dark, fluffy product
resembling rich soil, which is then spread and worked into the garden soil.

Animal manures are commonly used directly as a garden soil amendment. The
value of manure in terms of the nutrients it contains varies. Fresh horse,
sheep, rabbit, and poultry manures are quite high in nitrogen and may even
burn plants if applied directly to a growing garden. They are best applied
in the fall and tilled under. Manure usually has fewer total nutrients than
synthetic fertilizers in terms of N, P, & K, but is a valuable soil-builder.
Unfortunately, manures may be a source of weed seeds; if this is a problem,
composting in a hot pile may help. In urban areas manure may be hard to come
by, but country dwellers usually find it plentiful.

Another source of inexpensive soil improvement that should not be
underestimated is the cover crop. (See chart) Green manures, or cover crops,
such as annual rye, ryegrass, and oats are planted in the garden in the fall
for incorporation in the spring. For best results, seed should be sown a
month before the first killing frost. In a fall garden, plant cover crops
between the rows and in any cleared areas. Cover cropping provides
additional organic matter, holds nutrients that might have been lost over
the winter, and helps reduce erosion and loss of topsoil. Legume cover crops
can increase the amount of nitrogen in the soil and reduce fertilizer needs.
A deep-rooted cover crop allowed to grow for a season in problem soil can
help break up hardpan and greatly improve tilth. Incorporate green manures
at least two weeks before planting vegetables; they should not be allowed to
go to seed.

The regular addition of manures, compost, cover crops and other organic
materials can raise the soil nutrient and physical level to a point at which
the addition of synthetic fertilizers is no longer needed, or at least
greatly reduced. This comes about not only through the intrinsic fertilizing
value of the amendment, but also through the increased action of
microorganisms on soil and humus particles; humic acid (and other acids)
helps to release previously locked-up nutrients naturally present in the
soil, and the extra surface area provided by humus serves as a reserve,
holding nutrient elements until they are needed by plants. This highly
desirable soil quality does not come about with a single or even several
additions of organic material, but rather requires a serious soil-building
program. Information is widely available in books and magazine articles on
this subject.

Remember, your soil is alive and constantly changing. By keeping it fertile
and rich, many gardening problems may be diminished. Soil is the base for
plant growth, and much attention should be paid to getting and keeping it in
the best condition.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Garden catalogs and stores are full of gardening tools, many highly
specialized; some are very useful, others are nice but not necessary, and
some are gimmicks. The gardening equipment you need depends on the size of
your garden, your age and strength, and whether you want to get the job done
in a hurry or prefer to take your time. The minimum equipment needed by most
gardeners includes: a shovel or spade, a hoe, a rake, and a trowel. A wide
selection of styles is available in each of these tools, and the choice is
really one of personal preference and price range. You can get the best
value for the price range you choose by knowing each tool's uses and
particular qualities to look for when comparison shopping.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,251>
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 CULTIVATING - HAND TOOLS
-Text-

A garden shovel with a pointed blade is lighter and smaller than most other
shovels and is well suited for use in the garden. Shovels are earth movers
with dish-shaped blades mounted to the handle at an angle. A spade has a
flat blade and is designed for cutting rather than lifting or moving soil.
Spades are excellent for shaping straight sided trenches and for edging
beds. For general purpose digging, lifting and moving, a long-handled shovel
is ideal. Both shovels and spades come with long or short handles in
standard or D-shaped styles. Choice of handle style will depend on personal
preference; long handles offer greater leverage and are less tiring to use
in many cases. Short handles are often thicker and stronger than long ones.
A spading fork is another useful digging tool. It is ideal for breaking and
turning heavy soils and for loosening subsoil layers when double digging a
bed. Turning coarse compost, spreading mulches, and digging root crops are
other jobs suitable for a spading fork.

A hoe is essential in any garden for preparing the seed bed, removing weeds,
and breaking up encrusted soil. Several different hoe styles are available.
The pointed hoe with a heart-shaped blade is lightweight and useful for
opening seed furrows and cultivating between plants. The hula or action hoe
is a type of scuffle hoe which is very lightweight and maneuverable. Pushing
and pulling it just under the soil surface eliminates newly emerging weeds
and breaks up any crust on the soil surface. This type of hoe is most easily
used on soil which is not compacted, since the blade is relatively thin and
lacks the clod-breaking capabilities of a heavier hoe; it is also less
effective in cases where weeds have gotten a good start. Other types of
scuffle hoes are somewhat more sturdy, and are used with a pushing motion
rather than pushing and pulling. Probably the most commonly used hoe is the
square bladed hoe, which lends itself well to many garden tasks.

A sturdy rake is useful in clearing the garden of rocks and debris. It is
also helpful in spreading mulches and smoothing seedbeds. The size of the
rake right for you depends on your size and strength and the uses you intend
to put it to. As the number of tinesincreases, the rake weight also
increases; avoid choosing a rake so heavy it will tire you after a short
period of use. The length of the rake handle is important too; the tip of
the handle should come up to your ear when standing upright. A handle that
is too short will make your work harder, causing excess bending and back
strain.

Especially in the spring, a trowel will be in constant use for those many
digging jobs that need not be done with full size tools. The trowel is
perfect for transplanting seedlings and bulbs or digging shallow-rooted
weeds. Small hand cultivators, often sold in sets with trowels, are good for
weeding in small areas and between closely spaced plants. Another useful
small digging tool is appropriately named a digger (a.k.a. weeder,
cultivator, asparagus knife). This tool is available from most hardware or
discount stores for a few dollars. It is indispensable for digging up weeds
with long taproots, such as dandelions or Queen Anne's lace, or for prying
out Johnson grass rhizomes. It consists of a long (10"-14") solid metal rod
with a two-pronged blade at one end and a handle at the other. This tool is
practically indestructible and well worth the small investment of its price.

Some other tools that may have a place in the garden tool shed include the
pickaxe, mattock and wheel cultivator. Pickaxes are used to break up
extremely hard packed or stony soil. Mattocks are for the same purpose, but
are equipped with a cutting blade for areas where larger roots need to be
removed. A mattock may also be used to chop up debris for composting. A
wheel cultivator has a number of attachments for soil preparation and weed
control and may prove a good investment for those with larger gardens.
-Fig-
Cultivating Hand Tools - A
Cultivating Hand Tools - B
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,252>
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 CULTIVATING - POWER TOOLS
-Text-

The power rotary tiller is probably the power tool most commonly purchased
by gardeners. Whether or not a gardener needs a rototiller depends on the
size of the garden, the gardener's capabilities, and the intended uses of
the tiller. Tiller selection may be based on the nature of the work to be
done, the quality of the machine and ease of repair, as well as personal
preference. The tiller's engine powers rotating blades, or tines, which can
make garden soil loose and fluffy, ready for planting. It can also chop up
plant debris and mix it into the soil. Incorporating organic matter and
manures into the garden is easily accomplished with a tiller, reducing the
tendency to procrastinate this necessary chore. The ability of the tiller to
do these jobs effectively is a function of its weight, strength, design,
type of tines, and type of soil. A heavy, powerful tiller is most effective
on stony clay soils, while in a small garden or one with light soil, a
smaller tiller is more appropriate. Very lightweight tillers, known as soil
blenders, are designed mainly for raised bed gardening; however, they are
not widely available and generally must be mail-ordered.

Both front- and rear-mounted tine roto-tillers are available. Rear-tined
tillers are generally better able to self-propel on all but the rockiest
soils. They travel straight and can produce a footprint-free seedbed.
Rear-tined tillers often have a number of attachments available for a
variety of uses, such as hilling potatoes, making raised beds, even plowing
snow! The price of a rear-tined rototiller is considerably higher in most
cases than that of the front-tined type; consideration should be given to
the payback time necessary for such a large investment.

If gardening is simply a hobby, or if the garden is small, a front-tined
tiller may be suitable. Front-tined tillers are usually light in weight, but
may require considerable strength to guide them through the soil. Operating
this type of tiller is comparable to handling a large floor polisher such as
those used in schools and hospitals, mainly, leverage is required for
control. New gardeners are sometimes scared away from these tillers because
of the initial experience of having a tiller run away with them. The
front-tined tiller may not make as straight a pass as the heavier rear-tined
type, but it is much easier to turn. Due to this increased maneuverability,
the front tined tiller is easy to use in small gardens and in corner areas.

The purchase of a tiller is a major investment as garden tools go. Features
to look for include heavy cast iron, steel plate and tubing, heavy bearings,
strong welds used in construction, and easily operable controls. Ask to look
at the operator's manual and try to determine how simply a tune-up can be
performed; you may save yourself a great deal of trouble and money if you
can replace plugs and points yourself, particularly if you have no pick-up
truck on which to load the tiller. Also consider the locations of service
centers and parts dealers. Careful attention to your needs, abilities, and
price range is important. Talk to people who have the types of tillers you
are interested in. If possible, borrow or rent various types of machines and
send for information before buying.

If you are considering the purchase of a used rototiller, plan to do so well
ahead of time so that you will not be rushed into a purchase. If you do not
know much about such equipment it might be helpful to have a
mechanically-minded friend look over the machines you are considering. Above
all, test each tiller for ease of starting and operation. An engine that
smokes or runs roughly may require a lot of work. Tines should operate
smoothly and freely. Check the welds in the handles to see that they are
strong; re-welding may mean that the handles have broken at some time, a
common problem in older tillers. Look at the dipstick if there is one; low
oil or very sludgy oil may mean that the tiller has been maintained poorly.
The oil and other fluids may also be checked by opening the drain plugs.
Look for excessive dirt around the engine or in the air filter. This may
also mean bad maintenance habits. Ask the owner for an operator's manual and
ask where the machine has been serviced in the past. A good tiller is a
long-term investment, so plan carefully before you buy.
-Fig-
Power Tools for the Garden
-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 OTHER POWER TOOLS
-Text-

There are few other power tools needed in the vegetable garden. Cordless
tools come with various cultivating attachments. Most are rechargeable and
can make garden chores more pleasurable; these tools are especially useful
to those with physical disabilities which limit strength.

A garden shredder is nice to have for a large garden with a lot of plant
wastes. There are hand-operated shredders which are slow but useful if
wastes become available in small quantities and are not too coarse. Gasoline
shredders are quite expensive, and may be disappointing to the gardener who
wants to chip branches and other large materials. They are best used for
shredding leaves, small branches, and other plant wastes (though sunflower
stalks would probably be too much for one). A chipper, on the other hand,
will chip large branches and other coarse material, but the cost of $1000 or
more makes the chipper uneconomical for the home gardener.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 CARTS/WHEELBARROWS
-Text-

A wheelbarrow or cart is very handy to have in and around the garden area.
It should be easy to handle when full, with good maneuverability. Durable
construction is well worth paying for to ensure a long, useful life. Be sure
to choose the size appropriate for your physical abilities and garden needs.
A wheelbarrow generally requires more strength and control than do most
garden carts, but many of the small carts generally available are made of
relatively flimsy metal and, though inexpensive, are not particularly
long-lasting or suitable for heavy items such as rocks. Again, consider your
needs. If you plan to haul only light straw, leaves, sawdust, and such
materials, then one of the small carts may be suitable. For heavier jobs,
you may need a wheelbarrow; or investigate some of the newer garden carts,
especially those with bicycle-size tires, which make easy work of hauling.
They are made of heavy plywood and metal, but are well-balanced and easy to
maneuver. These carts do, however, involve a sizeable investment (up to
several hundred dollars) and a large storage space. Therefore, only serious
gardeners or those with other uses for such a cart find these carts
economical. One alternative is to build your own from one of several plans
available from gardening magazines or private companies.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 WATERING EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Watering is one garden job that most gardeners must do at least
occasionally. An adequate water supply may make a big difference in garden
yields. Purchase of watering equipment depends upon available facilities,
water supply, climate, and garden practices. If there is no outdoor spigot
near the garden, the expense of having one installed may be greater than the
benefits gained except in very drought-prone areas or in the case of a
gardener who is fully dependent on the season's produce. Where rainfall is
adequate except for a few periods in the summer, it is wise to keep watering
equipment simple, a rain barrel or a garden hose with a fan-type sprinkler
will suffice. A water breaker for small seedlings is a nice extra. But, in
areas where there are extended periods of hot weather without precipitation,
the local water supply is likely to be short. Overhead sprinklers are
wasteful of water, so in this case, a drip irrigation system may be in
order. Drip irrigation puts water right at the roots and doesn't wet plant
leaves, helping to control disease. Timers are available that allow
automatic watering with drip and some other systems. However, this type of
system is relatively expensive and may be considered a nuisance by some
gardeners because of maintenance and placement requirements. Determine
whether cultural practices such as mulching, close plant spacing, shading,
or wide bed planting will meet most of your extra water needs. Then purchase
watering gadgets accordingly.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 SOIL TESTING EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Soil test kits can be purchased in various sizes and levels of
sophistication. These are handy but not always necessary; soil testing does
not have to be done more frequently than once a year for most gardening
purposes. If inexpensive garden soil tests are offered through the Extension
Service or private labs, it is often preferable to have them do thetests, as
results are likely to be more accurate. Some gardeners like to monitor the
soil quality frequently, though, making a soil test kit a worthwhile
purchase. An electronic pH tester is on the market for those who like
gadgets.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 SEEDING AND PLANTING TOOLS
-Text-

Depending on the size of your garden and your physical abilities, you may
want to consider a row seeder. Seeders with wheels make easy work of sowing
long rows of corn or beans or other vegetables. Seeders are available which
make a furrow, drop the seeds properly spaced, and close up the furrow
behind the seed, all in one pass. They do not perform quite as well on
small-seeded crops, and it is not really worth the effort of setting up a
seeder for small areas. A hand-held seeder is probably a better choice for
this type of work. Broadcast seeders are available for sowing seeds such as
rye or wheat for a cover crop, but are generally not necessary for the
average home gardener, since broadcasting is easily done by hand once the
proper technique is learned. Finally, fluid sowing kits are sold for sowing
pre-sprouted seeds in a gel that prevents drying. Fluid sowing devices may
be made at home, however, at low cost.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Serious gardeners often invest in various types of equipment that allow them
to monitor the microclimate around the garden or indoors (see chapter on
plant propagation). A rain gauge is an inexpensive device that helps the
gardener determine if enough rain has fallen for garden plants. A
maximum-minimum thermometer is a costly, but often useful, device to measure
nightly lows and daytime highs within an area; these are especially valuable
in a greenhouse. Soil thermometers measure soil temperature and the internal
temperature of a compost pile. Light and watering meters can be purchased
for indoor plant monitoring.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 TRELLISES/CAGES
-Text-

Trellises and cages for vining plants save space and keep fruits off the
ground, reducing the amount of stooping required for harvest and damage to
plants. Look for heavy-duty materials and sturdy design that will stand up
to rain, wind, and drying. Wire should be of a heavy gauge and wood should
be treated with non-phytotoxic (i.e., not toxic to plants) materials. Metal
parts should be rustproof or at least rust-resistant. If you build your own
you will probably save a considerable amount of money and get better quality
for the price.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 COMPOSTING EQUIPMENT
-Text-

If you wish to make compost regularly, it will be helpful to have compost
bins in some form. You can construct two bins out of planks or concrete
blocks. Make the bins about 4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and as long as
desired, and open at one end for easy access. Leave spaces between blocks or
planks for aeration. Plant refuse may be accumulated in one bin while the
composting process is taking place in the other. A third bin may be
desirable for near-finished or finished compost storage.

A simple, portable compost bin can be made with three or four sturdy, used
pallets, which are simply stood on their ends in a square or open square and
lashed or otherwise held together. This type of bin can be disassembled for
easy turning and emptying and then reassembled around the new pile. A
chicken wire cage supported by three or four wooden stakes will also work
satisfactorily, but is somewhat less sturdy.

There are also ready-made and kit composters available, including slat-sided
cylinders into which refuse is added from above and compost removed at
ground level. Rotating barrelsfor easy turning are also available; gardeners
who have physical disabilities may find either of these types easier to deal
with than the standard compost bin.

Whichever type of compost maker you use, it's a good idea to make use of the
nutrients which will leach out from under the pile. This is easily done by
locating the composter in the garden (which also reduces hauling time) or
under a large fruit tree. Or, make some provision to catch the run-off from
the pile and use it as liquid fertilizer.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 HARVESTING EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Harvesting equipment varies depending on the size and type of garden,
whether or not food is to be stored, and the way in which it is to be
processed. Baskets are useful to most gardeners. They may be purchased at
garden or farm supply stores or sometimes may be scrounged from local
grocery stores or fruit stands. Berry baskets for small fruits, baskets with
handles for carrying vegetables, and peck or bushel baskets for storage are
all useful. Fruit pickers are nice and easy to use for tall fruit trees. A
sharp knife for cutting vegetables off plants is handy and helps prevent
plant damage.

Food processing equipment includes canners, blanchers, dehydrators, and
sealers for frozen food packages. There is even a very expensive home
vacuum-packer available. A food mill is inexpensive and very useful for
making sauces and juices; a blender or food processor is also useful to the
gardener with extra food. More specialized tools include corn cutters which
remove kernels from the cob, bean Frenchers and shellers, cherry pitters,
strawberry cappers, apple corers and peelers, jelly strainers and
thermometers, and many more. For canning, a large kettle or pot is
indispensable for preparing food prior to canning. A jar lifter will prevent
burned fingers; a funnel for transferring food to jars reduces messiness. As
always, choices depend on individual needs.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTING GARDENING EQUIPMENT
-SubTitle-
 PURCHASE AND MAINTENANCE
-Text-

When purchasing tools, buy for quality rather than quantity. Your tools will
be in frequent use throughout the garden season. Cheap tools tend to break
or dull easily and may end up making a job unnecessarily difficult and
frustrating. Quality tools will last and tend to increase in value with time
if well-kept. Tools should be lightweight for easy handling, but heavy
enough to do the job properly. Metal parts should be of steel, which will
stay sharp, keep its shape, and outlast softer metals. Consumers' magazines
and gardening publications frequently have articles explaining what to look
for in tools and listing alternatives to local hardware stores, which often
carry a single line of tools. Several excellent books featuring garden tools
have been published and may be available at the library.

Keeping a tool clean and sharp will increase its usefulness and lengthen its
life. Learn the techniques of sharpening each tool and practice them
frequently. Professional gardeners often carry sharpening stones or files
while working and sharpen after every hour or so of use. Clean your tools
after each use. One effective method is to keep a five gallon bucket filled
with sand and used motor oil in the tool shed. At the end of the gardening
day, remove clinging dirt from tools by plunging them into the oily sand
several times. This will keep the tools cleaned and oiled, and will help
prevent rusting.

The last and perhaps most important step in tool care is to put tools in
their proper places. Tools left in the garden will rust and break and can be
a safety hazard. Some gardeners paint handles with a bright color to make
their tools easy to spot. And, if each tool has its own place in the storage
area, it is simple to determine if tools are missing before closing up.

Before winter sets in, sharpen tools, then coat metal parts lightly with oil
and rub wooden handles with linseed oil. Drain power tools of gasoline and
obtain filters, mufflers, and tune-up parts so that a fall or late-winter
tuning can get the machine ready for early spring jobs. Have maintenance
done, if needed, over winter, when demand is lowest and you can afford to
let the repairer take his or her time.

In fall, any trellises or cages that have been outdoors should be cleaned
and stored inside if possible. Traps and other pest control devices should
also be stored if the pest season is over. Cold frames and other season
extenders should be protected from damage by ice and snow or high winds, and
once their job is done should be repaired if necessary and put away if
possible. Tools with wheels like cultivators, seeders, and carts should be
oiled and stored. Thoughtfully selected and cared for, your tools will give
many years of service. This extra help in the garden will pay for itself in
time.


-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-Text-


Choosing and purchasing vegetable seeds is one of the most enjoyable
gardening pastimes. Thumbing through colorful catalogs and dreaming of the
season's harvest is one way to make winter seem a little warmer. Seed
purchased from a dependable seed company will provide a good start toward
realizing that vision of bounty. Keep notes about the seeds you purchase -
their germination qualities, vigor of plants, tendencies toward insects and
disease, etc. From this information you can determine whether one seed
company is not meeting your needs, or whether the varieties you have chosen
are unsuitable for your area or gardening style. For example, if powdery
mildew is a big problem on squash family plants in your area, the next year
you may want to look for mildew-resistant varieties.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 SAVING SEED
-Text-

Saving your own vegetable seed is another pleasurable activity. It offers a
sense of self-sufficiency and saves money. You can maintain a variety that
is not available commercially, which helps to perpetuate a broad genetic
base of plant materials. Breeders often search for old-time varieties when
attempting to improve commercial plants, since the heirloom vegetables (as
they are sometimes called) often have inbred disease- and pest-resistance or
cold-hardiness. Participation in a seed-saver's exchange can be a rewarding
experience. Extra seeds that you have may be traded for unusual types that
are not available through other sources.

There are certain considerations that should be kept in mind when saving
seed, however. Hybrid varieties are not likely to be the same as the parent
plants; therefore, only open-pollinated varieties should be used for home
seed production. Some seed dealers have responded to the increasing interest
in seed-saving by clearly marking open-pollinated varieties in their
catalogs. Another consideration in saving seed is the possibility of
carrying seed-borne diseases into the next year's crop. Many commercially
grown seeds are grown in dry areas unsuitable to fungal, viral and bacterial
diseases which may be present in your region. Take care to control diseases
which can be carried in seed. Another weather-related factor is the speed of
drying of seeds, which can be adversely affected by frequent rains and/or
humidity. And finally, if you've ever saved squash seed during a season in
which you had more than one type of squash planted, you have probably seen
the weird results that may be obtained from cross-pollination! Saving seeds
from cross-pollinated crops is not generally recommended for the novice
because of problems with selection, requirements for hand pollination and
isolation, biennial habits, and geneticvariability.

Some common self-pollinated annual plants from which seed may be saved
include lettuce, beans and peas, herbs, and tomatoes.

Saving beans and peas: Allow seed pods to turn brown on the plant. Harvest
pods, dry for 1-2 weeks, shell, and then store in a cool (below 50 F.), dry
environment in a paper bag.

Saving lettuce seed: Cut off seed stalks when fluffy in appearance, just
before all the seeds are completely dried. Seeds will fall off the stalk and
be lost if allowed to mature on the plant. Dry the harvested seed stalk
further, shake seeds off, and then store in a cool, dry environment in an
envelope or small glass jar.

Saving herb seeds: Herbs vary in the way their seeds are produced. In
general, allow herb seeds to dry on the plants until they are almost
completely dry. Some seed heads, such as dill, will shatter and drop their
seeds as soon as they are dry. Watch the early-ripening seeds; if they tend
to fall off, harvest the other seed heads before they get to that point,
leaving several inches of stem attached. Hang several stems upside down,
covered with a paper bag to catch falling seed, in a warm, dry place until
the drying is complete. Remove seeds from the seed heads and store in
envelopes or small glass jars. Some herb seeds, dill, celery, anise, cumin,
and others are used for flavoring and are ready to use once dry.

Saving tomato seeds: Pick fruit from desirable plants when ripe. Cut fruit
and squeeze out pulp into a container. Add a little water, then let ferment
2-4 days at room temperature, stirring occasionally. When seeds settle out,
pour off pulp and spread seeds thinly to dry thoroughly. Store in an
envelope or glass jar in a cool dry place.

For all kinds of saved seeds, be sure to mark the storage containers clearly
with permanent (preferably waterproof) ink, indicating the variety and date
saved. Seeds will remain viable for some time if properly stored. To test
for germination, sprout seeds between moist paper towels; if germination is
low, either discard the seed or plant enough extra to give the desirable
number of plants.

Viability of vegetable seeds (Average # Years Seeds May be Saved)
            Vegetable          Years          Vegetable           Years

            Asparagus            3              Leek                1
            Bean                 3              Lettuce             5
            Beet                 4              Muskmelon           5
            Broccoli             5              Mustard             4
            Brussels sprouts     5              Okra                2
            Cabbage              5              Onion               1
            Carrot               3              Parsley             2
            Cauliflower          5              Parsnip             1
            Celery               5              Pea                 3
            Chinese cabbage      5              Pepper              4
            Collard              5              Pumpkin             4
            Corn                 5              Radish              5
            Cress, water         5              Rutabaga            5
            Cucumber             5              Spinach             5
            Eggplant             5              Squash              5
            Endive               5              Sweet corn          1
            Kale                 5              Tomato              4
            Kohlrabi             5              Turnip              5
            Watermelon           5

-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 DEPTH FOR PLANTING VEGETABLE SEEDS
-Text-

The depth to cover seeds when you plant them depends on a number of factors
such as the size of the seed, the type of soil you have, and the season of
the year.

As a general rule, vegetable and flower seeds should be covered about 4-5
times their lateral diameter or width (not their length). There are
exceptions, however; read the packet directions. Some seeds require light
for germination and should not be covered at all. These instructions apply
to seeds planted both inside and out.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 STARTING SEEDS INDOORS
-Text-

To start seeds indoors, it is important to have enough light. More homegrown
seedlings are probably lost to this one factor than to any other. Vegetable
seedlings grown under low-light conditions are likely to be leggy and weak,
and many will fall over under their own weight after they are 3-4" tall. If
you do not have a sunny room or back porch with a southern exposure, you
will probably need supplemental lights. A simple fluorescent shop light with
one warm white and one cool white bulb (or with grow lights) will suffice.

It is probably easiest to use a soilless or peat-lite mix to start
seedlings, since garden soil contains disease organisms which can be highly
destructive to small plants. soil can be sterilized in the oven by baking it
at 200 F. until the internal soil temperature is 180 F. It should be held at
that temperature for 30 minutes. This is a smelly process, but it works.
Garden soil that is high in clay should be conditioned with compost or
perlite to prevent excess moisture and/or shrinkage. You can mix your own
peat-like mix if you prefer, 50% vermiculite or perlite and 50% fine
sphagnum peat is excellent for starting seeds. Fertilizer at half the normal
strength may be added to the mixture. Mix all together well.

Many types of containers can be used to start seeds. Flats or other large
containers may be planted in rows and the seedlings grown until they have
one or two sets of true leaves, at which point they are transplanted into
other containers for growing to the size to transplant outdoors. Or,
seedlings may be started in pots, old cans, cut-off milk cartons, margarine
tubs, egg cartons, or other throwaways. The pop-out trays found at garden
centers are easy to use and re-usable. Peat pots are nice, especially for
large seeds and herbs. Sow one or two large seeds, or 10-12 small herb
seeds, directly in each peat pot. Thin the former to one seedling per pot,
but allow all the herb seeds to grow together. They hold each other up and
grow much better than if sown singly. When transplant time comes, they are
strong enough to take some dividing if desired. Peat pots may be planted
directly in the garden; remove one side and do not allow the edges of the
pot to stick out above the soil, since they will act as a wick and moisture
will evaporate from this exposed surface.

Regardless of the type of container chosen, fill it 3/4 full with
seed-starting mixture and sow the seeds. Cover to the specified depth and
water the mix. If your home is dry, it may help to cover the containers with
plastic wrap to maintain a steadier moisture level. Seeds and seedlings are
extremely sensitive to drying out. They should not be kept soaking wet,
however, since this condition is conducive to damping-off, a fungus disease
deadly to seedlings. Damping-off can be prevented or diminished by
sprinkling milled sphagnum moss, which contains a natural fungicide, on top
of the soil.

Another option is to use peat pellets or cubes, which are pre-formed and
require noadditional soil mix. The pellets or cubes are soaked until
thoroughly wet, then seeds are planted in the holes provided. The whole
pellet or cube may then be planted without disturbing the roots. The only
disadvantage to this method is the expense.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 STARTING SEED OUTDOORS
-Text-

Many seeds may be sown directly in the garden. See the chart entitled "Plant
Production Data Chart" for types of seed best planted this way. If garden
soil is quite sandy, or is mellow with a high content of organic matter,
seeds may be planted deeper. Young seedlings can emerge quite easily from a
sandy or organic soil. If garden soil is heavy with a high silt and/or clay
content, however, the seeds should be covered only 2-3 times their diameter.
In such soils it may be helpful to apply a band of sand, fine compost, or
vermiculite 4 inches wide and 1/4 inch thick along the row after seeds are
planted. This will help retain soil moisture and reduce crusting, making it
easier for seedlings to push through the soil surface.

Soil temperature has an effect on the speed of seed germination. In the
Plant Production Data Chart

                                  Optimum
                   Days to      Germination      No. of Weeks
                  Emergence   Soil Temperature     to Grow
  Crop          From Seeding       Range         Transplants

Beans              5-10          65-85 deg.           *
Beets              7-10          50-85 deg.           *
Broccoli           3-10          50-85 deg.          5-7
Cabbage            4-10          50-85 deg.          5-7
Carrots           12-18          50-85 deg.           *
Cauliflower        4-10          50-85 deg.          5-7
Celery             9-21          50-65 deg.         10-12
Chard, Swiss       7-10          65-85 deg.           *
Corn, Sweet        5- 8          65-85 deg.           *
Cucumber           6-10          65-85 deg.      4 (peat pots)
Eggplant           6-10          65-85 deg.          6-9
Lettuce            6- 8          50-65 deg.          3-5
Melons             6- 8          65-85 deg.      3-4 (peat pots)
Okra                    7-10          65-85 deg.           *
Onion              7-10          65-85 deg.           8
Parsley           15-21          50-85 deg.           8
Peas                    6-10          50-65 deg.           *
Pepper             9-14          65-85 deg.          6-8
Potato, Sweet     (slips)        65-85 deg.          5-6
Radish             3- 6          50-65 deg.           *
Spinach            7-12          50-65 deg.           *
Squash             4- 6          65-85 deg.      3-4 (peat pots)
Tomato             6-12          65-85 deg.          5-7
Turnip             4- 8          50-65 deg.           *

*transplants not recommended

spring, soil is often cold and seeds of some plants will rot before they
have a chance to sprout. The following "Plant Production Data Chart" gives
optimum soil temperatures.

When planting the fall garden in midsummer, the soil will be warm and dry.
Therefore, cover the seeds 6-8 times their diameter. They may need to be
watered each day with a sprinkler or a sprinkling can to promote
germination. Moisture can also be retained with a shallow mulch or by
covering the row with a board until the seeds are up. Shading the area may
be helpful to keep the soil cooler for seed germination, especially when
planting cool-weather crops in summer. Seed which requires a lower
germination temperature (seePlant Production Data Chart above) may benefit
from being kept in the refrigerator for two weeks before planting, or from
pre-sprouting indoors. Pre-sprouting is a useful technique for planting in
cold soils, as well. However, seed must be handled very carefully once
sprouted to prevent damaging new root tissue.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Row Planting
-Text-

A string stretched between stakes will provide a guide for nice straight
rows, if desired. Use a hoe handle, a special furrow hoe, or a grub hoe to
make a furrow of the appropriate depth for the seed being planted. Sow seed
thinly; it may help to mix very small seed with coarse sand to distribute
the seeds more evenly. Draw soil over the seed, removing stones and large
clods. Firming soil over seeds improves uptake of soil moisture, hastening
germination. Water the seeds in to improve soil/seed contact. When plants
have grown to 4-6" tall, thin according to seed packet instructions to
provide adequate room for growth.

-End-
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Broadcast Planting
-Text-

Many crops may be sown in wide rows or beds instead of in long, single rows.
Crops such as spinach, beans, peas, beets, lettuce and carrots are
especially suited to this type of culture. Seed should be sown evenly over
the area, then raked in with a rake or three-pronged hand cultivator. Firm
soil over the seeds, then thin young plants to allow room for growth.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,270>
-Title-
 SEED FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Hill Planting
-Text-

Larger vegetables such as melons, squash, corn and cucumbers may be planted
in hills. Soil is mounded to a foot or so in diameter, at the recommended
spacing. Plant 4-6 seeds per hill, firming the soil well. Thin the seedlings
to 3-5 plants per hill.

-Fig-
Planting in Rows, Banded Rows, or Hills
-End-
-Title-
 TRANSPLANTS FOR THE GARDEN
-Text-


Most gardeners use transplants in the garden at some time or another to give
long season plants a chance to grow to maturity under their preferred
weather conditions, or just to lengthen the harvest season. Cool-season
crops such as head lettuces, broccoli, celery, and others would not have a
chance to reach their prime harvest stage in most places in Virginia in
spring if not given those extra weeks indoors to get a head start. Tomatoes
would certainly have a short harvest period in all but southeastern Virginia
if started from seed in the ground, and peppers and eggplants might not
produce at all if not grown from transplants.

Due to the amount of time, attention and need for controlled growing
conditions, many gardeners prefer to purchase plants for their gardens.
However, for a larger choice in varieties and the control of plant
production from seed to harvest, others choose to start their own.
Instructions for starting transplants from seed may be found in Publication
426-316, Seeds for the Garden.

-End-
-Title-
 TRANSPLANTS FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 ANNUAL PLANTS
-Text-

Transplants of annual vegetables and flowers should be stocky, healthy, free
from disease, and have good roots. They should not be too small or too
mature (tomatoes will transplant all right with fruits already on them, but
many other plants will drop flowers or fruit after transplanting). Be sure
plants have been hardened-off so that they will easily adapt to
environmental change, but they should not be so hardened that they are woody
and yellow. Successful transplanting is achieved by interrupting plant
growth as little as possible. This is one of the advantages of using peat
pots or peat pellets, which do not have to be removed when transplanting.

Have garden soil prepared before transplanting. All additives which require
time to break down, such as manures, limestone, rock fertilizers, and green
manures, should be incorporated at least several weeks before planting.
Quick-acting (hydrated) lime and fertilizers and well-decayed compost may be
added just before planting.

Transplant on a shady day, in late afternoon, or in early evening to prevent
wilting. It helps to water the plants several hours before transplanting;
when using bare-root plants, such as sweet potato slips or plants from an
old-time farm supply store, soak the roots thoroughly an hour or two before
setting them out in the garden. They should not  be allowed to dry out
completely at any time. Handle plants carefully. Avoid disturbing the roots
or bruising the stems.

Dig a hole large enough to hold the roots of the plants. Set the plants
slightly deeper than previously planted and at recommended intervals.
Tomatoes are an exception to the rule of how deep to plant; they will
develop roots all along the stems, and you can plant deep enough to leave
only two or three sets of leaves exposed. Press soil firmly around the roots
of transplants. Pour about a cup of starter solution in the hole around the
plant. Use a solution of about half the strength recommended for that type
of plant during the normal growing season. Fish emulsion or dilute manure
tea may also be used.

For a few days after transplanting, protect the plants from wind and sun by
placing newspaper or cardboard on their south sides, or by covering with
jugs, baskets, or flower pots. Water the plants once or twice during the
next week if there is insufficient rain.


-End-
-Title-
 TRANSPLANTS FOR THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 PERENNIAL PLANTS
-Text-

When buying small fruit plants and perennial crowns such as asparagus, order
early or buy from reliable local outlets. Discount department stores often
allow plants to dry up, so watch for this, especially if you are buying sale
plants. Select varieties that will do well in your growing conditions. For
perennial plants it will pay to do some research to find out what the major
disease and insect pests are and buy resistant varieties. Dormant bareroot
plants and one- or two-year-old crowns are preferred. Look for roots that
are full, slightly moist, and have color. Roots that are dry brown or soggy
black are indicative of poor storage and will probably not give good
results. Check crowns for signs of viable buds. Inspect plants for signs of
insects or disease. If you receive plants by mail which are not
satisfactory, do not hesitate to write to the dealer.

Once you have the plants, keep the roots moist (but not soaking wet) by
misting occasionally, and do not allow them to freeze or be exposed to high
temperatures. If it is necessary to keep the crowns for more than a few
days, place in cold storage (not freezing) or else heel in a trench of moist
soil in a shaded location. Pack soil firmly against roots to eliminate any
air pockets.

Transplant crowns according to directions, digging holes large enough to
give the roots plenty of room to spread. Remove any roots which are
discolored or dried out. Perennial plants appreciate a dose of compost mixed
into the bottom of the hole. See Extension publications for individual
plants for more details.

Once transplanted, shade the plants if necessary and water when needed.
Extra care at the beginning of their growth will result in productive,
healthy plants.

Transplant Production Data (Ease of Transplanting)
  Easily Survive             Require Care in            Not Successfully
  Transplanting              the Operation              Transplanted by
                                                        Usual Methods

    Broccoli                    Beets                     Beans
    Cabbage                     Carrots (young)           Corn
    Cauliflower                 Celery                    Cucumbers
    Eggplant                    Chard                     Peas
    Lettuce                     Melon                     Okra
    Chinese cabbage             Squash
    Sweet potato slips
    Onion (tends to bolt)
    Tomatoes
    Pepper

-End-
-Title-
 IRRIGATING THE HOME GARDEN
-Text-

Adequate soil moisture is essential for good crop growth. A healthy plant is
composed of 75-90% water, which is used for the plant's vital functions,
including photosynthesis, support (rigidity), and transportation of
nutrients and sugars to various parts of the plant. During the first two
weeks of growth, plants are becoming established and must have water to
build their root systems.

While growing, vegetable crops need about an inch of water per week in the
form of rainwater, irrigation water, or both, from April to September. Keep
a rain gauge near the garden or check with the local weather bureau for
rainfall amounts, then supplement rainfall with irrigation water if needed.
There are ways, however, to reduce the amount of water you have to add. (See
below.)

During dry periods, one thorough watering each week of one to two inches of
moisture (65 to 130 gallons per 100 square feet) is usually enough for most
soils. Soil should be wetted to a depth of 5-6 inches each time you water
and not watered again until the top few inches begin to dry out. Average
garden soil will store about 2-4 inches of water per foot of depth.

-End-
-Title-
 IRRIGATING THE HOME GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 REDUCING WATER DEMANDS
-Text-

All of this water, however, may not be available to plants, particularly if
the soil is a heavy clay. Clay particles hold soil moisture tightly If, for
example, there are 4-1/2 inches of water per foot of this type of soil,
there may be as little as 1-1/2 inches available for plants. A relatively
high level of humus in the soil, brought about by the addition and breakdown
of organic matter, can improve this proportion to some extent. By causing
clay particles to form aggregates or large clumps of groups of particles,
humus also adds air spaces to tight clays, allowing moisture to drain to
lower levels as a reserve, instead of puddling and running off the top of
the soil.

The moisture-holding capacity of sandy soils is also improved by additions
of organic matter. Though most soil water in sandy soil is available, it
drains so quickly that plants are unable to reach water after even a few
days following a rain. Humus in sandy soil gives the water something to
cling to until it is needed by plants. Addition of organic matter is the
first step in improving moisture conditions in the garden.

Mulching is a cultural practice which can significantly decrease the amount
of water that must be added to the soil. A 6-8" organic mulch can reduce
water needs by as much as 1/2 by smothering weeds (which take up and
transpire moisture) and by reducing evaporation of moisture directly from
the soil. Organic mulches themselves hold some water and increase the
humidity level around the plant. Black plastic mulch also conserves moisture
but may increase soil temperatures dramatically during the summer (to the
detriment of some plants and the benefit of others) if not covered by other
mulch materials or foliage.

Shading and the use of windbreaks are other moisture-conserving techniques.
Plants that wilt in very sunny areas can benefit from partial shade during
the afternoon in summer. Small plants, in particular, should be protected.
Air moving across a plant carries away the moisture on the leaf surfaces,
causing more water to be needed by the plant. In very windy areas the roots
often cannot keep up with leaf demands, and plants wilt. Temporary or
permanent windbreaks can help tremendously.

During those times when cultural practices simply aren't enough, when
rainfall is sparse and the sun is hot, watering can benefit the garden with
higher yields, or may save the garden altogether in severe drought years.

Irrigation practices, when properly used, can benefit the garden in many
ways:

    1.  Aids in seed emergence.
    2.  Reduces soil crusting.
    3.  Improves germination and plant stand.
    4.  Reduces wilting and checking of growth in transplants.
    5.  Increases fruit size of tomato, cucumber, and melon.
    6.  Prevents premature ripening of peas, beans, and sweet corn.
    7.  Maintains uniform growth.
    8.  Improves the quality and yields of most crops.


-End-
-Title-
 IRRIGATING THE HOME GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 IRRIGATION METHODS
-Text-

The home gardener has several options for applying water to plants - a
watering sprinkler can, a garden hose with a fan nozzle or spray attachment,
portable lawn sprinklers, a perforated plastic soaker hose, drip or trickle
irrigation, or a semi-automatic drip system. Quality equipment will last for
a number of years when properly cared for. When deciding on which type of
watering equipment to use there are a number of things to consider.

Several types of drip or trickle equipment are available. The soaker hose is
probably the least expensive and easiest to use. It is a fibrous hose that
allows water to seep out all along its length at a slow rate. There are also
hoses with holes in them that do basically the same thing; water drips out
the holes. With the latter type, a flow regulator usually has to be included
with the system so that water can reach the end of the hose, yet not be
sprayed out at full force. A special double-wall type of irrigation hose has
also been developed which helps to maintain an even flow. Finally, there is
the emitter type system best used for small raised bed or container gardens,
in which short tubes, or emitters, come off a main water supply hose;
emitters put water right at the roots of the desired plants. This is
generally the most expensive form of irrigation and the most complex to set
up, but it has the advantage that the weeds in the area are not watered, and
evaporation from the soil is minimized. This type of system is best used in
combination with a coarse mulch or black plastic. Drip systems generally
have some problems with clogging from soil particles and/or mineral salts
from water taken from springs or wells. New designs take into consideration
the clogging problem; some include filters and self-flushing emitters. It is
wise to make a complete investigation and comparison before purchasing a
drip irrigation system.

-End-
-Title-
 IRRIGATING THE HOME GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Some basic techniques and principles for watering
-Text-

1. Adjust the flow or rate of water application to about 1/2 inch per hour.
Much faster than this will cause run-off, unless the soil has exceptionally
good drainage. To determine the rate for a sprinkler, place small tin cans
at various places within the sprinkler's reach, and check the level of water
in the cans at 15 minute intervals.

2. When using the oscillating type of lawn sprinklers: (a) place the
sprinkler on a platform higher than the crop to prevent water from being
diverted by plant leaves; (b) try to keep the watering pattern even by
frequently moving the sprinkler and overlapping about 1/2 of each pattern.

3. Do not sprinkle foliage in the evening. Wet foliage overnight can
encourage diseases. Morning watering is preferred.

4. Perforated plastic hoses or soaker hoses should be placed, with holes
down (if there are holes), along one side of the crop row, or underneath
mulch. Water is allowed to soak or seep into the soil slowly.

5. It is best to add enough water to soak the soil to a depth of 5-6 inches.
It takes approximately 2/3 gallon of water for each square foot or about
65-130 gallons for 100 square feet of garden area. This varies with the
nature of the soil. Frequent, light waterings will only encourage shallow
rooting which will cause plants to suffer more quickly during drought
periods, especially if mulches are not used. On the other hand, too much
water, especially in poorly drained soils, can be as damaging to plant
growth as too little water.

6. By knowing the critical watering periods for selected vegetables or
vegetable types, you can reduce the amount of supplemental water you add.
This can be important, where water supplies are limited. In general, water
is most needed during the first few weeks of development, immediately after
transplant, during development of edible storage organs.

Specifically, the critical watering periods for selected vegetables are:
Asparagus                   Spear production, fern development
Broccoli, Cabbage,          Head development
Cauliflower                 Head development
Beans, peas                 Pod filling
Carrot                      Seed emergence, root development
Corn                        Silking, tasseling, ear development
Cucumber                    Flowering, fruit development
Eggplant, Tomato            Flowering, fruiting
Lettuce                     Head development; moisture should be constant
Melons                      Flowering, fruit development

7. In areas prone to repeated drought, look for drought-resistant varieties
when buying seed or plants.

8. If water supplies are short in your area and you wish to use grey water,
or water from household uses, on your vegetable garden, a few rules should
be observed:

Do not use "black water," any water run through the toilet, because of the
possibility of contamination from fecal organisms.

      It is preferable not to use kitchen waste water that contains grease
      or harsh cleaners, ammonia, bleach, softeners, or non-biodegradable
      detergents

      If using water from the bathtub or washing machine, use only mild,
      biodegradable soaps. Omit softeners and bleaches. Allow wash and rinse
      water to mix, if possible, to dilute the soap content. Never use a
      borax-containing product (such as washing soda) in water to be used on
      a garden because of the danger of applying plant-toxic levels of boron.

      Apply greywater to the soil, not to plant leaves.


-End-
-Title-
 FERTILIZING THE GARDEN
-Text-


The amount of fertilizer to apply to a garden depends on the natural
fertility of the soil, the amount of organic matter present, the type of
fertilizer used, and the crop being grown. The best way to determine
fertilizer needs is to have the soil tested. Soil testing is available
through your local Extension agent, through private labs, and with soil test
kits which can be purchased from garden shops and catalogs. Vegetables fall
into three main categories according to their fertilizer requirements: heavy
feeders, medium feeders, and light feeders. It may be advantageous to group
crops in the garden according to their fertilizer requirements to make
application easier. For a complete discussion of fertilizers, refer to the
Soil section of this handbook.


-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-Text-


The old saying, "One year's weed - seven years' seed," contains more truth
than myth, as most gardeners soon learn. Weeds, (some native and some
introduced) are remarkably adapted to conditions in the area where they
grow, usually much more so than the imported cultured vegetables we prize so
highly for food. Many weeds which would otherwise not be growing in a lawn
or natural area appear to spring up as if by magic when the soil is
cultivated. Weed seeds may remain viable for those seven (or more) years
when conditions are not right for their growth. Then, brought to the surface
by tilling, and uninhibited by sod, shade or other factors, they germinate
and become the pests that take water, nutrients, sunlight and space from
vegetable plants.

-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 BENEFICIAL WEEDS
-Text-

Many plants considered weeds in the garden have positive attributes. Some,
such as the Venice mallow (or flower-of-an-hour), morning glory, and even
thistles, have flowers that rival those intentionally planted in flower
beds. In fact, seeds of some weeds are sold by seed companies as flowering
plants.

Other native plants are edible, providing nutritious variety to the regular
diet: dandelions, purslane, chickweed, cress, mustards, and lamb's quarters
all offer greens; blackberries produce sweet fruits; Jerusalem artichokes or
sunchokes, are nothing but the tubers of the native sunflower; and of
course, there is always wild asparagus to stalk. Before attempting to eat
wild plants, be sure that you have properly identified them. Taking a course
from a person knowledgeable about wild edibles is probably the best way to
learn, since books often do not make fine distinctions between edible and
non-edible wild plants.

Weeds are often a habitat for various insects, some of which are beneficial
to the garden. They provide shelter, pollen and nectar for such insects as
bees and predators of garden pests, such as preying mantids.

Wild plants also have other virtues. Parts of some plants are used in
natural dyes and other home-made products. Weeds can be a good source of
nitrogenous materials for the compost pile if pulled before flowering. Many
have long roots which bring elements from the subsoil into their
above-ground tissues; when the weeds are pulled or tilled and allowedto
decay in the garden, these elements are made available to other plants.
Finally, the presence of some native plants can indicate certain soil
problems, e.g., deficiencies, pH changes, soil compaction, etc. A small
number of books are available with detailed information on this subject.

-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 CONTROL METHODS
-Text-

Despite all this goodness, most gardeners won't tolerate weeds in their
vegetable plots. Perhaps it is an overreaction to the first garden he or she
allowed to go completely to weeds or perhaps it's the unruly appearance of
weeds. This may be a sensible approach. If one doesn't have time to
ruthlessly destroy morning glory vines after enjoying the first few flowers
and before they go to seed, the garden will soon become one glorious display
of morning glories and little else.


-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Cultivation
-Text-

There are several ways to rid the garden of most problem plants. Since
mature weeds extract large quantities of moisture and nutrients from the
soil, it is more beneficial (and easier) to remove weeds when they are young
and tender. Hand-pulling and digging are okay for small gardens and raised
beds. Those with larger spaces usually prefer at least a hoe. There are
manual-powered rotary cultivators that do a good job on long rows and
pathways as long as the soil is not too wet or dry and the weeds are small.
In large gardens, a rotary tiller of appropriate size makes the work easy
and fast, but it is not the most pleasant chore to get behind a smoky, noisy
engine on a hot summer day. Manual and powered rotary cultivators are
usually unable to turn under weeds very close to vegetable plants without
damaging the vegetables. Hand-pulling or hoeing with a light touch are best
for removing weeds near vegetable plants. Deep cultivation with any
instrument is likely to damage roots or stems of crop plants.

Turning under weeds, especially before they flower, provides organic matter
to the soil. Hand-pulled weeds, except for rhizomatous grasses, may be laid
on top of the soil to dry out and will eventually have the same effect.
However, if rain is predicted in the area within a day or two, it's best to
collect the weeds and add them to the compost pile; rain will wash soil
around the roots and some weeds will survive. If weeds have started to go to
seed, leaving them in the garden is not a good idea. Composting may not
destroy weed seeds if the pile doesn't heat up enough after the weeds are
added. Grasses that spread by rhizomes or stolons also present a problem if
not completely dried up. In these cases, despite their potential value as
organic material, it's better to let the trash collectors take the weeds, or
burn them and spread the ashes in the garden (if local ordinances permit).
Reducing weed growth around the garden by mowing or other means will also
help prevent the spread of weeds and seeds to the garden area.

Cultivation is best done when the soil is somewhat moist, but not wet.
Working wet soil will change the structure, especially of heavy soils. When
it is too dry, weeds are difficult to pull and hoeing is also hard. A day or
two after a rain or irrigation is probably the best time to cultivate. If
you have a choice, remember that the work will be much more pleasant in the
cool temperatures of early morning or evening. On hot summer afternoons, you
are likely to fatigue more easily, get a sunburn, or suffer from sun
poisoning, sunstroke or worse. Wear protective clothing if you must work
when it's sunny, and stop frequently for rest and refreshment.


-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Mulching
-Text-

Mulching can be an alternative to weeding if you have a reliable source of
mulching materials. (See VPI & SU Publication 426-326, Mulches for the Home
Garden, for detailed information on various mulches.) Thick layers of
organic mulch will not allow most annual weeds to poke through, and those
that do are usually easily pulled. Weeds with runners are often not so
easily controlled, and black plastic may be a better choice where these
prevail. For paths, newspaper, old carpeting, or other such materials,
covered with sawdust, will provide excellent weed suppression. However,
sawdust is not recommended for use right around plants because of its
tendency to crust and because bacteria take nitrogen from the soil, and thus
from vegetables, to break sawdust down.

-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Close Spacing
-Text-

Once vegetable plants are established, if they have been planted close
enough to each other, they will shade the soil and prevent the growth of
many weed seedlings. This is the effect achieved by a well-planned raised
bed, in which plants are spaced so that the foliage of adjacent plants
touches and forms a closed canopy at a mature growth stage.

-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Other Practices
-Text-

Some gardeners are experimenting with various types of no-till gardening to
reduce weed problems and prevent erosion and moisture loss. The standard
farm no-till practice of sowing a fall cover crop and then killing it with a
herbicide, and planting vegetables in the dead sod, after a recommended
waiting period, is one method. However, there are no herbicides recommended
for use in established home vegetable gardens to kill emerged weeds at the
present time. Use of weed-killers normally recommended for lawns or other
areas is not advised, and until a safe herbicide is available for growing
weeds, this type of no-till practice is unsafe for growing vegetables in the
home garden. One alternative is the use of a living sod, mowed regularly,
which has many of the benefits of no-till and does not necessitate the use
of herbicides. This practice works best with raised beds, so that only the
paths need to be mowed.

The use of cover crops over several seasons or years in a particularly weedy
section can also reduce weed problems. However, this method requires leaving
that part uncultivated, reducing gardening space. Cover crops must also be
mown or harvested regularly, which can be time-consuming and/or difficult
without appropriate tools. Investigate crop rotations thoroughly before
using them to control weeds. All of the above techniques are still in the
experimental stage for home gardeners. Try them in small sections of the
garden to determine their effectiveness.

-End-
-Title-
 WEED CONTROL IN THE GARDEN
-SubTitle-
 Herbicides
-Text-

As mentioned before, herbicides may be used in and around the home garden,
but it can be a risky business. They should always be used according to
label instructions and only for crops listed on the label. The wrong
herbicide can destroy a garden's productivity for years. Even when used
properly, drift from herbicide sprays used on lawns or in areas surrounding
the garden can cause damage to vegetable plants, so take care to spray on
windless days and erect barriers to protect plants if necessary. Drift from
pre-emergence herbicides does not damage growing plants, but may prevent
seeds from germinating. Be aware that treatment with a herbicide for one
type of weed may result in the area being colonized by other weeds which are
tolerant to the chemical. Finally, never use an herbicide in the same
sprayer used for insect and disease control. Keep a separate sprayer for
plant-killers only.

-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE PLANTING GUIDE AND RECOMMENDED PLANTING DATES
-Text-

PLANTING MAP/GUIDE/DATES

The Planting Area Map which follows can be used to determine the average
date of last frost in your area. Actual dates will vary due to local
conditions and yearly temperature fluctuations. The average date of last
killing frost in the spring can be used to adapt the Recommended Planting
Dates Chart to your particular area. Specific instructions accompany this
chart.

This chart can be used to tell the approximate earliest and latest date for
a spring planting of each crop and the average length of harvest for each
crop. This is particularly important in making maximum use of garden space
by following one crop with another as soon as the first harvest is complete.

The Vegetable Planting Guide can be used to determine the approximate proper
amount of crop to plant for the desired yield, the amount of seed or
transplants required for that amount of crop, and proper spacing between
plants in a row.

In intensive, raised-bed gardens use the in-row figures between all plants;
i.e., use equidistant spacing between plants. Sow seeds to a depth 3-5 times
the diameter of the seed. For mid-summer plantings, sow up to twice this
depth.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,288>
-Title-
 VEGETABLE PLANTING GUIDE AND RECOMMENDED PLANTING DATES
-SubTitle-
 PLANTING AREAS MAP
-Text-
-Fig-
Virginia Planting Area Map

-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE PLANTING GUIDE AND RECOMMENDED PLANTING DATES
-SubTitle-
 Fall Vegetable Planting Chart
-Text-

RECOMMENDED FALL PLANTING DATES


Vegetable:  BEANS, BUSH
Planting period:  100 to 135 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  No more than 80 days before first fall frost

Vegetable:  BEANS, WAX
Planting period:  100 to 135 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  No more than 80 days before first fall frost

Vegetable:  BEETS
Planting period:  85 to 120 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  No more than 70 days before first fall frost

Vegetable:  BROCCOLI
Planting period:  110 to 130 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 60 days before first fall frost to 10 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  BRUSSELS SPROUTS
Planting period:  110 to 140 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 60 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  CABBAGE
Planting period:  105 to 130 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 60 days before first fall frost to 10 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  CHINESE CABBAGE
Planting period:  100 to 120 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 50 days before first fall frost to 20 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  CARROTS
Planting period:  70 to 110 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 55 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  CAULIFLOWER
Planting period:  80 to 100 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 30 days before first fall frost to 20 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  SWISS CHARD
Planting period:  70 to 110 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 40 days before first fall frost to 40 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  COLLARDS
Planting period:  80 to 110 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 30 days before first fall frost to 40 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  CUCUMBERS
Planting period:  75 to 110 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 60 to 10 days before first fall frost

Vegetable:  ENDIVE
Planting period:  70 to 90 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 10 days before first fall frost to 40 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  KALE
Planting period:  60 to 100 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 45 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  KOHLRABI
Planting period:  45 to 80 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 15 days before first fall frost to 50 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  LEEKS
Planting period:  110 to 160 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 30 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  BIBB LETTUCE
Planting period:  55 to 80 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 25 days before first fall frost to 20 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  LEAF LETTUCE
Planting period:  45 to 80 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 35 days before first fall frost to 20 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  MUSTARD
Planting period:  40 to 70 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 35 days before first fall frost to 40 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  ONION SEED (Tidewater and Piedmont only)
Planting period:  30 to 70 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  Next spring

Vegetable:  GARDEN PEAS (Mountains only)
Planting period:  70 to 90 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 35 days before first fall frost to 20 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  POTATOES (Tidewater and Piedmont only)
Planting period:  85 to 100 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 10 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  RADISH
Planting period:  45 to 70 days before first fall frost
Plant and Harvest:  30 to 45 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 30 days before first fall frost to 20 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  RUTABAGA (Tidewater and Piedmont only)
Planting period:  60 to 90 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 10 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  SPINACH
Planting period:  55 to 90 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 50 days before first fall frost to 40 days
after first frost

Vegetable:  TURNIPS
Planting period:  60 to 90 days before first fall frost
Plant and Harvest:  50 to 60 days before first fall frost
Harvest period:  From 50 days before first fall frost to 100 days
after first frost


-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE PLANTING GUIDE AND RECOMMENDED PLANTING DATES
-SubTitle-
 Recommended Planting Dates
-Text-

RECOMMENDED SPRING PLANTING DATES


Vegetable:  ASPARAGUS
Planting period:  20 to 70 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  From 20 days before last spring frost to 50 days
after last frost

Vegetable:  BEANS, BUSH
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 30
days after last frost
Plant and harvest:  30 to 80 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  80 to 150 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BEANS, POLE
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 55
days after last frost
Harvest period:  55 to 150 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BEANS, LIMA
Planting period:  10 to 70 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  80 to 160 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BEANS, WAX
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 55
days after last frost
Plant and harvest:  55 to 80 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  80 to 150 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BEETS
Planting period:  No more than 50 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  10 to 70 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BROCCOLI (transplants)
Planting period:  From 40 days before last spring frost to 10
days after last frost
Harvest period:  30 to 90 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BRUSSELS SPROUTS (transplants; use special two-season
varieties only)
Planting period:  From 40 days before last spring frost to 10
days after last frost
Harvest period:  40 to 110 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  CABBAGE (transplants)
Planting period:  5 to 50 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  10 to 65 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  CHINESE CABBAGE (use special two-season varieties
only)
Planting period:  20 to 40 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  30 to 70 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  CARROTS
Planting period:  10 to 50 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  10 to 70 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  CAULIFLOWER (transplants)
Planting period:  10 to 40 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  10 to 50 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  SWISS CHARD
Planting period:  From 50 days before last spring frost to 10
days after last frost
Harvest period:  10 to 200 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  COLLARDS
Planting period:  20 to 70 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  10 to 60 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  CUCUMBERS
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 20
days after last frost
Harvest period:  40 to 110 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  EGGPLANT (Transplants)
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 20
days after last frost
Harvest period:  70 to 150 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  LEEKS
Planting period:  10 to 60 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  70 to 200 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  BIBB LETTUCE
Planting period:  5 to 50 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  20 to 60 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  LEAF LETTUCE
Planting period:  10 to 50 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  5 to 50 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  MUSKMELONS
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 30
days after last frost
Harvest period:  70 to 130 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  MUSTARD
Planting period:  30 to 60 days before last spring frost
Plant and harvest:  25 to 30 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  From 25 days before last spring frost to 30 days
after last frost

Vegetable:  OKRA
Planting period:  Up to 40 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  80 to 150 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  ONION (set)
Planting period:  30 to 70 days before last spring frost
Plant and harvest:  From 30 days before last spring frost to 20
days after last frost
Harvest period:  20 to 200 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  GARDEN PEAS
Planting period:  30 to 70 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 40 days
after last frost

Vegetable:  PEPPERS (Transplants)
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 20
days after last frost
Harvest period:  60 to 160 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  POTATOES
Planting period:  20 to 60 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  30 to 170 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  PUMPKINS
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 30
days after last frost
Harvest period:  65 to 170 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  RADISH
Planting period:  45 to 70 days before last spring frost
Plant and harvest:  5 to 45 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  From 5 days before last spring frost to 30 days
after last frost

Vegetable:  RUTABAGA (fall plant only)

Vegetable:  SOUTHERN PEA
Planting period:  10 to 60 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  85 to 170 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  SPINACH
Planting period:  30 to 70 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  From 30 days before last spring frost to 30 days
after last frost

Vegetable:  SUMMER SQUASH
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 40
days after last frost
Plant and harvest:  40 to 50 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  50 to 140 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  WINTER SQUASH
Planting period:  10 to 35 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  90 to 160 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  SWEET CORN
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 50
days after last frost
Harvest period:  60 to 140 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  SWEET POTATO (transplants)
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 30
days after last frost
Harvest period:  110 to 150 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  TOMATOES (transplants)
Planting period:  From 10 days before last spring frost to 30
days after last frost
Harvest period:  50 to 160 days after last spring frost

Vegetable:  TURNIPS
Planting period:  30 to 70 days before last spring frost
Harvest period:  From 30 days before last spring frost to 40 days
after last frost

Vegetable:  WATERMELONS
Planting period:  Up to 30 days after last spring frost
Harvest period:  80 to 140 days after last spring frost


-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE PLANTING GUIDE AND RECOMMENDED PLANTING DATES
-SubTitle-
 Vegetable Planting Guide
-Text-

VEGETABLE PLANTING GUIDE


Crop:  ASPARAGUS
Planting distances in rows:  18 inches
Planting distances between rows:  48-60 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-4 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  15-20 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  7-8 crowns

Crop:  BEANS, BUSH
Planting distances in rows:  1-2 inches	
Planting distances between rows:  24-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-5 pounds	
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  20-50 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1 oz. seed

Crop:  BEANS, POLE
Planting distances in rows:  4-12 inches
Planting distances between rows:  36-48 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  6-10 pounds	
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-30 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1 oz. seed

Crop:  BEANS, LIMA
Planting distances in rows:  3-4 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-5 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  20-30 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1 oz. seed

Crop:  BEANS, WAX
Planting distances in rows:  2 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-5 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  20-50 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/8 oz. seed

Crop:  BEETS
Planting distances in rows:  2-3 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-24 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/8 oz. seed

Crop:  BROCCOLI
Planting distances in rows:  15-24 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  4-6 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-20 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-8 plants or
1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  BRUSSELS SPROUTS
Planting distances in rows:  18-24 inches
Planting distances between rows:  30-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-4 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-7 plants or
1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  CABBAGE
Planting distances in rows:  15-18 inches
Planting distances between rows:  30-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  10-25 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-8 plants or
1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  CHINESE CABBAGE
Planting distances in rows:  12-24 inches
Planting distances between rows:  18-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  20-30 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  8-12 plants or
1/5 oz. seed

Crop:  CARROTS
Planting distances in rows:  1-2 inches
Planting distances between rows:  15-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  7-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-20 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/5 oz. seed

Crop:  CAULIFLOWER
Planting distances in rows:  14-24 inches	
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-8 plants or
1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  CHARD, SWISS
Planting distances in rows:  6-12 inches
Planting distances between rows:  18-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-12 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/5 oz. seed

Crop:  COLLARDS
Planting distances in rows:  18-24 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-15 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-7 plants or
1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  CUCUMBERS
Planting distances in rows:  12-18 inches
Planting distances between rows:  48-72 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  15-20 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  EGGPLANT
Planting distances in rows:  18-24 inches
Planting distances between rows:  30-42 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  10-12 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  3-6 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-7 plants or
1/40 oz. seed

Crop:  ENDIVE
Planting distances in rows:  9-12 inches
Planting distances between rows:  18-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-6 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-10 plants or
1/40 oz. seed

Crop:  KALE
Planting distances in rows:  10-18 inches
Planting distances between rows:  18-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  4-8 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  6-10 plants or
1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  KOHLRABI
Planting distances in rows:  4-6 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  4-8 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  LEEKS
Planting distances in rows:  3-6 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  10-20 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  3-6 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  LETTUCE (BIBB)
Planting distances in rows:  6-10 inches
Planting distances between rows:  14-24 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  4-8 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  15-20 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/40 oz. seed

Crop:  LETTUCE (LEAF)
Planting distances in rows:  4-6 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-18 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  5-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/40 oz. seed

Crop:  MUSKMELONS
Planting distances in rows:  24-36 inches
Planting distances between rows:  60-90 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  15-25 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  8-12 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  3-5 plants or
1/8 oz seed

Crop:  MUSTARD
Planting distances in rows:  3-4 inches
Planting distances between rows:  18-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  3-6 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  OKRA
Planting distances in rows:  12-18 inches
Planting distances between rows:  36-48 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  5-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  7-10 plants or
1/5 oz. seed

Crop:  ONIONS (SETS)
Planting distances in rows:  2-4 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-24 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  7-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  15-25 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  30-60 plants or
1 lb. seed

Crop:  PEAS (ENGLISH)
Planting distances in rows:  1-3 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  2-6 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  40-60 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/2 oz. seed

Crop:  PEPPERS
Planting distances in rows:  18-24 inches
Planting distances between rows:  30-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  5-8 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  5-7 plants

Crop:  POTATOES, IRISH
Planting distances in rows:  10-21 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  10-20 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  75-100 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1 lb. seed

Crop:  PUMPKINS
Planting distances in rows:  4-7 feet
Planting distances between rows:  6-8 feet
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  10-20 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/20 oz. seed

Crop:  RUTABAGA
Planting distances in rows:  3-6 inches
Planting distances between rows:  15-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-12 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/8 oz. seed

Crop:  SOUTHERN PEAS
Planting distances in rows:  2-4 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  5-18 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  25-30 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1 oz. seed

Crop:  SWEET CORN
Planting distances in rows:  9-12 inches
Planting distances between rows:  24-36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  7-10 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  40-60 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/2 oz. seed

Crop:  SPINACH
Planting distances in rows:  3-6 inches
Planting distances between rows:  15-30 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  4-6 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  30-40 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/8 oz. seed

Crop:  SQUASH, SUMMER
Planting distances in rows:  24-36 inches
Planting distances between rows:  36-60 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  20-80 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  5-10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  SQUASH, WINTER
Planting distances in rows:  3-7 feet
Planting distances between rows:  3-10 feet
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  10-80 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/10 oz. seed

Crop:  SWEET POTATOES
Planting distances in rows:  12-18 inches
Planting distances between rows:  36-48 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-12 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  75-100 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  7-10 plants

Crop:  TOMATOES
Planting distances in rows:  18-36 inches
Planting distances between rows:  36 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  15-45 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  3-7 plants

Crop:  TURNIPS
Planting distances in rows:  2-3 inches
Planting distances between rows:  12-24 inches
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-12 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1/8 oz. seed

Crop:  WATERMELONS
Planting distances in rows:  6-8 feet
Planting distances between rows:  7-10 feet
Approximate yield per 10 feet of row:  8-40 pounds
Approximate number of row feet to plant per person:  10-15 feet
Transplants or seed required per 10 feet of row:  1-2 plants or
1/2 oz. seed



-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLES RECOMMENDED FOR VIRGINIA
-Text-


VEGETABLES RECOMMENDED FOR VIRGINIA

Variety:  ASPARAGUS - Mary Washington (2-3 years)**
Remarks:  Will produce for many years
Resistant to:  Rust

Variety:  ASPARAGUS - Beacon F (2-3 years)
Resistant to:  Fusarium crown rot

Variety:  BEANS, BUSH - Contender (50)
Resistant to:  Mosaic, mildew

Variety:  BEANS, BUSH - Dwarf Horticultural (65)
Remarks:  "October" shell beans
Resistant to:  Mosaic

Variety:  BEANS, BUSH - Gator Green (55)
Resistant to:  NY 15 and common mosaic

Variety:  BEANS, BUSH - Slenderette (55)
Remarks:  Canning
Resistant to:  Mosaic

Variety:  BEANS, BUSH - Kentucky Wonder 125 (60)
Remarks:  Bush, with pole bean flavor
Resistant to:  Mosaic, mildew

Variety:  BEANS, LIMA - Thaxter (70)
Resistant to:  Downy mildew

Variety:  BEANS, LIMA - Jackson Wonder (65)
Resistant to:  Heat and drought

Variety:  BEANS, LIMA - Fordhook 242 (75)

Variety:  BEET - Ruby Queen (65)
		BEET - Detroit Dark Red (60)

Variety:  BROCCOLI - Premium Crop (80)
Remarks:  For early crop
Resistant to:  Heat

Variety:  BROCCOLI - Bonanza (95)
Remarks:  For fall crop
Resistant to:  Cold

Variety:  BROCCOLI - Green Goliath (80)
Remarks:  Bears over long period

Variety:  BRUSSELS SPROUTS - Jade Cross (110)

Variety:  CABBAGE - Stonehead (75)
Resistant to:  Yellows

Variety:  CABBAGE - Round Up (90)
Resistant to:  Yellows

Variety:  CABBAGE - Little Rock (96)
Resistant to:  Bacterial spot

Variety:  CABBAGE - Guardian (80)
Resistant to:  Black rot

Variety:  CABBAGE - Two Season (85)
Remarks:  Chinese cabbage

Variety:  CARROTS - *Gold King (72)
Remarks:  Nearly coreless

Variety:  CARROTS - Danvers (72)
		CARROTS - Imperator (78)

Variety:  CAULIFLOWER - Snow Crown (80)
Remarks:  Early spring or fall

Variety:  CAULIFLOWER - Self blanche (95)
Remarks:	Wrapper leaves protect head; not for fall in
		Western Virginia due to late maturity

Variety:  CORN, SWEET - Sundance (65)
		CORN, SWEET - Reward (63)
		CORN, SWEET - Early Sunglow (64)
		CORN, SWEET - Silver Queen (90)
		CORN, SWEET - Golden Queen (95)

Variety:  CORN, SWEET - Pennfresh (85)
Remarks:  Early crop only

Variety:  CORN, SWEET - Seneca Scout (85)
Remarks:  More stalks with two large ears

Variety:  CUCUMBER - Dasher II (60)
Remarks:  Slicing
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, leaf spot, mosaic, mildew, scab

Variety:  CUCUMBER - Gemini (60)
Remarks:  Slicing
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, leaf spot, mosaic, mildew, scab

Variety:  CUCUMBER - *Bush Whopper (68)
Remarks:  Slicing
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, leaf spot, mildew

Variety:  CUCUMBER - Sweet Slice (65)
Remarks:  Slicing
Resistant to:  Mosaic, downy mildew

Variety:  CUCUMBER - Liberty (56)
Remarks:  Pickling
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, leaf spot, mosaic, scab, mildews

Variety:  EGGPLANT - Mission Bell (95)
Remarks:  Oval shape

Variety:  EGGPLANT - Black Knight (110)
		EGGPLANT - Black Beauty (120)

Variety:  KALE - Vates Dwarf Blue Curled (55)

Variety:  LETTUCE - Salad Bowl (50)
Remarks:  Leaf

Variety:  LETTUCE - Great Lakes (80)
Remarks:  Head, heat tolerant

Variety:  LETTUCE - Dark Green Boston (70)
Remarks:  Loose heading, heat tolerant

Variety:  LETTUCE - Buttercrunch (65)
Remarks:  Bibb-type

Variety:  LETTUCE - Mission (Trial) (80)
		LETTUCE - Parris Island Cos (75)

Variety:  MUSKMELON - Ambrosia (82)
Remarks:  Best flavor
Resistant to:  Powdery and downy mildew

Variety:  MUSKMELON - Super Star (86)
Remarks:  Tolerates powdery mildew and fruit spot
Resistant to:  Fusarium wilt

Variety:  MUSKMELON - *Short n Sweet (85)

Variety:  MUSKMELON - Venus (90)
Remarks:  Honeydew, green flesh, slipstem
Resistant to:  Fusarium wilt

Variety:  MUSTARD - Tendergreen F1 (40)
		MUSTARD - Southern Giant Curled (45)

Variety:  OKRA - Annie Oakley (50)
Remarks:  Spineless

Variety:  OKRA - Clemson Spineless (56)

Variety:  ONION - White Portugal (100)
Remarks:  White

Variety:  ONION - Silverskin (100)
Remarks:  White

Variety:  ONION - Ebenezer (110)
Remarks:  Brown

Variety:  ONION - Mustang (110)
Remarks:  Brown; stores well after curing

Variety:  ONION - Yellow Danvers (110)
Remarks:  Brown; stores well after curing

Variety:  PEAS - Alaska (56)
Resistant to:  Fusarium wilt

Variety:  PEAS - *Novella (62)
Remarks:  Easy to pick; fewer leaves; edible tendrils

Variety:  PEAS - Greater Progress (62)

Variety:  PEAS - Sugar Snap (70)
Remarks:  Edible pod; needs support
Resistant to:  Fusarium wilt

Variety:  PEAS - Wando (68)
Remarks:  Tolerates heat

Variety:  PEAS - Green Arrow (70)
Remarks:  Tolerant of downy mildew and fusarium wilt

Variety:  PEAS, SOUTHERN - Queen Anne (56)
		PEAS, SOUTHERN - Purple Hull Crowder (60-70)

Variety:  PEPPERS - Lady Bell (110)
Remarks:  Sweet
Resistant to:  Drought, mosaic

Variety:  PEPPERS - Keystone (110)

Variety:  PEPPERS - Hungarian Wax (100)
Remarks:  Hot

Variety:  PEPPERS - Red Cayenne (110)
Remarks:  Hot

Variety:  POTATO, IRISH - Pungo (Eastern Virginia) (100)
		POTATO, IRISH - Superior (Eastern Virginia) (100)

Variety:  POTATO, IRISH - Pontiac (100)
Remarks:  Red

Variety:  POTATO, IRISH - Kennebec (Western Virginia) (112)
Remarks:  Mosaic, late blight

Variety:  POTATO, SWEET - Centennial (120)
Remarks:  Also Western Virginia on S or SE slopes

Variety:  POTATO, SWEET - Jewel (120)
		POTATO, SWEET - Baker (120)

Variety:  PUMPKIN - Funny Face (100)
Remarks:  10-inch pumpkins

Variety:  PUMPKIN - *Spirit (105)
Remarks:  Bush type

Variety:  PUMPKIN - Howden (110)
Remarks:  Large, uniform
Resistant to:  Drought

Variety:  PUMPKIN - Spookie (110)
Remarks:  Small, uniform
Resistant to:  Drought

Variety:  PUMPKIN - Sugar (110)
Remarks:  Pie type, small

Variety:  RADISH - Cherry Belle (24)
Remarks:  Round, red

Variety:  RADISH - Stop Lite (24)
Remarks:  Round, red

Variety:  RADISH - Icicle (30)
Remarks:  Long, white

Variety:  SPINACH - Melody (50)
Remarks:  Tolerates heat

Variety:  SQUASH, SUMMER - Butterbar (50)
Remarks:  Yellow

Variety:  SQUASH, SUMMER - Goldbar (50)
Remarks:  Yellow

Variety:  SQUASH, SUMMER - Goldrush (50)
Remarks:  Yellow zucchini

Variety:  SQUASH, SUMMER - Aristocrat Zucchini (50)
Remarks:  Green

Variety:  SQUASH, WINTER - *Table Ace (80)
Remarks:  Acorn

Variety:  SQUASH, WINTER - Table Queen (85)
Remarks:  Acorn

Variety:  SQUASH, WINTER - *Gold Nugget (85)
Remarks:  Yellow

Variety:  SQUASH, WINTER - *Butterbush (96)
Remarks:  Butternut

Variety:  SQUASH, WINTER - Waltham Butternut (96)
Remarks:  White
Resistant to:  Squash borer

Variety:  SQUASH, WINTER - Buttercup (100)

Variety:  SWISS CHARD - Rhubard (50)
		SWISS CHARD - Lucullus (45-55)

Variety:  TOMATO - Quick Pick (60)
Remarks:  Excellent flavor
Resistant to:  Fusarium wilt

Variety:  TOMATO - Pik Red (70)
Remarks:  Concentrated set; good canning
Resistant to:  Verticillium, fusarium wilt

Variety:  TOMATO - Floramerica (78)
Resistant to:  Verticillium, fusarium wilt

Variety:  TOMATO - Better Boy VFN (105)
Resistant to:  Verticillium, fusarium wilt

Variety:  TOMATO - Sweet 100 (65)
Remarks:  Cherry tomato

Variety:  TURNIP - Tokoyo Cross (40)

Variety:  TURNIP - Purple Top White Globe (55)
Remarks:  Use for fall crop only

Variety:  TURNIP - All Top F1 (45)
Remarks:  For greens only

Variety:  WATERMELON - Petite Sweet (80)
Remarks:  8 pounds
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, fusarium wilt

Variety:  WATERMELON - *Sugar Bush (75)
Remarks:  10 pounds

Variety:  WATERMELON - Royal Charleston (90)
Remarks:  20-25 pounds
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, fusarium wilt

Variety:  WATERMELON - Crimson Sweet (90)
Remarks:  25 pounds
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, fusarium wilt

Variety:  WATERMELON - Top Yield (86)
Resistant to:  Anthracnose, fusarium wilt, hollow heart

*These varieties specifically bred for minimum space
requirements, as for urban or high density plantings.  Your
extension agent can advise you of sources of supply for new
varieties.




-End-
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-Text-

The purpose of an intensively grown garden is to harvest the most produce
possible from a given space. More traditional gardens consist of long,
single rows of vegetables spaced widely apart. Much of the garden area is
taken by the space between the rows. An intensive garden reduces wasted
space to a minimum. The practice of intensive gardening is not just for
those with limited garden space; rather, an intensive garden concentrates
work efforts to create an ideal plant environment, giving better yields with
less labor.

Though its benefits are many, the intensive garden may not be for everyone.
Some people enjoy the sight of long, straight rows in their gardens. Others
prefer machine cultivation to hand weeding; though there is often less
weeding to do in intensive plantings because of fewer pathways and closely
spaced plants, the weeding that must be done is usually done by hand or with
hand tools. Still other gardeners like to get their gardens planted in a
very short period of time and have harvests come in all at once. The
intensive ideal is to have something growing in every part of the garden at
all times during the growing season.

A good intensive garden requires early, thorough planning to make the best
use of time and space in the garden. Interrelationships of plants must be
considered before planting, including nutrient needs, shade tolerance,
above- and below-ground growth patterns, and preferred growing season. Using
the techniques described below, anyone can develop a high-yielding intensive
garden.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,294>
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 THE RAISED BED
-Text-

The raised bed or growing bed is the basic unit of an intensive garden. A
system of beds allows the gardener to concentrate soil preparation in small
areas, resulting in effective use of soil amendments and creating an ideal
environment for vegetable growth.

Beds are generally 3'-4' wide and as long as desired. The gardener works
from either side of the bed, reducing the incidence of compaction caused by
walking on the soil.

Soil preparation is the key to successful intensive gardening. To grow so
close together, plants must have adequate nutrients and water. Providing
extra synthetic fertilizers and irrigation will help, but there is no
substitute for deep, fertile soil high in organic matter. Humus-rich soil
will hold extra nutrients, and existing elements that are "locked up" in the
soil are released by the actions of earthworms, microorganisms and acids
present in a life-filled soil, making them available for plant use.

If your soil is not deep, double-dig the beds for best results. Remove the
top twelve inches of soil from the bed. Insert a spade or spading fork into
the next 10"-12" of soil and wiggle the handle back and forth to break up
compacted layers. Do this every 6"-8" in thebed. Mix the top soil with a
generous amount of compost or manure, and return the mixture to the bed. It
should be somewhat fluffy and may be raised slightly. To create a true
raised bed, take topsoil from the neighboring pathways and mix it in as
well.

This is a lot of work! Try it in one or two beds for some of your most
valuable plants; if you like the results you can proceed to other beds as
you have time. One nice thing about raised bed gardening is that it breaks
work into units. Instead of gazing desperately at a garden full of weeds,
thinking you'll never have time to clean it up, you can look at each bed and
say, "I can do that in half an hour today!" Other chores are accomplished
with the same ease.

By their nature, raised beds are a form of wide-bed gardening, a technique
by which seeds and transplants are planted in wide bands of several rows or
broadcast in a wide strip. In general, the goal is to space plants at equal
distances from each other on all sides, such that leaves will touch at
maturity. This saves space, and the close plantings reduce moisture loss
from surrounding soil.

-Fig-
The Raised Bed Garden

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,295>
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 VERTICAL GARDENING
-Text-

The use of trellises, nets, strings, cages or poles to support growing
plants constitutes vertical gardening. This technique is especially suited,
but not limited, to gardeners with a small garden space. Vining and
sprawling plants, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, melons and pole beans are
obvious candidates for this type of gardening. Some plants entwine
themselves onto the support, while others may need to be tied. Remember that
a vertical planting will cast a shadow, so beware of shading sun-loving
crops, or take advantage of the shade by planting shade-tolerant crops near
the vertical ones. Plants grown vertically take up much less space on the
ground, and though the yield per plant may be (but is not always) less, the
yield per square foot of garden space is much greater. Because vertically
growing plants are more exposed, they dry out faster and may need to be
watered more frequently than if they were allowed to spread over the ground.
This fast drying is also an advantage to those plants susceptible to fungus
diseases. A higher rate of fertilization may be needed, and soil should be
deep and well-drained to allow roots to extend vertically rather than
compete with others at a shallow level.
-Fig-
Vertical Gardening

-End-
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 INTERPLANTING
-Text-

Growing two or more types of vegetables in the same place at the same time
is known as interplanting. Proper planning is essential to obtain high
production and increased quality of the crops planted. This technique has
been practiced for thousands of years, but is just now gaining widespread
support in this country. To successfully plan an interplanted gardenthe
following factors must be taken into account for each plant: length of the
plant's growth period, its growth pattern (tall, short, below or above
ground), possible negative effects on other plants (such as the allelopathic
effects of sunflowers and Jerusalem artichokes on nearby plants), preferred
season, and light, nutrient and moisture requirements. Interplanting can be
accomplished by alternating rows within a bed (plant a row of peppers next
to a row of onions), by mixing plants within a row, or by distributing
various species throughout the bed. For the beginner, alternating rows may
be the easiest to manage at first.

Long season (slow maturing) and short season (quick maturing) plants like
carrots and radishes, respectively, can be planted at the same time. The
radishes are harvested before they begin to crowd the carrots. An example of
combining growth patterns is planting smaller plants close to larger plants,
radishes at the base of beans or broccoli. Shade tolerant species like
lettuce, spinach, and celery may be planted in the shadow of taller crops.
Heavy feeders, such as cabbage family crops, should be interplanted with
less gluttonous plants.

Interplanting can help keep insect and disease problems under control. Pests
are usually fairly crop-specific; that is, they prefer vegetables of one
type or family. Mixing families of plants helps to break up large expanses
of the pest-preferred crop, helping to contain early pest damage within a
small area, thus giving the gardener a little more time to deal with the
problem. One disadvantage is that when it does come time to spray for pests,
it's hard to be sure that all plants are protected.

-End-
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 SPACING
-Text-

Individual plants are closely spaced in a raised bed or interplanted garden.
An equidistant spacing pattern calls for plants to be the same distance from
each other within the bed; that is, plant so that the center of one plant is
the same distance from plants on all sides of it. In beds of more than two
rows this means that the rows should be staggered so that plants in every
other row are between the plants in adjacent rows (see illustration). The
distance recommended for plants within the row on a seed packet is the
distance from the center of one plant to the center of the next. This
results in an efficient use of space and leaves less area to weed and mulch.
The close spacing tends to create a nearly solid leaf canopy, acting as a
living mulch, decreasing water loss, and keeping weed problems down.
However, plants should not be crowded to the point at which disease problems
arise or competition causes stunting.

-End-
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 SUCCESSION AND RELAY PLANTING
-Text-

Succession planting is an excellent way to make the most of an intensive
garden. To obtain a succession of crops, plant something new in spots
vacated by spent plants. Corn after peas is a type of succession.

Planting a spring, summer, and fall garden is another form of succession
planting. Cool season crops (broccoli, lettuce, peas) are followed by warm
season crops (beans, tomatoes, peppers), and where possible, these may be
followed by more cool-season plants, or even a winter cover crop.

Relaying is another common practice, consisting of overlapping plantings of
one type of crop. The new planting is made before the old one is removed.
For instance, sweet corn may be planted at two-week intervals for a
continuous harvest. This requires some care, though; crops planted very
early are likely to get a slower start because of low temperatures. In the
case of corn, it can be disastrous to have two varieties pollinating atthe
same time, as the quality of the kernels may be affected. Give early planted
corn extra time to get started, for best results. Another way to achieve the
same result is to plant at once various varieties of the same vegetable; for
example, you can plant an early-, a mid-, and a late-season corn at the same
time have a lengthy harvest.

Starting seeds indoors for transplanting is an important aspect of intensive
gardening. To get the most from the garden plot, a new crop should be ready
to take the place of the crop being removed. Several weeks may be gained by
having 6" transplants ready to go into vacated areas. Don't forget to
recondition the soil for the new plants.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,299>
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 PLANNING AN INTENSIVE GARDEN
-Text-

Begin planning your garden early. In January or February when the cold days
of winter seem never-ending, pull out last-year's garden records and dig
into the new seed catalogs. As with any garden, you must decide what crops
you want to grow based on your own likes and dislikes, as well as how much
of each you will need. An account of which cultivars were most successful or
tasted best is helpful in making crop choices. Use the charts below, and
your own experience, to determine which crops are likely combinations.

Good gardening practices such as watering, fertilizing, crop rotation,
composting, and sanitation are especially important in an intensive garden.
An intensive garden does require more detailed planning, but the time saved
in working the garden and the increased yields make it well worthwhile. Use
your imagination and have fun!

-Fig-
Planning An Intensive Garden
-End-
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 Intensive Spacing Guide
-Text-

Note: to determine spacing for interplanting, add the inches for the two
crops to be planted together, and divide the sum by 2. For example, if
radishes are planted next to beans, add 2" + 4" = 6", then divide 6" by 2" =
3". The radishes should be planted 3" from the beans.



          Plant                 Inches     Plant             Inches

          Asparagus              15-18     Lettuce, head          10-12
          Beans, lima             4- 6     Lettuce, leaf           4- 6
          Beans, pole             6-12     Melons                 18-24
          Beans, bush             4- 6     Mustard                 6- 9
          Beets                   2- 4     Okra                   12-18
          Broccoli               12-18     Onion                   2- 4
          Brussels
           Sprouts               15-18     Peas                    2- 4
          Cabbage                15-18     Peppers                12-15
          Cabbage,
           Chinese               10-12     Potatoes               10-12
          Carrots                 2- 3     Pumpkins               24-36
          Cauliflower            15-18     Radishes                2- 3
          Cucumber               12-18     Rutabaga                4- 6
          Chard, Swiss            6- 9     Southern pea            3- 4
          Collards               12-15     Spinach                 4- 6
          Endive                 15-18     Squash, summer         18-24
          Eggplant               18-24     Squash, winter         24-36
          Kale                   15-18     Sweet corn             15-18
          Kohlrabi                6- 9     Tomatoes               18-24
          Leeks                   3- 6     Turnip                  4- 6


Plants Grouped According to Nutrient Needs
       Heavy Feeders             Light Feeders            Soil Builders

        Asparagus                   Carrot                   Alfalfa
        Beet                        Garlic                   Beans
        Broccoli*                   Leek                       broad
        Brussels sprouts*           Mustard greens             lima
        Cabbage*                    Onion                      snap
        Cantaloupe*                 Parsnip                  Clover
        Cauliflower                 Pepper                   Peas
        Celery                      Potato                   Peanut
        Collard                     Rutabaga                 Soybeans
        Corn                        Shallot
        Cucumber*                   Sweet potato
        Eggplant*                   Swiss chard
        Endive                      Turnip
        Kale
        Kohlrabi
        Lettuce
        Okra
        Parsley
        Pumpkin*
        Radish
        Rhubarb
        Spinach
        Squash
          summer*
          winter*
        Strawberry
        Sunflower
        Tomato*
        Watermelon*

*Fertilize at least twice


-End-
-Title-
 INTENSIVE GARDENING METHODS
-SubTitle-
 ECONOMIC VALUE OF CROPS
-Text-

It is difficult to evaluate the economic value of crops grown in the
vegetable garden due to the different lengths of time they require for
maturity and harvest, the availability of varieties and vegetables types not
generally found in the marketplace, and the lack of comparison values for
vegetables that are not acceptable by commercial standards (cracked
tomatoes, crooked cucumbers, etc.), but which are perfectly usable by the
home gardener.Nevertheless, several studies have attempted to determine
which crops bring the most value per square foot of garden space, partly to
aid small-space gardeners in making decisions about what to plant. Of
course, if no one in the family likes beets, there is no point in growing
them just because they are economically valuable, but this list may help you
determine which vegetables to plant and which to buy. Perennial crops are
not on the list below because each of the studies was on a one-season basis.
Asparagus, rhubarb, horseradish and other perennial crops do also have
considerable economic worth. Fruit trees and shrubs are also valuable
producers, especially considering the long term.

Top 15 Vegetables in Economic Value
      Tomatoes                                 Beets
      Green bunching onions                    Carrots
      Leaf lettuce                             Cucumbers
      Turnip (greens + roots)                  Peppers
      Summer squash                            Broccoli
      Edible pod peas                          Head lettuce
      Onion storage bulbs                      Swiss chard
      Beans (pole, bush)

Values based on pounds produced per square foot, retail value per pound at
harvest time, and length of time in the garden

Low-Value Crops (not recommended for small spaces)
            Corn                   squash
            Melons                 Pumpkins

Miniature varieties or trellising may increase value per square foot.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,302>
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-Text-

If you don't have space for a vegetable garden, or if your present site is
too small, consider raising fresh, nutritious, homegrown vegetables in
containers. A window sill, patio, balcony or doorstep can provide sufficient
space for a productive container garden. Problems with soil-borne diseases,
nematodes, or poor soil can also be overcome by switching to container
gardening.

Grow vegetables that take up little space, such as carrots, radishes and
lettuce, or crops that bear fruits over a period of time, such as tomatoes
and peppers, for best use of space and containers. Dwarf or miniature
varieties often mature and bear fruit early, but most do not produce as well
overall as standard varieties. With increasing interest in container
gardening, plant breeders and seed companies are working on vegetables
specifically bred for container culture. These varieties are not necessarily
miniature or dwarf and may produce as well as standard types if properly
cared for.

The amount of sunlight that your container garden spot receives may
determine which crops can be grown. Generally, root crops and leaf crops can
tolerate partial shade, butvegetables grown for their fruits generally need
at least five hours of full, direct sunlight each day, and perform better
with 8-10 hours. Available light can be increased somewhat by providing
reflective materials around the plants, e.g., aluminum foil, white-painted
surfaces, marble chips.

Container gardening lends itself to attractive plantscaping. A dull patio
area can be brightened by the addition of baskets of cascading tomatoes or a
colorful herb mix. Planter boxes with trellises can be used to create a cool
shady place on an apartment balcony. Container gardening presents
opportunities for many innovative ideas.

-Fig-
Container Gardening
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,303>
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 CONTAINERS
-Text-

There are many possible containers for gardening. Clay, wood, plastic, metal
are some of the suitable materials. Containers for vegetable plants must (1)
be big enough to support plants when they are fully grown, (2) hold soil
without spilling, (3) have adequate drainage, and (4) never have held
products that would be toxic to plants or people. Consider using barrels,
flower pots, cut-off milk and bleach jugs, recycled styrofoam coolers,
window boxes, baskets lined with plastic (with drainage holes punched in
it), even pieces of drainage pipe or cinder block. If you are building a
planting box out of wood, you will find redwood and cedar to be the most
rot-resistant, but bear in mind that cedar trees are much more plentiful
than redwoods. Wood for use around plants should never be treated with
creosote or pentachlorophenol (Penta) wood preservatives. These may be toxic
to plants and harmful to people as well.

Some gardeners have built vertical planters out of wood lattice work lined
with black plastic and then filled with a lightweight medium, or out of
welded wire shaped into cylinders lined with sphagnum moss and then filled
with soil mix. Depending on the size of your vertical planter, 2" diameter
perforated plastic pipes may be needed inside to aid watering (see
illustration).

Whatever type of container you use, be sure that there are holes in the
bottom for drainage so that plant roots do not stand in water. Most plants
need containers at least 6-8 inches deep for adequate rooting.

As long as the container meets the basic requirements described above it can
be used. The imaginative use of discarded items or construction of
attractive patio planters is a very enjoyable aspect of container gardening.
For ease of care, dollies or platforms with wheels or casters can be used to
move the containers from place to place. This is especially useful for
apartment or balcony gardening so that plants can be moved to get maximum
use of available space and sunlight, and to avoid destruction from
particularly nasty weather.
-Fig-
Vertical Planters
-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 MEDIA
-Text-

A fairly lightweight potting mix is needed for container vegetable
gardening. Soil straight from the garden usually cannot be used in a
container because it may be too heavy, unless your garden has sandy loam or
sandy soil. Clay soil consists of extremely small (microscopic) particles.
In a container, the bad qualities of clay are exaggerated. It holds too much
moisture when wet, resulting in too little air for the roots, and it pulls
away from the sides of the pot when dry. Container medium must be porous in
order to support plants, because roots require both air and water. Packaged
potting soil available at local garden centers is relatively lightweight and
may make a good container medium. Soilless mixes such as peat-lite mix are
generally too light for container vegetable gardening, not offering enough
support to plant roots. If the container is also lightweight, a strong wind
can blow plants over, resulting in major damage. Also, soilless mixes are
sterile and contain few nutrients, so even though major fertilizers are
added, no trace elements are available for good plant growth. Add soil or
compost if you wish to use a sterile mix. For a large container garden the
expense of prepackaged or soilless mixes may be quite high. Try mixing your
own with one part peat moss, one part garden loam, and one part clean coarse
(builder's) sand, and a slow release fertilizer (14-14-14) according to
container size. Lime may also be needed to bring the pH to around 6.5. In
any case, a soil test is helpful in determining nutrient and pH needs, just
as in a large garden.

-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 PLANTING
-Text-

Plant container crops at the same time you would if you were planting a
regular garden. Fill a clean container to within one-half inch of the top
with the slightly damp soil mixture. Peat moss in the mix will absorb water
and mix much more readily if soaked with warm water before putting the mix
in the container. Sow the seeds or set transplants according to instructions
on the seed package. Put a label with the name, variety, and date of
planting on or in each container. After planting, gently soak the soil with
water, being careful not to wash out or displace seeds. Thin seedlings to
obtain proper spacing when the plants have two or three leaves. If cages,
stakes, or other supports are needed, provide them when the plants are very
small to avoid later root damage.

-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 WATERING
-Text-

Pay particular attention to watering container plants. Because the volume of
soil is relatively small, containers can dry out very quickly, especially on
a concrete patio in full sun. Daily or even twice daily watering may be
necessary. Apply water until it runs out the drainage holes. On an upstairs
balcony this may mean neighbor problems, so make provisions for drainage of
water. Large trays filled with coarse marble chips work nicely. However, the
soil should never be soggy or have water standing on top of it. When the
weather is cool, container plants may be subject to root rots if maintained
too wet. Clay pots and other porous containers allow additional evaporation
from the sides of the pots and watering must be done more often. Small pots
also tend to dry out more quickly than larger ones. If the soil appears to
be getting excessively dry (plants wilting every day is one sign), group the
containers together so that the foliage creates a canopy to help shade the
soil and keep it cool. On a hot patio, you might consider putting containers
on pallets or other structures that will allow air movement beneath the pots
and prevent direct contact with the cement. Check containers at least once a
day and twice on hot, dry or windy days. Feel the soil to determine whether
or not it is damp. Mulching and windbreaks can help reduce water
requirements for containers. If you are away a lot, consider an automatic
drip emitter irrigation system (see VPI & SU Publication 426-332, Watering,
for more information.)


-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 FERTILIZING
-Text-

If you use a soil mix with fertilizer added, then your plants will have
enough nutrients for 8-10 weeks. If plants are grown longer than this, add a
water-soluble fertilizer at the recommended rate. Repeat every 2-3 weeks. An
occasional dose of fish emulsion or compost will add trace elements to the
soil. Do not add more than the recommended rate of any fertilizer, since
this may cause fertilizer burn and kill the plants. Container plants do not
have the buffer of large volumes of soil and humus to protect them from
over-fertilizing or over-liming. Just because a little is good for the
plants does not guarantee that a lot will be better.

-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 GENERAL CARE
-Text-

Vegetables grown in containers can be attacked by the various types of
insects and diseases that are common to any vegetable garden. Plants should
be periodically inspected for the presence of foliage-feeding and
fruit-feeding insects as well as the occurrence of diseases. Protect plants
from very high heat caused by light reflection from pavement. Move them to a
cool spot or shade them during the hottest part of the day. Plants should be
moved to a sheltered location during severe rain, hail, or wind storms, and
for protection from fall frosts.

-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 INDOOR CONTAINER GARDENING WITH VEGETABLES
-Text-

If you want fresh home grown vegetables over the winter, or if you don't
have an outdoor space in which you can place containers, it is worth trying
some indoor container gardening. Of course you cannot have a full garden in
the house, but a bright, sunny window can be the site for growing fresh food
all year. Some small-fruited tomatoes and peppers, several types of lettuce,
radishes, and many herbs are among the plants you can include in the indoor
garden.

Follow directions given above for preparing pots and for watering,
fertilizing, etc. However, note that plants will dry out less quickly
indoors and will also grow more slowly, needing less fertilizer. To make
watering easy it is wise to set the pots in large trays with an inch or two
of decorative stones in them. Not only will this prevent your having to move
the plants in order to water them, which may discourage you from watering
when you should, but it will also provide humidity, which is a major
requirement, especially during winter when the house is warm and dry.

As mentioned before, a sunny window, preferably south-facing, is almost a
must for indoor vegetable growing. Fruiting vegetables such as tomatoes and
peppers will also need supplemental light, such as a combination warm
white/cool white fluorescent fixture, during winter months. Insufficient
light will result in tall, spindly plants and failure to flower and set
fruit.

Herbs are a first choice for many indoor gardeners. Many are less demanding
than vegetable plants, and cooks find it pleasant to be able to snip off a
few sprigs of fresh parsley or chop some chives from the windowsill herb
garden. Chives grow like small onions with leaves about six inches tall.
These plants prefer cool conditions with good light, but will grow quite
well on a windowsill in the kitchen. One or two pots of chives will provide
leaves for seasoning salads and soups. Plant seeds or small bulbs in a
six-inch pot. The plants should be about one inch apart over the entire
surface area. It will require about twelve weeks from the time seeds are
planted until leaves can be cut. For variety, try garlic or Chinese chives,
which grow in a similar fashion, but have a mild garlic flavor.

Parsley seeds can be planted directly into six-inch pots, or young healthy
plants can be transplanted from the garden. One vigorous plant per pot is
enough. Standard parsley develops attractive, green, curly leaves about six
or eight inches tall. Italian, or single-leaved parsley has a slightly
stronger flavor and is a favorite for pasta dishes. Leaves can be clipped
about 10-12 weeks after planting the seeds.

Cilantro, or the leaves of the young coriander plant, can be grown in the
windowsill garden. Cilantro is used in Oriental and Mexican dishes, but it
is not available in most grocery stores and must be used fresh. Grow
cilantro as you would parsley. Thyme and other herbs will also grow well
indoors if given the right conditions.

The small-fruited varieties of tomatoes such as Tiny Tim, Small Fry and the
paste tomato, Roma, may be raised quite satisfactorily in the home. They
will challenge your gardening ability, and supply fruits which can be eaten
whole, cooked, or served with salad. The Tiny Tim tomato grows to a height
of about 12-15 inches. Small Fry, which is about three feet tall, and Roma
will need more space and should be located on an enclosed porch or in a sun
room. Several varieties have been developed for hanging baskets, too, which
may be worth experimenting with.

Some of the small-fruited peppers may be grown as house plants. Like
tomatoes, they prefer warm, bright conditions in order to grow well indoors.
Fruits will be ready to harvest from peppers and tomatoes about ten weeks
after planting. Whiteflies and aphids may present a problem on indoor tomato
and pepper plants. Keep a close watch for these pests so that they do not
get a good start in your planting. Yellow sticky traps, either purchased or
homemade are effective in trapping whiteflies. Insecticidal soap or other
pesticide approved for vegetable plants can be used to control aphids.
Fortunately, you will be less likely to experience problems with such
outdoor pests as tomato hornworms, corn earworm (in peppers), and late
blight than you would if plants were outside.

For a quick-growing crop, try radishes. These must be grown very rapidly if
they are to be crisp and succulent. Scatter radish seeds on moist soil in a
six- or eight-inch pot. Cover with 1/4 inch of soil and place a piece of
glass or plastic wrap over the pot to conserve moisture until the seeds
germinate. Carrots are slower, but can be grown in the same way; use the
small-rooted varieties, such as Little Finger, for best results indoors.

Experiment with various types of lettuce. Leaf lettuce and the miniature Tom
Thumb butterhead are some to try. Space them according to package
directions. Keep lettuce moist and in a very sunny spot.

If light is limited, an old standby for fresh taste and high food value is
sprouted seeds. Almost any seeds can be sprouted: corn, barley, alfalfa,
lentils, soybeans, rye, peas, radish, mung beans, sunflowers, etc. Use only
special seeds for sprouting available from health food or grocery stores to
avoid the possibility of getting seeds treated with poison. Use any
wide-mouthed container such as a Mason or mayonnaise jar. Soak seeds
overnight, drain, and place in the container. Cover with a double
cheesecloth layer held with rubber bands, or a sprouting lid. Set the
container in a consistently warm spot and rinse and drain seeds two or three
times daily. In 3-5 days, sprouts will be 1" to 3" long and ready for
harvesting. See Publication 426-419, Sprouting Seeds for Food, for other
suggestions.


-End-
-Title-
 CONTAINER GARDENING
-SubTitle-
 Information for Growing Vegetables in Containers
-Text-


INFORMATION FOR GROWING VEGETABLES IN CONTAINERS


Vegetable*:  BEANS, BUSH
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  2-3 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  45-60
Comments:  Several plantings, 2-week intervals

Vegetable*:  BEETS
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  1/2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  2-3 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  50-60	
Comments:  Thin plants when 6-8 inches tall

Vegetable*:  CARROTS
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  1 quart
Distance between plants in containers:  2-3 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  65-80
Comments:  Several plantings, 2-week intervals

Vegetable*:  CABBAGE
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  5 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  12-18 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  65-120
Comments:  Requires fertile soil

Vegetable*:  CHARD, SWISS
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  1/2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  4-6 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  30-40
Comments:  Harvest leaves

Vegetable*:  CUCUMBERS
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  5 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  14-18 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  70-80
Comments:  Require hot weather, vining types need support

Vegetable*:  EGGPLANT
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  5 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  1 plant per container
Days from seed to harvest:  75-100
Comments:  Requires fertile soil

Vegetable*:  KALE
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  5 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  10-15 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  55-65
Comments:  Harvest leaves

Vegetable*:  LETTUCE, LEAF
Light requirements:  Partial shade
Minimum container size:  1/2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  4-6 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  30-35
Comments:  Harvest leaves

Vegetable*:  MUSTARD GREENS
Light requirements:  Partial shade
Minimum container size:  1/2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  4-5 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  35-40
Comments:  Several plantings, 2-week intervals

Vegetable*:  ONIONS, GREEN
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  1/2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  2-3 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  70-100
Comments:  Require lots of moisture

Vegetable*:  PEPPERS, BELL
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  2 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  1 plant per container
Days from seed to harvest:  110-120
Comments:  Require hot weather

Vegetable*:  SQUASH, SUMMER
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  5 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  1 plant per container
Days from seed to harvest:  50-60
Comments:  Plant only bush type

Vegetable*:  TOMATOES
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  5 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  1 plant per container
Days from seed to harvest:  55-100
Comments:  Stake and prune or cage

Vegetable*:  TOMATOES, CHERRY
Light requirements:  Full sun
Minimum container size:  1 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  1 plant per container
Days from seed to harvest:  55-100
Comments:  Helps to stake and prune

Vegetable*:  TURNIPS
Light requirements:  Full sun; tolerates partial shade
Minimum container size:  3 gallon
Distance between plants in containers:  2-3 inches
Days from seed to harvest:  30-60
Comments:  Harvest leaves and roots


*Consult seed catalogs for varieties adapted to container
culture.


-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE FALL
-SubTitle-
 PLANTING FOR A FALL HARVEST
-Text-

By planning and planting a fall vegetable garden it is possible to have
fresh vegetables up to and even past the first frosts. At the time when
retail vegetable prices are on the rise, you can be reaping large and varied
harvests from your still-productive garden site.

Many varieties of vegetables can be planted in mid- to late summer for fall
harvests. Succession plantings of warm season crops, such as corn and beans,
can be harvested until the first killing frost. Cool season crops, such as
kale, turnips, mustard, broccoli, cabbage, etc., grow well during the cool
fall days and withstand light frosts. Timely planting is the key to a
successful fall garden.

To determine the time to plant a particular vegetable for the latest harvest
in your area, you need to know the average date of the first killing frost
(see map above) and the number of days to maturity for the variety grown.
Choose earliest maturing varieties for late plantings. The formula below for
determining the number of days to count back from the first frost will help
determine when to start your fall garden.

Number of days from seeding or transplanting outdoors to harvest

      + Number of days from seed to transplant if you grow your own
      + Average harvest period
      + Fall Factor (about two weeks)
      + Frost Tender Factor (if applicable)
      -----------------------------------------------------
      = Days to count back from first frost date

The Frost Tender Factor is added only for those crops that are sensitive to
frost (corn, beans, cucumbers, tomatoes, squash), as these must mature two
weeks before frost in order to produce a reasonable harvest. The Fall Factor
takes into account the slower growth that results from cooler weather and
shorter days in the fall, and amounts to about two weeks. This time can be
reduced from 2-5 days by presprouting seeds. Almost any crop that isn't
grown for transplants can benefit from presprouting. Sprout seeds indoors,
allowing them to reach a length of up to an inch. Sprouted seeds may be
planted deeper than normal to help prevent drying out, and they should be
watered well until they break the soil surface. Care should be taken not to
break off the sprouts when planting them.

When planting fall crops, prepare the soil by restoring nutrients removed by
spring and summer crops. A light layer of compost or aged manure, or a small
application of complete chemical fertilizer will boost soil nutrients in
preparation for another crop.

Dry soil may make working the soil difficult and inhibit seed germination
during the midsummer period. Plant fall vegetables when the soil is moist
after a rain, or water the area thoroughly the day before planting. Seeds
may be planted in a shallow trench to conserve moisture. Cover the seeds
about twice as deeply as you do in the spring. An old-time trick for
germinating seeds in mid-summer is to plant the seeds, water them in well,
and then place a board over the row until the sprouts just reach the soil
surface; at that time remove the board. Plastic will also work, but must be
completely anchored so that the soil does not dry out underneath or the
plastic blow away. Plastic, especiallyblack plastic, may cause the soil to
get too hot. An organic mulch on top will help keep soil cool. Mulching
between rows can also help keep soil cool and decrease soil drying. In
severe hot weather a light, open type of mulch, such as loose straw or pine
boughs may be placed over the seeded row. This must be removed as soon as
seedlings are up so that they receive full sun. Starting transplants in a
shaded coldframe or in a cool indoor area is another possibility.

Once young plants are established, a heavier mulch may be used to hold
moisture and control weeds. Irrigate when necessary so the young plants have
sufficient moisture. Fall plantings often have few insect problems, as they
avoid the peak insect activity period of midsummer. However, some insects,
such as cabbageworm and corn earworm, may be even worse late in the year
than in summer; vigilance is still required! Avoid some pests and diseases
by planting crops of different families than were originally in that section
of the garden.

Some of the best quality vegetables are produced during the warm days and
cool nights of the fall season. These environmental conditions add sugar to
sweet corn and crispness to carrots. Parsnips and Jerusalem artichokes are
examples of crops that are very much improved by a touch of frost.

The fall garden gives you a chance to try again any spring failures you
might have encountered. Some crops, in fact, grow well only in the fall in
certain areas. Cauliflower and long-season Chinese cabbage are two examples
of crops which do not produce well in Virginia's mountain areas in spring
because they cannot reach maturity before the cool weather ends.

Protection of vegetable plants during cold periods may extend your season
even further. See Publication 426-381, Extending the Gardening Season, for
ideas. Though in the hot days of summer the last thing you want to think
about is planting more crops to take care of, look ahead to the fall garden,
which offers its own satisfaction through its prolonged harvest of fresh
vegetables, savings in food costs, and the knowledge that you're making full
use of your gardening space and season.

-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE FALL
-SubTitle-
 CARE OF FALL CROPS
-Text-

The beginning of fall garden care comes when the weather and the radio
station announce the first arrival of frost. Your main concern then should
be to harvest all ripe, tender crops. Tomatoes, summer squash, melons,
eggplant, cucumbers, peppers and okra are some of the crops that cannot
withstand frost and should be picked immediately. Store the vegetables in a
place where they can be held until needed for eating or processing. If the
frost warning is mild, predicting no lower than a 30 F. low, try covering
tender plants in your garden that still hold an abundance of immature fruit.
Baskets, burlap, or canvas sacks, boxes, blankets, or buckets help protect
them from the frost. Warm days after the frost will still mature some of the
fruit as long as the plants have this nightly frost protection. Much will
depend on the garden's microclimate. If your spot is low and unsheltered, it
is likely to be a frost pocket. Gardens sheltered from winds and on the
upper side of a slop are less susceptible to early frost damage.

When using a cold frame to extend the harvest season, be sure to close the
top on frosty nights to protect the plants from the cold. When the sun comes
out the next morning and the air warms, open the cold frame again; leave it
closed if daytime temperatures are low.

Cool-season crops such as cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, spinach, and
Brussels sprouts can withstand some cold. In fact, their flavor may be
enhanced after a frost. They cannot stayin the garden all winter, but do not
need to be picked immediately when frost comes. Kale, spinach, evergreen
bunching onions, lettuce, parsley, parsnips, carrots and salsify are some
crops that may survive all winter in the garden. Mulch these overwintering
vegetables with 8" of mulch to prevent heaving of the soil. Most of these
vegetables can be dug or picked as needed throughout the winter or in early
spring.

Now is the time to prepare perennial vegetables for winter, too. Most will
benefit from a topdressing of manure or compost and a layer of mulch which
reduces damage from freezing and thawing. Dead leaf stalks of perennial
vegetables such as asparagus and rhubarb should be cut to the ground after
their tops are killed by frost, though some people prefer to leave asparagus
stalks until late winter to hold snow over the bed. Don't forget strawberry
beds. Remove weeds that you let grow when you were too busy last summer. You
can transplant some of the runner plants if you carefully dig a good-sized
ball of soil with the roots. Mulch the bed well with a light material. Old
raspberry canes can be cut back at this time or late in the winter.

When tender crops have been harvested and overwintering crops cared for,
pull up all stakes and trellises in the garden except those stakes that are
clearly marking the sites of overwintering plants. Clean stakes and
trellises of remnants of plant materials and soil. Hose them down and allow
to dry. Tie stakes in bundles and stack them so that they won't get lost
over the winter. If possible, roll up trellises and tie them securely. Store
these items inside your attic, barn, or shed in an area where they are out
of the way, and where rodents and other animals cannot get to them to use as
winter nests.

-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE FALL
-SubTitle-
 PREPARING SOIL FOR WINTER
-Text-

Now you are ready to prepare the soil for winter. Pull up all dead and
unproductive plants and place this residue on top of the soil to be tilled
under, or in the compost heap. Remove any diseased or insect-infested plant
material from the garden that may shelter overwintering stages of disease
and insect pests. If this plant material is left in the garden, you are
leaving an inoculum of diseases and insects which will begin to reproduce
the next spring and add to your pest problems.

The best thing to do is to remove infested plant material from the garden or
burn it. Burning will kill any diseases or insects that may be in plant
wastes. Spread the ashes on the garden to get the benefit of mineral
nutrients. Check burning laws in your area before burning anything. You may
need a permit. If you live near a wooded area, burning may be too risky. In
this case, haul the diseased material away.

Clean-up also gives you the chance to add compost to the garden. Compost
contains highly nutritious, decomposed plant material and beneficial
organisms, and is an excellent soil-builder. By spreading compost and other
wastes on the soil and plowing them in,

you are adding nutrients to the soil for next year's crop. The beneficial
insects and microorganisms in the compost will help integrate the compost
with the soil, and the added humus will improve soil structure.

Don't overlook other excellent sources of organic material available during
the fall. Leaves are abundant, and neighbors will usually be glad to give
their leaves away. Put some on the garden now and store some for next year's
mulch. Leaves will mat if put on in too thick a layer, and will not
decompose quickly. You can help leaves break down more easily by running a
lawn mower back and forth over the pile. Put the shredded leaves directly
onto the garden or compost them. Sawdust and wood chips are easy to obtain
this season from sawmills and many farms and stables want to get rid of
manure piles before winter sets in.

If you wait until spring to add organic material to the garden, it may not
have time to decompose and add its valuable nutrients to the soil by the
time you are ready to plant and you may have to delay planting to a later
date. Hot, or very fresh manure can also burn young seedlings. By adding
these materials in the fall, you give them plenty of time to decompose and
blend into the soil before planting time. If you don't have enough organic
material for the entire garden, try to cover those areas that you want
especially rich for next summer's crop.

If the weather stays dry enough before the ground freezes, you can plow or
rototill in the fall. Turning under vegetation in the fall allows earlier
planting in the spring and is especially good for heavy soils, since they
are exposed to the freezing and thawing that takes place during the winter.
This helps to improve soil structure. If you have a rainy fall, or if the
garden is steep and subject to erosion, you may decide you'd rather plant a
cover crop for winter garden protection. A cover crop decreases erosion of
the soil during the winter, adds organic material when it is incorporated in
the spring, improves soil tilth and porosity, and adds valuable nutrients.
Winter cover crops can be planted as early as August 1 but should not be
planted any later than November 1. They should make some growth before hard
frost kills them. Where you have fall crops growing, you can sow cover crop
seed between rows a month or less before expected harvest. This way the
cover crop gets a good start but will not interfere with vegetable plant
growth. Some cover crops suitable for winter use are in the following table.
Mixtures of legumes and non-legumes are effective as well.

Prepare the soil for cover crop seed by tilling under plant wastes from the
summer. Ask at the seed store what the best type of cover crop for your area
is and at what rate (pounds per 100 square feet) to plant it. Broadcast the
seed, preferably before a rain, and rake it evenly into the soil. Spring
planting may be delayed somewhat by the practice of cover cropping, since
time must be allowed for the green manure to break down. If you have crops
that need to be planted very early, you may prefer to leave a section of the
garden bare or with a stubble mulch.

When time or weather conditions prohibit either tilling or cover cropping,
you may wish to let your garden lie under a mulch of compost, plant wastes,
or leaves all winter to be plowed or tilled under in the spring. However, if
you want to plant early the next spring, a mulch of heavy materials such as
whole leaves may keep the soil cold long enough to delay planting. In this
case, chop them fine enough that they will break down over the winter. The
addition of fertilizer high in nitrogen will also help break down organic
matter more quickly.


-End-
-Title-
 VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE FALL
-SubTitle-
 Cover Crops
-Text-


COVER CROPS


Type:  ALFALFA
Legume/Non-Legume:  Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  1/2 ounce	
When to sow:  Spring		When to turn under:  Fall
When to sow:  Late summer	When to turn under:  Spring
Effects:  Fixes 150-250 lbs. N/acre/year; deep roots break up
hard soil, trace elements to surface.
Notes:  Loam, fairly fertile soil; needs warm temperatures for
germination.  Lime if pH is low.  Hardy.  In mountains, sow by
August 10.  Drought-tolerant.  Inoculate.

Type:  BARLEY
Legume/Non-Legume:  Non-Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  4 ounces
When to sow:  Fall			When to turn under:  Spring
When to sow:  Spring		When to turn under:  Fall
Effects:  Adds organic matter; improves soil aggregation.
Notes:  Prefers medium-rich, loam soil.  Lime if pH is low.  Not
as hardy as rye.  Tolerates drought.

Type:  BUCKWHEAT
Legume/Non-Legume:  Non-Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  2 1/2 ounces
When to sow:  Spring		When to turn under:  Summer
When to sow:  Summer		When to turn under:  Fall
Effects:  Mellows soil; rich in potassium.
Notes:  Must leave part of garden in cover crop during season.
Grows quickly.  Not hardy.

Type:  CRIMSON CLOVER
Legume/Non-Legume:  Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  1/3 ounce
When to sow:  Spring		When to turn under:  Fall
When to sow:  Fall			When to turn under:  Spring
Effects:  Fixes 100-150 lbs. N/acre/year
Notes:  Not reliably hardy.  Sow before mid-September in Piedmont
and mountains.  Not drought-tolerant.  Lime if pH is low.  White
clover somewhat hardier.

Type:  FAVA BEANS
Legume/Non-Legume:  Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  Plant 8 inches apart
When to sow:  Early spring	When to turn under:  Early summer
When to sow:  Late summer	When to turn under:  Fall
Effects:  Some types fix 70-100 lbs. N/acre in as little as 6
weeks.  Use small-seeded rather than large-seed table types.
Notes:  Will grow on many soil types.  Medium drought tolerance.
Likes cool growing weather.  Good for mountain areas.  If planted
in early spring, can grow late vegetables.  Inoculate with some
bacteria as for hairy vetch.

Type:  OATS
Legume/Non-Legume:  Non-Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  4 ounces
When to sow:  Spring		When to turn under:  Summer
When to sow:  Fall			When to turn under:  Spring
Effects:  Adds organic matter; improves soil aggregation.
Notes:  Needs adequate manganese.  Not hardy; tolerates low pH.

Type:  RYE, WINTER
Legume/Non-Legume:  Non-Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  3 1/2 ounces
When to sow:  Fall			When to turn under:  Spring
Effects:  Adds organic matter; improves soil aggregation
Notes:  Very hardy.  Can plant till late October.

Type:  VETCH, HAIRY
Legume/Non-Legume:  Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  2 1/2 ounces
When to sow:  Early fall		When to turn under:  Spring
Effects:  Fixes 80-100 lbs. N/acre/year
Notes:  Inoculate; slow to establish.  Fairly hardy.  Till under
before it seeds; can become a weed.

Type:  WHEAT, WINTER
Legume/Non-Legume:  Non-Legume
Amount to sow per 100 square feet:  4 ounces
When to sow:  Fall			When to turn under:  Spring
Effects:  Adds organic matter; improves soil aggregation.
Notes:  Prefers medium-rich, loam soil.  Lime if pH is low.  Not
as hardy as rye.  Tolerates drought.
-End-

-Title-
 VEGETABLE GARDENING IN THE FALL
-SubTitle-
 CARE OF GARDEN EQUIPMENT
-Text-

Clean-up of tools and equipment is another important practice related to the
garden which should not be ignored in the fall. Proper clean-up of tools now
will leave them in top shape and ready to use when spring comes. Clean, oil,
and repair all hand tools. Repaint handles or identification marks that have
faded over the summer. Sharpen all blades and remove any rust. Power tools
should be cleaned of all plant material and dirt. Replace worn spark plugs,
oil all necessary parts and sharpen blades. Store all tools in their proper
place indoors, never outdoors where they will rust over the winter.

Unless you are lucky enough to live in a warm area where a cold frame will
protect vegetables all winter, you will need to clean up the frame when all
vegetables have been harvested. Remove all remaining plant material and
spread it on the cold frame soil. Spade the plant refuse and any other
organic material into the soil in the cold frame as thoroughly as possible.
Do not leave the top on the cold frame over the winter, as the cold air or
the weight of snow may crack or break the glass. Remove the top, wash it
thoroughly, and store it on its side in a protected indoor area where it
will not get broken.

Successful gardening doesn't stop when frost comes, but continues throughout
the fall and early winter months. When following good garden care practices
during this time, your garden will be ready for the growth of healthy
vegetables next spring.

-End-
-Title-
 SEASON EXTENDERS
-Text-

To get the most out of a garden, you can extend the growing season by
sheltering plants from cold weather both in early spring and during the
fall. Very ambitious gardeners harvest greens and other cool-weather crops
all winter by providing the right conditions. There are many ways to
lengthen the growing season, and your choice depends on the amount of time
and money you want to invest.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,317>
-Title-
 SEASON EXTENDERS
-SubTitle-
 COLD FRAMES AND HOT BEDS
-Text-

Cold frames, sun boxes, and hot beds are relatively inexpensive, simple
structures for providing a favorable environment for growing cool-weather
crops in the very early spring, the fall, and even into the winter months.
Some are elaborate and require a large investment, but are reasonable for
those who are serious about having fresh vegetables during the winter.

Cold frames and sun boxes have no outside energy requirements, relying on
the sun for their source of heat. Hot beds are heated by soil heating
cables, steam-carrying pipes, or fresh, strawy manure buried beneath the
rooting zones of the plants. Heat is collected by all these frames when the
sun's rays penetrate the sash made of clear plastic, glass, or fiberglass.
The ideal location for a coldframe is a southern or southeastern exposure
with a slight slope to insure good drainage and maximum solar absorption. A
sheltered spot with a wall or hedge to the north will provide protection
against winter winds. Sinking the frameinto the ground somewhat will also
provide protection, using the earth for insulation. To simplify use of the
frame consider a walkway to the front, adequate space behind the frame to
remove the sash, and perhaps weights to make raising and lowering of glass
sashes easier. Some gardeners make their cold frames lightweight enough to
be moved from one section of the garden to another. Another possibility is
the Dutch light, which is a large, but portable greenhouse-like structure
which is moved around the garden. (See illustration.)

New designs in cold frames include passive solar energy storage. For
example, barrels painted black and filled with water absorb heat during the
day and release it at night. The solar pod, shown below, is one design which
provides for this type of heat storage. Other new cold frames are built with
a very high back and a steep glass slope and insulated very well; these may
also include movable insulation that is folded up during the day and down at
night or during extremely cold weather to cover growing plants.

In early spring a coldframe is useful for hardening off seedlings which were
started indoors or in a greenhouse. This hardening off period is important,
as seedlings can suffer serious setbacks if they are moved directly from the
warmth and protection of the house to the garden. The cold frame provides a
transition period for gradual adjustment to the outdoor weather. It is also
possible to start cool-weather crops in the cold frame and either transplant
them to the garden or grow them to maturity in the frame.

Spring and summer uses of the coldframe center around plant propagation.
Young seedlings of hardy and half-hardy annuals can be started in a frame
many weeks before they can be started in the open. The soil in a portion of
the bed can be replaced with sand or peat moss or other medium suitable for
rooting cuttings and for starting sweet potato slips.

Fall is also a good time for sowing some cool-weather crops in frames. If
provided with adequate moisture and fertilization, most cool-season crops
will continue to grow through early winter in the protected environment of
the cold frame. Depending on the harshness of the winter and whether or not
additional heating is used, your frame may continue to provide fresh greens,
herbs, and root crops throughout the cold winter months.

Growing frames can be built from a variety of materials, with wood and
cinder block being the most common. If you use wood, choose wood that will
resist decay, such as a goodgrade of cypress, or use pressure-treated wood.
Never use creosote-treated wood or wood treated with pentachlorophenol,
since these substances are harmful to growing plants. Wood frames are not
difficult to build. Kits may also be purchased and easily assembled; some
kits even contain automatic ventilation equipment.

There is no standard sized cold frame. The dimensions of the frame will
depend on amount of available space, desired crops, size of available window
sash, and permanency of the structure. Do not make the structure too wide
for weeding and harvesting; 4 to 5 feet is about as wide as is convenient to
reach across. The sash of the frame should be sloped to the south to allow
maximum exposure to the sun's rays.

Insulation may be necessary when a sudden cold snap is expected. A simple
method is to throw burlap sacks filled with leaves over the sash on the
frame at night to protect against freezing. Or, bales of straw or hay may be
stacked against the frame.

Ventilation is most critical in the late winter, early spring, and early
fall on clear, sunny days when temperatures rise above 45 degrees. The sash
should be raised partially to prevent the buildup of extreme temperatures
inside the frame. Lower or replace the sash each day early enough to
conserve some heat for the evening.

In summer, extreme heat and intensive sunlight can damage plants. This can
be avoided by shading with lath sashes or old bamboo window blinds. Watering
should be done early in the day so that plants dry before dark to help
reduce disease problems.

You may convert your cold frame to a hotbed. For a manure-heated bed: 1) dig
out to 2' deep (deeper to add gravel for increased drainage); 2) add an 18"
layer of strawy horse manure; 3) cover with 6" of good soil. For an electric
heated bed: 1) dig out area 8" or 9" deep; 2) lay down thermostatically
controlled electric cable in 6-8" long loops, evenly spacing cable but never
crossing itself; 3) cover with 2" of sand or soil; 4) lay out hardware cloth
to protect cable; 5) cover with 4-6" of good soil.

-Fig-
Cold Frames and Hot Beds
Dutch Light
Solar Pod
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,318>
-Title-
 SEASON EXTENDERS
-SubTitle-
 CLOCHES AND ROW COVERS
-Text-

The cloche (pronounced klosh) was originally a bell-shaped glass jar set
over delicate plants to protect them from the elements. The definition has
expanded, however, to include many types of portable structures which
shelter plants from drying winds and cold air.


The idea is to provide a greenhouse-like atmosphere for seeds and small
plants in order to get an early start on the season, or to extend the fall
garden as long as possible. Cloches are set out over individual plants or
are made into tunnels for whole rows. They trap solar radiation and moisture
evaporating from the soil and plants. The hotkap and the ubiquitous cut-off
plastic jug are simple forms. More elaborate ones are fiberglass tunnels,
special plastic cloches or row covers with slits in them to allow some
aeration, and panes of glass connected by specially designed hinges to form
a tent. There are a variety of forms on the market now, some of which work
and some which don't, and some are easily constructed from materials around
the home.

Cloches are generally lightweight, portable and reusable. It is preferable
to have a design which can be closed completely at night to prevent frost
damage and opened or completely removed during the day for good air
circulation. Cloches should be anchored or heavy enough that they don't blow
away.
-Fig-
Tunnel Row Covers
-End-
-Title-
 SEASON EXTENDERS
-SubTitle-
 GREENHOUSES
-Text-

There is an almost overwhelming selection of greenhouses on the market, and
plans for building even more types are available. If you intend to purchase
or build a greenhouse, it is wise to investigate the alternatives
thoroughly, preferably visiting as many operating home greenhouses as
possible. List your needs and wants ahead of time and determine the uses you
will put your greenhouse to. Then compare on that basis. Many companies will
send free specifications and descriptions of the greenhouses they offer;
look in gardening magazines for their ads.

The conservation minded person may find an attached solar greenhouse
desirable. The initial cost is generally higher for a solar greenhouse than
for the simpler free-standing, uninsulated types, but for maximum use with
lower heating bills, one can insulate north and side walls, provide liberal
glass area for winter sun-catching, and make use of some type of solar
radiation storage. When attached to a house, these greenhouses can be used
for supplementary household heating, but there is a trade-off between
heating the home and growing plants (especially heat-loving ones) in the
greenhouse. Some researchers have concluded that a good compromise is to
forget winter tomatoes and grow cool-weather crops during the winter in a
solar attached greenhouse. Virginia Tech now has a publication, obtainable
from your Extension Agent, entitled Attached Solar Greenhouses, Publication
No. 324-919.

-End-
-Title-
 SEASON EXTENDERS
-SubTitle-
 SHADING
-Text-

It is not always easy to start seeds or young plants for fall crops in the
heat and dry conditions of August in Virginia. One simple way to provide
shade in otherwise exposed conditions is to build a portable shade frame for
placing over rows after seeds are sown or transplants are set out. This can
be the same type of frame used for starting early seeds, but using lath
strips or an old bamboo shade instead of plastic.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS
-SubTitle-
 CULTURE NOTES GUIDE
-Text-

Notes on the culture of individual plants have been developed to provide an
easy to use guide, a summary of a wide range of information concerning the
culture, nutritional value, harvest, and storage of specific food crops.
These are not intended to be comprehensive references, and you may need to
consult other materials to obtain very detailed information. In most cases,
though, the culture notes should provide enough know-how to get a crop from
seed to harvest.

The following key will help to explain the various terms on each food crop
fact sheet.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS
-SubTitle-
 ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
-Text-

LIGHT: sunny (requires direct light at least six hours per day; prefers
         10 hours/day)
       tolerates partial shade (will do well with fewer than 8 hours of
         sunshine per day, but probably needs at least 5 hours/day)
       prefers shade (more than six hours of direct sunlight may be harmful;
         prefers filtered light, probably needs at least 3-4 hours of light
         per day)

SOIL:  well-drained (water does not stand or remain puddled for more than 24
         hours after a hard rain)
       deep (at least 8-12" of topsoil or loose subsoil; no shallow hardpan)
         loam (soil composed roughly of equal portions of clay and sand, with
         a reasonable amount of humus; good garden soils)

FERTILITY:  results of soil tests can be used to indicate the basic fertility
              level of soils.
            Soil testing does not indicate nitrogen levels due to variability.

                     lbs./acre P2 O5         lbs./acre K2 O

     low                0-25 lbs.                0-90 lbs.
     medium             6-85 lbs.                9-212 lbs.
     high               86+ lbs.                 213+ lbs.

            Acidity or alkalinity of the soil, 7.0 is neutral, below 7.0 is
              acid, above 7.0 is alkaline.

TEMPERATURE: Approximate ranges of daily mean temperature preferred for
               optimum growth

MOISTURE: Amount of rainfall or supplemental watering needed for optimum growth;
            more for sandy soils, less for clay

          average (roughly one inch of water per week)

          moist (roughly 1-2" water per week; soil should be well-drained)


-End-
-Title-
 SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS
-SubTitle-
 CULTURE
-Text-

PLANTING: specific information needed to get plants started, such as when

          to seed, whether to start plants indoors, best transplant time, etc.

SPACING: optimum distances between plants and rows.

HARDINESS: very hardy perennial (can withstand winter extremes in most parts
             of Virginia with only slight protection).

           hardy perennial (can withstand winters with protection in colder
             areas)

           hardy annual (can withstand frosts in spring and fall; may need
             protection from heavy frosts or freezing)

           half-hardy annual (can withstand light frosts, but not heavy frosts
             or freezing)

           tender annual (frost will seriously damage plant tissue)

           very tender annual (frost will destroy tissues; needs warm
              weather for growth)

FERTILIZER NEEDS: low, medium, or heavy feeder (refers to relative levels of
                    nutrient uptake from the soil. This information can be
                    used to group similar types of plants, so that fertilizers
                    may be applied to sections of the garden according to
                    plant needs).

CULTURAL PRACTICES: Gives general growing information. Includes proven methods
                    for increasing production and/or decreasing pest problems.
                    Unique growing suggestions may be included.


-End-
-Title-
 SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS
-SubTitle-
 COMMON PROBLEMS
-Text-

This section gives a general list of the most common diseases, insects and
cultural problems of the crop in the state of Virginia. Identify the cause
of the problem, review non-chemical and preventative control information,
then refer to current Pest Management Guides or contact your Extension Agent
for specific chemical control information.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS
-SubTitle-
 HARVESTING AND STORAGE
-Text-

APPROXIMATE YIELDS: These figures vary according to the variety, local
environmental conditions, planting designs, and cultural practices.

AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: These figures are average ranges. Specific
amounts will vary depending on projected usage, whether fresh or processed,
and according to personal preferences.

STORAGE: Optimum storage conditions; gives temperature ranges and % RH -
percent relative humidity.

PRESERVATION: Suggestions for preserving the crop over an extended period.
See Extension publications on food preservation for specific methods.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,326>
-Title-
 ASPARAGUS
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, deep sandy loam
FERTILITY: medium-rich
pH: 6.0 - 6.7
TEMPERATURE: cool (60F-65F)
MOISTURE: average; a flush of spear soften follows a soaking rain

-Fig-
Asparagus
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: one-year crowns, early spring
SPACING: 18" x 4-5'; or in wide beds of three rows with plants 18" apart
         in all directions
HARDINESS: Hardy perennial, should be mulched in autumn
FERTILIZER NEEDS: medium-heavy feeder, high P and K and organic matter
                  at planting; annual nitrogen in late winter or very early
                  spring; may sidedress after harvest; benefits from yearly
                  topdressing of compost

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Asparagus is a perennial vegetable which will live from 12-15 years or
longer. It is one of the most valuable of the early vegetables and is well
adapted to freezer storage. During the harvest period (traditionally spring,
but see below for summer harvest instructions), the spears develop daily
from underground crowns. Asparagus does well where winters are cool and the
soil occasionally freezes at least a few inches deep; it is considered very
hardy.

Start asparagus either from seed or from one- to two-year-old crowns. For
fastest results, crowns purchased from a respectable nursery are
recommended. There is risk of disease from less reputable dealers'
asparagus. Starting plants from seed requires an extra year before harvest.
Seed may be started in peat pots; they are slow to germinate, so be patient.
Seedlings may be transplanted in June. Crowns are usually shipped and set
out in March or April.

Choose a site with good drainage and full sun. The tall ferns of asparagus
may shade other plants, so plan accordingly. Prepare the bed as early as
possible and enrich it with additions of manure, compost, bone or blood
meal, leaf mold, or wood ashes, or a combination of several of these. In
heavy soils, double-digging is recommended. To double-dig, remove the top
foot of soil from the planting area. Then, with a spading fork or spade,
break up the subsoil by pushing the tool into the next 10-12" of soil and
rocking it back and forth. Do this every 6" or so. Double-digging is ideal
for the trench method of planting asparagus since a 12" deep trench is
usually dug anyway. The extra work of breaking up the subsoil will be well
worth the effort, especially in heavy soil. The trench is dug 12-18" wide,
with 4-5' between trenches. The same method may be used in wide-bed
plantings, with plants staggered in three rows. Mix the topsoil that has
been removed with organic matter and spread about two inches of the mixture
in the bottom of the trench or bed. Set the plants 15-18" apart, mounding
the soil slightly under each plant so that the crown is slightly above the
roots. Crowns should be of a grayish-brown color, plump andhealthy-looking.
Remove any rotted roots before planting. Spread the roots out over the mound
of soil and cover the crown with 2-3" of soil. Firm well. As the plants
grow, continue to pull soil over the crowns (about 2" every two weeks) until
the trench is filled. Water if rainfall is inadequate.

Asparagus shoots or spears should not be harvested the first season after
crowns are set. Harvest lightly for 3-4 weeks the second year. The fleshy
root system needs to develop and store food reserves to produce growth
during subsequent seasons. Plants harvested too heavily too soon often
become weak and spindly and the crowns may never recover. An extra year is
added to the above schedule for asparagus started from seed; i.e., do not
harvest at all the first TWO seasons, and harvest lightly the third. When
the asparagus plants are in their fourth season, they may be harvested for
eight to ten weeks per year.

Weed the bed each spring before the first shoots come up, to avoid
accidentally breaking off spears. During the production period, it is best
to pull rather than hoe weeds if possible.

Harvest spears daily during the 8-10 week harvest period. The 6-8" spears
are best, and should be snapped off just below the soil surface. If the
asparagus is allowed to get much taller, the bases of the spears will be
tough and will have to be cut; cutting too deeply can injure the crown buds
which produce the next spears. Blanched asparagus is a gourmet item; to
blanch (whiten) the spears, mound soil around them or otherwise exclude
light from them so that chlorophyll is not formed in the stalks.

When harvest is over (after 8-10 weeks), allow the spears to grow. Asparagus
has an attractive, fern-like foliage that makes a nice garden border. Some
gardeners prefer to support the growing foliage with stakes and strings to
keep them tidy. In high-wind areas, it is a good idea to plant the rows
parallel to the prevailing winds so that the plants support each other to
some extent.

There are several ways to extend the harvest period of your asparagus
planting. One method is to plant at different depths (3", 4-6", 6-8",
8-10"). The shallow plantings will come up first and can be harvested while
the deeper plantings are just forming. This method will result in a slightly
longer harvest, but may result in some plants being less vigorous than
others.

Another way to extend the harvest for a few weeks is to remove mulch from
half of the asparagus bed. Leave the mulch on the other half. The exposed
soil will warm up more quickly, and the crowns will sprout earlier. This
process may be speeded up even further using black plastic, but be careful
not to encourage growth too early, as heavy frost can make spears inedible.
Remove mulch from the second bed when spears begin to appear.

A third technique for extending asparagus harvest has been the subject of
university research and is highly recommended for home gardeners who have
plenty of space. Plant double the amount of asparagus needed for your
household. Harvest half of the plants as you normally would in spring and
early summer, then allow the foliage to grow for the rest of the season.
During the early harvest period, allow the ferns to grow in the other half
of the asparagus planting. Then, cut the ferns in the second half in late
July. This causes the crowns to send up new spears, which can be harvested
till late in the season. If rainfall is short in summer, it will help to
water this bed for good spear production. A light mulch will help keep the
soil surface from becoming too hard for the shoots to break through easily.
If using this method, harvest the spring bed only in spring and the fall bed
only in fall! Otherwise, you risk weakening the crowns.

In all asparagus plantings, cut the foliage down to 2" stubs after frost
when the foliage yellows, before the red berries fall off. A 4-6" mulch of
compost, manure, leaves or other material added at this time will help
control weeds and add organic matter and nutrients.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: rust (use resistant varieties)
INSECTS: asparagus beetles, cutworms
CULTURAL: weak, spindly plants and/or too few spears from too early or too
          heavy a harvest; crown rot or poor production from inadequately
          prepared, heavy soil

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 2-3 years
HARVEST: third year spears; snap off just under soil surface when 6-8" tall,
         before tips begin to separate; use or refrigerate immediately
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 foot row) 3-4 pounds/year
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 6 lbs.
STORAGE: process or refrigerate immediately in plastic bag
PRESERVATION: can or freeze


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,327>
-Title-
 BEANS
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained
FERTILITY: medium-rich
pH: 5.8-7.0
TEMPERATURE: warm (65F - 80F) except fava beans - cool (60F - 70F)
MOISTURE: average

-Fig-
Beans
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: seed after danger of frost is past. Inoculating seeds with
          nitrogen-fixing bacteria may increase yields on land newly
          planted in beans.
SPACING: bush snap 2" x 24-30"
         bush limas 4" x 18-30"
         pole beans 4-8" x 24-36"
HARDINESS: tender annual, except fava - semi-hardy annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: Beans are medium feeders. Since beans are legumes
                  they will fix nitrogen once a good root system is
                  established; inoculation will speed the process. Excess
                  nitrogen will delay flowering, so sidedress only after
                  heavy bloom and set of pods, using 1-1/2 oz. or 3 T. of
                  10-10-10 per 10 feet of row.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Snap beans grown for the pod are the most common. Some beans like limas,
soybeans, and dried beans are grown primarily for the seed itself and not
the pod. The bush snap bean isthe most popular because of its early maturity
and because trellising is not required. Varieties include standard green,
yellow wax, and purple-pod types, giving the gardener a larger choice than
is generally available in supermarkets. Though wax beans are yellow and waxy
in appearance, their flavor is only subtly different from that of regular
green snap beans. The purple pod beans are different in appearance while
growing, but the pods turn green when cooked. Flat-pod green snap beans are
somewhat different in flavor and texture than the round-pod ones, and are
preferred by many gardeners. These are available in both bush and pole
types.

First plantings of bush beans should be made after danger of frost is past
in the spring and soil is warmed, since seed planted in cold soils germinate
slowly and are susceptible to rotting. Also, seedling growth may be slow in
cool temperatures. Plant several crops of bush beans 2-3 weeks apart, until
August 1 for a continuous harvest. Snap beans should be kept picked to keep
plants producing heavily.

Half-runner beans have a growth habit between that of bush and pole beans,
producing beans usually used as snap beans. Though they have runners about 3
feet long, half-runners are generally grown like bush beans. Trellising,
however, may increase production of these already heavy yielders.

Pole type beans come in many varieties, generally bearing over a longer
period than bush types. They require trellising, and for that reason
generally yield more in the same amount of space. Pole beans are natural
climbers but will not interweave themselves through horizontal wires. A
tripod support can be made with three wooden poles or large branches that
are lashed together at the top. 5-6 seeds are planted in a circle 6-8 inches
from each pole. Many types of homemade trellises work well as long as they
provide the needed support. Trellises should be 6-8' tall and sturdy enough
to withstand strong winds and rain. See illustrations under vertical
gardening in this chapter for examples of bean trellises. Interplanting pole
beans with corn is often recommended, but practices vary. Beans should be
planted late enough to allow some growth and development of the corn first.
Scarlet runner beans are a type of pole bean which is quite ornamental as
well as productive and delicious. The vines grow rapidly, producing
beautiful red flowers and beans, which may be harvested as snap beans when
young and as green shell beans later. Beans are ready to pick in 75-85 days
and several pounds are produced per plant. The value of scarlet runner beans
is mainly ornamental, though - the lush 6-15 foot vines can be used to cover
arbors, trellises or fences. An added feature is that the flowers are
attractive to hummingbirds. According to some catalogs, the scarlet runner
bean grows best in cooler weather than standard beans prefer; in some very
hot areas the vines may not keep producing all summer, as they will in
cooler regions. Keeping maturing beans picked off will prolong the life of
the vines.

Lima beans are available in bush or pole types. Bush limas mature about
10-15 days earlier than pole limas. Pole type limas have better yields and
produce longer than the bush forms. Soil temperature must be 65~% for 5 days
in order for the beans to germinate well. Because the large seeds store
considerable amounts of carbohydrates, limas are quite susceptible to soil
fungi and bacteria, which find these foods as nutritious as we do. So, the
sooner the seedling can start using the stored food, the better.
Pregermination or starting indoors helps if care is taken not to damage the
shoots when planting and if soil remains moist for several days; seed
treated with anti-fungal agents also have improved germination rates. Soil
should be kept moist (but not soaking wet) until the seedlings come through
the ground; do not allow a crust to form on the soil, since the seedlings
will have trouble pushing through. Prevent crusting and conserve moisture by
spreading 1/4" sand, sawdust, or a light mulch over the seeded row. A cold,
wet spell can cause lima flowers to drop, ascan excessively hot and dry
periods, reducing yields. Baby limas or butter beans are less susceptible to
blossom drop problems.

Southern peas are not actually beans or peas, but are in  separate genus.
However, they are used in the same ways. There are three commonly grown
types, black-eyed pea, cream pea, and crowder pea. They are available in
both pole and bush forms. Southern peas may be harvested in the green shell
or in the dried pea stage.

The yard-long or asparagus bean is related to black-eyed peas and has
similar flavor, but the entire pod may be eaten. On trellised vines, pods
may be produced which are 1-1/2 to 2 feet long. Yard-long is stretching it a
bit. Asparagus beans need warm temperatures and a long growing season to do
well. Look for the seeds in novelty, gourmet, Oriental, or children's
sections of seed catalogs.

Soybeans are increasing in popularity because of their high nutritional
value and their versatility. Catalogs often list them as edible soybeans;
all soybeans are actually edible, but those in garden catalogs have been
bred to do well under ordinary garden conditions, requiring a shorter season
and not growing as tall as the field types. There is also a difference in
flavor and texture, as there is between sweet and field corn. Soybeans are
less sensitive to frost and may have fewer problems with Mexican bean
beetles than standard beans. Soybeans are quite delicious when harvested as
green shell beans, but may also be allowed to dry on the vine. The pods of
soybeans are quite difficult to open; cook for a few minutes to soften the
pod before removing the beans.

Beans used primarily as dried beans are many and varied. Many can be used
green, but dry well for easy storage. In the small garden, growing dry beans
is somewhat impractical, since the amount of space required to raise a large
enough quantity for storage is great. Many types of dry beans may be
purchased in supermarkets at a very low cost, so it may be more worthwhile
to grow higher-value crops in the limited space. However, if you have a very
large garden area and a desire to sit on the front porch rocking away and
shelling beans in the fall, they are worth a try. Some varieties available
to gardeners are either rare or completely unavailable in the supermarket.

The horticultural, or October bean, is very widely grown in parts of the
state, called a Virginia delicacy by one Extension Specialist. The colorful
pods and beans of the October bean make it an attractive addition to the
garden and kitchen. The seeds of pinto beans look similar to those of the
horticultural beans, but are smaller. They are widely used as brown beans
and as refried beans in Mexican dishes. Black beans or black turtle beans
make an unusual, delicious black-colored soup. They are easy to grow if
given plenty of air movement to prevent disease problems to which they are
susceptible. Kidney beans are the popular chili and baking bean, available
in deep red or white types. Navy pea and Great Northern beans are used in
soups and as baked beans. Cranberry and yellow-eyed beans are heirloom
varieties again gaining favor among gardeners.

Mung beans, native to India, have enjoyed a rise in popularity because of
their use as sprouts in Oriental dishes and salads, and gardeners now find
seeds available for home production. Mung beans require 90 days of warm
weather for good yield in the garden. Garbanzos, or chickpeas, produce
plants which do not look like other bean plants. Garbanzos are actually
neither true beans nor peas, but are leguminous. The fine-textured foliage
is an attractive addition to the garden. Plant many seeds; the meaty seeds,
like limas, tend to rot if they don't germinate and grow rapidly. Also, each
pod contains only one or two seeds. The nutty-flavored beans of unusual
texture are good roasted, in salads, and in soups. Garbanzos also require a
warm climate and long (100 day) growing season.

Fava beans, or broad beans, are quite hardy. In cool climates they are often
substituted for limas. Favas are sown early in spring, and are the exception
to the rule, as they do not grow well in warm weather; in fact, if sown in
April, they may be ready as green shell beans in late June or early July. It
should be noted that some people of Mediterranean origin have a genetic
trait which causes a strong allergic reaction to fava beans. People of this
descent should sample the beans in small quantities at first.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: mosaic (use resistant varieties); anthracnose; bacterial blight (use
          disease-free western-grown seed); seed rot (do not plant in cold moist
          soils); root and stem rots
INSECTS: Mexican bean beetles and larvae, corn earworm, mites
CULTURAL: Large plants with few beans (excess nitrogen); blossom drop (excessive
          heat, dry winds)


HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: snap beans 50-60 days
                  pole limas 85-110 days
                  bush limas 65-75 days
                  pole beans 60-110 days
HARVEST: Snap beans - full size pods, small beans or larger beans as long as
                      pods are still tender; pods break easily with a snap when
                      ready; seed should not cause pods to bulge.
         Lima/Dry beans - Seeds will be full sized and pods will be bright
                          green. End of pod will be spongy. For dry beans
                          (of all types) pods should remain on bush until
                          dry and brown.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 foot row) Snap beans 3-5 lbs. Lima beans 4-6 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: snap beans - 8 lbs.; limas 5-10 lbs.
PRESERVATION: drying, freezing, and canning.


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,328>
-Title-
 BROCCOLI
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, high organic matter
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 6.0 - 7.0
TEMPERATURE: cool (60F-65F)
MOISTURE: keep moist, not waterlogged

-Fig-
Broccoli
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: start seeds indoors for early spring transplants. Seed in beds or
          flats for fall transplants.
SPACING: 15-24" x 24-36"
HARDINESS: hardy annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder, use starter fertilizer when transplanting,
                  sidedress three weeks later and as needed (1 1/2 oz. 33-0-0
                  per 10 ft. row).


CULTURAL PRACTICES

There are two types of broccoli, heading and sprouting. Most garden broccoli
is of the heading type which is closely related to cauliflower and forms a
large central head. When this is removed, side branches will form throughout
the summer. Sprouting or Italian broccoli forms many florets or small heads
but these do not produce a solid head.

Broccoli Raab or Turnip broccoli is not a true broccoli but, in fact, a type
of turnip cultivated for its flower head. Can be sown in spring to raise as
an annual or can be sown in fall to raise as a biennial. Harvest leaves in
fall and flower shoots in spring before they open. Cook and eat like
asparagus. Most turnips grown for their greens can also be treated this way.

To raise broccoli, buy transplants locally or produce your own and set out
April 10 to 30 or August 1 to August 15. Transplants for a fall setting can
be produced along with cabbage and cauliflower transplants, taking about
four weeks from seeding to setting into the garden. Set plants 18 inches
apart in rows 30 inches apart. Sprouting and perennial broccolies are sown
directly into the garden in spring. Follow packet directions. Broccoli has a
relatively shallow, fibrous rooting system. Cultivate carefully or, even
better, mulch.

The heads of broccoli are really flower buds. These must be harvested before
the flowers open or show yellow. Mature heads measure three to six inches
across. Lateral heads that develop later are smaller.


COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: clubroot, yellows or fusarium wilt, blackleg and blackrot
INSECTS: cabbage root fly maggots, cutworms, cabbage worms, cabbage
         looper worms, flea beetles, aphids
CULTURAL: poor heading (buttoning), and early flowers (interrupted
          growth due to chilling, extremely early planting, or drying
          out; or high temperatures).

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 60-100
HARVEST: large terminal bud cluster before flowers open, then small side
         bud clusters as they develop over following weeks. Harvest with
         6-8 inches of stalk. Harvest sprouting and other types according
         to packet instructions.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 ft. row) 6-l0 bunches or about 4-6 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 8 lbs.
STORAGE: very cold (32F), moist (95% RH) conditions, l0-14 days
PRESERVATION: freeze

-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,329>
-Title-
 BRUSSELS SPROUTS
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained loam, high organic matter
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 5.5 - 6.5
TEMPERATURE: cool (60F-65F)
MOISTURE: keep moist, not waterlogged

-Fig-
Brussels Sprouts
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: sow seeds early to mid-summer
SPACING: 12-18" x 24-30"
HARDINESS: hardy biennial
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder, sidedress 1 tablespoon ammonium nitrate
                  per 20 ft. of row 2-4 weeks after planting or when plants
                  are 12" high.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Brussels sprouts are grown for harvest in the fall because cool weather
during maturity is essential for good flavor and quality. Brussels sprouts
are tall (sometimes 2-3') erect biennials that are grown as annuals. The
sprouts develop in the leaf axils and mature along the stalk. The lowest
sprouts mature first and should be harvested when firm, 1 1/2 - 2" in
diameter. Lowest leaves may be removed to permit sprouts to mature. New
varieties are being developed for improved production. One new variety has a
large cabbage-like head on the top which may be harvested anytime. Another
has large leaves on the upper part of the plant which fold down over the
sprouts to form a protective cover, making this variety even more cold-hardy
than the usual varieties.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: clubroot, yellows or fusarium wilt, and black rot
INSECTS: cabbage root fly maggots, cutworms, cabbage worm, cabbage looper
         worms, flea beetles, aphids
CULTURAL: sprouts have loose tufts of leaves instead of firm heads (sprouts
          developed during hot weather, crop failures can also be due to
          water stress)

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 80-100 days from seed
HARVEST: when sprouts are hard, compact and deep green about 1-1 1/2"
         diameter, after frosty weather for best flavor. Twist or snap
         off the stalk. The lowest sprouts mature first.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 ft. row) 4-6 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 5 plants
STORAGE: cold (32F), moist (95% RH) conditions, 3-5 weeks
PRESERVATION: freeze

-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,330>
-Title-
 CABBAGE
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 5.5-6.5
TEMPERATURE: cool (60F-65F)
MOISTURE: keep moist, not waterlogged

-Fig-
Cabbage
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: start seeds indoors for early spring transplants. Seed in beds or
          flats for fall transplants.
SPACING: 15-18" x 30-36"
HARDINESS: hardy biennial
FERTILIZER NEEDS: medium feeder, use starter fertilizer when transplanting,
                  sidedress three weeks later (1 1/2 oz. 33-0-0 per 10 feet
                  of row).


CULTURAL PRACTICES

Cabbage grows from March to December. It will withstand temperatures as low
as 15 to 20F. Buy locally-grown transplants or produce your own. Start them
in growing structures four to six weeks before the first date when plants
can be set out or sow a few seeds in the cold-frame or garden every month in
order to have cabbage plants thereafter. It takes about three weeks to get
plants ready from seeding to set during the summer months. Plant only the
earliest varieties after July 1. It is best not to plant cabbage family
crops in the same spot year after year, since diseases and insect pests will
build up. Rotate crops within your garden.

Plant spacing affects head size. Close space (12 inches apart in the row)
produces small heads. Average spacing is 15 to 18 inches apart in rows 30
inches apart. Varieties for sauerkraut are spaced wider. For a small family
not interested in sauerkraut production, the dwarf varieties may be ideal.
The heads are about the right size for a generous bowl of cole slaw, and the
fast maturity makes these varieties excellent for succession planting.
Cabbage is harvested when it reaches adequate size, depending on variety and
growing conditions. Firm heads are preferred, especially for storage. Heads
can be left on the plant in the garden for about two weeks in the summer,
three to four weeks in the fall.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: clubroot, yellows or fusarium wilt, blackleg or black rot
INSECTS: cabbage root fly maggots, cutworms, imported cabbage worms, cabbage
         looper worms, flea beetles, aphids
CULTURAL: head cracking or splitting (excessive water uptake and growth near
          maturity, root prune with spade or trowel or twist stalk to break
          some roots and reduce water uptake)

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 70-100
HARVEST: when heads become firm, size will vary with variety, fertility, and
         spacing. If unable to harvest at maturity, bend over to break part
         of the roots to reduce head splitting.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 ft. row) 10-18 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 15 lbs.
STORAGE: very cold (32F), moist (95% RH) conditions, 4-5 months
PRESERVATION: can as sauerkraut


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,331>
-Title-
 CAULIFLOWER
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, high organic matter
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 6.0 - 7.0
TEMPERATURE: cool (60F-65F)
MOISTURE: keep moist, not waterlogged

-Fig-
Cauliflower
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: Plant after danger of frost is past. Start seeds indoors for
          early spring transplanting. Seed in beds or flats for fall
          transplanting.
SPACING: 15-24" x 24-36"
HARDINESS: hardy annual

FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder, use starter fertilizer when transplanting,
                  sidedress three weeks later and as needed ( 1 1/2 oz.
                  33-0-0 per 10 ft of row).

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Spring seedlings should be transplanted after danger of frost is past. Fall
cauliflower should be sown in late June to July. Many gardeners experience
buttoning of cauliflower heads in the spring. This is a failure of the
cauliflower head to gain in size after it reaches about an inch or less in
diameter. It is usually due to transplant stress or heat stress during the
head formation period. Some cauliflower varieties require too long a growing
season for fall production in colder areas of VA. Use short-season types or
season extenders in these areas. (See publication 426-381).

Cauliflower should be blanched when the curd flower head is about 2-3".
Three to four large outer leaves are pulled up over the curd and fastened
with a rubber band, or are broken over the top of the cauliflower and tucked
in on the other side of the curd. Normal blanching time is 4-8 days and may
take longer in the fall. Self-blanching types which have leaves that grow up
over the head may eliminate the need for this practice. If weather is warm
during the blanching period, tie the leaves loosely to allow air
circulation. Harvest while the curd is still firm. If it gets too mature, it
will become grainy or ricey.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: club root, yellows or fusarium wilt, blackleg and black rot.
INSECTS: cabbage root fly maggots, cut worms, cabbage worms, cabbage looper
         worms, flea beetles, aphids
CULTURAL: poor heading (interrupted growth due to chilling from extremely early
          planting, or drying out, or high temperatures)


HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 55-120 days from transplanting
HARVEST: Cut before flower sections begin to separate. The curd should be
         compact, firm, white and fairly smooth. Leave a ruff of leaves
         surrounding head when harvested to prolong keeping quality.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 ft of row) 8-12 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 8 lbs.
STORAGE: very cold (32F), moist (95% RH) conditions, 2-4 weeks
PRESERVATION: freeze, pickle


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,332>
-Title-
 CORN
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
HARDINESS: tender annual
SOIL: deep, well-drained loam
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 6.0-7.0
TEMPERATURES: warm (60F-75F)
MOISTURE: average

-Fig-
Corn
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: seed after danger of frost is past; extra sweet varieties should
          be planted when soil temperatures reach 65F
SPACING: 9-12" x 24-36" minimum of three rows side by side (preferably four
         rows) to insure good pollination
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder; sidedress when plants are 12-18 inches high
                  with 3 T. 10-10-10 per 10 feet of row


CULTURAL PRACTICES Sweet corn varieties differ significantly in time to
maturity and in quality; yellow, white, bi-color, standard and extra-sweet
varieties are available. Most varieties planted are hybrids which have been
bred for greater vigor and higher yields. A continuous harvest can be
planned by planting early-, mid-, and late-season varieties, or by making
successive plantings of the same variety every two weeks or when the last
planting has 3-4 leaves (corn sown in early spring will take longer because
of cool temperatures). Use only the earliest varieties for July plantings to
assure a good fall crop. Fall maturing sweet corn will almost always be the
highest quality, since cool nights in September increase sugar content.

Pollination is a very important consideration in planting sweet corn.
Because corn is wind-pollinated, block plantings of at least 3-4 short rows
will be pollinated more successfully than one or two long rows. Good
pollination is essential for full kernel development.

Most of the various types of corn will cross-pollinate readily. To maintain
desirablecharacteristics and high quality, extra-sweet and standard sweet
corn should be isolated from each other. A distance of 400 yards or planting
so that maturity dates are one month apart is necessary to insure this
isolation. Sweet corn plantings must be isolated from field corn and popcorn
or ornamental corn as well. White and yellow types will also
cross-pollinate, but the results are not as drastic.

The newly developed extra- or super-sweet types convert sugar into starch
more slowly than standard varieties. They are not necessarily sweeter than
just-picked old favorites (though some cultivars are), but they will retain
their sweetness after harvest longer than usual. Super-sweet varieties may
be less creamy than standard varieties due to genetic differences. This
characteristic decreases the quality of frozen or canned super-sweet corn,
though newer cultivars of extra-sweets show improvement.

Early-maturing varieties tend to be relatively small plants (called coon
corn by old-timers because the ears are easy for raccoons to reach). These
should be planted in rows 30" apart with plants 8-9" apart. For medium to
large plant varieties use a 36" row spacing with plants 12" apart in the
row. Be sure to plant a block of rows for good pollination and full ears.

Some gardeners are interested in growing baby corn such as that found in
salad bars and gourmet sections of the grocery store. Baby corn is immature
corn, and many varieties are suitable, but Candystick, with its 1/4"
diameter cob at maturity, is a good one to try, especially since its dwarf
habit means that it takes up less space in the garden. Harvesting at the
right time is tricky; silks will have been produced, but ears are not filled
out. Experimentation is the best way to determine when to harvest baby corn.

It is not necessary to remove suckers or side shoots that form on sweet
corn. With adequate fertility these suckers may increase yield, and removing
them has been shown in some cases to actually decrease yield.

Mulching is a useful practice in corn growing because adequate moisture is
required from pollination to harvest to guarantee that ears are well-filled.
Since main crops of corn usually ripen during Virginia's drier periods, it
is especially critical to maintain soil water supplies; mulching reduces the
need for supplemental watering and keeps the moisture content of the soil
fairly constant. Most organic mulches are suitable; newspaper held down with
a heavier material on top is an excellent moisture conserver in corn.

Normally, sweet corn is ready for harvest about 20 days after the first
silks appear. Pick corn that is to be stored for a day or two in the cool
temperatures of early morning to prevent the ears from building up an excess
of field heat, which causes a more rapid conversion of sugars to starch. Of
course the best time to pick is just before eating the corn; country cooks
say to have the pot of water coming to a boil as you are picking the corn,
husking it on the way from the garden to the house! This is an exaggeration,
but with standard varieties, sugar conversion is rather rapid. Field heat
can be removed from ears picked when temperatures are high by plunging the
ears in cold water or putting them on ice for a short time. Then store in
the refrigerator until ready to use. Extra-sweet varieties will also benefit
from this treatment, but they are not as finicky.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: Stewart's wilt (bacterial disease spread by flea beetle);
          smut (especially on white varieties) - remove infected part;
          stunt (transmitted by leafhoppers)
INSECTS: corn earworm, European corn borer, flea beetles, Japanese beetles
         (eat silks),corn sap beetles (damage kernels after husk is loosened)
OTHER: birds eating seed, raccoons eating mature ears of corn, gardener's
       impatience (picking too soon)

CULTURAL

Poor kernel development - failure to fill out to the tip; caused by dry
                          weather during silking states, planting too close,
                          poor fertility (especially potassium deficiency),
                          too few rows in block resulting in poor pollination.
                          Lodging (falling over) from too much nitrogen.

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 63-100
HARVEST: When husk is still green, silks dry brown, kernels full size and
         yellow or white color to the tip of the ear; at milky stage (use
         thumbnail to puncture a kernel - if liquid is clear the corn is
         immature, if milky it's ready, and if no sap, you're too late).
         Cover unharvested ears checked by this method with paper bag to
         prevent insect or bird damage. Experienced gardeners can feel the
         outside of the husk and tell when the cob has filled out. Corn
         matures 17-24 days after first silk strands appear, more quickly
         in hot weather, slower in cool weather.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10' row) 5-10 lbs. or roughly 10-20 ears
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 20-30 pounds or about 40-60 ears
STORAGE: refrigerate immediately to prevent sugars from turning to starch;
         cold (32F), moist (95% RH) conditions; will keep 4-8 days, but
         standard varieties will become starch after a few days
PRESERVATION: frozen on cob or off; canned


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,333>
-Title-
 CUCUMBERS
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained; moderate-high organic matter

FERTILITY: rich
pH: 5.5-7.0
TEMPERATURE: hot (65-80 F.)
MOISTURE: keep moist, not water-logged; mulch helps maintain moisture

-Fig-
Cucumbers
-Text-

CULTURE
PLANTING: Seed after danger of frost has passed and soil has warmed, or
          use plants sown indoors in peat pots 3-4 weeks prior to planting
          time.
SPACING: 12-18" x 48-72" in rows, 24-36" x 48-72" in hills (2-3 plants per
         hill); closer if trellises (see text)
HARDINESS: very tender annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder; side-dress one week after blossoming begins
                  and again 3 weeks later (1-1/2 oz. 33-0-0 per 10 feet of
                  row)

CULTURAL PRACTICES:

Varieties include both the slicer or fresh salad type and the pickle type
(which can also beused fresh), and dwarf-vined or bush varieties.

New varieties of cucumber are being released which are advertised as
all-female, or gynoecious types. On a normal cucumber plant the first 10-20
flowers are male, and for every female flower, which will produce the fruit,
10-20 male flowers are produced. This indicated to plant breeders that
production could be increased greatly if many more female flowers were
produced. Some of the new varieties produce plants which have only female
flowers, while others have a greater proportion of female to male flowers.
These plants tend to bear fruit earlier, with a more concentrated set and
better yields overall.

Parthenocarpic cucumbers are all female and are seedless because the fruit
is produced without being pollinated. If this type of cuke is planted near
others, pollination will occur and seeds will form. This type is usually
grown in greenhouses.

Burpless cucumbers are long and slender with a tender skin. Through plant
breeding the bitterness associated with the burp has been removed. Other
causes of bitterness in cucumbers include temperature variation of more than
twenty degrees and storage of cucumbers near other ripening vegetables.

Most varieties of cucumber vines spread from row to row. Training on a
trellis or fence along the edge of the garden will correct this and also
lift the fruit off the soil. If trellised, plant four to five seeds per foot
in rows spaced 30 inches apart. Untrellised rows may need to be spaced four
to six feet apart. When plants are four to five inches high, thin so they
are nine to twelve inches apart. It may be better to plant a second crop
around July 1, which will have fewer disease problems, than to try to
continue harvesting an early planting until frost.

There are many excellent bush varieties of cucumber now available. Most of
these produce well for the limited amount of space and may be a desirable
alternative in a small garden if trellising is not possible.

In order for the flower to develop into a fruit, pollen must be carried by
bees from male flowers, on the same plant or on different plants, to the
female flower, the one with the tiny swollen pickle. Gynoecious cucumber
flowers are pollinated by male flowers from other plants, the seeds of which
are usually included in the seed packet. Poor cucumber set is common during
rainy weather when bees are inactive. If pesticides are necessary, use them
after sundown to avoid harming the bee population.

Plants respond to mulching with soil warming black plastic in the spring for
earlier harvest. Organic materials are useful in the summer to return
moisture and keep the fruit clean in non-trellised plantings.

Working in the vines when leaves are wet may help spread diseases. Wait
until after morning dew or rain evaporates. Trellising gets leaves up off
the ground so that they dry off faster. Also, if the vines are trellised,
the gardener is less likely to step on the vines and there is no need to
move the vines for weeding or other purposes, reducing the risk of damage.
If vines are not trellised, avoid destroying blossoms or kinking vines by
gently rolling the vines away rather than lifting them when searching for
harvestable fruit.

There has been a significant increase in disease resistance in cucumber
varieties in recent years. Try to select resistant varieties when possible.


COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: Bacterial wilt (spread by cucumber beetles), mosaic, leaf spot,
         anthracnose, scab, powdery and downy mildews
INSECTS: cucumber beetles, aphids, flea beetles, pickleworms
CULTURAL: misshapen cucumbers (low fertility or poor pollination), failure
          to set fruit (too few bees for adequate pollination, no pollinating
          plants for gynoecious hybrids, changes in temperature)

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 50-70
HARVEST: From when cucumbers are about two inches long up to any size
         before they begin to turn yellow, about 15 days. Remove by
         turning cucumbers parallel to the vine and giving a quick snap.
         This prevents vine damage and results in a clean break.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 foot row) 8-10 pounds
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 10-15 lbs.
STORAGE: medium cool (45-50 F.) and moist (95% RH) conditions
PRESERVATION: pickled


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,334>
-Title-
 EGGPLANT
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, high organic matter
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 6.0-7.0
TEMPERATURE: warm (70F-85F)
MOISTURE: average

-Fig-
Eggplant
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: Transplant after danger of frost, when soil is thoroughly warm.
SPACING: 18-24" x 30"-36"
HARDINESS: very tender annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder (3 Tablespoons of ammonium nitrate 33-0-0
                  per 10 feet of row)

CULTURAL PRACTICES

The standard eggplant produces egg shaped glossy purple black fruit 6-9"
long. The long, slender, Japanese eggplant has a thinner skin and more
delicate flavor. Both standard and miniature eggplants can be grown
successfully in containers; but standards yield a better crop. White,
ornamental varieties are available and edible yet are poor eating quality.

Warm to hot weather throughout the season is necessary for good production.
Seeds germinate quickly at 70F-90F; and plants should be grown for 8-9 weeks
before setting them out. Cold temperatures will stop plant and root growth
reducing plant vigor and yields. Using hot caps or cloches protects plants
from cold conditions.

Though eggplants do well in hot weather; they must have well drained soil
and do not thrive in very humid areas. When plants are about 6" high, nip
back the growing tip to encourage branching. Pick fruits when immature,
about 2/3 maximum size. Mature fruit should not be left on the plant as this
will reduce overall productivity.

Because of the eggplant's susceptibility to verticillium wilt, rotate
plantings with other crops on the same garden soil.


COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: Verticillium wilt
INSECTS: flea beetles, aphids, lace bugs, Colorado potato beetle, red
         spider mites

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 100-150 days from seed; 70-85 days from transplants
HARVEST: Fruit should be large, shiny, and a uniformly deep purple color.
         When the side of the fruit is pressed slightly with thumbnail and
         an indentation remains, the fruit is ripe.  Long, slender, Japanese
         eggplant may be ready to harvest from finger or hotdog size. If
         fruit is a dull color and has brown seeds, it is too ripe and should
         be discarded.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 feet of row) 20 pounds
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 12 lbs.
STORAGE: cool (45-50 F) moist (90% RH) conditions; 1 week
PRESERVATION: freeze, pickle


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,335>
-Title-
 LETTUCE
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny, tolerates shade;
prefers shade in summer
SOIL: well-drained, loose loam
FERTILITY: rich
pH: 6.0 - 7.0
TEMPERATURE: cool (60F-70F)
MOISTURE: moist, but not waterlogged; frequent, light waterings

-Fig-
Types of Lettuce
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: seed leaf or butterhead types as soon as soil can be worked in
          the spring, or in late summer. Crisphead and cos types may be
          transplanted in early spring or fall.
SPACING: leaf, cos or butterhead, 4-10" x 12-24;" crisphead, 12-15" x 18-30"
HARDINESS: hardy annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: medium-heavy feeder, use starter solution on transplants,
                  sidedress ifnutrient deficiencies are noted.


CULTURAL PRACTICES

Lettuce, a cool-season vegetable crop, is one of the easiest to grow.
Lettuce withstands light frost; however, sunlight and high summer
temperatures usually cause seedstalk formation (bolting) and bitter flavor.
Slow-bolting or heat-resistant varieties are available and are recommended
for extending the lettuce-growing season. There are several types of lettuce
commonly grown in gardens:

Crisphead, also known as iceberg, is the lettuce most widely available as a
fresh market type. It has a tightly compacted head with crisp, light green
leaves. Many gardeners find this type difficult to grow because it requires
a long season and some of the most advertised varieties are not
heat-resistant and tend to go to seed as soon as temperatures go up. Select
a slow-bolting variety and start seed indoors in late winter or late summer
for best results. Transplant in early spring or fall to take advantage of
cool weather and mulch well to keep soil temperatures from fluctuating and
to hold moisture in. An organic mulch is more suitable than black plastic
after soil warms up. Mulching also keeps soil off the leaves, reducing
chances of disease from soil-borne organisms.

Butterhead, or Bibb lettuce, is a loose-heading type with dark green leaves
that are somewhat thicker than those of iceberg lettuce. Butterheads develop
a light yellow, buttery appearance and are very attractive in salads. A
miniature variety of butterhead, Tom Thumb, is very easy to grow, requiring
a short growing time. One head of this lettuce is about right for one or two
servings, so this is one lettuce to plant in succession, about two weeks
apart. It may be started indoors for an even longer season. Bibb lettuce
will develop bitterness readily if temperatures get too high.

Romaine, or Cos, is less commonly grown by gardeners, but is a very
nutritious lettuce that deserves attention. It, too, is relatively easy to
grow, forming upright heads with rather wavy, attractive leaves.

Most gardeners who grow lettuce raise the leaf type, either with green or
reddish leaves. This type is fast-growing, long-lasting lettuce used for
salads, sandwiches, and in wilted lettuce salads. Leaf lettuce basically
needs only to be planted and harvested.

Sow leaf varieties in rows, 10-20 seeds per foot, in rows 8-12" apart. Thin
individual plants 4-8" apart, depending on variety. Leaf lettuce also grows
very successfully in a wide bed arrangement; seedlings are thinned to 4-8"
on all sides. Cos and head types should be sown or transplanted 12-18"
apart. If in rows, allow 30" between rows.

Cultivate carefully as lettuce is shallow-rooted. Use frequent, light
waterings to encourage rapid growth, but do not over water, as this may
cause disease of roots or leaves. Overhead watering should always be done in
the morning to give plants time to dry off. As mentioned above, mulches are
helpful in maintaining soil moisture and keeping leaves off the ground.

Lettuce planted in very early spring should be given full sun so that the
soil will warm enough for rapid growth. For long-season lettuces, plant so
that crops such as sweet corn, staked tomatoes, pole beans or deciduous
trees will shade the lettuce during the hottest part of the day when
temperatures are over 70 degrees. Inter-planting, i.e., planting between
rows or within the row of later-maturing crops like tomatoes, broccoli,
andBrussels sprouts, is a space-saving practice. Some lettuces, like Tom
Thumb and leaf lettuces, are attractive in flower borders.

Lettuce is best planted in succession, or using different varieties that
mature at different times. Thirty heads of iceberg lettuce harvested at once
can present a major storage problem! Leaf and Bibb lettuces do well in
hotbeds or greenhouses during the winter and in cold frames in spring and
late fall.


COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: stem, leaf and root rots
INSECTS: aphids, root aphids
CULTURAL: tip burn (irregular moisture, or lack of calcium; bolting,
          bitterness due to high temperature or lack of moisture; leaf
          rots due to soil and/or water on leaves

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 40 - 80 days, depending on type

HARVEST: Leaf lettuce can be used as soon as plants are five to six inches
tall. Use the older, outer leaves which contain high levels of calcium
first. You may wish to harvest every other one of the largest plants to
accomplish thinning.

Bibb lettuce is matured when the leaves begin to cup inward to form a loose
head. The heads will never become compact. Cos or Romaine is ready to use
when the leaves have elongated and overlapped to form a fairly tight head
about four inches wide at the base and 6-8" tall. Crisphead is matured when
leaves overlap to form a head similar to those available in groceries; heads
will be compact and firm.

Crisphead lettuce will keep about two weeks in the refrigerator. Leaf and
Bibb will store as long as four weeks if the leaves are dry when bagged. If
lettuce is to be stored, harvest when dry, remove outer leaves but do not
wash, place in a plastic bag and store in the crisper drawer.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 foot row): 5 - 10 pounds
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 5-10 pounds
STORAGE: Cool (32  F.), moist (95% RH) conditions; 2-3 weeks
PRESERVATION: cool, moist refrigeration; canning and freezing not recommended


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,336>
-Title-
 MELONS
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCE

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, moderate organic matter, sandy
FERTILITY: medium
pH: 6.0 - 7.5
TEMPERATURES: hot (70-85 F.)
MOISTURE: average

-Fig-
Melons
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: seed after all danger of frost is past and when
          soil warms, or begin transplants in peat pots three
          to four weeks before this time.
SPACING: muskmelon hills 24-36" x 60- 90"; watermelon hills 6-8' apart
HARDINESS: very tender annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder, use a starter solution for transplants,
                  sidedressing with nitrogen may lower yield or quality
                  or both. Late maturing varieties, however, may need
                  some sidedressing at fruit set.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Muskmelons and watermelons are warm season crops requiring a long growing
season of 80 to 100 days from seed to fruit. Most present varieties are not
well suited to small gardens because of the space requirement. Newer bush
varieties are being developed for use in small gardens.

Melons can be produced from transplants or planted directly. Those grown
from transplants can be harvested as much as two weeks earlier than melons
grown directly from seed, since the gardener must wait until danger of frost
is past to plant. Plant or transplant muskmelon in rows five feet apart with
hills spaced every 2-3 feet, two or three plants per hill. Watermelon hills
should be 6-8 feet apart, and rows 7-10' apart if a path is desired between
rows. Seed should be sown 1/2" to one inch deep after danger of frost has
passed and soil is warmed.

Muskmelons and watermelons are well suited for growing on black plastic
mulch. The black plastic absorbs heat readily, allowing the soil to warm
quickly. It tends to keep the soil moisture level from fluctuating greatly.
In addition, the mulch is very effective in controlling weeds, decreasing
the labor necessary to care for melons.

Male and female flowers are separated on the same plant. Bees must carry
pollen from flower to flower to insure good fruit. Use insecticides late in
the evening to prevent killing bees.

Melon plants can be trained in rows for easy harvesting. Growing on a
trellis allows closer spacing (rows three feet apart), but each trellised
melon must be supported by a sling made of a material which dries quickly to
prevent rot. Old nylon stockings, cheesecloth, and other net-like materials
make good fruit slings. Very large watermelons probably should not be
trellised at all, since the weight of the fruit, even if supported, would
likely damage the vine.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: bacterial wilt (spread by cucumber beetles), fusarium wilt, leaf spot,
          powdery and downy mildews, alternaria blight.
INSECTS: cucumber beetles, squash vine borer, pickleworms, squash bug
CULTURAL: poor flavor and lack of sweetness due to poor fertility, low
          potassium, magnesium or boron; cool temperatures; wet weather;
          poorly adapted variety; loss of leaves from disease; picking melons
          unripe; or poor pollination caused by wet, cool weather, lack
          of bee pollinators, planting too close,and resulting in excessive
          vegetative growth. A heavy rain when melons are ripening may cause
          some of the fruit to split open. Fruit in contact with soil may
          develop rotten spots or be damaged by insects on the bottom. Place
          a board or a couple inches of light mulching material, such as
          sawdust or straw, beneath each fruitwhen it is nearly full-sized.

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 70 - 130

HARVEST: Muskmelons are harvested at full-slip; i.e., when the stem separates
         easily at the point of attachment. Honeydew, Crenshaw, and casaba
         melons are cut off after they turn completely yellow. These melons
         will rot if left on the ground for too long. For watermelons, become
         familiar with the variety being grown to determine the best stage for
         harvesting. The best indicator is a yellowish color on the underside
         where the melon touches the ground. A dead tendril or curl near the
         point where the fruit is attached to the vine is used by some as an
         indicator that the fruit is ready for harvest. You may also thump the
         fruit, listening for the dull sound of ripe fruit, rather than a more
         metallic sound; however, this technique takes some practice, and if
         you have just a few fruit, it is probably wise to include all of the
         above when making your decision.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 foot row) 8 - 40 pounds; more if trellised
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 10-15 lbs.
STORAGE: medium-cool (40-50 F.), moist (80-85% RH) conditions;
PRESERVATION: cool, moist storage; may freeze muskmelons


-End-
-Image-
A<Figure,337>
-Title-
 ONIONS
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny, (green onions tolerate partial shade)
SOIL: well-drained loam
FERTILITY: medium-rich
pH: 5.5-7.0
TEMPERATURE: cool (45F-60F) during development; medium hot (60F-75F)
             during bulbing and curing.
MOISTURE: moist, but not waterlogged

-Fig-
Onions
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: Use sets, seeds, or transplants in spring for bulbs and for
          green or bunching onions. Seeds may be started indoors eight
          weeks before setting out; use sets in the fall for perennial
          or multiplier types of onions.
SPACING: standard 1-6" x 12-24"; wide row 4" x 4" in rows up to 2 feet
         apart. Plant close, then thin using thinnings as green onions.
HARDINESS: Bulb onions - hardy biennial; Green or bunching - hardy
           biennial; Egyptian or Perennial Tree and multiplier - hardy
           perennials
FERTILIZER NEEDS: Heavy feeder, apply 4-5 lbs. 10-10-10/100 sq. ft. before
                  planting, use starter solution for transplants, and
                  sidedress one to two weeks after bulb enlargement
                  begins (3 Tablespoons 33-0-0 per 10 feet of row).

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Onions are often grouped according to taste. The two main types of onions
are strong flavored (American) and mild (often called European). Each has
three distinct colors, yellow, white, and red. In general, the American
onion produces bulbs of smaller size,denser texture, stronger flavor, and
better keeping quality than European types. Globe varieties tend to keep
longer in storage.

Onion varieties also have different requirements as to the number of hours
of daylight required to make a bulb. If the seed catalog lists the onion as
long day, it sets bulbs when it receives 15-16 hours of daylight and is used
to produce onions in Northern summers. Short day varieties set bulbs with
about 12 hours of daylight and are used in the deep South for winter
production.

For green or bunching onions, use sets, seeds, or transplants in spring; or
use Egyptian (Perennial Tree) and the Yellow Multiplier (Potato Onion) sets
in the fall.

For bulb production, plant sets in early spring. Set one to two inches apart
and one to two inches deep in the row. Thin to four inches apart and eat the
thinned plants as green onions. Avoid sets more than an inch in diameter
because they are likely to produce seed stalks. Too early planting and
exposure to cold temperatures also causes seed stalk development. Some
people have best bulb production using seedlings or transplants rather than
sets. Egyptian Tree or Multiplier onions should be set in late October or
early November. Plant four inches apart in rows one to two feet apart.
Distance between rows is determined by available space and cultivating
equipment.

-Fig-
Onion Bulb Production
-Text-

Bulbs compete poorly with weeds due to shallow root systems. Shallow
cultivation is necessary; do not hill up soil on onions as this can
encourage stem rot. Insure ample moisture especially after bulbs begin
enlarging.

Onions should be harvested when about two-thirds of the tops have fallen
over. Careful handling to avoid bruising helps control storage rots. Onions
may be pulled and left in the field for several days to dry then cured in a
well ventilated attic or porch for one to two weeks out of direct sun. Tops
may be left on or cut off; but leave at least one inch of the top when
storing. Thorough curing will increase storage life.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: neck or stem rot, bulb rot
INSECTS: thrips, onion root maggots
CULTURAL: bulb rot from bruising, insufficient drying; split or double bulb
          from dry soil during bulb formation; very small bulb from too late
          planting or too dry soil.


HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 100-120 (Mature bulbs)
HARVEST: Harvest green onions when tops are 6 inches tall; bulbs after 2/3
         or more of the tops have fallen over. Do not wait more than 1-2 weeks
         after this occurs. Allow for thorough drying before storage.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: 10-15 lbs. (per 10 feet of row)
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 10-15 lbs.
STORAGE: cool (32F), dry (65-70% RH) conditions; 6-7 months
PRESERVATION: Onions may be stored dry or pickled and canned. They freeze
              well if chopped and covered with water. For fresh storage,
              maintain good air circulation. One effective storage method
              is to place onion in discarded hose, tie a knot and add another
              onion. When hose is filled, suspend from rafters in storage area.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,338>
-Title-
 PEPPERS
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOILS: well-drained, loose, moderate organic matter
FERTILITY: medium-rich
pH: 5.5-6.5
TEMPERATURE: warm (70F-75F); days 75F, nights 62F
MOISTURE: average
-Fig-
Peppers
-Text-


CULTURE

PLANTING: Set out transplants after soil has thoroughly warmed in the spring,
          start seed indoors 6-8 weeks prior to this date.
SPACING: 18-24" x 30-36"
FERTILIZER NEEDS: Light-medium feeder, use starter solution for transplants,
                  sidedress cautiously after first fruit sets (3 Tablespoons
                  33-0-0 per 10 feet of row), too much may cause excessive
                  vegetative growth.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Although types of peppers belong in one of six groups, most are classified
according to their degree of hot or mild flavor. The mild peppers include
Bell, Banana, Pimiento and Sweet Cherry while the hot peppers include the
Cayenne, Celestial, Large Cherry, and Tabasco.

Bell peppers, measuring 3" wide by 4" long, usually have 3-4 lobes and a
blocky appearance. They are commonly harvested when green yet turn red or
yellow when fully ripe. About 200 varieties are available. Banana peppers
are long and tapering and harvested when yellow, orange or red. Another
sweet pepper, Pimiento, has conical, 2-3" wide by 4" long, thick walled
fruit. Most Pimientos are used when red and fully ripe. Cherry peppers vary
in size and flavor. Usually they are harvested orange to deep red.

Slim, pointed, slightly twisted fruits characterize the hot Cayenne pepper
group. These can be harvested either when green or red and include varieties
such as Anaheim, Cayenne, Serrano and Jalapeno. Celestial peppers are cone
shaped, 3/4" to 2" long, and very hot. They vary in color from yellow to red
to purple making them an attractive plant to grow. Slender, 1" to 3",
pointed Tabasco peppers taste extremely hot and include such varieties as
Chili Piquin and Small Red Chili.

Peppers generally have a long growing season and suffer slow growth during
cool periods. Therefore, after the soil has thoroughly warmed in the spring,
set out 6-8 week old transplants to get a head start toward harvest.
Practice good cultivation and provide adequate moisture. Mulching can help
to conserve water and reduce weeds.

Hot peppers are usually allowed to fully ripen and change colors (except for
Jalapenos) and have smaller, longer, thinner and more tapering fruits than
sweet peppers. Yields are smaller for hot peppers.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: tobacco mosaic virus, bacterial spot, anthracnose
INSECTS: aphids, flea beetles, cutworms, European corn borer
CULTURAL: blossom end rot (moisture irregularities or calcium deficiency),
          blossom drop (when night temperatures go above 75F, or when a
          full crop of fruit set is excessive

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 100-120 from seed, 70-85 from transplants
HARVEST: Harvest sweet peppers when they reach full size, while still in the
         green or yellow state. When allowed to mature on the plant most
         varieties turn red and sweeter and increase in vitamin A and C
         content. Cut instead of pulling to avoid breaking branches.
         Hot peppers are allowed to ripen and change color on the plant.
         Entire plants may be pulled and hung just before full frosts.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 feet of row) 2-8 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 3-10 lbs.
STORAGE: medium cool conditions (45F-50F), moist (95% RH); 2-3 weeks
PRESERVATION: freeze, pickles and relishes, dried spices


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,339>
-Title-
 POTATOES
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, moderate organic matter
FERTILITY: medium-rich
pH: 4.8-6.5
TEMPERATURE: cool (55F-65F)
MOISTURE: uniform moisture (especially while tubers are developing)

-Fig-
Potatoes
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: 1 1/2 - 2 oz. seed pieces with at least one good eye are in early spring; will resist
          light frost.
SPACING: 10-12" x 24-36"
FERTILIZER NEEDS: Medium-heavy feeder, add high phosphorus fertilizer (1
                  Tablespoon 10-20-10 per 10 feet of row) before planting,
                  sidedress about 6 weeks after planting when tubers begin
                  forming (5 Tablespoons 33-0-0 per 10 feet of row).

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Both white-skinned and red-skinned potatoes can be grown as an early crop
for new potatoes and as a late crop for storage. Choose an early maturing
variety and a mediumto-late maturing variety. Plant potatoes early from
March 15 to April 20, depending on your location. Hard frosts and freezes
may set back growth. Potatoes prefer cool springs and moisture throughout
the growing season. Crops can be successfully planted as late as June for
fall harvest and storage but yield may be reduced.

Avoid a garden site in a turned-under lawn as grub worms may damage
developing tubers unless soil insecticides are used.

A soil pH of 6.0 to 6.5 is most desirable; however, scab disease will be
less when the pH is between 5.0 to 5.2. In addition to the base application
of fertilizer, add about one-fourth pound of 10-20-10 for each 75 foot row.
Work this into the furrow and mix with the soil before planting.

Purchase certified seed stock that has been inspected for diseases that
lower yields. Saving your own seed potatoes is generally not worthwhile
because viruses and diseases often show up the next year. Seed potatoes
should be firm and unsprouted. Wilted and sprouted potatoes usually have
lost vigor from being too warm in storage. Seed pieces for planting should
be cut to about 1 1/2 to 2 ounces or into 1 1/2 inch cubes. Potatoes about
six ounces in size will cut into four pieces nicely. Each seed piece should
have at least one good bud or eye. Plant potatoes in furrows cut-side down,
three to five inches deep. Later crops should be planted five to six inches
deep.
-Fig-
Potatoe Seed Pieces
-Text-

Pull a ridge of soil over each row when planting. Drag a board or hoe across
the ridges just before the sprouts break through to eliminate weeds. Later
cultivation should be shallow and far enough from the rows to make certain
that no roots are damaged

When the tops have grown too large to allow cultivation, a finishing
cultivation, sometimes called laying by or hilling up is given. Laying by
throws soil over the potatoes to prevent exposure of the potatoes to sun
which can cause greening or scalding. Green portions on potatoes taste
bitter and contain an alkaloid. Cut off and discard green areas before
using.

The release of the new true seed potatoes is an interesting development. The
major advantage of growing potatoes from seed is the decreased chance of
disease. For the home garden, growing from seed pieces is generally less
time consuming and will give betteryields. With time, true seed potatoes may
be bred for higher yields; but at present, good quality stock potatoes yield
the best crop.


COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: early blight, scab, late blight, tuber rots, virus complex, fusarium, verticillium
          and bacterial wilts.
INSECTS: Colorado potato beetles, flea beetles, leafhoppers
CULTURAL: green skin (sun exposure), hollow heart (alternate wet and dry
          conditions), Black Walnut wilt (too close to a Black Walnut tree).


HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 100-120
HARVEST: Dig early potatoes when tubers are large enough to eat. Harvest
         potatoes for storage two weeks after the vines die down or just
         after the first light frost nips the vines, before heavy freezing.
         Avoid skinning tubers when digging and avoid long exposure to light.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 foot row) 6-15 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 75-l00 lbs. (plant about 15 lbs. of seed potatoes
                            per person)
STORAGE: medium-cool (40F-50F), moist (90% RH) conditions; 6-8 months.
         Sprouting is a problem at higher temperatures.
PRESERVATION: usually stored in medium cool, moist conditions.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,340>
-Title-
 SQUASH
-Text-

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES
LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained
FERTILITY: medium-rich
pH: 6.0-7.5
TEMPERATURE: warm (65-75 F)
MOISTURE: average

-Fig-
Squash
-Text-

CULTURE
PLANTING: Seed after danger of frost is past and soil has warmed.
SPACING: hills (2-3 plants/hill) 3-4 ft. x 4-6 ft.; single plants 2-3 ft. x
         3-5 ft.
HARDINESS:  very tender annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: Heavy feeder, sidedress one week after blossoming begins
                  (3 Tablespoons 33-0-0 per 10 feet of row); repeat three weeks
                  later.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Summer squash grows on nonvining bushes. There are many varieties having
different fruit shapes and colors. The three main types include the yellow
straight neck or crooked neck; the white, saucer shaped, scallop or patty
pan; and the oblong, green, grey or gold zucchini.

Soil containing plenty of well-rotted compost or manure is ideal, although
good crops may be grown in average soils which have been adequately
fertilized. For extra early fruit, plant seeds in peat pots in greenhouses
or hotbeds and transplant about three weeks later after danger of frost.
Older plants that have hardened off and stopped growth will not transplant
well and should be discarded. Squashes are warm season plants and do not do
well until soil and air temperatures are above 60 F.

Seed or transplants can be planted through black plastic. Cover seed with
one inch of soil.

Squash plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant.
Pollen must be transferred from the male flowers to the female by bees. Use
insecticides late in the evening to prevent killing bees.

COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: powdery and downy mildews, blossom blight, bacterial wilt
INSECTS: cucumber beetles, squash vine borers, pickle worm
CULTURAL: blossom end rot (irregular moisture or calcium deficiency) flower
          drop (may occur normally when female flowers form before male
          flowers or during periods of heavy fruit set)

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 50-65
HARVEST: Harvest when immature, only about 6-8" long and 1 1/2- 2" in
         diameter for elongated types, 3-4" in diameter for patty-pan
         types, and 4-7" long for yellow crooknecks.  If the rind is too
         hard to be marked by the thumbnail, it is too old. Remove old fruit
         to allow new fruit to develop. Check plants daily once they begin
         to bear.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: 20-80 lbs. (per 10 feet of row)
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 10-25 lbs.
STORAGE: cool (32-50 F), moist (90% RH) conditions; 5-14 days
PRESERVATION: Usually in cool, moist storage, may can as pickles or relishes
              or freeze (quality may be poor on frozen squash).


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,341>
-Title-
 TOMATOES
-Text-


ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

LIGHT: sunny
SOIL: well-drained, loam
FERTILITY: medium-rich
TEMPERATURE: warm (70F - 80F)
MOISTURE: moist, but not waterlogged

-Fig-
Tomatoes
-Text-

CULTURE

PLANTING: transplant after all danger of frost is past and when the soil
          has warmed
SPACING: 18-36" x 36"
HARDINESS: tender annual
FERTILIZER NEEDS: heavy feeder; use starter solution for transplants, sidedress
                  one ortwo weeks before first tomato ripens (1-1/2 oz. 33-0-0
                  per 10 feet of row); sidedress again two weeks after first
                  ripe tomato with a balanced fertilizer such as 5-10-5; repeat
                  one month later.

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Tomatoes are valuable garden plants in that they require relatively little
space for large production. Each tomato plant, properly cared for, yields 10
to 15 pounds or more of fruit.

Choose varieties with disease resistance bred in for best results. Fusarium
and verticillium wilt are common diseases that can destroy a whole tomato
crop; treating either disease is difficult. Many varieties are resistant to
these two diseases - look for VF after the cultivar name, indicating
resistance to the wilts. VFN means the plants are resistant to verticillium,
fusarium and nematodes; VFNT adds tobacco mosaic to the list.

The varieties of tomato plants available may seem overwhelming to a new
gardener; ask gardening friends for the names of their favorites. This will
give you a good idea of what does well in Virginia. Several major types of
tomatoes exist that can be chosen according to need:

(a) Midget, patio, or dwarf tomato varieties have very compact vines best
grown in hanging baskets or other containers. The tomatoes produced may be,
but are not necessarily, the cherry type (1" diameter or less). Some produce
larger fruit. These plants are usually short-lived, producing their crop
quickly and for a short period.

(b) Cherry tomatoes have small, cherry-sized (or a little larger) fruits
often used in salads. Plants of cherry tomatoes range from dwarf (Tiny Tim)
to seven-footers (Sweet 100). One standard cherry tomato plant is usually
sufficient for a family, since they generally produce abundantly.

(c) Compact or determinate tomato plants may include cultivars of the above
two categories. Determinate refers to the plant habit of growing to a
certain size, setting fruit, and then declining. Most of the early ripening
tomato varieties are determinate and will not produce tomatoes throughout a
Virginia summer.

(d) Indeterminate tomato plants are the opposite of the determinate types.
The vines continue to grow until frost or disease kills them. These are the
standard, all-summer tomatoes that most people like to grow. They require
support of some kind for best results, since otherwise the fruit would be in
contact with the soil and thus susceptible to rot.

(e) Beefsteak type tomatoes are large-fruited types, producing a tomato
slice that easily covers a sandwich, the whole fruit weighing as much as two
pounds or more. These are usually late to ripen, so plant some
standard-sized or early tomatoes for longest harvest.

(f) Paste tomatoes have small pear-shaped fruits with very meaty interiors
and few seeds. They are less juicy than standard tomatoes and are without a
central core. Paste tomatoes are a favorite for canning since they don't
have to be cut up and since they are so meaty.

(g) Some tomatoes are orange, yellow, pink, or striped, and usually the only
way to get these is by growing your own.

(h) Winter storage tomatoes are a relatively new item for gardeners. The
plants are set out later in the season than most tomatoes and fruit are
harvested partially ripe. If properlystored, they will stay fresh for twelve
weeks or more. While the flavor does not equal that of summer vine-ripened
tomatoes, many people prefer them to grocery store tomatoes in winter.

Tomato plants may be started indoors from seed or transplants may be
purchased. If starting your own plants, use a light soil mix and give the
plants plenty of light. Tall, spindly transplants are usually caused by low
light levels in the home. Unless you have a sunny, south-facing window,
supplemental light will probably be necessary. The seed are sown six to
eight weeks before the last frost date in your area. A few weeks before
transplanting time, harden-off indoor-grown plants by exposing them to an
increasing number of hours outdoors each day. Bring plants in if there is
danger of frost. A few varieties of tomato (the sub-arctics) are bred to
grow well in low spring temperatures; however, these are rarely available in
the usual markets and ordinarily must be grown from seed.

When you are ready to put home-grown or purchased plants into the ground,
select stocky transplants about six to ten inches tall. Set tomato
transplants in the ground covering the stems so that only two or three sets
of true leaves are exposed. Horizontal planting of tomato plants is an
effective way to make plants stronger, especially leggy ones. Roots will
form along the buried portion of the stem, giving better growth and less
chance of plant injury from a too-weak stem. Do not remove the containers if
they are peat or paper pots, but open or tear off one side to allow roots to
get a good start. If non-biodegradable containers are used, knock the plants
out of the pots before transplanting, and loosen the roots somewhat. Press
the soil firmly around the transplant so that a slight depression is formed
for holding water. Pour approximately one pint of starter solution (2 Tbsp.
5-10-10 or 5-10-5 fertilizer per gallon of water, or dilute fish emulsion)
around each plant to wash the soil around the roots.

If plants are to be staked or trellised, space them 24" apart in rows three
feet apart. Though it requires more initial work, staking makes caring for
tomatoes easier than letting them sprawling. Since they are off the ground,
fruit rots are reduced, spraying is easier and may be required less, and
harvesting is much less work. Use wooden stakes six feet long and 1-1/2 or 2
inches wide. Drive them one foot into the soil about four to six inches from
the plant soon after transplanting. Attach heavy twine or strips of cloth to
the stakes every ten inches. As the plants grow, pull the stems toward the
stakes and tie loosely.

-Fig-
Tomatoes: Staked
-Text-

Prune staked tomatoes to either one or two main stems. At the junction of
each leaf and the first main stem a new shoot will develop. If plants are
trained to two stems, choose one of these shoots, normally at the first or
second leaf-stem junction, for the second main stem. Remove all other
shoots, called suckers, weekly to keep the plant to these two main stems.
Pinch shoots off with your fingers. Tomato plants may also be set along a
fence or trellis and tied and pruned in a manner similar to that used with
stakes.

Growing tomatoes in wire cages is a method gaining in popularity among
gardeners because of its simplicity. Cage-growing allows the tomato plant to
grow in its natural manner, but keeps the fruit and leaves off the ground,
offering the advantages of staking as well. Using wire cages requires a
large initial expenditure and a large storage area, but many gardeners feel
that the freedom from pruning and staking is worth it. The cages, if heavy
duty, will last many years. Be sure to get fencing with at least 6" spacing
between wires so that you can get your hand inside to harvest the tomatoes.

If tomato plants in wire cages are pruned at all, once is enough; prune to
three or four main stems. Wire-cage tomatoes develop a heavy foliage cover,
reducing sunscald on fruits and giving more leeway when bottom leaves become
blighted and have to be removed. Many staked plants are nearly naked by late
summer. Caged plants are less prone to the spread of disease from plant
handling, since they do not have open wounds and must be handled less
frequently than staked plants. However, it helps to space the plants
somewhat further apart (three feet is good) to allow good air circulation
between plants; humidity is higher because of the foliage density, and
diseases such as late blight spread rapidly in humid situations. If
well-nourished and cared for, caged tomatoes can produce exceptional
harvests and make up for the extra space with high production. This type of
culture is especially suited to indeterminate varieties.


COMMON PROBLEMS

DISEASES: early blight, septoria leafspot, verticillium and fusarium wilts, late
          blight, tobacco mosaic virus, bacterial spot
INSECTS: flea beetle, hornworm, stink bugs, Colorado potato beetle, fruitworm,
         aphids, mites, whiteflies, cutworms
OTHER PESTS: nematodes
CULTURAL: blossom-end rot, irregular soil moisture or calcium deficiency; poor
          color, yellow spots or large whitish-grey spots, sunscald from lack of
          foliage cover; leaf roll, physiological condition often found in
          pruned tomatoes; fruit cracking, irregular soil moisture; black
          walnut wilt, caused by roots of tomato plants coming in contact with
          roots of black walnut tree

HARVESTING AND STORAGE

DAYS TO MATURITY: 55-105
HARVEST: Harvest fully vine ripened but still firm; most varieties are dark red.
         Picked tomatoes should be placed in shade. Light is not necessary for
         ripening immature tomatoes.  Some green tomatoes may be picked before
         the first killing frost and stored in a cool (55F), moist (90% RH)
         place. When desired, ripen fruits at 70F.
APPROXIMATE YIELDS: (per 10 feet of row) 15-45 lbs.
AMOUNT TO RAISE PER PERSON: 20-25 pounds for fresh used; 25-40 pounds for
                            canning
STORAGE: green tomatoes - medium cool (50F-70F), moist (90% RH) conditions; 1-3
           weeks.
         Ripe tomatoes - cool (45F-50F), moist (90% RH) conditions; 4-7 days.
PRESERVATION: Can or freeze as sauces or in chunks (whole or quartered), peeled


-End-
-Title-
 HERBS
-Text-

Herbs are, in general, very easy to grow. They are quite free from damage by
diseases and insects. A bountiful harvest can be secured with a minimum of
care. A few short rows in the vegetable or flower garden will provide an
adequate supply for the average family.

Depending on the species, variety, and growth cycle, herbs are either
annual, biennial, or perennial. Keep this in mind while locating them in the
garden, along with the following points:

*Group herbs according to light requirements (full sun or partial shade) and
locate the planting area accordingly (see table).

*Choose a soil that is fertile, well-drained, and loamy for best results.

*Acid soils are unsuitable for herbs. Preferred pH for most herbs is around
6.0-7.0.

*Prepare the soil to a depth of eight inches.

*Give perennial herbs an area which will not be disturbed by tilling. Those
that spread by runners, such as the mints, should be given a large area, or
should be contained in some fashion.

Herbs may be started either indoors or out. For small seeds, the easiest
method is to sow them directly into peat pots filled with seed-starting mix,
about six weeks before the last frost date. Cover seed with a thin layer of
moist seed-starting mix or milled sphagnum moss (which has anti-fungal
properties). Thin seedlings to four or five per pot. Larger seed may also be
started by this method, then thinned to one plant per pot. Keep soil surface
moist by misting until plants are established.

Perennials may be started from seed or from cuttings. Root cuttings in a
window box or some other suitable container, preferably covered with plastic
to maintain high humidity. Four or five inches of clean coarse sand makes a
satisfactory rooting medium. Keep the sand moist and keep plants out of
direct sunlight when young to prevent wilting. In four to six weeks, move
the cuttings to pots or cold frames for the winter.

Transplant all herb plants after danger of severe frost. Control weeds
during the growing season to prevent competition for water and nutrients. A
light one-inch mulch will conserve soil moisture and help control weeds.
Irrigation may be necessary during periods of drought, though once
established many herbs are highly resistant to drought.

-End-
-Title-
 HARVESTING
-Text-

Herb leaves which are to be used fresh may be picked whenever the plant has
enough foliage to maintain continued growth. Most herbs for drying should be
picked just before the flowers open, when the leaves contain the highest
content of aromatic, volatile oils. The stems should be selected and cut
individually about 6" below the flower buds. Remove dead or damaged leaves,
and wipe off any dust or dirt which may be present. If the leaves are very
dirty, they may be rinsed gently in cold water and dried with paper towels;
or, spray with a garden hose the day before harvesting. Discontinue
harvesting leaves of perennials by late summer to allow the plants to store
enough carbohydrates for overwintering.

You may save seed for culinary uses or for starting plants the next year by
allowing the plants to completely mature. Harvest seed when they change in
color from green to brown or grey and allow them to dry thoroughly before
storing.

-End-
-Title-
 DRYING AND STORAGE
-Text-

Herbs may be dried by tying the cut stems in small bunches and hanging them
in a well-ventilated, low-dust, darkened room. Each bunch should be
labelled, since dried herbs look pretty much the same. The best product will
result if leaves are dried rapidly without artificial heat or exposure to
sunlight. However, in the case of thick, succulent leaves, such as those of
basil, rapid drying in an oven, dehydrator, or solar dryer may be the only
method of retaining color and maximum aromatic quality.

If leaves are not too small, they may be removed from the stems and dried in
a single layer on trays made of window screening or 1/4" mesh hardware
cloth. Label each different herb. Stir the leaves gently once or twice a day
to speed the drying operation.

When the drying process seems to be complete, remove the leaves from the
stems or trays and place in sealed glass jars in a warm place for a week. At
the end of that time, examine the jars to determine if any moisture has
condensed on the inside of the glass. If it has, remove the contents and
spread out for further drying. If necessary, the final drying may be
completed by spreading the leaves on a cookie sheet in an oven set for 110
degrees F. or less.

Herb leaves are dry when they become brittle, and will crumble into powder
when rubbed between the hands. If you prefer to use herbs in powdered or
ground form, crush the leaves with a rolling pin, pass them through a fine
sieve, or grind in a blender or with mortar and pestle.

Store herbs in air-tight bottles, preferably brown glass, in as cool a place
as possible, out of direct sunlight. By using air-tight containers the herbs
will retain their essential oils and flavors.

-End-
-Title-
 HERBS AS POTTED PLANTS
-Text-

Most small-sized herb plants may be grown in 4- or 6-inch pots as
houseplants. When given loving care in a sunny window, they will supply
sprigs for culinary use throughout the winter.

If an enclosed porch or sunroom is available, larger herbs may be grown.
Some of the best to try are basil, sweet marjoram, oregano, rosemary, thyme,
and (if you find one) bay laurel (Laurus nobilis). Start pot plants from
seed, cuttings or divisions in midsummer; or, if available, dig young,
vigorous plants from the garden and pot them, being sure to hose off any
insects or eggs that might be present.

-End-
-Title-
 THE KNOT GARDEN
-Text-

One attractive way to display herbs is the knot garden, in which the various
colors and textures of herbs are used to create the appearance of cords
looping over and under each other. Herb plants are closely spaced and
trimmed to form low hedges. The knot garden is most effective when viewed
from above, especially from a second-story window.

-End-
-Title-
 HERB CULTURE AND USE



-End-
-Title-
 TREE FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

Success with a home fruit planting depends upon how well it is planned and
how well the plans are carried out. Unfortunately, it is not possible for
trees to be planted and good quality fruit harvested with little or no
effort. Relatively less care is required in the culture of sour cherries and
pears than any of the other tree fruits, but even these cannot be expected
to be good quality fruit, year after year if left unattended. Proper
attention must be given to insect and disease control, pruning,
fertilization, soil management, and other necessary practices.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-Text-

It is desirable to locate the fruit planting as close to your home as
possible. Where space is limited, fruit trees may be set in almost any
location suitable for ornamental plants. However, in a lawn fallen fruit can
present problems so harvest must be prompt.

Consider the mature size of the tree when designing the planting. Dwarf
fruit trees lend themselves admirably to ornamental plantings as well as
orchards. They come into bearing earlier than standard size trees, occupy
less space, and can be more easily pruned and sprayed with equipment
normally available to the average homeowner. Most nurseries now carry dwarf
and semidwarf apple trees of several varieties. Dwarf pear, peach, and
cherry trees of a few varieties are offered by some nurseries. Certainly, in
any planting where space is at a premium, dwarf trees should be considered.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-SubTitle-
 Size of Planting
-Text-

Space, site, size of family, available time, and pollination requirements
determine size of the planting. Cover the range of fruits insofar as family
preference, adaptability, and space permit. Never attempt to plant more than
you can care for properly. It is better to have a small home orchard well
attended than a large one neglected. The information in Table 1 should help
you determine the size of your planting.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-SubTitle-
 Tree Spacing
-Text-

How far apart must the trees be set? This is an important factor, and to a
large extent it influences selection of site and varieties. Table 1 shows
the minimum desirable distances between fruit trees in home orchards in
Virginia. They can be set farther apart if space allows, but, for best
results, should not be set closer than the minimums indicated. To maintain a
bearing surface low enough for necessary pest control, trees should not be
crowded.

Table 1.  Space Requirement, Yield, Bearing Age, and
Life Expectancy of Tree Fruits


                   Minimum   Approximate
                   Distance     Yield
                   between       per        Bearing      Life
    Fruit           Plant       Plant         Age     Expectancy

                    feet       bushels       years       years

Apple-standard            30           8          6-10        35-45
Apple-semidwarf      20           4          4- 6        20-25
Apple-dwarf          12           1          2- 3        15-20
Pear-standard        25           3          5- 8        35-45
Pear-dwarf           12          1/2         3- 4        15-20
Peach                20           4          3- 4        15-20
Plum                      20           2          4- 5        15-20
Quince               15           1          5- 6        30-40
Cherry-sour          20        60 qts.       4- 5        15-20
Cherry-sweet         25        75 qts.       5- 7        20-30

-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-SubTitle-
 Site Selection
-Text-

Importance of selecting the best site possible for fruit planting cannot be
overemphasized. Good air drainage is essential. Cold air, like water, flows
downhill. For this reason, fruit buds on plants set in a low spot are more
likely to be killed than those on a slope. Frost pockets, low wet spots, and
locations exposed to strong prevailing winds must be avoided. South facing
slopes encourage early bud development and can sometimes result in frost
damage. Select late maturing varieties for this location.

Deep, well-drained soil of good fertility should be selected. A fertile,
sandy loam or sandy clay loam is suitable for most tree fruits. Adequate
drainage is the most important soil characteristic. Poor soils may easily be
improved by proper fertilization and cultural practices. Improving soil with
poor internal drainage is difficult and expensive. Fertile soil is
desirable, deep, well-drained soil is vital.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-SubTitle-
 Variety Selection
-Text-

Give special attention to the selection of varieties for the home garden.
They must be adapted to your soil and climatic conditions. If possible
without sacrificing too much yield or quality, select varieties with the
fewest insect and disease problems. Table 2 lists some varieties of tree
fruits suitable for planting in Virginia. The varieties are listed in the
order of ripening, and the list includes only those varieties of proven
merit under Virginia conditions.

Several varieties of the same kind of fruit maturing at different times may
be planted to prolong the season. The value of certain varieties for special
uses such as freezing, canning, and preserving should be considered. Some
varieties may be purchased in season from commercial growers more
economically than you can grow them yourself.

Cross pollination is necessary for satisfactory fruit set in many tree
fruits. Varieties that are cross-fruitful and that have overlapping bloom
dates should be selected. To be certain of adequate cross pollination, plant
at least three varieties of apples. Don't confine your selections to Summer
Rambo, Winesap, and Stayman. These varieties will not cross pollinate.
Golden Delicious is used by many commercial growers as a pollinizer for
other varieties of apples in their orchards.

Table 2.  Some Suggested Varieties for the Home Fruit Garden
(Listed in Order of Ripening)

    APPLES                          Principal Uses
           Lodi                          Cooking
      Jerseymac                     Cooking, dessert
      Paulared                      Cooking, dessert
      Summer Rambo                  Cooking, dessert
      Grimes Golden                 Cooking, dessert
      *Jonathan (red strain)        Cooking, dessert
      Golden Delicious              Cooking, dessert
      *Delicious (red strain)            Cooking, dessert
      *Winesap                           Cooking, dessert
      *Stayman (red strain)         Cooking, dessert
      *Rome Beauty (red strain)     Cooking, dessert

    CHERRIES (Sour)
      Montmorency                   Cooking, freezing

    *CHERRIES (Sweet)
      Napoleon (Royal Anne)         Cooking, dessert
      Vernon                        Cooking, dessert
      Ulster                        Cooking, dessert
      Hedelfingen                   Cooking, dessert
      Windsor                       Cooking, dessert
      Hudson                        Cooking, dessert

    PEARS
      Moonglow                      Cooking, dessert
      Magness                       Cooking, dessert
      Maxine                        Cooking, dessert
      Seckel                        Cooking, dessert
      Orient                        Cooking
      Kieffer                       Cooking

    PLUMS (Japanese)
      Early Golden                  Cooking, dessert
      Methley                       Cooking, dessert
      Shiro                         Cooking, dessert

    PLUMS (European and Prunes)
      Mohawk                        Cooking, dessert
      Richards Early Italian Prune  Cooking, dessert
      Iroquois                      Cooking, dessert
      Stanley                       Cooking, dessert
      Shropshire (Damson)           Cooking
      Oneida                        Cooking, dessert

    NECTARINES
      Pocahontas                    Dessert
      Cherokee                      Dessert
      Cavalier                      Dessert
      Redgold                       Dessert

    PEACHES
      Earlired                      Cooking, dessert
      Sunhaven                      Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Redhaven                      Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Triogem                       Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Washington                    Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Glohaven                      Cooking, dessert, freezing
     *Sunhigh                       Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Cresthaven                    Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Georgia Belle (white)         Cooking, dessert
      White Hale (white)            Cooking, dessert
      Redskin                       Cooking, dessert, freezing
      Tyler                         Cooking, dessert, freezing

    *QUINCE
      Orange                        Cooking


*In Eastern Virginia where mildew, blight, brown rot,
bacteriosis, fruit cracking, and poor color can be serious due to
climatic conditions, these varieties are difficult to grow.

At least two of the recommended pear, plum, and sweet cherry varieties
should be planted. Inasmuch as Japanese and European type plums are not
generally effective as pollinizers for each other, two varieties of the same
type should be planted. Windsor is a good pollinating sweet cherry variety.
Sour cherries cannot be used to pollinate sweet cherries because they do not
overlap in bloom.

All of the sour cherry, peach, and nectarine varieties listed are
sufficiently self-fruitful to set satisfactory crops with their own pollen.

Apricots are not recommended for planting in Virginia. The buds of currently
available varieties respond to the first warm days of early spring and are
usually killed by frost or low temperature common to most areas. Unless
protection can be provided, a crop can be expected no more frequently than
once every 4 or 5 years.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,354>
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-SubTitle-
 Apple Rootstocks
-Text-

Apples, like other tree fruits, will not produce trees with the same
characteristics from seed. If you plant a seed from a Red Delicious apple;
the fruit would likely be small, unattractive, and of poor quality.
Therefore, apple trees are propagated vegetatively by either budding or
grafting scion wood of the desired cultivar on a rootstock. The rootstock
and scion variety maintain their respective genetic identity but are joined
at the graft union and function as a unit.

Traditionally, apple trees have been propagated on rootstocks from apple
seeds. More recently, increasing use is being made of vegetatively
propagated or clonal rootstocks which have inherent advantages over
seedlings. Three major considerations in rootstock selection are:

Size control  Probably the most widely accepted reason for the use of clonal
rootstocks is tree size control. By proper selection of rootstock we can
determine mature tree size. For example, the same variety of apple will
produce a 16-18 foot tree on the rootstock cultivar, Malling Merton (MM)111,
down to a dwarf tree of 7-8 feet on a Malling (M)9 rootstock. Intermediate
sizes can be attained by other rootstocks such as M 26 and M 7.
Unfortunately, many apple trees offered to homeowners are labelled as dwarf
trees but the buyer has no idea of how dwarfing the rootstock may be.

-Fig-
Apple Rootstock: Size Control
-Text-

Precocity  The earliness at which a tree produces fruit is also directly
affected by the rootstock. Trees on seedling rootstocks usually do not begin
fruiting until they are 7-10 years old. Trees on M 9 rootstock will often
produce crops in 2-3 years. Other rootstocks are intermediate in this
regard. Usually, the more dwarfing the rootstock, the earlier the tree will
bear fruit.

Stability  A major consideration in selecting apple rootstocks is the degree
of anchorage provided. For example, trees on M 9 rootstock are very small
but because of brittle roots, must be provided some type of support. This
can consist of a post, a trellis, or other means of holding the tree
upright. The semi-dwarfing M 7 rootstock may require supportfor the first
few years but is often grown without support. The more vigorous MM 111
rootstock does not require support and is thus like seedlings.

-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE HOME FRUIT PLANTING
-SubTitle-
 Buying Trees
-Text-

Obtain the best nursery stock available. Buy only from reputable nurserymen
who guarantee their plants to be true to name, of high quality, and packed
and shipped correctly. Beware of bargains. High prices do not necessarily
mean high quality, but good, well-grown nursery stock is not cheap.

One-year-old trees are usually preferred. A common mistake made by many
homeowners is to select oversized or ready-to-bear nursery trees. Experience
has shown that younger trees bear almost as soon, are easier to keep alive,
and develop into more healthy, vigorous trees than do the oversized stock.
The older trees cost nurserymen more to grow and are sold for higher prices,
but are usually worth less than younger trees.

For peaches, nectarines, and apricots, a 4' tree, 1/2" in diameter, is
considered the ideal size for planting. Vigorous, 4 to 7', 1-year-old whips
about 3/4" in diameter are preferred for apples. Pears, quince, plums,
cherries, and apples may be planted as 1- or 2-year-old trees. Either will
be satisfactory as long as the trees have attained sufficient size and have
good root systems.

When purchasing apple trees on dwarfing rootstock, be sure to specify the
rootstock desired. Three are currently suggested for planting in Virginia.
EM-IX is very dwarfing, has a rather weak root system, and must have
mechanical support. Trees on EM-VII and MM-106 attain a size about
two-thirds that of the same variety on seedling rootstock.


-End-
-Title-
 SETTING THE ORCHARD
-SubTitle-
 Time of Planting
-Text-

Virginia climatic conditions are such that good results can be obtained
regardless of whether the trees are planted in fall or early spring.
Planting about a month after the first killing frost in the fall or about a
month before the last killing frost in the spring is generally recommended.
The important thing to remember is that trees should be dormant and that the
soil should have proper moisture content.

-End-
-Title-
 SETTING THE ORCHARD
-SubTitle-
 Handling Nursery Stock
-Text-

Roots of nursery stock should never be allowed to freeze or dry out. When
your order arrives, unpack the bundles immediately and inspect the trees.
The roots and packing material should be moist. Check to see if the bark is
withered. Withered bark indicates the trees have been allowed to dry out in
storage or in transit.

If trees cannot be planted immediately, they may be held dormant in the
original packing in refrigerated storage for a week or two. If refrigerated
storage is not available, trees should be taken out of the bundle and
heeled-in carefully in a trench of moist soil in a shaded location. Keeping
roots in a container of water for 2 or 3 days until the tree is planted is
an excellent idea.

-End-
-Title-
 SETTING THE ORCHARD
-SubTitle-
 Planting the Trees
-Text-

Preparation of the soil where fruit trees are to be planted should be as
thorough as preparation of the soil for a vegetable garden or ornamental
plantings. If the placesselected for trees are in a lawn, it is best to
remove the turf and spade the soil deeply over an area of several square
feet where each tree is to stand.

Dig the hole a little deeper and wider than necessary to accommodate the
roots, leaving the soil loose in the bottom of the hole.

Prune the roots of young trees only where necessary to remove broken and
damaged ones or to head back some that are excessively long. Should a tree
be so badly scarred or damaged that there is doubt of its survival, it is
wise to discard it.

Set the tree at approximately the same depth it grew in the nursery. Never
set it so deep that the union of the scion and rootstock is below ground
level when the hole is filled.

Then begin filling the hole with pulverized topsoil, shaking the tree gently
to filter the soil among the roots. Tamp the soil firmly and thoroughly with
the foot or a well-padded stick. The addition of water when the hole is
about three-fourths full will aid in settling the soil around the roots and
increase chances for the tree's survival. After the water has completely
soaked in, finish filling the hole, leaving the soil loose on top.


-End-
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Cultural Practices
-Text-

Young fruit trees should be mulched or cultivated until they begin to bear.
Weeds must be eliminated so they will not compete for available moisture and
fertilizer. Cultivation must be shallow to avoid injury to roots near the
surface. The cultivated or mulched area should extend a little beyond the
spread of the branches.

The use of mulch in the home fruit garden pays in many ways. It keeps down
weeds, adds humus to the soil, conserves moisture, and keeps the soil cool
during hot months.

Many materials may be used, including grass clippings, hay, straw, pine
needles, peat moss, sawdust, and shavings. Where sawdust is used, a layer 2"
deep may be sufficient; for more bulky materials, at least 5 or 6" should be
applied.

Temporary nitrogen deficiency may occur when mulch material low in nitrogen
begins to decay. This can be overcome by the addition of nitrogen
fertilizer. Usually about 1/4 lb. of ammonium nitrate or 1/2 lb. of nitrate
of soda, or 2 pounds of 10-10-10, to each 100 sq. ft. of mulched area will
be enough.

The use of black polyethylene plastic as a mulch has given good results.
Holes may be punched in the plastic to allow moisture penetration. Although
it does not decay and add humus to the soil, neither does it cause a
temporary nitrogen shortage.

When trees are planted in rows, the area between the rows may be allowed to
grow in sod or used for interplanting with low-growing vegetables or
strawberries. There is no objection to this practice in the home orchard,
provided ample plant nutrients and moisture are available for proper
development of the fruit trees. Under sod culture, frequent close mowing
during the growing season is desirable. This reduces competition for
necessary moisture and plant nutrients, and also aids in disease and insect
control.

Fruit trees, especially those on dwarfing rootstock, are becoming prominent
in home landscape designs. Under lawn culture, fruit trees can be given more
attention than isusually convenient under other systems of culture.
Equipment and materials for watering, pruning, spraying, and other cultural
practices are essentially the same as those required for ornamental
plantings. It is good practice to apply a mulch or cultivate lightly for the
first year or two, or until the tree has become firmly established. Lawn
grass, if kept closely clipped, may be allowed to grow around the base of
the tree in the third year.

Chemicals for weed control should be used with extreme caution in the home
garden. Careless use can result in severe injury to fruit trees and nearby
ornamental plantings. See your Extension Agent for latest recommendations.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,360>
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Fertilization
-Text-

As a rule, no fertilizer is recommended or needed at planting time. After
the young tree becomes established and growth begins, apply 1/4 to 1/2 lb.
of a 16 or 20% nitrate fertilizer in a circle around the tree, about 8 to
10" from the trunk. Usually fruit trees show no increased growth or
fruitfulness from the use of any nutrient element except nitrogen. Other
elements are used by the tree; however, only in special cases are they
deficient in the soil. Deficiencies are more likely to occur on light, sandy
soils.

Because there are many soil types and varying levels of natural fertility,
it is difficult to make one fertilizer recommendation which will apply
equally well in all areas of Virginia. A rule of thumb practiced in many
commercial apple and peach orchards is to apply about 1/4 lb. of a 16%
nitrogen fertilizer, or its equivalent, for each year of the tree's age from
planting.

Where a good mulch is applied regularly, the use of chemical fertilizer to
supplement natural fertility of the soil may not be necessary. Over
fertilization with either organic or inorganic materials should be avoided.
Excessive vegetative growth will result, usually accompanied by delayed
fruiting and possible winter injury.

Where poor growth results after the use of nitrogen only, other elements may
be needed. Contact your local Extension Agent for fertilizer recommendations
which will apply specifically to your locality.

Fertilizer may be applied either after the leaves have fallen or in early
spring about 3 or 4 weeks before active growth begins. On light, sandy
soils, it is best to delay application until early spring. When trees are
grown in a lawn area, delay fertilizing lawn until after trees are dormant
to avoid late summer growth.

The usual method of application is to scatter fertilizer evenly under the
tree, starting about 2' from the trunk and extending to just beyond the tips
of the branches.

Terminal growth and general vigor of the individual tree should be observed
closely. Where growth the past year was short, increase the amount of
fertilizer slightly. If growth was excessive, reduce the amount or withhold
it entirely. Remember that both pear and quince are highly susceptible to
fire blight and excessive growth will make this disease more prevalent.

Mature, bearing peach, nectarine, and sweet cherry trees should produce an
average of 10 to 15" of new growth annually. From vigorous, young,
nonbearing trees, about twice that amount can be expected.

In general, 8 to 10" of terminal growth is considered adequate for mature,
bearing apple, pear, quince, plum, and sour cherry trees. About twice that
amount is sufficient for young,nonbearing trees.

-Fig-
Pruning

-End-
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Pruning
-Text-

The general purpose of pruning fruit trees is to regulate growth, increase
yields, improve fruit size and quality, and reduce production costs. Pruning
is necessary to shape the trees for convenience of culture and for repair of
damage. The methods for pruning fruit trees are designed to produce a strong
framework and maximum yield of high quality fruit.

Most pruning is done during the dormant season, preferably just before
active growth begins in the spring. At this time, pruning wounds heal
faster, flower buds can be easily recognized, and injury from low winter
temperature is avoided. Summer pruning may be done to help train young trees
to the desired shape, remove watersprouts and other undesirable growth, and
maintain smaller tree size. It should be remembered, however, that all
pruning has a dwarfing effect. For maximum yield of high quality fruit,
prune only as necessary to establish a tree with a strong framework capable
of supporting heavy crops annually without damage and to maintain a tree
sufficiently open to allow penetration of sunlight, air, and spray material
for good fruit development and pest control.

Although pruning procedures vary according to the type, age, and variety,
all newly planted fruit trees should be pruned in the spring before growth
starts. This is necessary to stimulate lateral bud development from which to
select good scaffold limbs.

For a discussion of the proper pruning techniques to use on different fruit
trees see the chapter on pruning.

-End-
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Thinning
-Text-

Quite frequently, peach and apple trees set more fruit than they can mature
to a desirable size. By thinning, or removing excess fruit, this difficulty
can be overcome. Thinning not only allows for an increase in size of the
remaining fruit on the tree, but also improves fruit color and quality,
reduces limb breakage, and promotes general tree vigor. Thinning helps
maintain regular annual bearing in certain apple varieties, such as Golden
Delicious, Yellow Transparent, and York Imperial, which otherwise have a
tendency to bear heavy crops every other year. Another benefit from thinning
fruits is that it permits more thorough spraying or dusting for effective
disease and insect control.

Experimental results indicate that the sooner peach trees are thinned after
bloom, the earlier the ripening and the larger the fruits at harvest. It is
doubtful that final size of the fruits of any variety will be greatly
increased by thinning if it is delayed much after the pits begin to harden.

It is generally recommended that peaches be spaced 6 to 8" apart on a
branch. When thinning by hand, grasp the stem or branch firmly between your
thumb and forefinger and pull the fruit off with a quick motion of the
second and third fingers.

Many growers use the pole method of thinning peaches. A 4 or 5' section of
bamboo or other light wood is used. A piece of 3/4" garden or spray hose
about 15" long is forced tightly onto the end of the pole, leaving some 8 to
10" of the hose extending beyond the end of the pole. A snug fit is
necessary so the hose will remain in place while being used. Many
modifications of this tool are used. One of the most common is a 30" section
of plastic pipe, 1" in diameter.

Remove peaches by striking the limbs about 18" from their tips with the
flexible part of the hose, using sharp, firm blows. This dislodges any
loosely attached fruits. With a little practice, you should be able to
remove individual fruits by this method.

Apples should be thinned as soon as possible after the fruit has set. If
full benefits are to be obtained, thinning should be completed within 20 to
25 days after full bloom. In hand-thinning apples, use the same general
technique used in hand-thinning peaches. A distance of 6 to 10" between
fruits is recommended. With varieties of Delicious apples, where greater
size of individual fruits is important, the greater spacing is preferred.
The center apple of a cluster is usually the largest and the best apple to
leave.

Thinning plums is usually limited to the large Japanese varieties. The
primary concern here is to facilitate insect and disease control. Plums are
usually thinned by hand to about 4" apart.

-End-
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Rodent Control
-Text-

Mice may cause serious damage to the home fruit planting. They chew off the
bark at ground level or below and often completely girdle a tree, causing it
to die. Most of this damage takes place during winter. Keep mulch pulled
away from the base of the tree, and examine it frequently for the presence
of mice. In many home and commercial plantings, mice are controlled by
placing poison bait in their runways. These poisons and complete directions
on how to use them may be obtained from many spray material dealers. Mice
may also be controlled by trapping. This can be successful where only a few
trees are involved.

Rabbits are responsible for the loss of thousands of young fruit trees each
year. Perhaps the most satisfactory method of preventing rabbit damage is
the use of a mechanical guard. Galvanized screen or "hardware cloth" with a
1/4" mesh is frequently used. A roll 36" wide may be cut lengthwise, forming
two 18" strips. By cutting these strips into pieces 14" long, guards 14 by
18" are obtained. Roll or bend the strip around the trunk of the tree so
that the long side is up and down the trunk and the edges overlap. Twist a
small wire loosely about the center to prevent the strip from unrolling.
Push the lower edges well into the ground. This metal guard will last
indefinitely and can be left in place all year.

Tar paper, building paper, sheets of magazines, and aluminum foil can also
be used in a similar manner, but must be removed in the early spring to
prevent damage to the tree. Perforated plastic guards are also available.
Like the metal guards, these can be left in place year round.

Other methods of rabbit control have been successful. Ordinary whitewash has
given good results in some instances. A repellent wash recommended by the
USDA, containing equalparts of fish oil, concentrated lime sulfur, and
water, is used by some commercial growers. Also, rabbit repellents under
various trade names are available. All these materials may be applied with a
paint brush to the trunk of the tree from the ground up into the scaffold
limbs.

-End-
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Tree Fruit Spraying
-Text-

For significant insect or disease problems it may be necessary to follow a
spray program. Information on the use of chemicals for such a program is
available from the Extension office.

To be successful with your spray program, spray at the proper time and do it
thoroughly. Leave no portion of the tree unsprayed. To make the job easier
and to ensure adequate coverage, thin out excessive growth and remove all
dead and weak wood. Cut old trees back to 20' or less, if possible. Train
younger trees so they reach a height of no more than 18 feet.

Semidwarf and dwarf trees should be considered when making your planting.
Their small size makes the task of spraying easier. Early maturing varieties
are less likely to be seriously affected by insects and diseases than late
maturing varieties because of the shorter growing season. This factor should
not be overlooked in the selection of varieties.

-End-
-Title-
 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT
-SubTitle-
 Sanitation
-Text-

Adopt good orchard sanitation practices. The destruction of harboring places
for insects and diseases plays a large part in the control program.
Conditions which encourage mice should also be eliminated.

These are some practices to include in an orchard sanitation program:

    1. Collect and burn debris.
    2. Remove and destroy all dropped fruit.
    3. Rake and burn apple and cherry leaves.
    4. Scrape loose bark from trunks, crotches, and main limbs of apple trees.
    5. Prune out and destroy all dead or diseased limbs, branches, and twigs.


-End-
-Title-
 APPLE VARIETIES OF YESTERYEAR
-Text-

Arkansas Black Twig, Baldwin, Fall Cheese, Miliam, Roxbury Russet are apple
varieties not found in the modern supermarket. Yet, in the opinion of the
apple connoisseur, the dessert quality of these and other old time apple
varieties is superior to that of most of those in popular demand today.

Many of the old varieties lost favor with the commercial grower because of
low productivity, lack of attractiveness, susceptibility to the ravages of
insects and diseases, and poor shipping quality. For the home gardener,
these faults are overshadowed by the delightful flavor, rich aroma, and
culinary characteristics found in few of the more recently introduced apple
varieties.

There is increasing interest in the growing of old fruit varieties, by both
individuals, historical organizations, and public supported institutions.
Some commercial nurseries now propagate one or more of the better known
varieties, and there are a few that specialize in antique fruit varieties of
all types. North American Fruit Explorers (10 South 055Madison St.,
Hinsdale, Ill. 60521), a nonprofit association of fruit gardening
enthusiasts, actively promotes the culture of old fruit varieties. It is a
valuable source of information for anyone interested in locating a source of
bud wood, characteristics of varieties, and successful cultural practices.

Among the old time apple favorites available from private and commercial
sources are some that have occupied a prominent place in Virginia history.
Perhaps the most widely known is the Albemarle Pippin. Although seldom found
in the orchards of Virginia, it is of some importance in western states
under the name Yellow Newtown. Still found in some of the old orchards on
both the eastern and western slopes of the Blue Ridge are such varieties as:
Arkansas Black Twig, Baldwin, Ben Davis, Esopus Spitzenburg, Fallawater,
Gano, Golden Russet, Gravenstein, Grimes Golden, Horse Apple, King David,
Lady Apple, Limber Twig, Lowery, Maiden Blush, Milam, Mother Apple, Northern
Spy, Roxbury Russet, Smokehouse, Virginia Beauty, Winter Banana, and Wolf
River. Many of the less well known but equally good varieties, such as
Bellflower, Father Abraham, Fall Cheese, and Winter Cheese, may be found in
private collections and at renovated historical sites.

Whether from a sense of nostalgia, a desire to preserve some of our history,
or pride in having an antique to display, many of the old apple varieties
have been saved from extinction. Some have already been around for
centuries; hopefully they can survive a few more. They are too good to lose.

-End-
-Title-
 SMALL FRUITS IN THE HOME GARDEN
-Text-

INTRODUCTION

The small fruits offer advantages over fruit trees for home culture. They
require a minimum of space for the amount of fruit produced, and bear one or
two years after planting. Also, pest control is typically easier than with
most tree fruits.

Success with a small fruit planting will depend upon the attention given to
all phases of production: variety selection, soil management, fertilization,
pruning, and pest control. Plant only what you can care for properly. It is
better to have a small planting well attended than a large one neglected.


-End-
-Title-
 PLANNING THE SMALL FRUIT GARDEN
-Text-

Locate your small fruit planting as close to your home as possible in full
sun. Space in or near the vegetable garden is usually preferred. Where space
is a limiting factor, small fruits may be used in place of ornamental plants
of comparable size. Strawberries may be used as a border for a flower bed or
as a ground cover. Grapes and raspberries may be planted parallel to the
garden on a trellis or a fence along a property line. Blueberries may be
planted to form a dense hedge or used in a foundation planting around the
home. Select a site that is free from frost pockets, low wet spots, and
exposure to strong prevailing winds. Small fruits thrive best in a fertile,
sandy loam soil high in organic matter, but they will give good returns on
the average garden soil under adequate fertilization and good cultural
practices.

Overcrowding frequently results in weak plants and low yields. It also makes
insect and disease control more difficult. For best results, small fruit
plants should be set no closer than the minimums indicated in Table 1.

Special attention should be given to the selection of varieties. They must
be adapted to your soil and climatic conditions. If possible without
sacrificing too much yield or quality, select varieties with the least
insect and disease problems. Table 2 lists some varieties of small fruits
suggested for planting in the home garden. They are listed in the order of
ripening, and include only those adapted for growing under Virginia
conditions.




Table 1.  Space Requirement, Yield, Bearing Age, and
Life Expectancy of Small Fruits


Fruit:  BLUEBERRY
Minimum distance between rows:  6 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  4 feet
Annual yield per plant:  4-6 quarts
Average bearing age:  3 years
Life expectancy:  20-30 years

Fruit:  BLACKBERRY (Erect)
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  3 feet
Annual yield per plant:  1 1/2 quarts
Average bearing age:  1 year
Life expectancy:  5-12 years

Fruit:  BLACKBERRY (Trailing)
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  6 feet
Annual yield per plant:  1 1/2 quarts
Average bearing age:  1 year
Life expectancy:  5-12 years

Fruit:  RASPBERRY (Red)
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  3 feet
Annual yield per plant:  1 1/2 quarts
Average bearing age:  1 year
Life expectancy:  5-12 years

Fruit:  RASPBERRY (Black)
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  4 feet
Annual yield per plant:  1 1/2 quarts
Average bearing age:  1 year
Life expectancy:  5-12 years

Fruit:  RASPBERRY (Purple)
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  3 feet
Annual yield per plant:  1 1/2 quarts
Average bearing age:  1 year
Life expectancy:  5-12 years

Fruit:  GRAPE (American, French American)
Minimum distance between rows:  10 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  8 feet
Annual yield per plant:  15 pounds
Average bearing age:  3 years
Life expectancy:  20-30 years

Fruit:  GRAPE (Muscadine)
Minimum distance between rows:  10 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  10 feet
Annual yield per plant:  25 pounds
Average bearing age:  3 years
Life expectancy:  20-30 years

Fruit:  STRAWBERRY (Regular)
Minimum distance between rows:  3 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  2 feet
Annual yield per plant:  1-2 quarts (per parent plant grown in
the matted row system)
Average bearing age:  1 year
Life expectancy:  3 years

Fruit:  STRAWBERRY (Ever bearer)
Minimum distance between rows:  3 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  1 foot
Annual yield per plant:  1/2 quart
Average bearing age:  1/3 year
Life expectancy:  2 years

Fruit:  CURRANT
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  4 feet
Annual yield per plant:  4-6 quarts
Average bearing age:  3 years
Life expectancy:  10-20 years

Fruit:  GOOSEBERRY
Minimum distance between rows:  8 feet
Minimum distance between plants:  4 feet
Annual yield per plant:  4-6 quarts
Average bearing age:  3 years
Life expectancy:  10-20 years

 Table 2 Some Suggested Varieties for the Home Small Fruit Planting.
 (listed in order of ripening).

  BLUEBERRIES            RASPBERRIES              STRAWBERRIES
    (Highbush)             (Red)                    (ever-bearing)
    1 Earliblue              Latham                   Superfection
    1 Blueray                Heritage                   (Gem, Brilliant)
      Bluecrop                 (everbearing)          Ozark Beauty
      Jersey
    2 Berkeley           RASPBERRIES              STRAWBERRIES
      Coville              (Black)                  (Day-neutral)
                             New Logan                Tribute
  BLUEBERRIES                Bristol                  Tristar
    (Rabbiteye)              Cumberland
      Climax                                      GRAPES
      Premier            RASPBERRIES                (American bunch)
      Powderblue           (Purple)                   Seneca
      Tifblue                Brandywine               Himrod
                             Royalty                  Fredonia
  BLACKBERRIES                                        Delaware
    (Erect)              CURRANTS                   2 Concord
      Darrow                 Wilder                   Steuban
      Cherokee               Red Lake                 Catawba
      Cheyenne                                        Niagara
      Comanche           GOOSEBERRIES
      Shawnee                Pixwell              GRAPES
                             Red Jacket             (French-American Hybrids)
  BLACKBERRIES                                        Aurora
    (Semi-erect)                                        (Seibel 5279)
      Black Satin        STRAWBERRIES                 Cascade
        (thornless)        (Regular)                    (Seibel 13053)
      Dirksen                Earlidawn                DeChaunac
        (thornless)          Earliglow                  (Seibel 9549)
                             Catskill                 Chancellor
  BLACKBERRIES               Pocahontas                 (Seibel 7053
    (Trailing)               Surecrop
      Lucretia               Redchief             GRAPES
    1 Boysenberry            Guardian               (Vinifera)
      Lavaca                 Marlate                  Chardonnay
                                                      Cabernet Sauvignon
                                                      White Reisling

                                                  GRAPES
                                                    (Muscadine)
                                                      Scuppernong
                                                    * Carlos
                                                    * Magnolia
                                                                               

  1 Recommended for Eastern Virginia only.
  2 Not recommended for Eastern Virginia.
  * Perfect flowered. Other varieties are pistillate and require pollinizers.

Obtain the best nursery stock available. Buy only from reputable nurserymen
who guarantee their plants to be true to name, of high quality, and packed
and shipped correctly. Beware of bargains. High prices do not necessarily
mean high quality, but good, well grown plants are not cheap.

Place your order early, as soon as you decide what you want. Specify
variety, size, and grade of plants desired, and time of shipment preferred.
It is best to have the plants arrive at the time you are ready to set them
out.

When your order arrives, unpack the bundles and inspect the plants. The
roots should be moist and have a bright, fresh appearance. Shrivelled roots
indicate that the plants have been allowed to freeze or dry-out in storage
or transit. Such plants seldom survive. Plant roots must be kept moist and
free from freezing temperatures at all times.

If the plants cannot be set immediately, they should be kept either in cold
storage or heeled-in. Wrap them in a garbage bag film, or other material
that will prevent their drying out, and store them at a temperature just
above freezing. Strawberry plants, in small quantities, may be held in the
home refrigerator for a few days. If refrigerated storage is not available,
remove the plants from the bundle, and heel them in carefully in a trench of
moist soil in a shaded location. Pack the soil firmly around the roots to
eliminate all air pockets and to prevent the roots from drying out.


-End-
-Title-
 ESTABLISHING THE PLANTING
-Text-

There is probably nothing that causes more disappointment and failure in
small fruit plantings than the lack of careful preparation and attention to
detail at the time the plantings are established. Prepare the soil properly,
set the plants carefully, and generallycreate conditions favorable for new
growth. Detailed suggestions for the establishment of each of the small
fruits are included in this publication. These suggestions should be
followed closely for best results.


-End-
-Title-
 MAINTAINING THE PLANTING
-Text-

Once the planting has been established, future success will depend upon the
care that it is given. If the planting is to be productive and long lived,
it must be properly fertilized. Competition from weeds or other plants must
be avoided. Insects and diseases must be controlled, and the plants must be
properly pruned. Study the maintenance suggestions for each of the small
fruit crops, and plan to care for the planting properly. To do otherwise
will probably result in disappointment and wasted effort.


-End-
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-Text-

Strawberries are the most widely cultivated small fruit in America. They are
the favorite of many for pies, jams, jellies, preserves, and for eating
fresh. Inasmuch as strawberries are adaptable to a greater range of soil and
climatic conditions than any other fruit, they are well suited to the home
garden and may be grown successfully in every section of Virginia.


-End-
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Variety Selection
-Text-

Strawberry varieties vary greatly in their adaptability to soil and climatic
conditions. The varieties suggested for planting in Virginia are of proven
merit and have been selected on the basis of vigor and productivity of the
plant and quality of the fruit. Virus-free plants of each variety are
available.

Earlidawn is a very early variety that has blossoms which are somewhat
tolerant to cold. The fruit is large, bright red, and medium firm. It is a
good dessert variety and it freezes well.

Earliglow is a new variety noted for its superior dessert quality and
disease resistance. The medium-large berries are very attractive with a
glossy, deep red color. It is one of the best for eating fresh, as a frozen
product, and in jams and jellies. The plants are very vigorous and
productive.

Catskill is a large, irregularly shaped strawberry. The fruit is red, mildly
subacid, and has good dessert quality. It is above average as a freezing
variety.

Pocahontas is a vigorous grower. The fruit is large with an attractive,
bright red skin and flesh. It is slightly subacid, and of good dessert
quality. It is also fine for freezing.

Surecrop is mildly subacid and good for desserts. The deep red berries are
large and irregularly shaped. The plant is large, vigorous, and tolerant to
drought conditions. Atlas, from North Carolina, has performed well in
Virginia. It has a large firm berry with a slight wedge shape. The color is
medium red and the quality very high. The plants are large, vigorous,
moderate in runner production, and quite tolerant to most strawberry
diseases.

Redchief is an extremely productive, high quality dessert berry. It is
medium to large in size, of uniform deep red color, with a firm glossy
surface. Redchief is very resistant to red stele.

Guardian, a midseason commercial variety, is also a favorite of the home
gardener. The large, deep red berries are firm, uniform in size and
attractive. It has good dessert quality and freezes well. The plants are
vigorous, productive, and resistant to many common strawberry diseases.

Marlate, ripening a week or more after the normal late varieties, is popular
with both home gardeners and commercial growers who wish to extend the berry
season. Seldom damaged by late frost, it is usually a productive and
dependable variety. The fruit is large and attractive with good flavor and
dessert quality. It also makes a nice frozen product.

Everbearing Strawberries are not as good as the regular varieties, either in
quality or yield. Because of consistently low yields, they are not
recommended for planting in Eastern Virginia. Superfection is currently the
leading variety. The fruit is irregular in shape and of medium size and
firmness. It is an acid berry of fair dessert quality. Ozark Beauty is an
everbearing variety that shows considerable promise. The plant is vigorous
and produces good quality fruit. The berries are red, wedge shaped, firm,
and only slightly acid. It is a good variety for eating fresh and for
freezing.

An interesting development in strawberry breeding is the production of
varieties that are day length neutral. This means that they do not respond
to day length the way that conventional varieties do and can continue to
produce over a long period of time. Although these varieties are listed with
ever bearers in catalogues, they are heavier producers and can be used
satisfactorally in the home garden. Tribute - plants are vigorous with
glossy deep green leaves, fruit medium in spring and summer, large in fall.
Production and size drop in the heat of summer but pick up in fall. Best for
fresh eating. Tristar - high quality fruit but nor as productive as Tribute.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,373>
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Establishing the Planting
-Text-

Site and Soil   Strawberries bloom very early in the spring, and the
blossoms are easily killed by frost. In areas where late frosts are a
hazard, try to select a site for your planting that is slightly higher than
surrounding areas. Although strawberries grow best in a fertile, sandy loam
soil with a pH of 5.7 to 6.5, they may be successfully grown in any good
garden soil that is well drained and well supplied with organic matter. Soil
for strawberries should be thoroughly prepared for planting. It should be
loose and free of lumps. Plant late varieties only on south facing slopes.

Do not set strawberries in land that has recently been in sod. A
clean-cultivated crop planted on the site for a year or two will leave the
soil better prepared for strawberries and will assist in controlling weeds
and white grubs which are so troublesome in strawberry plantings. Where
grubs and ants are a problem, chemical control may be necessary.

-Fig-
Planting Starwberry Plant
-Text-

Planting  Virus-free 1-year-old plants should be set out early in the
spring, about 3 or 4 weeks before the average date of the last frost.
Spacing of the plants will depend on the training system used, but they
should not be crowded. They should be placed no less than 12" apart in rows
3 to 3 1/2' apart. Set each plant so that the base of the bud is at the soil
level. Spread the roots out and firm the soil carefully about them to
prevent air pockets which allow them to dry out.


-End-
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Maintaining the Planting
-Text-

Soil Management   Cultivation for weed control in strawberries should begin
soon after planting and continue at approximately 2-week intervals
throughout the first growing season. Cultivation must be shallow to prevent
root injury. Hoe as often as necessary to remove grass and weeds growing
between the plants.

Most home garden strawberry plantings are mulched. Any organic material free
of weed seeds makes good mulch. Hay, straw, and pine needles are most
frequently used. Mulch should be applied 2 to 4" deep over and around the
plants after the first freezing weather in the fall. This protects them from
heaving and freezing injury during the winter. After the danger of frost is
over in the spring, about half the mulch should be raked off the plants into
the area between the rows. Mulch left around the plants will help keep the
berries clean, conserve moisture, and check weed growth. Black plastic is
frequently used as a mulch for strawberries. It is effective in inhibiting
weed growth and preventing the evaporation of moisture from the soil
surface. However, it does eliminate the ability of runners to put down
roots. Some gardeners prefer to use it in the path, leaving room in the row
for strawberries to spread. Mulching with strips of kraft paper treated with
a fungicide for control of molds and other diseases has been satisfactory.
It is as effective as the plastic mulch and is less expensive. Paper breaks
down after several months of use and is incorporated into the soil.

Fertilization   Fertilization seldom proves beneficial to strawberries on
good soils well supplied with organic matter. Where a soil analysis
indicates the need, about 1 lb. per 100' of row of a complete fertilizer,
such as 10-10-10 or 10-6-4, should be cultivated into the soil before
planting. The fertilizer used in the fall application should be the same
analysis at the same rate and should be broadcast over the row in late
August or early September. The limited root systems will not benefit from
fertilizer placed in the row middles. Brush the material off the plants to
avoid foliage injury.

Do not apply fertilizer in the spring to picking beds of strawberries
growing in heavy land because there is danger of excess vegetative growth
which results in reduced yield, increased rot, later ripening, and poor
quality fruit. In light, sandy soils, where nitrogen leaches out rapidly, a
spring application is usually beneficial. Apply a quickly soluble nitrogen
fertilizer, such as nitrate of soda, at the rate of 1/2 to 3/4 lb. per 100'
of row before new growth begins.

Training  There are three basic training systems used in strawberry
production. Many modifications of these systems are found. Under the
matted-row system, used by most home gardeners, runner plants are allowed to
set freely in all directions. The original plants should be set 24" apart in
the row. Keeping the width of the plant bed narrow results in a good grade
of fruit which is easy to pick.

In the hill system, plants are spaced 12" apart in the row. All runners are
removed as soon as they appear, and the plants are encouraged to multiply in
large crowns. This system is desired by many because the planting is easier
to cultivate and harvest and produces largerand better berries than other
systems. Many plants are required, however, and the initial cost of the
planting is high. Black plastic mulch is particularly effective with this
training system.

Plants in the spaced-row system are set 18 to 24" apart in the row. The
runner plants are set in place by hand until the desired stand is obtained.
They are usually spaced 6 to 12" apart. All late-formed runners are removed
as they appear.

Blossom Removal  During the first season, all flower stems on the plants
should be removed as soon as they appear. This strengthens the plants and
allows early and vigorous runner production. The early-formed runner plants
bear the best fruit the following year.

Renovation  If your strawberry planting is in a vigorous condition, it may
be retained for fruiting the second year. Allowing a planting to fruit more
than 2 years, results in smaller berries and weak plants.

Soon after harvest, remove the mulch, and clip the tops of the plants to
within 1" above the crowns with a scythe or mower. If insects and foliage
diseases are prevalent, move the leaves and mulch material out of the
planting, and burn them. Apply a quickly soluble nitrogen fertilizer, such
as nitrate of soda, at the rate of 1/2 to 3/4 lb. per 100' of row to
encourage vigorous top growth. Any good garden fertilizer supplying an
equivalent amount of nitrogen may be used if desired.

Some plant thinning may be needed, particularly in the matted-row system.
Thin plants to 6 to 8" apart after new foliage appears. Keep the planting
clean-cultivated throughout the summer, irrigating when necessary during the
dry season to keep the plants growing vigorously. Fertilize again in the
fall as recommended for the first year, and renew the mulch after freezing
weather begins.

Pest Control  Birds are one of the biggest pests in the home garden
strawberry planting. It may be necessary to cover the plants with plastic
netting to keep the crop from being eaten before the berries are ripe enough
to harvest. Aluminum pie tins, suspended by a string or wire above the
plants in such manner that they twist and turn in the breeze, have been
successful in keeping birds away.


-End-
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Culture of Everbearing Varieties
-Text-

The everbearing varieties of strawberries are less vigorous and generally
less productive than the regular varieties. Irrigation is necessary for them
because the late summer and early fall crop ripens during a period when soil
moisture is usually quite low.

Soil preparation and fertilizer requirements before planting are the same as
for regular varieties. Best yields are obtained from the everbearing
varieties if they are set in early spring in the hill system about 1' apart,
cultivated for the first 10 days to 2 weeks, and then mulched to a depth of
1 to 2" with sawdust.

As the sawdust decays, the development of a nitrogen deficiency could occur.
It can be quickly overcome with the application of 10 lbs. of 10-10-10 to
each 100 sq. ft. of mulched area.

Remove all runners as soon as they appear, to encourage the plants to
multiply in large crowns. Blossom clusters must be removed until the plants
have become firmly established and are growing vigorously, usually about the
first of July. Berries will begin to ripenabout a month later and plants
will continue to bear fruit until frost, if weed growth is kept down and
adequate moisture is supplied. Allow the plants to bear fruit in for the
spring and fall crops the second year, then replant.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,376>
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Strawberry Growing in Pyramids and Barrels
-Text-

In a home garden where space is extremely limited or where the gardener
wishes to use the strawberry planting as a novelty or decorative feature,
the strawberry pyramid or the strawberry barrel can be useful and
interesting. Pyramids may be square or round. Each step of the pyramid
should have a flat surface not less than 6 to 8 inches in width. The frames
for a square pyramid can be constructed out of 6-inch wide boards of a
durable wood such as redwood.

A suggested soil mixture for the pyramid is two parts good garden soil, one
part peat, and one part sand. In preparing a strawberry barrel, 1-inch
diameter holes are made in the sides of the barrel at approximately 8-inch
spacings. As the barrel is filled with successive layers of soil, strawberry
plants are carefully inserted through the holes so that the roots are held
firmly in contact with the soil.

-Fig-
Planting Strawberries in a Barrel
Planting Strawberries in a Pyramid
-Text-

Though the strawberry barrel may be a successful novelty, yields of fruit
will be smaller than those in pyramid culture, and much more attention to
planting, watering and winter protection are required.

Damage to the strawberry plants growing under normal cultural conditions can
be expected if they are not protected from extreme cold during the winter.
Owing to the fact that plants growing in a pyramid or barrel are elevated
above normal ground level and therefore are highly exposed, additional
winter damage can be expected to roots, crowns, and fruit buds.
Consequently, care must be taken to provide adequate winter protection.
Pyramids can be mulched with 6 to 8 inches of straw after the soil is
frozen. In the coldest part of the state, strawberries in barrels will
survive better if protected with burlap covering. For especially cold
winters, enclose straw in the burlap for added insulation. However, even
with careful mulching, some plant injury can be expected during severe
winters.

-End-
-Title-
 STRAWBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Harvesting
-Text-

In the home garden, strawberries should be allowed to get an overall red
color and become fully ripe before harvesting. It is at this stage that the
sugar content is highest and theflavor is best. It is necessary to harvest
every day during the peak of the season.

Harvest the berries carefully by the stems to prevent bruising. Pick all
that are ripe, since they will not keep until the next harvest. Ripe
strawberries may be held for a day or two in a refrigerator.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,378>
-Title-
 GRAPES
-Text-

Grapes of some type can be grown almost anywhere in Virginia. Careful
selection of cultivated varieties compatible with local soil and climatic
conditions has led to successful production in home gardens and commercial
vineyards in many sections of the state.

-Fig-
Grapes
-End-
-Title-
 GRAPES
-SubTitle-
 Variety Selection
-Text-

American Bunch Grapes   Home fruit gardens in Virginia may include a number
of varieties of bunch grapes ripening in succession over a long season.

Seneca, an early yellow grape, is noted for its good flavor and tender pulp.
It holds well on the vine and will keep in cold storage for about 2 months
after harvest. Vine vigor and productivity are only moderate, and this
variety is quite susceptible to black rot and mildew.

Himrod, a new golden-yellow grape, has good flavor and is almost seedless.
Hardy, vigorous, and productive, it has been superior to its sister
seedling, Interlaken, in all areas of Virginia where both have been grown.

Fredonia is the most popular early blue grape. It ripens about 10 days
before Concord. The berries and bunches are large and attractive. Although
the flavor is not as good as Concord, it appears to be better adapted to the
warm climate of eastern and southern Virginia.

Delaware is a high-quality red grape ripening about 1 week before Concord.
Quite susceptible to downy mildew, this variety produces clusters and
berries that are rather small and vines that grow slowly. Delaware has an
unusually good balance of sweetness and acidity. It yields fine quality
white wines and is much used in blends for American champagnes.

Concord is by far the most widely planted blue black grape. The good quality
fruit ripens unevenly some seasons in warm climates. The vines are vigorous
and productive. Concord is the only grape widely accepted for unfermented
grape juice.

Steuben is a blue black variety ripening about one week after Concord. The
berries are medium in size with a sweet, spicy flavor. They keep well in
storage. The vines are hardy, vigorous, and productive.

Catawba has red berries and is predominantly used for fruity red wine and
champagne.

Niagara has green white berries and is used in wine and as a table grape. It
is the most widely planted white American grape in the United States.


French-American Hybrids   Of the many varieties available, the following
French-American hybrids have been sufficiently tested to be recommended for
planting anywhere in Virginia where American bunch varieties can be grown.

Aurora (Seibel 5279) is an early pinkish-white grape with fine flavor. This
variety can be used to produce a white table wine of excellent quality. The
vine is vigorous and productive and has been amply hardy in winter cold in
northern grape growing areas and in Virginia.

Cascade (Seibel 13053) is an early blue grape that is hardy and productive.
It produces a superior rose wine and blends well with heavy-bodied dark-red
wines. The vine generally crops regularly, but is severely damaged by birds
in some seasons.

DeChaunac (Seibel 9549) has become an established commercial variety in
Ontario, Canada, and most grape growing areas of the Eastern United States.
The vine is below average in vigor, but is winter hardy, productive, and has
very few disease problems. It ripens in early midseason. The wine is well
colored red and of consistently high quality.

Chancellor (Seibel 7053), ripening with Concord in most areas of Virginia,
is hardy, vigorous and very productive. It is a dark blue grape, making a
red wine of very high quality.

Vinifera  Varieties of Vitis vinifera for table and wine use have increased
in popularity in Virginia in recent years. Although they lack winter
hardiness, are susceptible to fungus diseases endemic to this area, and are
totally lacking in resistance to the grape root louse, Phylloxera, it is
possible to grow them with careful variety selection and cultural practices.
Vinifera culture in Virginia requires planting only vines grafted on
resistant rootstocks, a rigorous spray program, and protection in areas
subject to frequent low and fluctuating winter temperatures.

Cabernet Sauvignon has small black berries, makes an excellent dry wine, and
is being commercially grown in Virginia.

White Riesling is perhaps best for most Virginia conditions. The vine is
vigorous, productive, and moderately winter hardy. It is a white grape,
ripens about 1 week after Concord, and makes an excellent dry white wine
under good growing conditions.

Chardonnay, considered by many to be superior to all other varieties for dry
white wine, is only moderate in hardiness, vigor, and productivity. It is a
medium-size white grape in a compact cluster ripening 3 to 5 days ahead of
Concord.

Muscadine Grapes  In areas where it is adapted, the muscadine grape is a
favorite for home plantings. It is highly desired for juice, jam, and jelly.
Some varieties are cultivated for the exceptional quality of the wine. It
cannot be successfully grown where temperatures fall below 10 degrees,
however, which limits its production in Virginia to the southeastern portion
of the state.

Most varieties have imperfect flowers and require pollination from either
male or perfect-flowered varieties. Of those suggested for planting in
Virginia, Carlos, Magnolia, and Dearing are perfect-flowered and will supply
adequate pollination for the other varieties.

Scuppernong, a name commonly applied to all bronze-skinned muscadine grapes,
is the oldest and best known variety. Berry clusters are usually small and
shatter badly, but the grape quality is good, and it has a very distinctive
flavor.

Carlos, a 1970 introduction from North Carolina, is a perfect-flowered
bronze variety, ripening with Scuppernong, and similar to it in size and
flavor. It makes excellent white wine, is relatively cold hardy, disease
resistant, and productive. It is recommended for both commercial and home
garden planting.

Magnolia is a self-fertile white variety of large size and very high
quality. The vine is vigorous and very productive.

-End-
-Title-
 GRAPES
-SubTitle-
 Establishing the Planting
-Text-

Site and Soil  Grapes should be planted where they have benefit of the sun
for most of the day. They are deep-rooted plants, frequently penetrating to
a depth of 6 to 8' under good soil conditions. They grow best on fertile
sandy-loam soils high in organic matter. Deep sands or heavy clays may be
used, however, if provisions are made for adequate fertilization, moisture,
and soil drainage. Grapes are tolerant to a wide range of soil acidity, but
prefer a pH of 6.0 to 7.0 .

Planting  Grape vines are usually set in early spring about 3 or 4 weeks
before the average date of the last frost. Vigorous 1-year-old plants are
preferred. Allow plenty of room between plants, at least 8' for the American
bunch varieties and 10' or more for the vigorous-growing muscadine type.
Trim the roots to about 6" in length in order to encourage formation of
feeder roots near the trunk. Where the vines are to be set, dig the holes
large enough so that the roots may be spread without crowding, and the
plants may be set at about the same depth they grew in the nursery. Prune to
a single cane, and head it back to two buds.


-End-
-Title-
 GRAPES
-SubTitle-
 Maintaining the Planting
-Text-

Soil Management   Mulching is the preferred soil management practice in the
home grape planting. Almost any organic material may be used. Cover the area
with mulch to a depth of 4 to 6". Black plastic is a satisfactory mulch
material. However, it does not add to the humus content of the soil upon
deterioration.

Although grapes are deep-rooted plants, they do not thrive in competition
with weeds and grass. If mulch material is unavailable, some cultivation
should be done. It should be shallow and only as necessary to eliminate
undesired vegetation.

Fertilization  Like all fruit plants, grapes require a large amount of
nitrogen. Except in sandy soils, this element may be the only one needed in
the fertilization program. In the home garden, 1/4 cup or about 2 oz. of
nitrate of soda per vine should be applied after growth begins in the
spring. Spread the fertilizer in a circle around the plant and 10 to 12"
from the trunk. Repeat the application about 6 weeks later. Just before
growth begins in the spring of the second year, apply 4 oz. in a 4' circle
around each vine and about 1' from the trunk. Increase the amount to 8 oz.
the third year. A mixed fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, applied at the above
rates may be substituted where phosphorus and potassium are needed.

Fertilizer applications to mature bearing vines should be based on the
growth and vigor ofthe plant. If the average cane growth is only 3' or less,
additional nitrogen may be needed. Where proper pruning is practiced and
competition from weeds and grass is kept to a minimum, however, it is
doubtful that you will need to go beyond the amount recommended for a
3-year-old vine.

Training and Pruning Much attention is given to the training and pruning of
grapes. To be most productive, they must be trained to a definite system and
pruned rather severely. There are several training systems used. The two
most common are the vertical trellis and the overhead arbor. Both of these
are satisfactory in the home planting if kept well-pruned. For detailed
discussion see the chapter on pruning.


-End-
-Title-
 GRAPES
-SubTitle-
 Harvesting
-Text-

For best quality, bunch grapes should be fully ripe when harvested. They
will not improve in sugar content or flavor after being removed from the
vine. Most varieties should be used immediately because they do not keep
well after ripening. Cut the clusters off with a knife or shears to avoid
bruising the fruit and damaging the vine.

Muscadine grapes grow either singly or in loose clusters. Some varieties may
be shaken off easily when ripe; others have to be handpicked. The grapes
should be used soon after harvesting since their storage life is relatively
short.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,383>
-Title-
 BRAMBLES
-Text-

The bramble fruits, which include the red, black, and purple raspberries,
and the erect and trailing blackberries, may be successfully grown in most
home gardens throughout Virginia. Both raspberries and blackberries will
usually yield a moderate crop of fruit the second year after planting and a
full crop the third season. With good management, it is possible for
gardeners to extend the productive life of well-located plantings beyond the
6- to 8-year average.

-Fig-
Brambles
-End-
-Title-
 BRAMBLES
-SubTitle-
 Variety Selection
-Text-

Of the many varieties of blackberries and raspberries available, few have
proven satisfactory for growing under Virginia conditions. Only top-quality
1-year-old plants of the best varieties should be planted. Obtain virus-free
plants when possible.

Blackberries   Five erect-type and two semi erect blackberries are suggested
for planting in Virginia. All are relatively new, productive, vigorous, and
winter-hardy.

Darrow, more cold hardy, ripening about the first week of August in the
Charlottesvillearea, is a large berry, almost an inch long and 3/4" wide. It
is glossy black, mildly subacid, and of good quality. Cherokee, Cheyenne,
Comanche, Shawnee are also good, with big fruit productive erect type vines.

Both semi erect blackberries are thornless, Black Satin, entirely thornless,
is very productive and hardy. The fruit is large, firm, jet black when fully
ripe, and has a delicious flavor. Peak quality is attained 2 to 3 days after
the berry turns black.

Dirksen, another thornless blackberry, is also very productive and hardy.
Slightly smaller than Black Satin, it is equally as good when fully ripe.

Trailing blackberries thrive best in the warmer growing areas of southern
and eastern Virginia.

The Lucretia dewberry, best of the trailing blackberries, is relatively
winter-hardy, vigorous, and productive. The fruits are very large, often 1
1/2" long. It is a sweet berry with a good flavor.

The Boysenberry is easily winter killed and should be planted only in areas
of mild winters. Plants are extremely vigorous and productive. The berries
are large and flavorful when fully ripe. Thornless boysenberries, with the
same fruit characteristics as the regular boysenberries, are also available.

Lavaca, a seedling of the Boysenberry, is superior to its parent in
production, size, and resistance to cold and disease. The fruit is also
firmer, less acid, and of slightly better quality.

Raspberries  Chances for success with raspberry plantings are better if the
plantings are located in the cooler mountain sections of the state. Red
raspberries have generally been more successful in the warmer areas than
have the other types.

Latham is the standard, spring bearing, red raspberry grown in the eastern
United States. Plants of this variety are vigorous and productive and appear
to be somewhat tolerant to viral diseases. The berries are above average in
size, and are firm and attractive. The flavor is somewhat tart, but the
quality is good. This variety ripens 1 1/2 to 2 weeks after Sunrise.

Heritage, an everbearing red variety with crops in June and again in the
fall, is recommended for planting. This variety may be annually pruned by
simply mowing all tops in late winter. Use of this pruning technique will
yield one crop in fall of each year.

Black raspberries are very susceptible to viral diseases and are readily
infected when grown near red varieties carrying the virus. Plants of red and
black raspberries should be separated by at least 700'.

New Logan yields heavy crops of large, glossy-black fruit of good quality.
The plants hold up well during drought and are relatively tolerant to mosaic
and other raspberry diseases.

Bristol is a hardy, vigorous-growing, and highly productive variety. The
good-quality, glossy-black berries are large, firm, and attractive. They may
be difficult to pick unless fully ripe.

Cumberland, ripening about the same time as Bristol and 1 week later than
New Logan, has long been the favored variety because of its attractive,
large, firm berries and fine flavor.The plants are vigorous and productive.

The purple raspberry is a hybrid of the red and black types. The fruits have
a purple color and are usually larger than the parent varieties. They are
more tart than either the reds or blacks and are best used in jams, jellies,
and pies. They are excellent for quick freezing. The plants are hardy,
vigorous, and very productive.

Brandy-wine is the best purple raspberry available. It ripens later than
most red or black varieties. The fruit is large and firm, and quite tart,
but of good quality.

Royalty, a new purple raspberry with delicious flavor, very large fruit, and
high productivity, is excellent for fresh use and for jam and jelly. It is
resistant to mosaic trasmitting aphids and raspberry fruit worm.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,385>
-Title-
 BRAMBLES
-SubTitle-
 Establishing the Planting
-Text-

Site and Soil  Brambles grow best on deep, sandy-loam soils, well supplied
with organic matter. They may be grown in almost any good garden soil,
provided it is well drained to a depth of at least 3' and has a high
moisture-holding capacity. Although the pH of the soil is not critical, a
range of 5.8 to 6.5 is considered optimum . Select a site where tomatoes,
potatoes, or eggplants have not been grown. These crops often carry
verticillium wilt which lives in the soil for many years, and brambles,
particularly black raspberries, are very susceptible to this disease.

Planting  Bramble fruits should be planted early in the spring, about 4
weeks before the average date of the last frost. Work the soil as for garden
vegetables, particularly where the plants are to be set. When planting in
rows, allow at least 8' between rows to facilitate cultivation.
Erect-growing blackberries and red and purple raspberries may be set as
close as 3' in the row, semi erect 5' apart. Black raspberries should be not
less than 4', and the trailing blackberries should be not less than 6 feet.

Set the plants at about the same depth they grew in the nursery. The crown
should be at least 2" below the soil line. Spread out the roots and firm the
soil carefully around them. Do not allow the roots to dry out.

Most bramble fruits come with a portion of the old cane attached. This
serves as a handle in setting the plants. Soon after new growth begins, the
handle can be cut off at the surface of the ground and destroyed, as a
safeguard against possible anthracnose infection.

-Fig-
Bramble Runner
-End-
-Title-
 BRAMBLES
-SubTitle-
 Maintaining the Planting
-Text-

Soil Management   Brambles grow best where there is a large amount of humus
in the soil. This is most easily maintained under a permanent mulch. Mulch
should be applied soon after setting the plants, and maintained throughout
the life of the planting by replenishing annually or as needed.

Any good organic material is satisfactory. Two inches of sawdust should be
sufficient. At least 5 or 6" of the more bulky materials should be applied.
Where straw, sawdust, or othermaterial low in nitrogen is used, it may be
necessary to add sufficient nitrogenous fertilizer to prevent a temporary
deficiency as the mulch begins to decay. Usually about 1/2 lb. of nitrate of
soda or one lb. of 10-10-10 for each 100 sq. ft. of mulched area will be
enough. Black plastic serves as a good mulch to preserve moisture and keep
down weeds, but it does not add to the humus content of the soil.

If mulch material is unavailable, or if cultivation seems necessary, make
the cultivations very shallow to avoid disturbing the roots, and repeat as
often as necessary to control weeds until the beginning of harvest.

Fertilization   On fertile soils, or where a good mulch is maintained, it is
usually unnecessary to make an application of fertilizer in the bramble
planting. If growth is poor, the addition of 4 to 6 lbs. of nitrate of soda
to each 100' of row when growth begins in the spring will be beneficial. On
light, sandy soils, where phosphorus and potassium may be low, an equal
amount of 10-10-10 or similar fertilizer should be used instead. Do not over
fertilize, however, because it may result in too much vegetative growth with
a loss of yield and quality of fruit or in injury to the roots of the plant
and burning foliage.

Training and Pruning   Refer to the chapter on pruning.

-End-
-Title-
 BRAMBLES
-SubTitle-
 Harvesting
-Text-

Raspberries and blackberries are highly perishable. They should be harvested
as soon as ripe, handled very carefully, and either placed in cold storage
or used without delay. It may be necessary to harvest daily to prevent loss
of fruit and the spread of molds and other diseases in the planting.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,388>
-Title-
 BLUEBERRIES
-Text-

Many home gardeners have been successful with blueberry plantings in
Virginia. Although they may be grown in any area where native blueberries,
azaleas, mountain laurel, or rhododendrons do well, they have a better
flavor when grown where nights are cool during the ripening season. They are
very exacting in soil and moisture requirements, but require little
protection from insect and disease pests.

-Fig-
Blueberries
-End-
-Title-
 BLUEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Variety Selection
-Text-

To provide adequate cross pollination and to increase chances for a good
crop of fruit, two or more varieties of blueberries should be planted. The
following varieties suggested for planting in home gardens in Virginia ripen
over a 6- to 8-week period, beginning in early June and continuing through
July. All are vigorous and productive under good growing conditions and
produce berries of large size and good quality.

Earliblue has a large, light blue berry. It is firm, resistant to cracking,
and of good dessert quality. Lacking hardiness, it is not recommended for
planting in western Virginia.


Blueray, very hardy and productive, is recommended for planting throughout
Virginia. The fruit is large, medium light blue, flavorful, and resistant to
cracking.

Bluecrop, although lacking in vigor, is very hardy and drought resistant.
The fruits are large, light blue, firm, and resistant to cracking. Their
dessert quality is good.

Jersey, one of the leading commercial varieties, is also a favorite in the
home garden. The plants are vigorous and hardy, producing heavy crops of
large, light-blue berries of good quality.

Berkeley has a very large, light-blue berry. It is exceptionally firm and
resistant to cracking. Though only medium in dessert quality, it is well
liked for its large size, firmness, and productivity.

Coville is of good dessert quality, but quite tart until fully ripe. It is a
very large berry, deep blue, firm, and resistant to cracking. The fruit
hangs well in clusters even after it is ripe.

In the Tidewater area, Rabbiteye varieties such as, Climax, Premier,
Powderblue, Tifblue do well.


-End-
-Title-
 BLUEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Establishing the Planting
-Text-

Site and Soil   Blueberries should be planted where they have full sunlight
most of the day, and far enough from the roots of trees to avoid competition
for moisture and nutrients. They are shallow-rooted plants and must either
be irrigated, heavily mulched, or planted in a soil with a high water table.
Adequate drainage must be provided, however, because they cannot tolerate
wet feet.

They grow best in porous, moist, sandy soils high in organic matter with a
pH range of 4.0 to 5.2. Have the soil tested and if it is not acid enough
for blueberries, work such materials as peat moss, oak leaves, pine needles,
or sulfur into the area where the plants are to be set. This should be done
6 months to a year before planting. To acidify sandy soils, sulfur is
recommended at the rate of 3/4 lb. per 100 sq. ft. for each full point the
soil tests above pH 4.5. On heavier soils use 1-1/2 to 2 lb. Once proper
acidity is established, it can be maintained through the annual use of an
acid fertilizer, such as ammonium sulfate or cottonseed meal.

Planting   Vigorous 2-year-old plants about 15" high are recommended for
planting. Set in early spring, about 3 or 4 weeks before the average date of
the last frost. Blueberries are usually planted every 4' in rows 6' apart.

Give the roots plenty of room. Where the plants are to be set, dig the holes
wider and deeper than necessary to accommodate the root systems. If not
previously done, incorporate plenty of organic matter--well-rotted sawdust,
peat moss, or woods mold--into the soil in and around the hole. Trim off
diseased and damaged portions of the top and roots, and set the plants just
a little deeper than they grew in the nursery. Spread the roots out, and
carefully firm the soil mixture over them. Water thoroughly after planting.


-End-
-Title-
 BLUEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Maintaining the Planting
-Text-

Soil Management  Mulching is the preferred soil management practice in the
blueberry planting. The entire area around and between the plants should be
mulched. Nearly any organic material is satisfactory, leaves, straw, hay,
peat moss, crushed corncobs, or sawdust. It should be applied to a depth of
5 or 6". Many growers use a combination mulch, a layer of leaves on the
bottom with 2 or 3" of sawdust on top. Renewed annually, this heavy mulch
retains moisture, keeps the soil cool, and adds needed organic matter.

Fertilization   No fertilizer should be applied at planting time, and
usually none is needed during the first growing season. On weak soils,
however, the application of 2 oz. (1/4 teacup) of ammonium sulfate around
each plant about the first of June is beneficial.

Ammonium sulfate, at the rate of 2 oz., should be spread in a circle around
each plant about 6 to 8" from its base just before the buds begin to swell
the second spring. Increase the amount each succeeding spring by 1 oz. until
each mature bush is receiving a total of 8 oz. (1 teacup) annually.
Cottonseed meal has proven to be an excellent fertilizer for blueberries and
is used by many home gardeners. It supplies the needed nutrients and helps
maintain an acid soil. Use it at the rate of 1/2 lb. per plant. The rate
should be doubled when the plants come into bearing. Where sawdust is used
as a mulch, it will be necessary to apply additional nitrogen to prevent a
deficiency as the sawdust decays. Usually about 3/4 lb. of ammonium sulfate
for each bushel of sawdust is sufficient.

Pruning   Refer to chapter on pruning.

Pest Control  Birds are by far the greatest pest in the blueberry planting.
Covering the bushes with wire cages, fish or plastic netting, or tobacco
cloth, is perhaps the best method of control. Aluminum pie tins have been
used successfully. They are suspended by a string or wire above the bushes
in such a manner that they twist and turn in the breeze and keep the birds
away.


-End-
-Title-
 BLUEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Harvesting
-Text-

Some varieties of blueberry will bear the second year after planting. Full
production is reached in about 6 years with a yield of 4 to 6 qt. per plant,
depending on vigor and the amount of pruning.

Blueberries hang on the bushes well and are not as perishable as
blackberries or raspberries. Picking is usually necessary only once every 5
to 7 days. Blueberries will keep for several weeks in cold storage.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,393>
-Title-
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES
-Text-

Currants and gooseberries are hardy and easy to grow in the home garden, but
they are alternate hosts to the white pine blister rust disease. Their
planting has been restricted in many areas of Virginia in the past. However,
the ban has been lifted completely for all gooseberries and currents except
the European black currant which may not be grown in the state.

-Fig-
Currents and Gooseberries
-End-
-Title-
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Variety Selection
-Text-

Currants and gooseberries are used mainly in making jellies, jams,
preserves, and pies. Red varieties of gooseberry are sweet when fully ripe
and may be eaten fresh.

Wilder is one of the best currant varieties. It has large, dark-red, subacid
berries that hang in large, compact clusters which are easy to pick. The
bush is upright-growing, large, and vigorous. Red Lake, ripening just after
Wilder, has large, firm, light-red berries. The clusters are large and hang
on long after the berries are ripe. The bush is upright-growing, vigorous,
productive, and very hardy. Although European varieties of gooseberry are
larger, the American varieties are more productive, hardier, and considered
to be of better quality.

Pixwell is a nearly thornless variety of gooseberry that produces heavy
crops of good quality fruit. The berries are pink when fully ripe and hang
on slender stems almost an inch below the branches where they may be easily
picked. The bushes are very hardy and thrive in almost any soil type.

Red Jacket is a vigorous-growing bush; large, sturdy, and nearly thornless.
It is very productive, with large berries that are dull red when ripe.


-End-
-Title-
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Establishing the Planting
-Text-

Site and Soil  Currants and gooseberries need a cool, moist, shady location.
They are very resistant to low temperatures, but do not thrive where the
summers are hot and dry. Gooseberries are somewhat more tolerant to heat
than are currants. Where only a few plants are grown for home use, the north
side of a building may be selected to protect them from summer heat.

Select a site with good air and soil moisture drainage. Currants and
gooseberries bloom very early in the spring and need to be protected against
frost. They are shallow-rooted plants which require a moist soil, but cannot
long tolerate wet feet. They grow best in a deep fertile loam with a pH
range of 6.0 to 8.0 . Although the heavier soils, such as silt or clay
loams, are more suitable, the plants may be grown in lighter soils well
supplied with organic matter if moisture is added during periods of drought.

Planting  Vigorous 1-year-old plants are preferred. Planting in rows 8'
apart with the plants spaced 4' within the row is the usual practice.
Prepare the soil for planting as you would for a garden crop, and set the
plants slightly deeper than they grew in the nursery. This causes new shoots
to arise from below the soil level, forming bushes rather than single stems.
Pack the soil firmly about the roots and cut the tops back to a height of 8
to 10".


-End-
-Title-
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Maintaining the Planting
-Text-

Soil Management   Mulching is the preferred soil management practice for
currants and gooseberries. Any good organic material is satisfactory. Spread
the mulch in a 3' circle around each bush, pulling it back each winter to
eliminate a nesting place for mice which like to feed on the young shoots.
Black plastic may be used if desired.

Fertilization  Currants and gooseberries usually respond to fertilization
even when planted in fertile soils. An annual fall or late winter
application of either barnyard or poultrymanure is an effective way of
supplying their nutritional needs. Spread it about 1" deep in a 3' circle
around each plant. In the absence of manure, 1 teacup or about 8 oz. of
nitrate of soda per plant should be applied just before the buds break in
the spring. On sandy soil, a complete fertilizer, such as 10-10-10 or
10-6-4, at the rate of 1-1/2 to 2 cups per plant may be needed.

Pruning  Currants and gooseberries typically form bushes with many branches
arising near the ground level. Pruning may be done any time during the
dormant period and consists primarily of thinning-out excess stems. Except
for the removal of weak, broken, or prostrate stems, very little pruning is
done until the plants are 4 years old. The mature bush should have three or
four stems each of 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old wood. The actual number should be
determined by the vigor of the bush. Heading back is done only to reduce the
height of extra long 1-year-old shoots.

Remove all wood over 3 years old. Cut off the damaged and low prostrate
stems, retaining only the most vigorous of the 2- and 3-year-old shoots, and
remove the rest. Head back young shoots that are too long.


-End-
-Title-
 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES
-SubTitle-
 Harvesting
-Text-

Currants and gooseberries begin bearing when about 3 years old and have a
productive life of 10 to 20 years. Under good cultural practices in the home
garden, currants should yield 4 to 6 qt. per bush annually, and gooseberries
even more. Unlike most fruits, currants and gooseberries may be left on the
bush for several weeks after they are ready for use. Gooseberries may be
left 4 to 6 weeks, and some varieties of currants even longer. They should
be handled carefully to avoid bruising the fruit. Since gooseberries
sunscald quickly, they should be placed in the shade soon after picking.

-End-
-Title-
 LAWNS

 Prepared by John R. Hall III, Extension Agronomist, Turf Department of
 Agronomy, Virginia Tech

-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

Producing quality lawns in Virginia can be challenging. Geographically,
Virginia is located in what is known as the transition zone. This means the
climate is hostile to both cool-season grasses and warm-season grasses.
However, with proper cultural practices, a good lawn can be established and
maintained.

-End-
-Title-
 ESTABLISHING A LAWN
-SubTitle-
 Basic Requirements
-Text-

Turf may be established from seed, or vegetatively from sprigs, plugs, or
sod. The method depends on the type of grass desired, and on the
environmental situation, on time limitations and financial considerations.
These factors are discussed more in the section on Seed vs. Sod. The same
basic requirements for lime, fertilizer, and seedbed preparation apply for
both seeding and vegetative establishment. After the new lawn is established
and growing well, begin a good comprehensive maintenance program to keep it
healthy and attractive looking.

Soil Test: The first step in establishing a new lawn is to have the soil
tested. Test results will determine which basic nutrients are available in
the soil, and will provide recommendations for lime and fertilizer. Forms
and sample boxes, along with instructions for obtaining good samples, are
available from your Extension office. A separate sample should be taken for
each different lawn area. For the average yard, this means one sample from
the front and one from the back. Large yards with widely varied conditions
may require more samples. There is no need to sample more areas than you are
willing to treat individually.

Pre-plant Weed Control: Observe the topsoil or lawn area to be planted and
determine if there are weeds present that should be controlled prior to
planting. Grassy weeds that are particularly troublesome in lawns of
Kentucky bluegrass, perennial ryegrass or creeping red fescue lawns are:
Johnsongrass, Quackgrass, tall fescue, orchardgrass or Bermudagrass. These
weeds can be controlled prior to planting by properly applying herbicides.

Controlling troublesome perennial broadleaf weeds prior to establishment can
be beneficial.For further detail about broadleaf weed control, request
Virginia Tech Publication, 427-045 "Lawn Weed Control" from your Cooperative
Extension Office.

Pre-Plant Installation of Irrigation and Drainage: If possible, the
irrigation system and drainage tile should be installed prior to topsoil
application, to avoid contamination of topsoil with subsoil. Stockpiling of
topsoil is advisable if considerable subsoil grading is necessary.

Soil Preparation  Remove building debris and other trash from the lawn area
during all stages of construction. Such material causes mowing hazards,
encourages short root systems, and rotting woody material is often the host
for "fairy ring" diseases. The subgrade should be sloped away from the
house, and the area should be allowed to settle for two or three weeks
before seeding or sodding. Several wetting and drying cycles will aid
settling and help you to locate low spots in the lawn which should be
filled. Topsoil depth should be a minimum of 6 to 8 inches.

Lime  Soils in most areas of Virginia are acid, and enough lime will be
recommended by the soil test to raise the soil pH to 6.2. About 100 pounds
of limestone per 1000 square feet raises the pH about one unit on loamy
soils; sandy soils require less, and clay soils require more. The lime
should be tilled into the soil to a depth of four to six inches.

Fertilizer  In the absence of a soil test, apply the following nutrients per
1000 square feet prior to turf establishment, and incorporate into the soil
to a depth of four to six inches:

                1 1/4 to 2 1/2 lbs. of Actual Nitrogen (N)
                3 1/2 to 5 lbs. of Phosphate (P2O5)
                2 to 3 1/2 lbs. of Potash (K2O)

Examples of complete fertilizers that furnish nutrients within acceptable
ranges are:
                50 lbs. of 5-10-5 per 1000 square feet
                                or
                25 lbs. of 10-20-10 per 1000 square feet
                                or
                25 lbs. of 5-20-10 per 1000 square feet

Materials which contain a single major nutrient such as 0-48-0, or 0-0-60
can also be used. There are many types of fertilizer available that can
provide the proper amount of nutrients. It is often beneficial to
incorporate about 2/3 of the recommended amount of fertilizer and apply 1/3
to the surface just prior to seeding. The surface applied portion should be
raked into the top 3/4 inch of soil.


-End-
-Title-
 ESTABLISHING A LAWN
-SubTitle-
 Establishment Methods
-Text-

When to Establish  Seed will germinate only under proper conditions. There
are certain periods each year when temperature, moisture and day length are
most favorable for establishing turfgrass. Late summer seedings are
preferred for cool-season species such as Kentucky bluegrass or tall fescue.
Early spring seedings may also bring good results. In Northern Virginia and
the area of Western Virginia at lower elevations, the best seeding dates are
mid to late March for spring seeding, and the last week of August to
mid-September for fall seeding. It may be possible to get good results as
late as the middle of October for fall seeding. At higher elevations
(greater that 1200 feet) in Western Virginia the best seeding dates are
April and early May in the spring and mid August to mid September in the
fall. In Southside and Southeastern Virginia February 15 to March 30 are the
best spring dates. In the fall, September 15 to October 15 is most suitable.

Sod of Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue can be installed during most of
the year except in mid-winter when the ground is frozen. When extreme heat
and drought conditions exist in summer, sodding operations should be
delayed. If done under drought conditions, the turf must be kept moist and
cool. The soil should be watered enough to cool it prior toinstallation, and
again thoroughly watered as the sod is laid. Improved strains of warm-season
grasses such as zoysiagrass and Bermudagrass, which are normally sprigged or
plugged, should be established during May after the soil is warm. May and
June planting will have the greatest chance of surviving the first winter.
These grasses have been successfully planted as late as July however, late
summer plantings are not recommended because there is not sufficient time
for proper establishment before cold weather.

Seed vs. Sod  A quality lawn containing the recommended mixtures of grass
varieties and species can be established with either seed or sod. Both seed
and sod of recommended varieties are available, and the soil preparation for
the two methods does not differ.

Initially, seed is less expensive than sod. However, successful
establishment is more risky with seed than with sod, and if reseeding of
certain areas or even an entire lawn is necessary, the overall expense may
be less with sod. Also, because of the time required for seed to germinate
and become well rooted in the soil, the area is exposed to excessive erosion
and sedimentation. Sodding practically eliminates such problems, a
consideration which may be especially important on steep hills or banks.

Sodding provides an immediately pleasing turf that is quickly functional and
will compete with viable weed seed already present in the soil. When using
seed, an intensive weed control program may be necessary to reduce weed
competition.

Seed should be established only in the early fall or early spring, whereas
sod offers less time limitations in that it may be established in nearly any
season.

Seeding and Mulching  A well prepared seedbed is essential for the
establishment of turfgrasses. The seedbed should be tilled to a depth of six
inches if possible, and lime and fertilizer worked into the soil prior to
seeding. Prepare a smooth, firm seedbed; then divide the seed and sow in two
directions, perpendicular to each other. If low rates of seed are being
sown, mixing sawdust or other suitable material with the seed aids in
obtaining uniform coverage. Cover the seed by raking lightly and rolling.
Avoid a smooth surface. A finished seedbed should have shallow uniform
depressions (rows) about one half inch deep and one to two inches apart such
as are made by a corrugated roller.

Mulch the area with straw or other suitable material so that approximately
50 to 75 percent of the soil surface is covered. This is normally
accomplished by spreading 1 1/2 to 2 bales of straw per 1000 square feet. A
light mulch does not need to be removed after establishment, however, a
heavy mulch should be removed when the seedlings are about 2 inches tall.
Avoid damaging the young seedlings during mulch removal.

Sodding  Soil preparation should be similar to that described for seeding,
but one must take care not to disturb the prepared soil to the extent that
deep footprints or wheel tracks exist. These depressions restrict root
development and give an uneven appearance to the installed sod. During hot
summer days, the soil should be dampened just prior to laying the sod. This
avoids placing the turf roots in contact with an excessively dry and hot
soil.

Premium quality sod is easier to transport and install than inferior grades.
Such sod is light, does not tear apart easily, and quickly generates a root
system into the prepared soil. Before ordering or obtaining sod, be sure you
are prepared to install it. Sod is perishable, and should not remain on the
pallet or stack longer than 36 hours. The presence of mildew and distinct
yellowing of the leaves is usually good evidence of reduced turf vigor.

To reduce the need for short pieces when installing sod, it is generally
best to establish astraight line lengthwise through the lawn area. The sod
can then be laid on either side of the line with the ends staggered as when
laying bricks. A sharpened masonry trowel is very handy for cutting pieces,
forcing the sod tight, and leveling small depressions. Immediately after the
sod is laid, it should be rolled and kept very moist until it is well-rooted
in the soil.

Plugging and Sprigging  The best quality zoysiagrass and Bermudagrass must
be vegetatively established, using either plugs or sprigs. Again, the soil
should be prepared as described for seeding. Plugs of zoysiagrass are
commonly available, and are one to two inches in diameter with one to two
inches of soil attached. The plugs should be fitted tightly into prepared
holes and tamped firmly into place. Sprigs can be either broadcast over an
area and covered lightly with soil by discing, or can be planted in rows on
six to twelve inch centers. In either case, the sprig should promote rooting
at the nodes. Sprigs can be purchased as sod and then shredded, or can often
be purchased by the bushel. One bushel of sprigs is approximately equivalent
to one square yard of sod.


-End-
-Title-
 ESTABLISHING A LAWN
-SubTitle-
 Post-Planting Irrigation
-Text-

New seedings and spriggings require intensive irrigation to insure
successful establishment. Seedings require light, frequent watering to
insure the seed and surface of the soil are constantly moist. Plan to keep
the soil moist for 30 days following planting. During hot days this may
necessitate 3 or 4 light waterings during the day to insure moisture for
rapid and successful germination. If the soil dries out during the
germination process, the seeding is likely to die. Areas sodded and plugged
also require intensive irrigation. However, frequent light watering is not
as helpful as heavy irrigation applied every second or third day to ensure
the soil beneath the sod or plug is moist to a six inch depth.


* The significant contributions of Larry Lilly, Arlington County
Master Gardener, to the original publication of this material are
gratefully acknowledged.

-End-
-Title-
 RENOVATING AN OLD LAWN
-Text-

A lawn of less than satisfactory appearance, but fair condition, may be
renovated without having to completely rebuild it. Advantages of renovation
include less expense and mess, since minimum tilling of the soil is
required. The lawn will be able to take light traffic during the renovation
period. If the lawn is extremely poor in quality, badly infested with weedy
grasses, or if the soil has low fertility or the grade is very uneven,
complete re-establishment may be a better choice.


-End-
-Title-
 RENOVATING AN OLD LAWN
-SubTitle-
 Basic Steps in Lawn Renovation
-Text-

Determine Cause of Poor Quality  Lawns usually require renovation because of
one or more of the following reasons: poor fertilization practices,
inadequate drainage, excessive traffic, poor selection of grass variety,
weed invasion, drought, insect or disease damage, or excessive shade.

Have Soil Tested  The soil analysis will help determine lime and fertilizer
needs. Ideally, the soil should be tested early enough so that results will
be back before the lawn renovation is started.

Remove Weeds and Undesirable Grasses  If possible, plan a year ahead to
bring broadleaf weeds under control; this way they will not compete with the
new grass beingestablished. If you have not been able to plan this far
ahead, apply broadleaf weed control thirty days prior to verticutting and
seeding. If perennial weedy grasses are present, these should be controlled
with a nonselective herbicide, such as glyphosate. Follow label directions
closely.

Dethatch if Necessary  Cut grooves in the soil so that seed can make good
soil contact. Seed planted on top of the thatch layer is largely wasted
since thatch is a buildup of old grass clippings and undecomposed organic
matter. Due to the high cellulose content of grass, it is slow to decay and
forms a semi waterproof mat between the soil and grass leaves. If there are
low spots in the lawn, they can be filled and leveled at this time with good
topsoil.

Apply Lime and Fertilizer  Consult soil analysis recommendations.

Sow the Seed  Divide the seed in half and sow half in one direction over the
entire area and the other half in a perpendicular direction. Then lightly
rake or drag the area.

Apply Crabgrass Control  This is necessary if seeding is done in the spring
and the area has a history of crabgrass. The only material that will kill
crabgrass and allow the seed that you have planted to germinate is a
preemergence herbicide, called Siduron. Follow label directions closely.

Water Consistently  As outlined in the lawn establishment section, water
lightly every day until the seed has germinated, and then water less
frequently but more deeply to keep the soil moist until new grass is
established.

Maintenance To keep newly renovated lawn healthy and attractive, begin a
good comprehensive lawn maintenance program.

-End-
-Title-
 RECOMMENDED TURFGRASS VARIETIES FOR VIRGINIA
-SubTitle-
 Cool and Warm Season Grasses
-Text-

Turfgrass varieties fall into two basic categories: cool-season and
warm-season grasses. Cool-season grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass, tall
fescue and perennial ryegrass, have a long growing season in most areas of
Virginia and provide an attractive winter color. Warm-season grasses such as
zoysiagrass and Bermudagrass go dormant after the first hard frost, and stay
brown through the winter months. Zoysiagrass greens up around mid-May in the
Washington area. While the winter color of the warm-season grasses may make
them less desirable, maintenance costs are somewhat reduced since water
requirements are less and the shorter growing season requires fewer mowings
per year.

The following recommendations are developed from research conducted in
Virginia and Maryland. Turf and seed specialists from the University of
Maryland, the United States Department of Agriculture, and Virginia Tech
concur in making these recommendations.

Kentucky Bluegrass  Best suited to areas in and west of the Blue Ridge
Mountains and north of Richmond; it provides lush, green, fine bladed lawns.
However, in the transition zone it may require irrigation in the summer to
keep it from going into summer dormancy. It does not perform well in heavy
shade or on poor soil. Kentucky bluegrass is best suited to a well-drained
soil and moderate to high levels of sunlight and management. It can
beestablished from seed or sod.

Mixtures or blends of Kentucky bluegrass varieties are recommended in
Virginia as it is thought they are more likely to provide good quality turf
over a wide variety of management situations. There are two catagories of
mixtures.

When seeding a mixture of Category I seed, individual varieties should make
up no less than 10 percent nor more than 35 percent of the total mixture by
weight. Category II varieties include Kentucky bluegrass and other grass
species that can be blended for use in special situations. They are to be
mixed with Category I varieties at the rate of 10 to 35 percent. The
exception is perennial ryegrass which is mixed at the rate of 10 to 15
percent, by weight, with bluegrass.

Category I - Recommended Kentucky bluegrass varieties (65 to 100% of total
mixture)

Adelphi, America, Aspen, Bristol, Cheri, Columbia,Eclipse, Enmundi,
Georgetown, Glade, Majestic, Merit, Merion, Midnight, Plush, Ram I,
Sydsport, Trenton, Victa

Category II - Special use varieties (0 to 35% of total mixture)

Shade Tolerant: America, Bristol, Columbia, Eclipse, Enmundi, Georgetown,
Glade, Midnight, Sydsport, and/or Pennlawn Creeping Red Fescue *

Low Maintenance Tolerant: Columbia, Enmundi, Escort, Georgetown, Holiday,
Monopoly, Touchdown, Vantage, Victa, Wabash and/or Pennlawn Creeping Red
Fescue *

* Pennlawn should not exceed 20% in a Kentucky bluegrass mixture.

Where erosion is a concern or seedings are being made outside of recommended
dates, the addition of certified perennial ryegrass to the Kentucky
bluegrass mixture at one quarter pound per 1000 square feet is recommended.

Perennial ryegrasses for blending with bluegrass: (10 to 15%) All*star,
Blaser, Dasher, Delray, Derby, Fiesta, Palmer, Pennfine, Prelude, Premier,
Ranger, Regal, Repell

     Categories I and II Seeding Rates: 1 and half to 2 and a half lbs
per 1000 sq. feet.

Tall Fescue.  Tall fescue is a moderately coarse-textured turfgrass which is
tolerant of a wide range of soil types and climatic extremes. It is best
suited to areas where low to moderate management levels are provided, and
can be established from seed or sod.

Tall fescue does not have the recuperative potential of Kentucky bluegrass,
since it does not spread by rhizome action. Therefore, infrequent
overseeding may be necessary in 100% tall fescue lawns.

The new fine-bladed tall fescues such as Adventure, Apache, Arid, Falcon,
Hounddog, Jaguar, Mustang, Olympic, and Rebel, have received much publicity
and though they are finer bladed than Kentucky 31 they are not as fine as
Kentucky bluegrass.

A 90% tall fescue - 10% Kentucky bluegrass mixture provides increased
recuperative potential and may be advantageous where traffic is expected.

90-100% Certified Adventure, Apache, Falcon, Jaguar, Kentucky 31, Mustang,
Olympic or Rebel

0-10% Baron, Cheri, Enmundi, Eclipse, Kenblue*, Ram I, South Dakota
Certified* ,Victa and Vantage Kentucky bluegrass
             * Recommended for use only with Kentucky 31 tall fescue
             Seeding rate: 4 to 6 pounds per 1,000 square feet

Creeping Red, Hard and Chewing Fescues  These grasses are known collectively
as the fine fescues. As a group of grasses, they exhibit shade, drought, low
nitrogen and acid soil tolerance. They perform best in shady lawns in
mixtures with shade tolerant Kentucky bluegrasses as noted earlier. They are
generally susceptible to Helminthosporium, leaf and crown rot diseases.

Perennial Ryegrasses  In recent years there has been a tremendous increase
in the use of the improved perennial ryegrasses. They are medium textured
and blend well with Kentucky bluegrass. Some strengths of the perennial
ryegrasses are their quick germination and establishment rate, good traffic
bearing characteristics, and early spring green up. However, they tend to be
susceptible to disease in hot weather and exhibit poor heat tolerance. At
present, perennial ryegrasses are not capable of providing the level of
season-long quality we associate with a good Kentucky bluegrass mixture.
They are best utilized in mixtures with Kentucky bluegrass as noted earlier.

Zoysiagrass  Zoysiagrass is a warm-season grass of fine to medium texture
that turns brown with the first hard frost in the fall, and greens up about
mid-May. It does well in full sun, and is not suitable for shady areas. It
can be established from sod, plugs, or sprigs; however, its rate of
establishment from plugs or sprigs is extremely slow.

Meyer Zoysia (Zoysia japonica Steud.) has moderate density and medium blade
width with good cold tolerance.

Emerald Zoysia  (Zoysia matrella [L.] Merr.) has a higher density and a
finer blade width than Meyer Zoysia. It has less cold tolerance than Meyer
and should only be recommended in central and southern Virginia.

      Planting Rate: 2" diameter plugs on 8 to 12" centers or sprigs broadcast
      at 5 to 7 bushels per 1000 square feet will require 2 to 3 growing seasons
      for 100% cover.

      Planting Dates: May 1 to July 15

Bermudagrass  Bermudagrass is a fine bladed warm season grass. It is not
commonly used or recommended for home lawns in the Northern Piedmont and
areas in and west of the Blue Ridge due to lack of winter hardiness and long
dormancy period. Hybrid Bermudagrass can be established by sod, sprigs or
plugs.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,405>
-Title-
 RECOMMENDED TURFGRASS VARIETIES FOR VIRGINIA
-SubTitle-
 Purchasing Quality Seed
-Text-

The purchase of lawn seed is a long term investment, and the seed you buy
will influencesuccess in developing a beautiful lawn. It is not possible to
evaluate the quality of seed by looking at it. Information that will help
you make a wise choice is printed on seed packages.

There are differences in lawn seed, and it pays to compare. The price you
pay for seed will represent only a small portion of the total cost of
planting, fertilizing, mowing, etc. Don't let low cost be the only factor
when selecting lawn seed. Choose those varieties that have been tested and
proven best for your area of Virginia.

Virginia has a seed label law that is basically a truth in labeling law. The
label on the package must include an analysis of the seed it contains. This
analysis enables the purchaser to determine the kind of seed contained in
the package, to estimate how well it should perform, and to compare its cost
effectiveness with other brands.

Analysis  A sample seed label may look like this:

                Kind: Kentucky bluegrass    Variety: Super-duper
                Pure Seed: 98%              Germination 85%
                Inert Matter 1%             Date of Test 4/current year
                Other Crop Seed: 0.7%
                Weed Seed 0.3%              Lot # - 1A
                Noxious Weeds: 120 Annual Bluegrass per lb
                John Doe Seed Co., Richmond, VA.

Germination - The percentage of viable (live) seed. The date of test should
be within the last 12 months.

Pure Seed - The percentage (by weight) that is actually seed of the crop
specified.

Inert Matter - The percentage (by weight) of chaff, dirt, trash, and
anything that is not seed.

Weed Seeds - The percentage (by weight) of all weed seeds in the sample and
the number of noxious weed seeds present. If possible, avoid seed lots with
noxious weeds.

Other Crop Seeds - The percentage (by weight) of crop seed other than the
crop specified. For example, in tall fescue, this includes orchardgrass and
ryegrass. In Kentucky bluegrass it can include bentgrass, ryegrass, tall
fescue or perennial ryegrass contaminants.


Cost Effectiveness  When considering seed lots of similar quality, compare
the amount of Pure Live Seed (PLS) in the package. The only thing you really
want to pay for is seed that will grow. To determine the amount of PLS, look
at the analysis on the label; multiply the germination percentage by the
percentage of pure seed and then multiply by 100 to get the percentage.

Example: Germination =85%

                Purity      =98%
                 0.85 x 0.98 =0.833
                 0.83 x 100  =83.3% Pure Live Seed (PLS)

To obtain the cost per pound of PLS, divide the price per pound by the PLS.
If the seed costs $2.25 per lb, then 0.833 into 2.25 = $2.72, the actual
cost per pound of Pure Live Seed.


Quality  Certified seed is a guarantee from the seller that you will get the
kind and variety of lawn seed named on the label. Buying certified seed is a
good practice. If the seed is certified, a blue certification label will be
attached to the seed package.

Also, the Virginia and Maryland Cooperative Extension Services have worked
with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, seedsmen, and the Crop Improvement
Association to develop a program that helps purchasers recognize quality
lawn seed. In both states, special labels are placed on packages containing
seed that meets very high standards of purity, germination, and freedom from
weed and other crop seed. Seed in a package that carries one of these labels
is certified and recommended for use in both states. For additional
information about purchasing quality seed request publication 430-010
entitled "How to Buy Lawn Seed" from your Cooperative Extension office.

-Fig-
Certified Seed Label - Kentucky Bluegrass Turf Seed
Certified Seed Label - Tall Fescue Turfgrass Seed
Certified Seed Lable - Fine Textured Turf Mixture
-End-
-Title-
 RECOMMENDED TURFGRASS VARIETIES FOR VIRGINIA
-SubTitle-
 Purchasing Quality Sod
-Text-

There are several types of sod being grown in Virginia. The basic types are
Kentucky bluegrass blends, Kentucky bluegrass-fine fescue mixtures, tall
fescue-Kentucky bluegrass mixtures, Bermudagrass and zoysiagrass. Each of
these types of sod is best suited to particular uses and geographic areas of
Virginia. Some sod producers grow sod in the Virginia Crop Improvement
Association (VCIA) certified sod program which means that the sod produced
must meet established standards of quality.

VCIA sod is of high quality, meeting rigid standards requiring preplanting
field inspections, prescribed varieties and mixtures, periodic production
inspections, and a final preharvest inspection. This program provides the
consumer with guaranteed standards of quality. Sod in the VCIA program which
cannot quite meet program standards may be classified as VCIA approved sod
and sold at a lower price than sod in the certified category which meets all
VCIA standards. VCIA certified sod can be identified by its label. High
quality sod is also available outside the VCIA certified sod program but it
is not graded by standards and quality can only be insured by pre-purchase
inspection.

Kentucky Bluegrass Blends  Kentucky bluegrass blends contain two or more
varieties of Kentucky bluegrass and no fine fescue. They are best suited for
the north central Piedmont region and areas along and west of the Blue Ridge
Mountains of Virginia. They will require moderate to full sunlight, periodic
fertilization and irrigation and good soil drainage in order to provide
quality turf. Kentucky bluegrass blends function well on lawns, athletic
fields, recreational areas and in situations where year round erosion
control is necessary.

Kentucky Bluegrass-Fine Fescue Mixtures  These mixtures usually contain 80
to 90% Kentucky bluegrass and 10-20 % Creeping Red Fescue. The fine fescue
component adds shade and drought tolerance to a sod mixture. It is a good
all-purpose sod designed for use in the north central Piedmont and areas
along and west of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia. This sod will
tolerate moderate shade and drought conditions. Kentucky bluegrass-fine
fescue mixtures also function well on lawns, athletic fields, recreational
areas and in situations where year round erosion control is necessary.

Tall Fescue-Kentucky Bluegrass Mixtures  These mixtures generally contain
from 85 to 98% fine-bladed tall fescue and 5 to 15% Kentucky bluegrass. Tall
fescue is a broader bladed grass than Kentucky bluegrass and therefore this
sod has a coarser texture than Kentucky bluegrass sod. Tall fescue sod is
drought tolerant and performs best in areas east of the Blue Ridge Mountains
in Virginia. Tall fescue sod is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions
and management programs. It is not well suited to areas of heavy traffic but
performs well in lawns, recreational areas and in situations where year
round erosion control is necessary.

Bermudagrass  Bermudagrass is a warm season grass that goes dormant in the
winter in Virginia. It is best suited for areas in the south central
Piedmont and coastal plain regions east of the Blue Ridge mountains. It is
very drought tolerant, requires full sunlight and grows most actively in the
summer months. It functions well on lawns, athletic fields, and other areas
where excessive winter traffic is not anticipated. It can be established
from sod, sprigs, or plugs.

Zoysiagrass  Zoysiagrass is a warm season grass that goes dormant in the
winter in Virginia. It is best suited for areas in the south central
Piedmont and coastal plain regions east of the Blue Ridge Mountains. It is
very drought tolerant and slightly more shadetolerant than bermudagrass. It
functions well on lawns and recreational areas where excessive winter
traffic is not anticipated. It can be established from sod, sprigs, or
plugs.

For further information on turfgrass establishment, request publication
430-009 "Lawn Establishment in Virginia" from your local Cooperative
Extension office.


-End-
-Title-
 LAWN MAINTENANCE
-Text-

The wide variety of microclimates and variation of soil types in Virginia
make it difficult to formulate a general program for lawn maintenance. This
section deals with the basic factors required for maintaining a lawn;
however, the recommendations may need to be modified for your particular
location. As mentioned earlier, the first thing to do in maintaining your
lawn is to have the soil tested.

Factors to consider that are necessary every year for high turfgrass quality
are genetic potential, mowing, fertilization, weed control, irrigation, and
leaf raking. In addition to these, the following cultural practices may be
necessary during some years: dethatching, pH adjustment, aeration, disease
control, and insect control.


-End-
-Title-
 LAWN MAINTENANCE
-SubTitle-
 Yearly Maintenance
-Text-

Genetic Potential: The potential for a lawn to provide a quality surface is
very dependent upon the varieties of grass in the lawn. New, improved
varieties are being released each year. Periodic infusion of improved
varieties will increase the chances of producing a high quality lawn. The
best maintenance program is not likely to produce a quality lawn if inferior
turfgrasses dominate the stand.

Mowing: Mowing grass is one of the major time consuming practices in
turfgrass management, and yet the total impact of mowing management is
seldom considered. To appreciate the true impact of mowing on turfgrass, it
is necessary to understand the physical, environmental, and physiological
effects of mowing on the turfgrass community.

The most obvious physical effect of mowing is the decrease in leaf surface
area of the grass plants. The grass plant's leaves are the site of
photosynthesis, and any decrease in leaf surface area proportionately
decreases the plant's ability to produce carbohydrates which are essential
for root, shoot, rhizome and stolon growth. If more than one-third of the
grass vegetation is removed during mowing, root growth is temporarily slowed
by the plant's inability to produce carbohydrates at the previous rate.
Carbohydrates can be pulled out of reserve to enhance extensive root,
rhizome and stolon development. However, carbohydrate reserves can be called
on to support root, rhizome and stolon structures only a limited number of
times while the grass plant is recuperating from the shock of a severe
mowing. We need to think of mowing primarily as a carbohydrate-depleting
management factor. Improper mowing habits can weaken the plant as the mowing
season progresses, reducing its recuperative potential and predisposing it
to insect, disease and drought susceptibility. It has been shown that severe
defoliation of the grass plant creates extreme effects upon root growth. For
example, in cases where 50% of the existing Kentucky bluegrass foliage was
removed in mowing, only 35% of the roots were producing growth 33 days after
mowing.

Wound hormones are produced every time grass is cut. These compounds and
phenol oxidase enzymes are involved in wound healing. The production of
compounds involved in healing mowing wounds occurs at the expense of food
reserves.

      TURF CARE CALENDAR FOR COOL SEASON GRASSES

Management                             Months

Fertilization
  Follow outlined fertilization        mid-May - mid-June and
  program, Publication 430-011         mid-August - mid-January

Liming
  Apply any time according to          January - December
  soil test

Mowing
  Mow throughout growing season        mid-March - mid-December

Watering
  As necessary, water deeply           mid-May - mid-October

Aerification
  Coring aerifiers are best            April - May and
                                       August - September

Vertical Mowing
  May lightly verticut after           April - May and
  each aerification to destroy         August - mid-September
  plug

Weed Control
  Control broadleaf weeds              March - May and
                                       mid-September - October

  Crabgrass pre-emergence              March - mid-April

  Crabgrass post-emergence             June - July

Insect Control
  Apply grub control                   mid-March - mid-May and
                                       August - September

  Sod webworm control (if needed)      June - mid-September

Disease Control
  Direct control against specific      April - October
  disease problem when it occurs

                       Reestablishment

Broadcast Overseeding
  Overseed only after surface          March - mid-May and
  preparation                          mid-August - mid-October

Sodding Damaged Areas
  Obtains quick repair and             February - mid-December
  improves appearance



          TURF CARE CALENDAR FOR WARM SEASON GRASSES

Management                             Months

Fertilization
  Follow outlined fertilization        mid-April - mid-August
  program, Publication 430-011

Liming
  Apply any time, follow soil          January - December
  test recommendations

Mowing
  Mow throughout growing season        mid-April - October

Watering
  As necessary, water deeply           mid-May - October

Aerification
  Coring aerifiers are best            mid-April - September

Vertical Mowing
  May be necessary in August-          June - July
  September if overseeding

Weed Control
  Control broadleaf weeds              mid-June - August

  Crabgrass pre-emergence              mid-March - April

  Crabgrass post-emergence             May - August

Insect Control
  Insect identification is             mid-May - mid-September
  critical

Disease Control
  Disease identification is            mid-April - September
  critical

Overseeding
  Perennial rye grasses                mid-August - mid-October
  work best


If you are cutting
grass with a dull mower, you are creating severe wounds that require more
wound healing compounds and therefore more stored food reserves. So be sure
to keep your mower blade sharp! Continuous use of dull mowers depletes the
plant of stored reserves necessary for survival during the stress filled
months of July and August. Eventually the plant's ability to heal the mowing
wound is impaired by lack of food reserves, and the open wound becomes a
site of fungal entry leading to serious disease problems. Every unit of
plant energy that must be utilized to heal dull mower wounds is simply one
less unit that will be available for healing during periods of stress.

Lowering the mowing height severely disrupts the environmental and
competitive forces that exist in the turfgrass community. In a mixed
community of turfgrass plants, some plants will become less competitive as
the mowing height is lowered. In managing tall fescue-Kentucky bluegrass
blends, it is essential to realize that lowering mowing heights to 1 inch or
less is likely to decrease the amount of leaf area per unit of ground area,
and thereby decrease the plant's capability to intercept and use sunlight.
Lower mowing heights increase the number of plants per unit area for some
grasses, but it is highly likely that the individual plants in the crowded
community become weaker. Weaker plants require more intensive management to
be able to withstand periods of stress. Low mowing heights in Kentucky
bluegrass often lead to increased weed populations of Annual bluegrass and
crabgrass. The following table shows recommended mowing heights for
turfgrasses commonly used in Virginia:

               Turfgrass                      Mowing height

             Kentucky bluegrass                      1 1/2 to 2 1/2
             Tall fescue                             1 1/2 to 3
             Creeping red fescue                     2 to 3
             Perennial ryegrass                      1 1/2 to 2 1/2
             Bermudagrass                            1/2 to 1
             Zoysiagrass                             3/4 to 1


Selecting higher mowing heights on cool-season grasses helps maximize the
amount of food being produced by photosynthesis. Higher mowing heights will
reduce stress levels on the turf and at the same time increase the
likelihood of surviving drought, since root development potential is
increased by the higher mowing height.

Frequency of mowing can have severe effects on turfgrass communities.
Excessive mowing frequency reduces total shoot yield, rooting, rhizome
production, and food reserves. Mowing frequency should be determined by
seasonal growth demands, and should be often enough that no more than one
third of the existing green foliage is removed with any one mowing.

In summary, mowing the lawn is the most frequent maintenance factor in the
production of a good lawn. For good results, mow as high as reasonable for
the desired appearance and use of the turf; use a sharp blade; and don't mow
more often than necessary, but often enough so that plant height is being
reduced by not more than one third each time.

Fertilization  The time table for fertilizing cool season grasses is
completely different from that of warm season grasses. Warm season grasses
go dormant during the time when the cool season grasses make the most
effective use of fertilizer for root growth and development.


Late fall fertilization is a concept that is essential in the maintenance of
quality cool season grasses in Virginia. The advantages of late fall
fertilization observed in research and practical observation are increased
density, increased root growth, decreased spring mowing, improved fall to
spring color, decreased weed problems, increased drought tolerance, and
decreased summer disease activity. The amounts of fertilizer to apply and
the time periods when they should be applied are critical.

The ideal lawn fertilization program provides the nutrition that maximizes
the chances of producing a quality lawn. Temperature and moisture vary
greatly and affect turfgrass growth. Therefore, nutritional needs vary from
month to month. Excessive stimulation of growth from nitrogen fertilizers
can be more detrimental than no fertilization. The source of nitrogen in
fertilizers influences nitrogen availability to the turfgrass plant. There
are two types of nitrogen sources; quickly available and slowly available.
Quickly available materials are water soluble and can be immediately
utilized by the plant. Slowly available nitrogen sources release their
nitrogen over extended periods of time and, therefore, can be applied less
frequently and at higher rates than the quickly available nitrogen sources.

The numbers on the fertilizer bag (such as 10-10-10 or 46-0-0) indicate the
percent of Nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5), and potash (K2O) in the
fertilizer. If your soil test indicates low or medium levels of phosphorous
or potassium, complete fertilizers should be used. If high levels of
phosphorous and potassium are present in the soil, then fertilizers
supplying only nitrogen will be adequate.

Fertilizers can provide nitrogen to plants immediately or over an extended
period of time. The amount that can be safely applied at one time depends
upon the availability of the nitrogen. The portion of the nitrogen that is
slowly available is listed on the fertilizer bag as Water Insoluble Nitrogen
(WIN). For example, a 20-10-10 fertilizer with 5% WIN actually has 5/20 or
1/4 of the nitrogen in the slowly available form. A 50 lb. bag of this
material would provide 10 lbs. of total Nitrogen (N) 2.5 lbs. of which would
be slowly available (WIN).

A fertilizer label will provide the following information:

                            Guaranteed Analysis

                Total Nitrogen                              16%
                   5.6% Water Insoluble Nitrogen (WIN)
                Available Phosphoric Acid (P2O5)             4%
                Soluble Potash (K2O)                         8%

To find the % nitrogen that is WIN, use the following calculation:

   %WIN   x   100    = % of total nitrogen that is WIN or % slowly available
  Total Nitrogen

Therefore:  5.6 x 100 = 35% of the total nitrogen is WIN or slowly-available
            ---------
               16

If no WIN is listed on the fertilizer label, assume it is all water soluble
or quickly- available nitrogen, unless the fertilizer label indicates it
contains sulfur coated urea. Sulfur coated urea fertilizers provide slowly
available nitrogen, but the fertilizer label does not list it as WIN. If the
fertilizer contains sulfur coated urea, include that portion as water
insoluble nitrogen when determining the portion of the fertilizer that is
slowly available.


Statements on a fertilizer bag such as "contains 50% organic fertilizer" do
not mean the fertilizer is 50% slowly available. It is impossible to
calculate the amount of WIN from this information.

If more detailed information is needed on fertilization, ask your local
Extension agent for Publication 430-011 entitled "Lawn Fertilization in
Virginia."


Table 1.  Fertilization Program for Kentucky Bluegrass,
Tall Fescue, Creeping Red Fescue,
and Perennial Rye Grass Lawns


PROGRAM I  -Fertilizers with Less than 50 Percent Slowly
Available Nitrogen (WIN)

                        Nitrogen per
                        1000 sq. ft.             Application
Time of Application        Pounds                  Priority

September                     1                       2nd
October                  1 to 1.5                     1st
Nov. 15 to Dec. 15       1 to 1.5                     3rd
May 15 to June 15        0 to 0.5                     4th

    Total Applied per Year = 3 to 4.5 POUNDS



PROGRAM II -Fertilizers with 50 Percent or More Slowly
Available Nitrogen (WIN)

                        Nitrogen per
                        1000 sq. ft.             Application
Time of Application        Pounds                  Priority

August 15 to Sept. 15    1.5 to 2                     1st
October 15 to Nov. 15    1.5 to 2                     2nd
May 15 to June 15        0   to 1.5                   3rd

    Total Applied per Year = 3 to 5.5 POUNDS

Important Comments about Programs I and II

1. Application Priority - The priority of each application is listed for
those not wanting to make all applications. For instance, if you desire to
make only one application following Program I, the best time is in October.

2. Sources of nitrogen recommended in Program I may cause significant leaf
burn if applied when temperatures are high or there is moisture on the leaf
blades. Water the lawn after fertilization to wash particles off the blades.
This is particularly important when using ammonium nitrate or urea.

3. The November 15 to December 15 application in Program I should be made
after the last mowing. It is important that the grass not go into the winter
excessively long.

4. In heavily shaded areas with fine fescue turf, it may be beneficial to
reduce fertilizer rates or omit applications until leaf collection is
finished in the fall.

5. Use the higher amounts of nitrogen where soils are sandy, irrigation is
used, clippings are collected, the growing season is extended, recuperative
potential is needed, or high quality is desired.

6. In Program II, it may be beneficial to apply 1 lb. of soluble nitrogen
per 1000 sq. ft. in mid-December to encourage root growth and stored food
reserves.


Table 2.  Fertilization Program for Bermuda Grass
and Zoysia Grass Lawns


PROGRAM III -Fertilizers with Less than 50 Percent Slowly
Available Nitrogen (WIN)

                        Nitrogen per
                        1000 sq. ft.             Application
Time of Application        Pounds                  Priority

April                    1 to 1.5                     1st
May                      1 to 1.5                     2nd
July                     1 to 1.5                     3rd

    Total Applied per Year = 3 to 4.5 POUNDS



PROGRAM IV -Fertilizers with 50 Percent or More Slowly
Available Nitrogen (WIN)

                        Nitrogen per
                        1000 sq. ft.             Application
Time of Application        Pounds                  Priority

April                    1.5 to 2.5                   1st
June 15 to July 15       1.5 to 2.5                   2nd

    Total Applied per Year = 3.0 to 5.0 POUNDS

Important Comments about Programs III AND IV

1. Application Priority - Priority of each application is listed for those
not wanting to make all applications. For instance, if you desire to make
only one application following Program III, the April application will be
most beneficial.

2. Winter Hardiness - Improved winter hardiness on Bermudagrass will result
from the application of 2 to 3 lbs. per 1000 sq. ft. of potassium from
0-0-60 (muriate of potash) or 0-0-54 (potassium sulfate) in late August or
September. Water-in these potash applications to minimize leaf burn.

3. Rates and sources of nitrogen recommended in Program III may cause
significant leaf burn if applied when temperatures are high or there is
moisture on the leaf blades. Water the lawn after fertilization to wash
particles off the blades.

4. Overseeded Bermudagrass lawns will require additional nitrogen
applications after seeding in September, then again in December or January.
Water soluble sources providing 1 lb. nitrogen per 1000 sq. ft. are
recommended.

If more detailed information is needed on factors affecting fertilization,
request Publication 430-011 "Lawn Fertilization in Virginia" from your local
Cooperative Extension Office.

Weed Control  Weed control can be minimized by good mowing and fertilization
management since this makes grass more capable of competing with weeds. If
chemical control should be necessary, care should be taken to apply
chemicals at the time of year when they will be most effective, and not to
exceed recommended rates. Careless application of weed control chemicals can
result in damage to desirable grasses, as well as damage to other ornamental
plantings.

There are two basic groups of weeds: broadleaf weeds, and weedy grasses.
Broadleaf weeds consist of the familiar dandelions, chickweed, clover,
ground ivy, wild onions, oxalis, plantain, anything which is not classed as
a grass. Examples of weedy grasses are crabgrass, and goosegrass. Control
for each of the two groups varies.

There are good selective herbicides available for broadleaf weed control. In
general, broadleaf weeds respond best to weed killers when they are most
actively growing and/or in the seedling stage. This is usually in late
spring or early fall. When equally effective, fall applications are
preferable because fewer ornamental and garden plants are in an active state
of growth. Applications of high rates of weed killer during hot, dry
conditions may brown desirable grasses. Pesticides recommended for control
of specific broadleaf and grassy weeds, are contained in the Virginia
Cooperative Extension Service Pest Management Guide for Turfgrass
(Publication 456-013).

Control of perennial, weedy grass such as common Bermudagrass and quackgrass
is more difficult, because selective herbicides that do not affect desirable
grasses are not available. Therefore, spot spraying, physical removal, or
total kill of existing lawns is often necessary. Detailed discussion of weed
control methods in lawns is contained in Virginia Cooperative Extension
Publication 427-045 entitled "Lawn Weed Control."

Irrigation  Lawns can use an inch or more of water per week in hot, dry
weather. If rainfall does not provide this much water, irrigation will be
necessary to keep the lawn green through the summer months. The lawn should
be watered when the soil begins to dry out, but before the grass actually
wilts. At that stage, areas of the lawn will begin to change color,
displaying a blue-green or smoky tinge. Also, loss of resilience can be
observed; footprints will make a long lasting imprint instead of bouncing
right back. Ideally, the lawn should be watered before these signs can be
observed.

Cool season grasses usually go semi-dormant in the hottest part of the
summer, returning to full vigor in cooler fall weather. If you want to keep
the lawn green through the summer, regular deep watering will be necessary.
If the lawn does go dormant (turns brown), let it stay that way until it
naturally greens up again. Too many fluctuations between dormancy and active
growth can weaken the lawn.

Light sprinkling of the surface is actually more harmful than not watering
at all, since this encourages root development near the surface. This
limited root system will require more frequent waterings and will
necessitate keeping the surface wet, which is ideal for weeds and diseases.
Watering should be an all or nothing type of commitment. If you water, do it
consistently and deeply. If you don't intend to be consistent, it is better
not to water at all, and to allow the grass to go dormant until natural
conditions bring it back. Encouraging deep root growth by irrigating
infrequently, but heavily, will maximize water use efficiency and turfgrass
quality.

The best time to water a lawn is in the early morning. Evaporation is
minimized and water use efficiency is better than during midday. Early
evening or night watering is not encouraged because it leaves the blades and
thatch wet going into the evening. This maximizes the potential for disease
activity.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,409>
-Title-
 LAWN MAINTENANCE
-SubTitle-
 Periodic Maintenance
-Text-

Dethatching  In addition to regular maintenance factors already discussed,
in some years, it may be necessary to remove thatch. Thatch is the tightly
interwoven layer of living and dead stems, leaves and roots that exists
between the green blades of grass and the soil surface. This layer of
decomposing organic matter accumulates on the soil surface in aninnocuous
fashion. During the early stages of thatch development, when it measures
less than 0.5 inch in thickness, it can actually be beneficial to the grass.
Thin layers of thatch can increase wear tolerance of turf by providing
better dissipation of compaction forces; reduce weed populations by not
providing ample conditions for germination; reduce water evaporation by
blocking sunlight and air exchange with the soil surface; and insulate crown
tissue, protecting it from frost and traffic damage. Thatch problems are
inevitable under intensive turfgrass management programs unless thatch
reduction principles are built into the program.

The single cause of thatch buildup is the fact that the accumulation rate of
dead organic matter on the soil surface is greater than the decomposition
rate. There are many reasons for this imbalance between rate of accumulation
and decomposition. Some of the factors involved include excessively high
nitrogen levels, type of turfgrass, excessive irrigation, mowing management,
chemical use, and soil type.

The effect of excessive thatch buildup upon turfgrass quality is subtle but
deadly. This layer of undecomposed organic matter is capable of altering
pest populations, moisture relations, nutrient utilization patterns, soil
temperatures, and other climatic and biotic factors.

The moist microclimate created by the thatch layer favors fungal invasion
and allows pathogenic microorganisms to live and sporulate. Probability of
insect pathogens surviving the winter is increased by the insulating effect
of thatch. Soil borne fungus and insect pathogens often escape control
methods due to the inability of applied pesticides to penetrate the thatch
layer. The thatch layer prevents adequate water infiltration, causing
reduced root growth and increased potential for wilt damage. When thatch
layers are kept moist, roots tend to develop in this zone and crown regions
of the individual turfgrass plants tend to be elevated in the thatch. This
elevation of the crown region away from the soil leads to increased exposure
to temperature extremes and greater probability of stress damage.
Interception of lime and fertilizer applications by thatch layers produces
erratic fertilizer response. In some cases the microorganisms tie up the
applied nitrogen, and it is not available to the turfgrass plants.

-Fig-
Cross-Section of Turf Grass
-Text-

Above is an illustration of a block of turf with thatch, mat and soil layers
in profile. Note that the crown of the grass plant is elevated into the
thatch layer. The mat is the layer of decomposing thatch which is becoming
integrated into the soil. By now you should be convinced that excessive
thatch buildup is bad for the lawn; the problem is what to do about it.
There is no simple method of controlling thatch development. Preventive
programs for thatch reduction should be built into the maintenance program.
Curative programs involving the labor intensive process of dethatching may
also be required at times.

Preventive thatch management involves modification of nutrition,
cultivation, mowing andirrigation practices. The pH of the thatch layer
appears to be more important to thatch decomposition than soil pH.
Researchers have shown that light annual applications of lime (20 to 25 lbs.
per 1000 square feet) may be beneficial in speeding the thatch decomposition
rate. Moderate use of nitrogen with more frequent small applications appears
to decrease thatch buildup. Aerification and topdressing of turfgrass speeds
up thatch decomposition. Aerobic microorganisms involved in the thatch
decomposition benefit from improved oxygen levels as much as the turfgrass.
Topdressing serves to inoculate the thatch layer with microorganisms and
improve moisture retention in the thatch layer, thus increasing microbial
activity.

If the thatch layer in your lawn is more than one half inch thick,
dethatching to remove excessive thatch will be beneficial. Timing of the
dethatching operation is critical, and is best done during periods when the
plants can recover from the treatment. Kentucky bluegrass and other cool
season grass lawns should be dethatched in early fall or early spring.
Spring verticutting can lead to excessive crabgrass invasion if improperly
timed. Vertical mowers, or verticut machines, can be rented. These machines
rake the surface of the soil, and leave the thatch debris on top of the
lawn. This material should then be raked up and removed. If overseeding is
planned, it is good to do it in conjunction with the verticutting or
aerating process, since the grooves cut in the soil will provide good soil
contact for the new seed.

pH Adjustment  Soils in Virginia are typically acid, and from time to time
it may be necessary to add lime in order to keep the soil pH near 6.2. Soil
test results will tell how much lime should be applied.

Aeration  If soil is heavy or compacted, or thatch buildup is a problem,
aeration may be necessary. Roots need oxygen as well as water and nutrients;
compacted soil restricts the absorption of water, and also does not allow
the soil to exchange and replenish oxygen from the atmosphere.

Aeration is best done by a machine which forces hollow metal tubes into the
ground and brings up small cores of soil which are left laying on the
surface. The soil should be moist, not too wet or too dry, when this is
done. Simply punching holes with a spiked roller may improve water
retention, but this practice also increases compaction in the soil.

Reinoculation of thatch layers with soil and microbes through the aeration
process is beneficial in helping create an environment conducive to thatch
decomposition.

Disease Control  Proper management will greatly reduce a lawn's
susceptibility to disease. Disease damage may be difficult to identify since
many of the symptoms may also be caused by improper management or by
environmental factors such as competition from tree roots. Nearly all lawn
diseases are caused by fungus, and fungicides can be applied to prevent and
control them.

Insect Control  There are naturally many different types of insects present
in a lawn. Most of these are not harmful to the grass. Control for insects
is not necessary unless the pest population builds up enough to cause
visible damage to the lawn.

Close examination, on hands and knees, is the best way to identify insect
pests in a damaged lawn. You may be able to see the insect in action. If you
think you have an insect problem, your local Extension Office can help in
identifying the pest and suggesting recommended control measures.

The most common above ground insect pests in Virginia lawns are chinch bugs
and sod webworms; these feed on grass leaves and stems. Below ground, the
most common pests are white grub larvae and weevil or billbug grubs; these
feed on plant stems and roots.


Chinch Bugs

-Fig-
Chinch Bugs
-Text-

  Chinch bugs are small white and black insects that suck sap from grass,
producing yellow and then brown patches. To test for chinch bugs, cut both
ends off of a large tin can; push one end into the soil, fill the can with
water. Chinch bugs will float to the surface if present.

Sod Webworms

-Fig-
Sod Webworms
-Text-

 Sod webworms are the larval or caterpillar stage of several species of
lepidoptera. Adults are commonly seen flying in jerky, short flights as you
walk through the grass. Caterpillars do the damage, feeding on the grass
blades at night. Sod webworms prefer well managed lawns. Damage appears as
small brown areas in the grass.

White Grubs

-Fig-
White Grubs
-Text-

  White grubs are the larval or grub stage of several species of beetles and
chafers. Typically cream-colored with a brown head, and a dark area at the
posterior  end, white grubs feed on roots, causing brown areas in the lawn.
Usually turf can be rolled back like a rug to reveal white grubs.

Billbugs and Weevils

-Fig-
Billbugs and Weevils
-Text-

    Larvae look much like white grubs, except that they are smaller and do
not have legs. Larvae feed on roots, and adult beetles feed on grass blades
and stems. Damage is similar to that caused by white grubs.

For specific insect and disease control recommendations request publication
456-013 "Pest Management Guide for Turfgrass" from your local Cooperative
Extension office.


-End-
-Title-
 LAWN MAINTENANCE
-SubTitle-
 SUMMARY
-Text-

Maintaining a healthy and attractive lawn requires a strong commitment to
constant care. Timing for each phase of lawn management is important; it is
not enough to throw down some fertilizer or weed control chemical whenever
you feel like it. Good results, and good return on your investment of time
and money, can be obtained only by doing things at the appropriate time.
Basic guidelines have been set forth in this chapter. More information can
be gained from other publications and books. As specific questions and
problems arise, your local Extension office can provide answers and help.

-End-
-Title-
 SELECTION, USE, AND CARE OF WOODY PLANTS
-Text-

INTRODUCTION

Woody ornamental plants are key components in a well designed, useful
environment. This large group of plants falls into three groups: trees,
shrubs, and vines and can be defined as:

Trees:  Woody plants that produce one main trunk and a more or less distinct
and elevated head (height of 15 feet or more).

Shrubs:  Woody plants that remain quite low and produce shoots or stems from
the base and usually not a single trunk (height of 15 feet or less).

Vines:  Climbing or crawling woody plants without self supporting upright
stems.

This chapter will cover factors to consider in selecting plants based on
desired uses of the plants, and environmental factors influencing plant
growth; procedures for planting and care of woody plants; a listing of
trees, shrubs, vines, and ground covers that are recommended for use in
Virginia.


-End-
-Title-
 VINES IN THE LANDSCAPE
-Text-

Vines are generally described as woody or semiwoody climbing or trailing
plants. Like shrubs, trees, and ground covers, vines can be important to the
interest of any garden landscape. Each species and variety of vine possesses
distinctive characteristics which make it well adapted to certain locations
in the landscape plan.


-End-
-Title-
 VINES IN THE LANDSCAPE
-SubTitle-
 Selection
-Text-

In selecting vines, as in selecting trees and shrubs, carefully review the
needs of the area, and then select the most suitable plants. Vines can be
useful in a variety of sites. Some vines are valued for the shade they
provide when trained over an arbor. Others add interest to a planting when
trained against the wall of a building, or when used to frame a doorway.
Some vines can be used to relieve the monotony of a large expanse of wall,
being trained in a definite pattern, or allowed to completely cover a wall
with leafy green, while others dramatically change a plain fence. Vines can
be useful to form a cascade of bloom on rough, steep banks while holding the
soil in place.

Vines also offer diverse visual qualities and are valued for the rich
texture of their foliage, their decorative habit of growth, the fragrance of
their blooms or the beauty of their flowers. Some are valued for the
graceful tracery of their simple stems or for the beauty of their leaf
pattern. To the home gardener, vines offer a rich source of material with
which to create interesting, exciting and beautiful plantings.

Vines are generally segregated into three general groups depending on how
they climb:

Some, like Boston ivy, climb by attaching small rootlike holdfasts to the
wall as a means of support. Sometimes these are modified tendrils with small
circular discs at the tips; otherslike English ivy, have small rootlets
along the stem to firmly attach the vine to either brick or wood.

Vines such as clematis and grape, climb by attaching and winding tendrils or
leaflike appendages, which act as tendrils, around the object on which they
are growing.

The third group, including bittersweet and wisteria, climb by twining. It is
interesting to note that all vines do not twine in the same direction. There
is not a haphazard method of twining. The plants of each species invariably
twine in one direction, start the winding of young vines around their
support in the correct direction. As example, bittersweet twines by climbing
from left to right. Hall's honeysuckle twines by climbing from right to
left.

By knowing in advance how each vine climbs, the proper means of support can
be provided for those selected.


-End-
-Title-
 VINES IN THE LANDSCAPE
-SubTitle-
 Culture
-Text-

Most vines will quickly revert to a tangled mass of foliage over the ground
if they are not given the proper means of support and a reasonable amount of
care and maintenance.

The best type of support for vines is the one that gives the required
structural strength and stability, and at the same time is neat in
appearance.

Like most other plants, vines require some maintenance. Pruning is necessary
for the removal of old wood. This may require several cuts to each stem so
they can be untangled. It is often necessary to prune occasionally to keep
the plant within bounds and to guide future growth. As with other plants,
vines are pruned to produce better bloom.

Insect and disease control is important and spraying against insects can be
done as a part of the general spraying program for the garden.

The area to be covered should be studied carefully to determine what type of
vine should be used. Rate of growth is a critical consideration, since there
are vines that exhibit rampant growth and can soon become a nuisance.


-End-
-Title-
 GROUND COVERS
-Text-

In a broad, general sense, ground covers include any material that covers
the ground surface so that it cannot be seen from above and so that rain
does not strike directly upon it. With this definition, grass, various types
of paving, shrubs and even trees could be called ground covers. However,
here we are referring to ground covers as low (up to 18"), mat forming or
trailing plants, other than grasses or other plants that tolerate walking or
mowing. Most ground covers are not intended to be walked upon and will be
severely damaged by pedestrian traffic.

When ground covers are chosen carefully and placed correctly, they greatly
enhance the beauty of the landscape composition. In addition to their
aesthetic value, they fulfill a number of other important functions:
        Controlling erosion on slopes

        Obstructing traffic without impeding view

        Conserving soil moisture and, during periods of extreme heat,
            lowering temperatures in the soil

        Reducing lawn maintenance

        Filling narrow, odd shaped areas where mowing and edging
            might be difficult

        Providing vegetative growth where grass is difficult to maintain

        Producing interesting patterns with variation in height, texture,
            and color

In practice, the ground covers most frequently used are plants that are
easily propagated, vigorous and hardy.


-End-
-Title-
 GROUND COVERS
-SubTitle-
 Selection
-Text-

Selection of a ground cover will depend upon the area where it will be used.
Is the area flat or sloping? Is it in sun, partially or deeply shaded? Soil
conditions must be studied. Some ground covers prefer a moist soil, rich in
organic matter while others will adapt to dry, sandy situations. Give
consideration to color, texture, height and habit as well, since some ground
covers tend to grow rampantly.

One problem that limits the use of ground covers is the cost of installation
since large numbers of small, individual plants are required. In addition, a
well prepared planting bed is essential to the establishment of ground
covers and can be costly and time consuming.


-End-
-Title-
 GROUND COVERS
-SubTitle-
 Culture
-Text-

Significant maintenance is necessary for the first one to three years or
until the ground cover becomes established. Cultivation is necessary to
control weeds and other plant invaders; fertilization to encourage fast,
vigorous growth to achieve good cover; irrigation in times of dryness; and
disease and pest control. When these maintenance considerations are ignored,
the progress toward achieving a good ground cover planting is disappointing.

Wherever paving, lawn or cultivated beds are not desirable, ground covers
can be successfully used. Newly cut banks, and any slopes greater than 12
percent are best treated with ground cover plantings. Around buildings,
ground covers are superior to paving or structural controls for reducing
heat, glare, noise and dust.

See the recommended planting lists for ground covers to fit your landscape
needs.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,418>
-Title-
 SELECTING TREES AND SHRUBS
-Text-

Because there are so many woody plants available for use in landscaping, we
must be careful to select plants that are appropriate for our needs.
Selection should be based on several different factors.

The intended purpose should influence selection of plants with appropriate
shape, size andother physical characteristics. Trees are used for shade,
ornamental, screening, windbreak, and sound reducing purposes. Shrubs are
used for screens, barriers, windbreaks, ornamentals, ground covers, wildlife
shelters. Both trees and shrubs can be selected to provide edible fruit or
nuts.

Providing shade usually requires tall, sturdy, long living species. Density
of foliage, which determines the amount of shading is important. A tree such
as a Norway maple will produce a very dense shade that prevents other plants
from growing under it, while a honey locust will produce a light partial
shade which is not a hindrance to other plants growing below it. Deciduous
trees should be used to shade the south windows of a home in the summer,
thus allowing the sun to penetrate in the winter.

Screens usually require plants that produce a dense foliage. Windbreaks in
addition must be able to survive rigorous climate conditions. Evergreen
plants are usually chosen for screening. Barrier plantings usually require
sturdy plants with a dense growth, and possibly thorns or spines.

Ornamental attributes are quite varied. Both trees and shrubs can be
selected for flowers or colorful fruit, interesting foliage, fall color,
interesting bark, winter colors of foliage or branches, or interesting
shapes of the plants themselves.

Consider the size of mature trees and shrubs and where they are to be used.
Trees that grow tall; such as the American elm, white oak, Sycamore, and
tulip trees; are suitable for two story and larger buildings. They tend to
dominate the low flat appearance of, or hide, one story buildings. For
attractive and proper balance with one story buildings, trees that do not
grow over about 35 feet are recommended. Shrubs that outgrow their spaces
can hide windows, block walkways, or crowd out other plants. Shrubs can
sometimes be kept small by pruning, but this requires continuing
maintenance. Careful consideration of mature sizes will reduce the need for
pruning.

Shape is especially important in selecting trees for ornamental and shade
purposes. Tall trees with long, spreading or weeping branches give abundant
shade. Small trees and trees of other shapes, including the narrow,
columnar, Lombardy poplar, the pyramidal evergreens, the clump birch and the
low growing hawthorn, crab apple, and dogwood are useful for ornamental
purposes but do not give abundant shade.

Environmental conditions should influence the selection of plants. Size of
the planting area is important as are site characteristics such as sunny or
shaded, wet or dry, exposed to winter winds or pollution. Plants selected
should be tolerant of existing conditions, and  be hardy in the appropriate
climate zone. The country is defined in a series of zones, based on the
average minimum winter temperature.

Finally, consider how much maintenance the plant will require and any
possible disadvantages including susceptibility to attack by diseases and
insect pests; soft or brittle wood that is easily damaged by wind and ice;
fruits and seeds that are large, messy, smelly or otherwise obnoxious, and
abundant shedding of twigs and small branches. Some examples of these
conditions are killing of Lombardy poplar by Cytospora canker or by borers,
breaking of Siberian elm branches by wind and ice, and the production of bad
smelling fruit by the female ginkgo. The production of fruit by the
mulberry, which attracts birds, can also be an undesirable characteristic.
Since this fruit is soft and decomposes rapidly when ripe, it is messy on
walks and attracts flies and other insects.
-Fig-
Manner of Growth: Ornamentals Shapes
Shade Tree Sizes
Branch Structure
United States Climate Zones
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,419>
-Title-
 PURCHASING TREES AND SHRUBS
-Text-

Once the selection process is completed, plants can be purchased.
Transplants can be classified into three classes according to the way they
are dug and/or shipped: bare rooted plants, balled and burlapped plants
(B&B), and container grown plants.

Bare Rooted Plants   These have had the soil washed or shaken from their
roots after digging. Nearly all are deciduous trees or shrubs which are
dormant. Most mail order plants are of this class because plants in soil are
too heavy to ship economically. A good many tap rooted plants, such as nut
trees and some fruit and shade trees are handled this way because they are
not amenable to balling and burlapping. Plants available in nurseries in
early spring with roots wrapped in damp sphagnum and packaged in cardboard
or plastic containers, are also bare-rooted plants. These need special
attention because their roots are tightly bunched up in unnatural positions
in order to force them into the package. Discard the sphagnum packing and be
sure to spread the roots out to a natural position.

Plants in the bare root class are planted while they are dormant. Fall
planting is well suited for these plants. Never let the roots dry out. This
is perhaps the single most important source of failure with bare rooted
plants. Keep roots in water or wrapped in plastic or wet paper until you are
ready to place the plant in the hole. This class of plants may need extra
pruning at planting time.

Balled and Burlapped Plants  These are likely to have been grown in nursery
rows for some time and to have been root pruned so that the root system
within the balls is compact and fibrous. Such plants re-establish themselves
rapidly. This method is primarily used for plants that never lose their
foliage and thus are not amenable to bare root treatment. Such plants are
broadleaf evergreens like rhododendrons and azaleas, and conifers of all
types. A number of deciduous trees and shrubs that have branching root
systems which are easily contained in a soil ball are also sold as B & B
plants.

Plants in this class are planted almost any time that the ground can be
worked. Plants put out in summer will need special attention to keep them
adequately watered.

When selecting a balled and burlapped plant, be sure that the ball is sound
and hasn't been broken. Avoid those plants that feel loose in the soil
balls. Be sure that the soil ball does not dry out. These plants will
usually need very little pruning at planting.

Container Grown Plants  These are usually grown in the container in which
they are sold and are increasing in popularity in the nursery trade. Because
of their appearance, gardeners are often misled into thinking that all they
have to do is plunk these plants into the ground and forget about them.
Nothing could be further from the truth. Container grown plants can be
planted whenever balled and burlapped plants are planted.

This class of plants may have what may be called a container habit. Their
roots are contained in a limited space and coiled around one another in the
container, and may fill it tightly. Some of the larger roots may have become
coiled back around the trunk and beguna process called root strangulation,
or girdling root.

The solution to container habit is to split the lower half of the root
system and spread the roots horizontally. This practice will prune the
roots, thus encouraging new laterals, prevent girdling roots and raise the
lower roots closer to the soil surface.

When selecting plants, look for a good natural shape, free from thin spots
or broken limbs. Make sure the root ball is solid and the bark has no broken
places. Avoid container grown plants where you can see roots circling on the
surface or coming out of the drainage holes. Plants chosen should be free of
any insects or diseases. Generally, the smaller sizes of a plant will cost
less, and may establish faster. Don't buy plants so small they are in danger
of being walked on or mowed over.
-Fig-
Transplant  Classes
Container Plant Transplant
Root to Top Ratio
Shrub Symmetry
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,420>
-Title-
 PLANTING TREES AND SHRUBS
-Text-

The proper installation of plants in the landscape involves much more than
just digging holes and setting plants in them. The planter is responsible,
as far as possible, for developing a satisfactory microclimate for optimum
growth and development of the plant. A healthy and vigorous plant is
required if the landscape is to achieve the desired effect. Healthy plants
will need less maintenance in the years following establishment.

The planting hole is important since this is the environment of the plant
root system. Plantsmen make many suggestions about how large the planting
hole should be, but generally if the hole is twelve inches wider in diameter
and six inches deeper than the soil ball, the size will be adequate. For
very large specimens, such as trees of four-inch caliper or more (the term
caliper is derived from the use of a caliper to measure the trunk diameter)
and large shrubs with a soil ball of three feet or more, the hole should be
made up to twenty-four inches wider. The depth, six inches deeper than the
soil ball, remains the same.

A traditional recommendation for preparing a planting hole for trees and
shrubs has been to incorporate organic matter into the backfill soil before
returning it to the hole around the plants. Recent research has cast doubt
on the value of this practice. In fact, it appears that energy could be
better spent digging a slightly larger hole than working organic matter into
the soil.

Apparently, the addition of organic matter into the backfill soil creates an
interface between the amended soil and the undisturbed soil around the
planting hole that isdetrimental to root growth and water movement between
the two soils. In tests conducted at the University of Georgia, examination
of the root systems of plants in holes with amended soil revealed that the
majority of the roots were confined to the original planting hole.

Add six to eight inches of backfill before placing the plant in the hole.
Firm in place to reduce settling. This should bring the top of the soil ball
to a level slightly higher than the surrounding soil. The finished planting
depth after settling of the soil should be such that the plant is exactly
the same depth after replanting as when growing in the nursery. Probably
more plants are lost because they were planted too deep than for any other
reason.

An acceptable amount of settling of the plant will occur with the use of six
inches of backfill in the bottom of the planting hole. However, in certain
sections of the country wet springs (the main planting season) are common.
Then six inches of backfill in the bottom of the planting hole may result in
excessive settling. A more practical approach if weather conditions of this
type are prevalent is to excavate the hole no deeper than the depth of the
soil ball. When planting a poorly drained site, set plant so that several
inches of the root ball are above the soil level.

Once the six inches of backfill has been added, carefully place the plant in
the hole. Balled and burlapped material must be handled carefully. On most
species if the soil ball is broken for any reason, many of the roots will be
severed from the trunk and the plant will die. Always pick the plant up by
the soil ball or container, never by the trunk or stem. The burlap should
not be removed from the soil ball of B & B plants. Remove all plastic or
metal containers before placing the plant in the hole. Small containers with
tapered sides can be removed by turning the plant upside down and giving the
top edge of the container a sharp rap. Catch the soil ball in the hands as
it slips from the container.Do not break the soil ball apart. The larger
sized containers, of five gallons or more, should be cut away with special
cutters. If plants have become overgrown in the container and the root mass
is growing in a tight, compact circle around the soil ball, cut out the
outer roots with a sharp knife in two or four places around the soil ball.
Make the cut from the top to the bottom of the soil ball. Decomposable
containers, (papier mache) need not be removed from the soil ball.

Bare-root plants should have the packing material  and all damaged or dead
roots removed. If possible, before planting, the roots should be soaked in
water for at least one hour but not longer than twenty-four hours. Do not
allow roots to be exposed to sunlight or dry out before planting. It is best
to keep bare roots covered with moist burlap or some reasonable substitute
until planting time.

After the B & B plant or container grown plant has been placed in the hole,
fill in around the plant with the backfill until the hole is two-thirds
full. With bare-root plants, the soil should be worked gently in and around
the roots while the plant is being supported. The most satisfactory way of
firming the soil and removing air pockets is to fill the hole with water. If
it is not practical to use this procedure, firm the soil by hand around the
plant ball or roots. However, be sure not to use excessive force, since soil
compaction should be avoided.

Before finishing the filling process, make certain the plant is straight and
at the proper depth then complete the filling process with the backfill. If
the specimen is an individual, construct a ring of earth two to three inches
high at the edge of the outside diameter of the hole to form a water basin.
Plants in beds probably will not require a water basin. Water the plant
thoroughly as soon as the water basin is constructed. After the water has
soaked away, fill the basin with a mulch material. Organic mulches such as
pine needles, bark, and wood chips provide the best environment for future
root development.

Note that no fertilizer is added to the backfill mixture. Newly developing
roots can be damaged by too much fertilizer. If it is apparent from
knowledge of the soil condition that fertilizer is needed, add a water
soluble material at the recommended rate during the final watering phase.
Large areas should already have an established fertility level based on
recommendations from soil test results before the planting of individual
plants takes place. A fertility program should begin late in the fall of the
first growing season.
-Fig-
Buying Plant Tips
Planting Depth
How to Plant Balled Matter
Mulch and Water Planting Information
-End-
-Title-
 TRANSPLANTING NATIVE TREES
-Text-

Many homeowners who transplant native plants from the woods are often
disappointed because the plants die. Nursery trees are root pruned a year or
more before transplanting is to occur, which results in a compact root
system. This allows more of the roots to bedug up when transplanting.

For success in transplanting native plants, it is important to understand
the environment in which they are growing naturally. Duplicating this
environment on the new planting site is the key to the plant's survival.
Some environmental factors to consider include light, soil moisture, and
soil acidity. Most of our native soils are slightly acid, so you may have to
adjust the soil pH in the new location. This can be determined by having the
soil tested at your local Extension Office well in advance of anticipated
transplanting. Soil moisture can vary within the distance of a few feet.
Plants growing naturally on a slope probably require good drainage, while
those growing in bogs require wet conditions. Similarly, if the soil is
sandy, the plant will transplant best into sandy soil. A plant growing on
the edge of the woods generally requires more light than one in a deep thick
forest. These environmental conditions must be similar at the new location.

The following planting conditions will increase the chance of survival:
      Root prune by dividing the circumference of the root area to be dug into
      six segments, and prune with a sharp spade every other segment two years
      prior to transplanting, and the remaining segments the year prior to
      transplanting. Since roots form at the cut edge the root ball that is
      dug for transplanting must be larger than the pruning cut to get the
      maximum number of new roots.

      Transplant during the dormant season.

      Dig a hole no deeper and 6 to 12 inches wider than the root system.
      Refill with a mixture of enough existing and native soil of the plant
      to accommodate the root ball or bare-root system. Set the plants a few
      inches higher than when growing in the woods.

      Firm the soil and water thoroughly. The plant should now settle so it
      will still be a higher depth than it was before transplanting. Avoid
      planting too deep.

      Mulch with approximately 2 inches of decayed sawdust, leaf mold, or
      other available materials.

      Stake, using either the 2 or 3-stake method to insure a straight trunk
      and to prevent small plants from being stepped on.

      Do not use high nitrogen fertilizer at the time of planting.

      Adequate soil moisture is critical for several months after
      transplanting. Water only when necessary. Over watering will result
      in sure death. To determine if the soil is dry, stick your finger 1
      to 2 inches below soil surface. When necessary water slowly in order
      to soak the ground thoroughly.

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,422>
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Pruning and Supporting Newly Installed Plants
-Text-

An initial pruning may be needed immediately after planting. Container grown
and B & B plants require only the removal of all broken and damaged
branches. Bare-root stock mayrequire more severe pruning since the root area
has been markedly reduced during digging. For these plants, it may be
helpful to reduce water loss by removing one-third of the leaf area. This
pruning can be done by using the thinning process. Be sure not to ruin the
natural growth habit of shrubs, and do not remove the central leader of
shade trees.

With all newly planted woody plants, it is usually more successful to avoid
heavy pruning at planting if you can insure that the plants will be
well-watered during their first year or two in the ground. Pruning reduces
the leaf area; this reduces transpiration but also reduces the leaf surface
area which produces photosynthates for root growth. Since the plant will not
resume a normal growth rate until the original root system size is
re-established, one is better off to avoid wilting by watering, than by
canopy pruning. This also avoids a proliferation of suckers in the inner
canopy.

Most shrubs do not need to be supported after planting unless bare-root
stock has been planted that is quite large, or very tall B & B specimens
have been used. If so, use the same techniques for shrubs that will be
described for trees.

A general rule of thumb is to provide support for all bare-root trees over
eight feet in height. Smaller B & B or container grown trees usually do not
need support. Trees that are quite large, six inches or more in diameter,
should be supported. There are several methods for supporting smaller trees,
any one of which is satisfactory. A single stake about three-fourths the
height of the bare-root tree should be driven at a distance of two to four
inches from the center of the planting hole, so that the stake will be on
the southwest side of the tree trunk. This should be done before the tree is
placed in the hole. Then plant the tree according to the procedures
described in the previous paragraphs. After the planting is completed,
fasten the tree to the stake with a wire or a suitable substitute formed in
a loose loop. Before fixing both ends of the wire to the stake, slip a short
length of rubber hose onto the wire. The part of the wire in contact with
the trunk should be covered with the rubber hose to prevent injury to the
bark as the tree moves in the wind. The advantage of this method of support
is that the stake is close to the trunk and does not cause maintenance
problems. In turf areas, stakes and guy wires outside the perimeter of the
planting hole can be troublesome since they hinder mowing operations. Under
no circumstances should this method of support be used on B & B or container
grown stock, for it is usually not possible to locate a stake close to the
trunks of such stock before planting, and if driven through the soil ball,
the stake will cause damage to the soil ball and the roots.

A more satisfactory method of supporting small trees is to use two parallel
stakes driven solidly at least eighteen inches into the firm soil about a
foot beyond the planting hole on opposite sides of the tree. The height of
the stakes after being driven into the ground should be approximately
two-thirds that of the tree. The tree is then supported by wires attached to
both stakes and looped loosely around the trunk. A rubber hose length can be
used to protect the tree trunk.

A third method, the one most commonly used, is to fasten three guy wires to
stakes that have been fixed in firm soil around the edge of the planting
hole at an equal distance from the hole and from each other. Stakes are
generally used on smaller plants. They should be driven 18 to 30 inches into
the ground at a 45<e7>o</e7> angle away from the tree trunk. It is
absolutely essential that all three stakes be firmly fixed so that one or
more of them will not pull out in high winds. The top of the stakes are
notched to hold the wire. The wire is then fastened two-thirds of the way up
the trunk by a loose rubber-hose covered loop. The other ends of all wires
should be fastened equally tightly, without putting a strain on the trunk,
to the stakes. The wires should be firm but loose enough to allow slight
movement of the tree, a factor essential to its proper development.

All support should be removed from the small trees within one year after
planting. The tree should have become established in this period of time,
and it has been reported that growth is actually reduced if the supports are
left in place for longer periods of time.

Plants in your landscape will require periodic maintenance to produce the
best effects. This includes fertilization, winterizing, mulching, watering,
and pruning. Pruning is covered in another chapter.
-Fig-
Guying Trees
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,423>
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Fertilizing Trees and Shrubs
-Text-

Ornamental trees and shrubs planted in fertile well drained soil should not
require annual fertilization. Trees and shrubs that are growing well don't
require extra nutrients. If you have ornamentals that are not doing too
well, fertilization may be helpful but only after the problem causing poor
growth has been corrected.

Plants which are growing poorly will exhibit any or all of these symptoms:
            light green or yellow leaves
            leaves with dead spots
            leaves smaller than normal
            fewer leaves and/or flowers than normal
            short annual twig growth
            dying back of branches at the tips
            wilting of foliage

These symptoms of poor growth may be caused by inadequate soil aeration,
moisture, or nutrients; by adverse climatic conditions; by wrong pH; by
disease or by other conditions. You should attempt to determine the specific
cause in each particular situation and apply corrective measures. Do not
assume that an application of fertilizer will quickly remedy any problem
which is encountered.

The cause of poor growth may or may not be evident. Ornamentals transplanted
or disturbed by construction within the past five or ten years may be in
shock, their root systems having been disturbed. Pruning to balance the top
growth with root growth at the time of the injury will help, followed by
fertilization.

Good soil drainage to a depth of at least 2 feet is needed for ornamental
trees and shrubs in the landscape planting. Plants on poorly drained soil
may exhibit one or more symptoms of poor growth. If the site is low, install
drainage tile to remove excess water before the plants are set out. The tile
must have an outlet at a lower level so the water can move out freely. If
the use of tile is impractical, or a suitable outlet for the water cannot be
arranged, the grade may be elevated by using fill to provide better runoff
and drainage conditions.

Most trees and shrubs tolerate a rather wide range of soil acidity. A range
of pH 6.0 to 7.0 is suitable for most landscape plants. They usually will
make satisfactory growth without special treatment to raise or lower the pH
of the soil.

Plants such as andromeda, azalea, blueberry, camellia, laurel and
rhododendron are exceptions to the above rule. They grow best on an acid
soil with a pH of 5.0 to 5.5. On soils with a pH of 6.0 or higher, these
acid loving plants may become quite yellow and grow poorly.

Soil pH can be lowered quite easily for these acid loving plants. You should
first have the soil tested to determine the pH level. If the pH is too high,
it can be lowered by using sulfur, iron sulfate, or aluminum sulfate.

Apply sulfur at the rate of 1 lb. and aluminum sulfate at the rate of 2 lbs.
per 100 square feet to reduce a loam soil 1.0 pH value, and make it more
acid. Use 1/2 as much on sandy soil and 1 1/2 times as much on clay soils.
After several months, test the soil again to determine the effectiveness of
treatment. You may need to repeat the application every year or two to
maintain the desired pH level.

Severely cold or hot, dry weather may be injurious, especially to plants
exposed to the wind or to those that are near the limits of their natural
zone, such as southern magnolia and white birch. Small plants can be
protected with burlap aprons, and mulching heavily in early winter will help
conserve moisture. Consider another species more appropriate to the site.

Injury from insects, diseases or air pollution can devitalize a tree or
shrub, resulting in premature death. Fertilization of such plants should be
carried out with caution since over stimulated plants become weakened,
predisposed to diseases, and attractive to pestiferous insects.

Small trees and shrubs that are weak should have between one-half and a full
cup of 10-10-10 fertilizer spread evenly under their branches in late winter
or early spring. Fertilization in summer may cause serious injury the
following winter by stimulating late growth that will not harden off before
frost.

Large trees that need stimulation require a pretty good dose of nitrogen.
Research indicates that complete fertilizers usually are not essential. To
determine how much nitrogen is needed, measure the diameter of the tree at
breast height. For each six inches of diameter, apply one pound actual
nitrogen. (One pound actual nitrogen equals ten pounds of 10-10-10 or three
pounds ammonium nitrate [33-0-0] or twenty pounds 5-10-10). Application
should be made in December or January. Spread the fertilizer evenly under
the branches. Soluble nitrates will move into the soil quite readily. This
amount of nitrogen may injure turfgrasses, especially if the weather is dry.
Do not fertilize trees unless they need it!

The practice of placing fertilizer in holes around mature trees which are
making weak growth on poor soils has been tested and research now indicates
that surface application of fertilizer is sufficient.

Depending on the reason a large tree is doing poorly, fertilization might be
called for each year. However, a feeding program must be coupled with proper
cultural practices. For example, neglecting necessary insect or disease
control and failure to remove dead wood from a large shade tree will negate
the positive effects of fertilization. Fertilizer is not a substitute for
water during drought.

A moderate rate of growth and  good green color is all that is desired of
woody plants. Excessive vigor which is evident by lush green leaves and long
shoot growth, is undesirable. Such plants are more susceptible to injury by
cold in winter, are more likely to be broken during wind and sleet storms,
and usually will have a shorter life than those making moderate growth.
-Fig-
Pruning At Planting Time
-End-
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Mulching Plants
-Text-

For year round benefits of mulching, apply a two inch mulch of aged sawdust,
fresh shredded bark or wood chips, or peat moss around shrubs, roses, and
recently planted trees. This mulch will conserve moisture, and help suppress
the growth of weeds and grass. A two inch layer should be used under the
branches of shrubs and roses of all ages. A circle of mulch three or four
feet in diameter should be maintained for several years around recently
planted shade trees.

Sawdust or shredded bark from the inside of a large pile may go through
anaerobic decomposition and become very acid, with a pH of about 3.0 and a
pungent odor. Such material is toxic to plants.

In some cases, mice may tunnel in the mulch and cause damage by chewing the
bark from the stems of shrubs. This is more likely to happen when coarse
materials like straw, hay, or pine needles are used. The best control is to
keep the mulch back about six inches from the stems, and trap or poison the
mice. A circle of crushed stone or coarse sharp cinders about six inches
wide around the stems may also be helpful.

Mulch should be maintained for at least three or four years around newly
planted ornamental trees. It should extend at least three inches from the
trunk, and be renewed as often as necessary to maintain a layer two inches
thick. A circle of mulch will make it easier to mow around young trees
without damaging the bark. The layer of mulch should be renewed to a two
inch depth, if necessary, after a killing frost in the fall.

Both organic and inorganic mulches can be useful in the home landscape. Some
of the more readily available ones include:

Sawdust   A 2" layer of sawdust provides good weed control. If applied
around growing plants, add 1/2 pound of actual nitrogen per 10 cubic feet of
sawdust to prevent nutrient deficiencies; fresh sawdust contains a great
deal of carbon and very little nitrogen, and its breakdown requires that
microorganisms take nitrogen from the soil. A very thin layer of sawdust
(1/4") is useful in starting seeds because it helps retain moisture; but, be
sure nutrients are adequate. There is often a problem with crusting of fresh
sawdust, with resulting impermeability to rainfall. Sawdust is best used for
garden paths and around permanent plantings. Readily available from
sawmills.

Bark   A 2-3" layer of one of several types of bark provides good weed
control. Bark is slow to decompose and will stay in place. Shredded bark
decomposes more quickly than the stone types. Bark and wood chips are often
available free or for a small charge from professional tree pruning
services, or may be purchased in large bags at retail stores. Bark makes a
very attractive mulch, and are especially recommended for mulching around
trees and shrubs. When used over black plastic around perennials, bark
provides effective weed control for long periods of time. Be sure there are
holes in the plastic to allow water penetration.

Hay or straw   A 3-4" layer of hay provides good annual weed control. Some
people use a one-foot compacted layer of straw, pulling back the layer for
planting. This provides excellent weed control. These materials decompose
quickly and must be replenished to keep weeds down. They stay in place and
will improve the soil as they decay. Avoid hay which is full of weed seed
and brambles. Fresh legume hay, such as alfalfa, supplies nitrogen as it
quickly breaks down. Hay and straw are readily available in rural areas, but
city dwellers may not be able to obtain hay. Straw, on the other hand, may
be purchased at most garden centers, often commanding a high price. Both are
recommended for vegetable and fruit plantings but not for ornamental
plantings.

Pine needles   Baled pine needles are also found in garden centers for use
as mulch. They make an excellent mulch for acid-loving plants, but can
release too much acid for many vegetable plants. Pine needles are best used
around shrubs and trees, particularly acid-loving types. Readily available.

Grass clippings   A 2" layer of grass clippings provides good weed control.
Build up the layer gradually, using dry grass, to prevent formation of a
solid mat. Clippings will decompose rapidly and provide an extra dose of
nitrogen to growing plants, as well as making fine humus. Avoid crabgrass
and grass full of seed heads. Also, do not use clippings from lawns which
have been treated that season with herbicide or a fertilizer- herbicide
combination ("weed and feed" types). Grass clippings may be used directly as
mulch around vegetables or fruit plants, or they may be composted if added
to the pile a little at a time. They are an excellent source of nitrogen to
help increase microbial activity in the compost pile, especially for those
gardeners without access to manures.

Leaves   A 2-3" layer of leaves, after compaction, provides good weed
control. Leaves will decompose fairly quickly, but are easily blown unless
partially decomposed. Leaves are usually easy to obtain, attractive as a
mulch, and will improve the soil once decomposed. Highly recommended as a
mulch.

Peat moss   A 2-3" layer of peat moss will give fair to good weed control.
This material is slightly acid, and thus suitable for use with acid-loving
plants. However, peat tends to form a crust if used in layers thick enough
to hold weeds down, or it may be blown away. Peat is also a relatively
expensive mulching material, probably more suitable for incorporation into
the soil.

Compost   A 2-3" layer of compost is a fair weed control. Most compost,
however, provides a good site for weed seeds to grow. It, too, is probably
better used by incorporating it into the soil, since it is an excellent soil
amendment. A layer of compost may be used on over wintering beds of
perennials, such as asparagus or berries to provide nutrients and help
protect crowns.

Hulls and ground corncobs   A 2-4" layer of these materials will provide
fair weed control, but both have a tendency to be easily blown by the wind.
Peanut hulls will stay in place somewhat better than corncobs. A heavier
mulch, such as partially rotted hay or straw,may be used on top to hold the
lighter materials down. Recommended if readily available in your area.

Gravel, stone, and sand   A one inch layer of rock will provide fair weed
control. Rocks, of course, do not decompose noticeably. They make a good
mulch for permanent plantings, as around foundation plants and in alpine
gardens, but are not recommended for acid-loving plants, since alkaline
elements within the rocks may dissolve and leach into the soil. None of
these mulches is effective in controlling erosion; soil will wash right out
from under rocks, and sand will be swept away. Availability varies with
area.

Black plastic   One layer of black plastic provides excellent weed control.
It is relatively slow to decompose, but will be somewhat broken down by
sunlight and must be replaced every two years at least. Black plastic mulch
will increase soil temperature by about 8 degrees F. in the spring. It may
cause soil temperatures to rise too much in mid-summer, though, "cooking"
the roots of plants unless a good foliage cover or organic mulch prevents
direct absorption of sunlight. Check periodically to see that soil remains
moist beneath the plastic; cut holes in it if water doesn't seem to be
getting through. Black plastic is easy to obtain, but is fairly expensive. A
new type of black plastic has recently come onto the market which has a
white, reflective side to prevent the overheating problems experienced with
solid black plastic.

Clear plastic   One layer of clear plastic will provide little weed control;
in fact, it makes an excellent greenhouse environment for growing weeds.
This material is most often used to raise the soil temperature early in the
spring to prepare an area for planting. It will raise the soil temperature
by 10 degrees or more. It is not recommended as a weed-controlling mulch.
Clear plastic is readily available, and somewhat less expensive than black
plastic.

Paper   Using 2-4 layers of newspaper provides good weed control. It
decomposes within a season and is readily available and cheap. Cover with an
organic mulch, such as sawdust or hay, to hold paper in place. Excellent for
use in pathways and around newly set strawberry plants. Lead in printers'
ink has been a concern of some gardeners desiring to use newspaper; however,
printers no longer use lead compounds in ink for black and white newsprint,
though colored inks may contain lead.

Aluminum coated plastic and foil   One layer of either of these materials
provides excellent weed control. Decomposition is very slow. Soil
temperatures are decreased by up to 10 degrees F. They provide additional
reflection of light to help speed up fruiting of such vegetables as peppers
and eggplant in not-so-sunny gardens. The reflective quality of aluminum
foil has been shown in university tests to inhibit the colonization of
plants by aphids. Expensive and unattractive.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,425>
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Watering Plants
-Text-

Watering plants correctly is vital for developing and maintaining a
landscape planting. Lack of water can cause a plant to wilt and ultimately
dry up and die. Excessive water can cause root rot, in which case the plant
wilts because it is oxygen starved, and consequently, is unable to take up
moisture. As a rule, plants are capable of withstanding moderate drought
more easily than too much moisture. For this reason, it is important to
water thoroughly, yet allow the soil to become fairly dry between waterings.

Wilting is a condition brought about in plants when roots are unable to
supply sufficient moisture to the stems and leaves. Wilting for short
periods of time will not harm plants;over a prolonged period, however, it
will cause permanent damage. Sometimes a plant will wilt on a hot day
because moisture is evaporating from the leaves faster than the roots can
supply it. If there is ample soil moisture, the plant will absorb water in
the evening to firm up the stems and leaves.

In late summer or early fall it is not uncommon to experience a sustained
period of wilting, particularly of broad leaved evergreens such as
rhododendrons. Latest research establishes this condition as the cause of
much leaf damage typically attributed to winter desiccation. When the leaves
hang down and no rain is predicted, it is advisable to provide prolonged,
deep watering to keep the leaves turgid. To wet the soil at least 6 inches
deep requires 1 to 2 inches of surface water.

Container grown landscape plants may be susceptible to drought stress once
they are transplanted to the landscape. Drought stress occurs because the
well drained organic mix in which the plants are grown in the nursery is
prone to rapid loss of moisture due to plant transpiration (loss of water
from plant leaves) and evaporation from the soil surface. Even though
moisture is available in the soil surrounding the organic mix, it does not
move into the transplanted root ball rapidly enough to prevent moisture
stress from developing. Research has shown that the available moisture in
the container mix can be depleted in about two days in the absence of
irrigation. For this reason, these plants are watered at least every other
day while in the nursery. This routine should be followed after
transplanting until the root system penetrates the surrounding soil back
fill (approximately three to four weeks) where moisture is available for
absorption by the plant.

Care must be taken not to allow the transplant root ball to dry out because
the organic mix is very difficult to rewet once it becomes dry. Water can be
applied to a drought stressed plant where the root ball has become very dry
and not successfully relieve the moisture stress because the medium does not
readily absorb the applied water. In this case, water should be applied two
or three times each day until the root ball has been rewet.

To maximize the effectiveness of watering practices:

Know the condition of the soil. It is important to observe how quickly soil
dries out after a rain or watering. For example, a clay type soil will need
less watering than a sandy one. Clay soil drains slowly, porous sandy soil
quickly. The addition of organic matter to the soil will increase drainage
in clay soil and moisture retention in sandy soil. When preparing a hole for
planting, if the subsoil at the bottom of the hole is very hard and prevents
water from draining quickly, it should be broken up with a shovel or a pick.

Learn the cultural requirements of plants being grown. Different plants have
different water needs; azaleas require more moisture than cacti. The use of
good reference books will provide the gardener with this information. It is
particularly important to provide a relatively high soil moisture supply for
evergreen plants during the fall before the ground freezes. The leaves of
such plants continue to lose water during the winter, especially when the
temperature is above 40<e7>o</e7>F. If the soil is dry, the plants may
become desiccated, turn brown and die. Therefore, water shrubs several times
during the late fall, if the soil moisture supply is low.

Mulch plantings to reduce the frequency of watering during dry spells.
Mulches help keep soils cool and reduce water loss through evaporation.

As with any job, to do it properly the gardener must have the right tools,
namely: hose, water breakers, sprinklers, sprinkling can and utility pails.

When acquiring a hose, make sure it will reach all plants in the garden so
the end can be placed at the base of any plant. When watering individual
plants with a hose, attach a water breaker to the end. It will concentrate a
soft flow of water in a small area but will not wash away soil. Don't use a
trigger type nozzle it will wash soil away from the roots.

There are many types of good sprinklers on the market. One type is a spike
sprinkler on a riser that can be adjusted from two feet to four feet. This
sprinkles above shrubs and small trees, providing excellent water
distribution. However, much water is lost to evaporation. Sprinklers should
not be used on windy days, because water will be blown away from the desired
location.

Sprinkling cans are appropriate for watering vegetable and flower seeds sown
directly in the garden. A hose used for this purpose can cause seeds to be
washed away. Until seedlings become well established, water them with a
sprinkling can. Utility pails are helpful when only one or two newly planted
shrubs or small trees need water.

If the soil is dry when preparing a hole for a new plant, dig the hole and
fill it with water the day before the plant goes into the ground. This
allows the soil time to absorb water and does not create a muddy condition
during the planting. Once a tree or shrub has been planted, the soil around
the stem should be shaped to create a shallow depression the diameter of the
root ball. Fill the depression with water. This permits water to go straight
to the root zone rather than runoff the surface. Thorough soaking after
planting eliminates air pockets around roots.

It is important when planting (particularly container grown material) to
avoid covering the top of the root ball with more than one-half to one inch
of fine soil. Otherwise water can be diverted sideways through the native
soil and not soak down into the root ball where it is needed.

When there is an extended period without rain during the summer, new plants
should be deeply watered once a week. By allowing the soil surface to dry
out somewhat between waterings, major root development will be at greater
depths where soil moisture is highest. Plants watered frequently but lightly
will have roots close to the surface, making them more vulnerable to
wilting. They will not become well established and will have little drought
tolerance. This happens with automatic overhead sprinkler systems that are
designed to go on for a short period of time each night and only moisten the
surface. This practice also encourages foliar diseases in midsummer.

During cool seasons less watering is necessary because evaporation from the
leaves and soil is slow. Normally, abundant rainfall during spring and
autumn diminishes the need for watering. During any dry autumn before the
ground freezes, all garden plants should have a thorough watering to help
prevent root damage to the plants from cold winter temperatures. Damage from
unusually cold temperatures around the roots shows up in the spring in the
form of leaf drop because there are not enough roots to support the foliage.

With well established groups of woody plants, watering should be done every
ten days during prolonged dry spells. Since root systems of established
plants are rather widespread and deep, it is vital that enough moisture be
put down to reach them. A general rule of thumb is that one inch of water
penetrates six inches of soil. If a sprinkler is set up to water a group of
plants, a coffee can should be placed in range of the sprinkler. When one
inch of water accumulates in the can, one inch of water has been distributed
in the soil.

Plantings watered by surface flooding need some form of water retention to
prevent runoff. Shallow trenches can be created between the rows of plants
and flooded to a depth of one to two inches. This method works well on level
ground where plants are grown in rows.

The best time to water is in the morning or evening when air temperatures
are lower than at midday, thus reducing evaporation. In the evening do not
wet foliage because this can encourage fungus or mildew, making plants
unsightly and jeopardizing their health.
-Fig-
Watering Tools
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,426>
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Winterizing Trees and Shrubs
-Text-

It is often necessary to give a little extra attention to plants in the fall
to help them over winter and start spring in peak condition. Understanding
of certain principles and cultural practices will significantly reduce
winter damage of ornamentals.

Causes of winter damage   Types of winter damage can be divided into three
categories: desiccation, freezing, and breakage.

Desiccation, or drying out, is a significant cause of damage, particularly
on evergreens. This occurs when water is leaving the plant faster than it is
being taken into the plant. There are several environmental factors that can
influence desiccation. The needles and leaves of evergreens transpire some
moisture even during the winter months. During severely cold weather, the
ground may freeze to a depth beyond the extent of the root system, thereby
cutting off the supply of water. If the fall has been particularly dry,
there may be insufficient ground moisture to supply the roots with adequate
water. Water loss is greatest during periods of strong winds and during
periods of sunny, mild weather. The heat of the sun can cause stomates on
the lower sides of the leaves to open; thus, increasing transpiration.
Small, shallow rooted plants are often injured when alternate freezing and
thawing of the soil heaves the plants from firm contact with the soil and
exposes the roots to desiccation of drying winds. Injury due to desiccation
is commonly seen as discolored, burned evergreen needles or leaves. It is
worst on the side facing the wind. It can be particularly serious if plants
are near a white house where the sun's rays bounce off the side, causing
extra damage.

Freezing injury can take several forms. New growth stimulated in early fall
by late summer fertilization may not have had time to harden off
sufficiently to survive sudden drops to below freezing temperatures. Ice
crystals rupture cell walls. This damage will show up as dead branch tips
and branches. A sharp temperature change between day and night may freeze
the water within the trunk of a tree causing it to explode or split open in
a symptom called frost cracking. If not severe, these cracks seem to close
when warmweather arrives but the wood fibers within may not grow together.
This is sometimes called southwest injury because it is commonly found on
the southwest side of shade trees where warm afternoon sun creates further
extremes in the day and night temperatures.

The sun can also prematurely stimulate the opening of flowers or leaf buds
in the spring which might be killed by freezing night temperatures. Bud
injury due to the cold temperatures of winter also occurs in the dormant
state on more tender trees and shrubs. Flowering shrubs may lose their
flower buds although their leaf buds usually come through. Root injury may
occur in containers and planters, or balled and burlapped (B & B) stock
which has been left exposed during the winter. Lethal root temperatures can
start at 23<e7>o</e7> F on some species.

Breakage of branches is usually related to snow and ice. Two causes of
damage by snow and ice are weight and careless snow removal. High winds
compound the damage done when ice is on the plant. Damage may take the form
of misshapen plants or may actually result in broken branches and split
trunks.

Avoiding Damage  Much of the disappointment and frustration of winter
damaged plants can be avoided by planning ahead:

Select Hardy Plants. Grow plant materials that are native or are known to be
winter hardy in your area.

Select Appropriate Site. When planting broadleaf evergreens that are known
to be easily injured, such as some varieties of rhododendron, azalea,
camellia, daphne, and holly, select a location on the north, northeast, or
eastern side of a building or other barrier where they will be protected
from prevailing winds and intense winter sun. These exposures will also
delay spring growth, thus preventing injury to new growth of flowers from
late spring frost.

Avoid Poorly Drained Soil. Avoid low spots that create frost pockets and
sites that are likely to experience rapid fluctuations in temperature. Since
heavy snow and ice can cause much damage to branches and trunks, it is
important that plants be placed away from house eaves and other snow or ice
collecting areas, where snow or ice is likely to fall or slide onto the
plants.

Follow Recommended Cultural Practices. Following recommended cultural
practices has been shown to be highly effective in reducing winter injury to
ornamentals. Plants that are diseased or deficient in nutrients are more
susceptible to winter injury than strong, healthy plants.

     Fall fertilization, after plants are dormant but before soil temperature
     drops below 45 degrees F., may be of value in preventing winter damage.
     Avoid late summer or early`fall fertilization while plants are still
     active as this stimulates late fall growth which is easily killed by the
     cold.

     Proper pruning at an appropriate time throughout the year is effective in
     reducing damage by ice and snow. Particularly important is the removal of
     any weak, narrow angled, V-shaped crotches. Avoid late summer pruning
     which stimulates new, tender growth and reduces the supply of nutrients
     available to the plant through the winter.

     Proper watering can be a critical factor in winterizing. If autumn rains
     have been insufficient, give plants a deep soaking that will supply water
     to the entire root system before the ground freezes. This practice is
     especially important for evergreens. Watering during January, February,
     and March, when there are warm days is also important. Mulching is an
     important control for erosion and loss of water. A two inch layer of
     mulch material such as tan bark, fir bark, pine needles, wood chips or
     sawdust will reduce water loss and help maintain uniform soil moisture
     around roots. Mulching also reduces alternate freezing and thawing of the
     soil which heaves some shallow rooted plants and can cause significant
     winter damage.

Protecting Against Damage  Special precautions can be taken to protect
plants during the winter. Antidesiccant compounds are sold in many garden
centers and supply catalogs. However, research has shown that these
compounds degrade rapidly and are of little value to homeowners.

Small evergreens can best be protected by using wind breaks made out of
burlap, canvas, or similar materials. Wind breaks help reduce the force of
the wind and also shade the plants. Windbreaks can be created by attaching
materials to a frame around a plant. A complete wrapping of straw or burlap
is sometimes used. Black plastic should be avoided as a material for
wrapping plants. During the day it builds up heat inside and actually
increases the extreme fluctuation between day and night temperatures and may
speed up growth of buds in the spring, making them more susceptible to a
late frost. Certainly these various boxes, shields and wrappings add nothing
to the aesthetics of your winter landscape. If ornamentals require annual
protection measures to this extent, it would be wise to move them to a more
protected location or replace them with hardier specimens.

Collecting snow should be removed with a broom. Always sweep upward with the
broom to lift snow off. When the branches are frozen and brittle, avoid
disturbing them. Wait until a warmer day.

Protection against an early frost can be given to a particularly valuable
specimen by providing it with a fine, gentle, continuous spray of water.
Satisfactory protection can be obtained in many cases, even when the
temperature drops as low as 20 degrees F. When the air temperature drops
below freezing, the water sprayed onto the plant begins to formice. During
the process of freezing, water gives off heat and enough heat is absorbed by
the plants to prevent them from freezing. As long as water is applied
continuously, the plant remains above its freezing point. The application of
water should begin when the temperature at plant level reaches 34 degrees F.
and must be constant throughout the period when the air temperature is below
freezing and continued until all ice has melted off the plant. A stationary
or rotary sprinkler will give satisfactory results. Bark splitting,
especially dangerous on newly planted trees, can be prevented by wrapping
trunks with burlap strips or with commercial tree wrap.

If Winter Injury Occurs  After a particularly severe winter, many plants may
show substantial injury. Damage symptoms are discolored burned evergreen
needles or leaves, dead branch tips and branches, heaved root systems and
broken branches. At winter's end, remove only those branches that are broken
or so brown that they are obviously dead. Do not remove branches when
scraping the outer bark reveals a green layer underneath. Wait until
midsummer before pruning because even dead looking plants may still be
alive. The extent of winter damage can best be determined after new growth
starts in the spring. At that time, prune all dead twigs or branches back to
within one quarter of an inch above a live bud, or flush with the nearest
live branch.

If discoloration on narrow-leaved evergreen needles is not too severe, they
may regain their green color or new foliage may be produced on the undamaged
stem. Broad-leaved evergreens showing leaf damage will usually produce new
leaves, if branches and vegetative leaf buds have not been too severely
injured. Damaged leaves may drop or be removed. Prune to remove badly
damaged or broken branches to shape plant and to stimulate new growth.

Replant small plants with root systems partially heaved out of the ground as
soon as the soil thaws. Unless the root system is small enough to be pushed
easily with the fingers into the soft soil, dig the plant, retaining as much
as possible of the root system within a soil ball and replant it. An
application of fertilizer to the soil around winter damaged plants,
accompanied by adequate watering, will usually induce new growth to
compensate for winter injuries.

Special care should be given to plants injured by winter's cold. The dry
months of June, July and August can be particularly damaging as the plants
are weak and often unable to survive the stress of drought. Be sure to water
adequately.
-Fig-
Removing Snow from Trees
Winter Tree Protection
-End-
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 First Aid for Storm Damaged Trees
-Text-

Treatment of storm damaged trees requires wise decisions and prompt action
if the maximum in repair work is to be achieved. Repairs come in two stages:
First Aid for immediate attention and Follow-up Work to be distributed over
a period of several months to several years.

Decision factors - is the tree damaged beyond practical repair?
     If over thirty to fifty percent of the main branches or trunk are severely
     split, broken, or mutilated, extensive repair efforts are questionable.

     Desirability of species. Some less desirable species are: black locust,
     Siberian (Chinese) elm, box elder, mulberry, true poplars, silver leaf
     maple, arborvitae. More desirable trees are: oak species, most maples,
     pecans, sweet gum, pine species, magnolia, hollies, hackberry, beech.

     Location. If too close to power lines, building or other structures,
     the tree may need to be removed.

     Soundness. Extremely old, low vigor trees might not have recovery
     ability.

     Special values. Rarity of species or variety, sentimental and/or
     historical value.

     Purpose of the tree. Does it serve a true landscape purpose or value?

Workmanship factors.
     Remove only the branches necessary for immediate repairs. Too much
     removal of wood in one season can help create such problems as sunscald,
     weak branching habits and soft sucker growth.

     Re-attach bark to the inner wood with galvanized nails if healing seems
     possible. Reshape torn tissue areas to vertically elongated shapes to
     encourage healing. Support split branches with adequate guys or braces.
     Avoid leaving stubs of branches; make branch removal cuts at side
     branches when possible.

     Observe safety precautions relative to falling branches, use ladders,
     avoid contact with power lines, etc.

     If work is done by someone else, know if adequate insurance is carried
     for personal injury, liability, and property damage.

     Promptly remove all debris from the premises such as broken branches and
     prunings to help eliminate breeding grounds for insects and diseases.

Follow-up considerations.

     Check the progress of growth unions of re-attached bark areas.

     Establish a tree fertilizer program. Most older trees need fertilizer to
     increase vigor and reduce susceptibility to breakage.

     Gradually prune and reshape trees for balance and general appearance over
     a period of three to five years.

     Control devitalizing conditions such as sucker sprouts, insect and
     disease damage.

     Replacement trees, if necessary, should be carefully selected for
     durability, general adaptation, and size for the area.


Special Fruit Tree Treatment  Broken limbs should be cut back to a fairly
strong side branch. When cutting terminal growth to the side branch, make
cut so it continues the line of direction of the side branch so the wound
will heal quickly. Some split crotches may be drawn together with bolts.

If damage to fruit trees has destroyed over 50% of the bearing surface, it
may be wise to remove the entire tree. Damage that exposes large areas of
wood or where large pruning cuts are made have traditionally been treated
with commercial wound dressing but currentresearch indicates that this is
not necessarily useful and may encourage disease.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,428>
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Protecting and Repairing Trees During Construction
-Text-

The location of a house on a lot should be carefully planned to utilize
existing trees and avoid unnecessary and destructive grading. Trees of
desirable species located where they may serve a useful purpose in the
landscape should be protected during the construction process. Consult a
person with training and experience in landscaping to help select those
trees which should be saved, and those which should be removed.

Plan protective measures before construction starts. If this is not
possible, start corrective practices as soon as damage is observed. The
longer an injury is neglected, the greater will be the ultimate damage to
the tree.

Trees may respond quite differently to various types of injury. Under some
circumstances death may occur soon after the tree has received apparently
minor damage. In other cases, trees may grow quite satisfactorily after
being subjected to severe injury. In most situations an effort should be
made to save well located trees of young or middle age.

Protecting Trees During Construction   Trees which are not needed in the
landscape planting should be eliminated before construction starts. This
will provide more space for the soil from the basement, building supplies,
and the movement of men and equipment involved in building the house.

Protect trees which are to be saved for future landscape use by placing tall
conspicuous stakes at the ends of the branches on the sides where trucks or
bulldozers will be operating. As added protection attach heavy fencing to
the stakes.

General Corrective Practices  Damage to trees during construction operations
usually involves impairment of the water and nutrient supply system. This is
true when either the roots or top of the tree is damaged. Therefore, three
corrective procedures should be applied: 1) prune back and thin out the
branches to reduce water requirement; 2) irrigate as needed to maintain an
adequate moisture supply in the soil, and 3) apply fertilizer to help
stimulate renewed growth.

Prune back the top in proportion to the severity of the damage to the tree.
In cases of serious injury, cut back and thin out the branches quite
drastically.

Bruised and Peeled Bark   Damage to tree trunks caused by careless operation
of trucks or other equipment should be treated to promote rapid healing.
Trim back bruised bark around the wound to sound tissue on each side, and
cut to a point at the top and bottom. This will facilitate movement of
moisture and nutrients around the damage area.

If the damaged area is less than 25% of the circumference of the trunk, the
wound should gradually heal over and no permanent injury should result. If
the damage involves more than 50% of the circumference, the tree may be
seriously reduced in vigor. It may lose branches and be quite unsightly.
However, the corrective procedures of top pruning, irrigation, and
fertilization should be practiced until the tree recovers or it is evident
that the tree will not recover satisfactorily and should be removed.

Broken Branches   Remove tree branches which have been broken from any
cause. Damage near the end of a branch can be eliminated by cutting back to
a strong lateral. Cut the entire branch off close to the trunk at the
"collar" when the broken area is near the base.See the chapter on pruning
for more details.

Root Damage by Trenches   The digging of trenches for water or gas lines, or
for foundations for buildings, walks, or drives may damage the root system
of nearby trees. If such injury cannot be avoided, the top of the tree can
be pruned back and thinned out to reduce demand for water from the remaining
roots.

Roots Covered By Pavement   Roots which are covered by pavement may be
deprived of air and moisture which are essential for growth. If the covered
area involves only a portion along one side of the tree, satisfactory growth
should continue. If the entire area around the tree is paved, the surface
should be porous to allow water and air to penetrate, or if brick or
flagstone is used, joints should not be mortared. When pavement is
nonporous, an opening should be left around the trunk of the tree. This
opening should be at least six feet in diameter for small trees. The opening
should be larger around mature trees unless the roots extend beyond the
pavement into uncovered soil. Roots of trees typically extend several feet
beyond the spread of the branches.

Fertilization of Damaged Trees   When the root system of a tree has been
damaged during construction, a moderate application of fertilizer may be
beneficial. Use two pounds of 5-10-5 formula per tree for each inch of trunk
diameter measured three feet above the ground.

The easiest and most practical method of application is to broadcast the
fertilizer over the area of greatest concentration of feeder roots. These
are located in a band around the tree starting about two feet from the trunk
and extending several feet beyond the ends of the branches. Scatter
fertilizer evenly over this area, and apply water liberally to wash it into
the ground. Most of the feeder roots occur in the top foot of soil, with
very few extending below two feet.

Grading Around Trees   A majority of the feeder roots of trees are located
within a foot of the surface and typically extend several feet beyond the
end of the branches. The topmost roots of trees are usually covered with
about four inches of soil. Topsoil should not be disturbed around landscape
trees during the construction operation unless absolutely necessary to
change the grade.

The removal of soil around ornamental trees may damage or destroy vital
feeder roots. If damage is not too severe a layer of fertile loam may be
applied over the exposed roots. The tree should recover and continue active
growth.

In some situations the grade level around the house may need to be changed
and involve the addition of soil around trees. If the ground level is raised
six inches or more, the air supply to the roots will be reduced and the tree
may decline in vigor or die. Beech, oak, dogwood, poplar, hickory, walnut,
and most evergreen trees are particularly susceptible to injury of this
type.

When the change in grade involves an increase of one foot or less, use
crushed stone or gravel as the basic fill. Cover this with about six inches
of a sandy soil, which should allow adequate aeration of the tree roots.

A tree well should be constructed if more than one foot of fill is to be
applied. Pile coarse stones in a ring around the tree starting about three
feet from the trunk, to a depth about eight inches below the final expected
soil level. Slope the stone fill down to extend and terminate at a distance
equal to about 3/4 the mature spread of the branches. Construct a facing
stone wall to form a well around the tree. Apply about two or three inches
ofcrushed stone or gravel on the coarse stones, and cover with earth to the
desired grade level. This will allow air to reach the roots and should
permit healthy growth even though several feet of soil is added around the
trees.
-Fig-
Grading Around Trees for Drainage
Tree
-End-
-Title-
 CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS
-SubTitle-
 Mower Wounds Can Kill Trees
-Text-

Injury and infection started by lawnmower wounds can often be the most
serious threat to tree health on golf courses, parks, and home lawns.

Most arborists and tree pathologists have been aware of the lawnmower
problem for some time. Extensive research has been conducted on the
importance of wounds in tree health care. This research has led to
significant adjustments in pruning, cabling, bracing, injection, and cavity
treatment.

Lawnmowers cause the most severe injury during periods when tree bark is
most likely to slip, in early spring during leaf emergence and in early fall
during leaf drop. If the bark slips, a large wound is produced from even
minor injuries.

Most tree injuries occur when mower operators attempt to trim close to tree
trunks with a power mower. this can be prevented by removal of turf around
trees or by hand trimming. Care must also be used to avoid harming trees
with filament line weed trimming machines. They can do a great deal of
damage to the bark, particularly on young trees.

The site of injury is usually the root buttress, since it flares out from
the trunk and gets in the path of the mower. However, injury is also common
anywhere from the roots to several feet above the ground. Although large
wounds are most serious, repeated small wounds can also add up to trouble.

Wounds from lawnmowers are serious enough by themselves, but the wounded
tree must also protect itself from pathogens that invade the wound. These
microorganisms can often attack the injured bark and invade adjcent healthy
tissue, greatly enlarging the affected area. Trees can be completely girdled
from microbial attack following lawnmower wounds.

Decay fungi also become active on the wound surface and structural
deterioration of the woody tissues beneath the wound will often occur. Many
wounded trees which are not girdled may eventually break off at the stem or
root collar due to internal decay.


-End-
-Title-
 TREES RESISTANT TO GYPSY MOTH
-Text-

Species rarely fed upon:
               ash                      Fraxinus species
               red cedar                Juniperus virginiana
               dogwood                  Cornus florida
               honey locust             Gleditsia triacanthos
               sycamore                 Platanus occidentalis
               tulip tree               Liriodendron tuplifera
               white cedar              Thuja occidentalis
               black walnut             Juglans nigra
               black locust             Robinia pseudoacacia

Species fed upon when other foliage is gone:
               hickory                  Carya species
               black gum                Nyssa sylvatica
               hornbeam                 Carpinus caroliniana
               red maple                Acer rubrum
               Norway maple             Acer platanoides
               sassafras                Sassafras albidum
               beech                    Fagus grandifolia


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS TOLERANT OF CHILDREN AND ANIMALS
-Text-

Most of these plants have thorns. They will all discourage traffic.
               barberry                   Berberis species
               hawthorn                   Crataegus species
               pyracantha                 Pyracantha species
               flowering quince           Chaenomeles species
               trifoliate orange          Poncirus trifoliata
               roses                      Rosa species
               red cedar                  Juniperus virginiana
               osmanthus                  Osmanthus heterophyllus
               yucca                      Yucca species
               holly (American,           Ilex species
                 English, Chinese)
               mahonia                    Mahonia species


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS TO ATTRACT WILDLIFE
-Text-

Birds and other animals seek food, shelter, water, and safe areas for
reproduction.  The plants listed help meet these requirements.

Trees:
               beech                      Fagus species
               oak                        Quercus species
               pine                       Pinus species
               red cedar                  Juniperus virginiana
               ash                        Fraxinus species
               birch                      Betula species
               cherry                     Prunus species
               dogwood                    Cornus species
               blackgum                   Nyssa sylvatica
               hickory                    Carya species
               holly                      Ilex species
               magnolia                   Magnolia species
               maple                      Acer species
               persimmon                  Diospyros virginiana
               tulip tree                 Liriodendron tulipifera
               service berry              Amelanchier species
               sassafras                  Sassafras albidum
               crabapple                  Malus species

Shrubs:
               sumac                      Rhus species
               spice bush                 Lindera benzoin
               viburnum                   Viburnum species
               yew                        Taxus species
               elderberry                 Sambucus species
               rhododendron               Rhododendron species
               hawthorn                   Crataegus species
               Russian olive              Elaeagnus angustifolius
               Oregon grape holly         Mahonia species
               pyracantha                 Pyracantha species

Vines and other plants:
               blackberry
               raspberry
               teaberry
               partridge berry
               sunflower
               honeysuckle
               Virginia creeper
               bittersweet
               pokeberry
               blueberry


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS TOLERANT OF DRY, POOR SOIL
-Text-

Get the plants listed here off to a good start by preparing the soil they
are to be planted in and by watering until they are established.

Trees:
               hackberry                  Celtis occidentalis
               junipers                   Juniperus species
               golden rain tree           Koelreutaria paniculata
               osage orange               Maclura pomifera
               Virginia pine              Pinus virginiana
               chestnut oak               Quercus prinus
               locust                     Robinia pseudoacacia

               sassafras                  Sassafras albidum

Shrubs:
               amur maple                 Acer ginnala
               Japanese barberry          Berberis thunbergii
               quince                     Chaenomeles species
               smoketree                  Cotinus coggygria
               broom                      Cytisus species
               Russian olive              Elaeagnus angustifolia
               witch hazel                Hamamelis virginiana
               St. Johnswort              Hypericum species
               privet                     Ligustrum species
               buckthorn                  Rhamnus species
               sumac                      Rhus species
               yucca                      Yucca species

Groundcovers:
               yarrow                     Achillea species
               crown vetch                Coronilla varia
               sweet William              Dianthus species
               daylilies                  Hemerocallis species
               cinquefoil                 Potentilla species
               lavender cotton            Santolina chamaecyparissus
               creeping phlox             Phlox subulata
               St. Johnswort              Hypericum species


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS TOLERANT OF SHADE
-Text-

The degree of shade tolerance varies from plant to plant. Most will do well
with some sun, especially those that flower.

Trees:
               shadbush                   Amelanchier species
               red bud                    Cercis canadensis
               dogwood                    Cornus florida
               hollies                    Ilex species
               arborvitae                 Thuja occidentalis
               hemlock                    Tsuga species

Shrubs:

               abelia                     Abelia species
               alders                     Alnus species
               chokeberry                 Aronia species
               aucuba                     Aucuba japonica
               barberry                   Berberis species
               Hinoki cypress             Chamaecyparis species
               mountain laurel            Kalmia latifolia
               leocothoe                  Leucothoe fontanesiana
               mahonia                    Mahonia species
               heavenly bamboo            Nandina domestica
               pieris                     Pieris species
               rhododendron               Rhododendron species
               yew                        Taxus species
               viburnum                   Viburnum species

Ground covers:

               spurge                     Pachysandra terminalis
               periwinkle                 Vinca minor
               bugle weed                 Ajuga species
               lily-of-the-valley         Convallaria majalis
               ferns                      several
               daylilies                  Hemerocallis species
               plantain lily              Hosta species
               Virginia bluebells         Mertensia virgnica
               primrose                   Primula species
               stonecrop                  Sedum species
               violets                    Viola species


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS TOLERANT OF SALT
-Text-

               autumn olive               Elaeagnus angustifolia
               honey locust               Gleditsia triacanthos
               mulberry                   Morus species
               black locust               Robinia pseudoacacia
               buffalo berry              Shepherdia argentea
               tamarix                    Tamarix gallica
               white oak                  Quercus alba
               red oak                    Quercus borealis
               English oak                Quercus robur
               white willow               Salix alba


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS WITH COLORFUL AUTUMN FOLIAGE
-Text-

SHRUBS:
Botanical Name           Common Name           Color Range         Height

Acer ginnala             Amur Maple            Scarlet                8'
Cornus alba 'sibirica'   Siberian Dogwood      Red                    9'
Euonymus alatus          Winged Euonymus       Scarlet                7'
Rhus aromatica           Fragrant Sumac        Yellow-scarlet         4'
Rhus copallina           Shining Sumac         Scarlet               25'
Rhus glabra              Smooth Sumac          Bright red            25'
Rhus typhina             Staghorn Sumac        Red                   30'
Rosa rugosa              Rugosa Rose           Red-yellow             6'
Vaccinium species        Blueberries           Scarlet             3-25'
Viburnum dentatum        Arrowwood             Glossy red            15'
Viburnum prunifolium     Black Haw             Shining red           15'
Virburnum lentago        Nannyberry            Purplish-red          30'
Nandina domestica        Nandina               Scarlet                6'

TREES:

Botanical Name           Common Name           Color Range         Height

Acer saccharum           Sugar Maple           Red-yellow          Tall
Acer rubrum              Red or Swamp Maple    Red                 Tall
Acer tataricum           Tatarian Maple        Red to yellow       Medium
Chionanthus virginicus   Fringetree            Yellow              Medium
Cornus florida           Flowering Dogwood     Scarlet             Small
Cornus florida rubra     Red Flowering         Red                 Small
                              Dogwood
Cornus mas               Cornelian Cherry      Red                 Small
Cornus kousa             Japanese Dogwood      Bronze to red       Small
Crataegusphaenopyrum     Washington Hawthorn   Scarlet/orange      Medium
Ginkgo biloba            Ginkgo                Yellow              Tall
Liquidambar              Sweet Gum             Scarlet             Tall
   styraciflua
Oxydendrum arboreum      Sourwood or           Scarlet             Medium
                              Sorrel Tree
Pyrus calleryana         Bradford Pear         Dark red            Medium
   'Bradford'
Quercus borealis         Red Oak               Red                 Tall
Quercus coccinea         Scarlet Oak           Scarlet             Tall
Sassafras albidum        Sassafras             Orange/scarlet      Medium


-End-
-Title-
 PLANTS WITH ATTRACTIVE FRUIT
-Text-

SHRUBS:
Botanical Name>          Common Name       Fruit Color    Season    Height

Aronia arbutifolia       Red Chokeberry       Red            F          8'
Aucuba japonica          Japanese Aucuba      Red            W       7-10'
Berberis thunbergii      Japanese Barberry    Red           F-W         5'
Callicarpa japonica      Japanese Beauty-     Purple         F          6'
                             berry
Cotoneaster species      Cotoneaster          Red            F       1-15'
Elaeagnus multiflora     Cherry Elaeagnus     Red          Mid-S        9'
Euonymus alatus          Winged Euonymus      Scarlet        F          7'
Ilex cornuta             Chinese Holly        Red           F-W        10'
Ilex verticillata        Winterberry          Red           F-W         7'
Ligustrum lucidum        Evergreen privet     Blue-black    F-W        10'
Lonicera species         Bush Honeysuckle     Red           S-F      8-15'
Mahonia aquifolium       Oregon Holly Grape   Bluish-black   S          6'
Nandina domestica        Nandina              Red & white   F-W         6'
Pyracantha coccinea      Pyracantha or        Orange        F-W      6-20'
lalandei                     Firethorn
Rhus glabra              Smooth Sumac         Scarlet       F-W     15-20'
Rhus typhina             Staghorn Sumac       Crimson       F-W        15'
Rosa species             Rose                 Red            F          6'
Symphoricarpos albus     Snowberry            White          F          3'
Viburnum dilatatum       Linden Viburnum      Red            F         10'
Viburnum opulus          European Cranberry-  Red           F-W        10'
                             bush Viburnum

TREES:

Botanical Name           Common Name        Fruit Color    Season    Height

Acer ginnala             Amur Maple           Red            Sum        20'
Cornus florida           Flowering Dogwood    Red             F         25'
Crataegus species        Hawthorn             Red             F      15-30'
Ilex aquifolium          English Holly        Red            F-W        50'
Ilex cassine             Dahoon               Red            F-W        36'
Ilex opaca               American Holly       Red            F-W        45'
Ilex vomitoria           Yaupon Holly         Red            F-W        24'
Juniperus virginiana     Red Cedar            Bluish         F-W        75'
Liquidambar              Sweet Gum            Brown           F        100'
   styraciflua
Magnolia grandiflora     Southern Magnolia    Red             F         80'
Malus species            Crab Apple           Red to yellow   F      20-40'
Melia azedarach          Chinaberry           Yellow         F-W        40'
Oxydendrum arboreum      Sourwood or          Grayish        F-W        75'
                              Sorrel Tree
Photinia serrulata       Chinese Photinia     Red            F-W        25'
Paulownia tomentosa      Royal Paulownia      Dark Brown      F         45'
Sorbus species           Mountain Ash         Red             F         30'
Evergreens  with cones                        Brown          F-W    75-100'

VINES:

Ampelopsis               Porcelain            Lilac-blue      F         25'
   brevipedunculata         Ampelopsis
Celastrus scandens       American Bittersweet Yellow-red     F-W        30'
Euonymus fortunei        Wintercreeper        Orange          F         30'


-End-
-Title-
 PROBLEM TREES
-Text-

When selecting a tree to plant in the yard it is nice to know exactly what
you are getting. Many homeowners plant a sapling, enjoy it for a few years,
and then discover some serious disadvantages when the tree reaches an
effective height. The following list of trees have certain disadvantages
which you should be aware of before you plant them in your yard.
Acer negundo (Box Elder)
          This tree has weak wood, is short-lived and is susceptible to box
          elder bugs.

Acer saccharinum  (Silver Maple)
          One of the worst trees available because of its brittle wood and
          tendency to become hollow and hazardous. Its shallow surface roots
          can ruin sidewalks and driveways, and prevent turfgrass growth
          underneath. Also susceptible to insects. Outlawed in some
          localities.

Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven)
          A weed tree that sprouts up everywhere and has a disagreeable odor.
          It is outlawed in some cities.

Albizia julibrissin (Mimosa)
          Susceptible to Mimosa Wilt (root fungus) and has weak, fast growth.

Betula papyrifera (White Clump Birch)
          Authorities say it isn't likely to do well where the mean July
          temperature is above 70 degrees F. Once weakened, the bronze birch
          borer will kill it. It is pretty but short-lived.

Betula pendula (European White Birch)
          This birch is susceptible to insects and much environmental stress.

Catalpa spp.
          All catalpas have messy flowers and seed pods.

Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgo)
          Do not plant the female Ginkgo. It's fruits have a very offensive
          odor.

Juglans nigra (Black Walnut)
          The tree roots produce a toxin that is harmful to certain other
          plants, and anthracnose will defoliate it during August and
          September. The wood is valuable though.

Laburnum anagyroides (Golden Chain Tree)
          This tree is subject to much environmental stress .

Malus species (Crabapple)
          Most varieties are defoliated by scab diseases every year. The
          fruits can be messy.

Melia azedarach (Chinaberry)
          This tree has weak wood, seeds that are a pest and many suckers.

Morus species (Mulberry)
          Mulberries have messy fruit.

Paulownia tomentosa (Empress Tree)
          Its pretty flowers become thousands of seeds which sprout everywhere.
          Its wood has been bringing high prices lately.

Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore)
          Leaves and seeds from this tree are messy; it has brittle wood and
          surface roots. Anthracnose, a late spring blight which occurs most
          years will attack it.

Populus species (Lombardy poplar, white or silver poplar, hybrid poplars,
          cottonwood) These trees have brittle wood and surface root systems,
          but their main problem is their susceptibility to canker diseases
          which disfigure and usually kill them. Some also have messy flowers
          or send up suckers from their roots. The Lombardy poplar is very
          short-`lived. Note that the Tulip Poplar (or Yellow Poplar or Tulip
          Tree) is not a poplar, but rather a liriodendron. While it does have
          brittle wood, it is a pretty good tree.

Prunus serotina (Black Cherry)
          Has objectionable fruit; is susceptible to insects and attracts many
          birds.

Robinia pseudoacacia (Black Locust)
          It is good for fence posts and firewood, but not for landscaping. It
          has brittle wood, is susceptible to cankers, and leaf miners render
          it unattractive by summer.

Salix species (Willows)
          These trees have very brittle wood and are susceptible to canker
          diseases. Their roots will clog sewer and drain pipes. Some are
          attractive on large lots.

Sorbus species (Mountain Ash)
          Likes cool climates. Subject to damage from sawflies, borers, scale,
          and fire blight.

Ulmus americana (American Elm)
          Until Dutch elm disease can be controlled, this long time favorite
          should not be planted.

Ulmus pumila (Siberian Elm)
          Its brittle wood will result in severe damage in ice storms, and its
          seeds and suckering habit make it a pest. Also very short-lived.
          Note that the Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) is often confused with
          the Siberian Elm, but is far superior.

Fruit trees (and fruit trees that only flower)
          These are often subject to Japanese beetle infestation. Fruit trees
          require a genuine commitment; don't try to get into them halfway.


The following trees will give you trouble if they are not planted correctly.
Many of them are slightly out of their preferred habitat and will not
tolerate much abuse.

Abies species (Fir)
          They need deep, fertile, well drained soils and a cool, moist climate.

Acer saccharum (Sugar Maple)
          Sugar maples grow well enough to produce maple syrup only in western
          Virginia's mountains.

Picea abies (Norway Spruce)
          Subject to environmental stress.

Picea pungens (Colorado Blue Spruce)
          Virginia is not at all like Colorado. Most spruces lose their
          attractiveness in a few years.

Pinus palustris (Longleaf Pine)
          They do not tolerate our area well; subject to much
          environmental stress.

Pinus strobus (White Pine)
          This is a very large tree and won't tolerate overcrowding. It also
          dislikes disturbed soil and suffers from air pollution. Does not
          like extreme heat or poor drainage.

Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine)
          The Scotch Pine is subject to environmental stress.

Tsuga canadensis (Hemlock)
          Once established, hemlock does pretty well. It requires rich soil
          and shelter from wind and sun to get off to a good start.

-End-
-Title-
 HERBACEOUS PLANTS
-Text-

 INTRODUCTION

Flower gardening is the horticulturist's reward for hard work. Flowers and
flower borders provide color against the predominant green of a landscape.
They are the accent and contrast that make a landscape lively and
interesting. Flowers also complement most of the features that conventional
landscaping materials, such as trees and shrubs, establish. They can add
depth and dimension, form and texture, and change heights and slopes,
besides their most obvious asset which is color. Flowers can also be useful,
providing culinary herbs for the table and cut flowers for arrangements.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,440>
-Title-
 PLANNING THE FLOWER BORDER
-Text-

Much of the excitement of creating an herbaceous border lies in its great
flexibility of design. In form, placement and selection of plants, the
contemporary border follows few rigid rules and allows fullest expression of
the gardener's taste.

The first step in planning the material for an all season, mixed perennial
border, is to select key plants for line, mass, color, and dependability.
Line is the silhouette or outline of a plant, mass is its shape or denseness
and dependability refers to its ability to remain attractive with a minimum
of problems. Garden books and catalogues can be very useful for reference.

The most attractive flower borders are those which are located in front of a
suitable background such as a fence, shrubbery, or a building. In some cases
tall flowers such as hollyhocks or sunflower may serve a dual purpose as
flowers in the border and as background plants. Annual or perennial flowers
of medium height may serve as background plants for a small border planting.

-Fig-
Flower Bed
-Text-

A general rule, unless the garden is very spacious or formal, is to avoid a
ruler-straight front edge. A gentle to boldly sweeping curve, easily laid
out with a garden hose, is best even along a fence, and the border can taper
as it recedes from the main viewing point if an effect of distance is
desired. The deeper the curve the slower the eye moves and the greater will
be the visual enjoyment. A border outlined with bricks or flat stones set
flush with the soil is better than a steeply cut lawn edge which must be
trimmed after mowing.

-Fig-
Flower Border
-Text-

Even the advanced gardener finds it advantageous to plan a border to scale
on graph paper. The hardest task, organizing the selection of plants, will
be simplified if only two main mass forms are considered: drifts and clumps.
Drifts are elongated groupings of a plant that flow through sections of the
border. Clumps consist of circular groupings of a variety, or a single large
plant such as a peony. The length of drifts and the diameter of clumps, as
well as their heights, should be varied for best effect, and the dimensions
should always be in proportion to the overall size of the border.

Establish plants in groups large enough to form masses of color or texture.
As a rule, five or seven plants will create the desired effect. A large
delphinium or peony will be of sufficient size to be attractive, but a
random collection of different small to medium sized plants will present a
disorganized, checkerboard appearance. Each group of flowers should have an
irregular shape. These masses of color and texture should blend into a
pleasing pattern of color harmony. Dwarf flowers may be used as a continuous
edging or border along the front of the bed.

Flower borders may be of any width, depending on the space available. In a
small yard the bed may be only two or three feet wide. In a spacious
location the border planting may have a width of six or eight feet. If the
border is quite deep, a pathway of stepping stones may be helpful as a means
of working among the flowers without compacting the soil.

Tall flowers should be selected for the back part of the bed, with medium
height species in the middle, and dwarf varieties along the front as edging
plants. This is very easily done because the height of all varieties is
stated in seed catalogs. Plants along the front edge of the flower bed
should be located back far enough to allow easy mowing of the lawn.

Plant height is best limited to two-thirds the width of the border, e.g., no
plants taller than 4' in a border 6' wide. Height lines should be broken up
by letting some tall plants extend into the medium height groups, with a few
recessed clumps or drifts leading the eyeback into the border. This gives a
more natural effect than a step profile. Try to vary heights but in general
keep taller plants in the back and shorter ones toward the front.

The distance between plants in a flower border depends on the form of the
individual plants, and the effect which is desired in the landscape. Allow
adequate space between plants. Many gardeners crowd their plants too much.

As a rule, the tall spired type flowers such as hollyhock, gladiolus, and
rocket snapdragons which are trained to a very few stems, should be spaced
about one-fourth as far apart as their mature height. Tall bushy plants may
be spaced about one-half as far apart as their mature height. Rounded bushy
annuals and perennials should be spaced about as far apart as their mature
height. Creeping, ground cover type plants may be spaced about twice as far
apart as their mature height. In all cases, if a solid mass of plants is
desired, the spacing may be reduced. If individual plants are to be
conspicuous as specimens, and be allowed to produce large flowers, the
distances should be increased.

The enormous color range in perennials, plus their easy movability if
disharmony occurs, give the gardener great latitude in choosing and
combining colors. A border in tones of the same color can be effective, or
several closely related colors may be used, or the border may be made wildly
exuberant with a vast variety of hues in one or more seasons. Hues are
modifications of color such as orangish red. The objective is a balanced
composition in every season, with no section being at any time too heavily
weighted with color, and the bloom so distributed that it always makes a
pleasing pattern through the bed.

Many gardening books give excellent lists of compatible colors; these plus a
garden notebook and camera are invaluable for planning and revising color
schemes. For real floral artistry, it is perhaps more important to consider
intensity which is the vividness of a color rather than hue. For example,
light tones placed near dark ones, or contrasting palest tones with the most
intense, can give new interest and life to the border. Also consider
location and color. Near patios, white is especially good because it shows
up well in the evening or dusk hours when patios are often in use. Some
colors are suitable only as dramatic accents: deep pure red clashes with
almost anything (unless softened by dark green foliage), yet properly used
it confers strength and depth. White flowers and gray foliage are
indispensable as separators of conflicting colors.

Red, orange, and yellow are warm colors. Blue, green, and violet are cool
colors. The use of warm colors in the flower border of a small yard will
give the illusion of little space. Conversely, the use of cool colors gives
the impression of openness and space. In general, the smaller the area, the
fewer warm colors should be used.

As a gardener becomes adept at producing constant color harmony in the
border, he becomes more aware of the roles played by plant forms and
foliage. Good foliage is obviously vital in plants with short blooming
periods. Consider how much of the plant foliage will be usable and whether
it is a positive or negative attribute. Some plants practically disappear
when their blooming season is over (i.e., oriental poppy and bleeding
heart), but others stay presentable even when not in flower. Plants with
distinctive forms, color, and foliage, airy and delicate, or strong and
solid, are wonderfully useful for creating interest. Ornamental grasses, and
even handsome foliaged vegetables like broccoli and asparagus can be used
for effect.

The most logical way to choose plants is first by location, second by period
of bloom, then by height and width, and finally, by color. Location takes
into account the amount of sun or shade, and water required. This
information is easy to find in books on perennials and in catalogs.

-Fig-
Flower Bed Plan
-Text-

The only restrictions on any given plant will be environmental; a lack of
ability to tolerate winter or summer temperature extremes, or special soil,
moisture or light needs, and any limits the gardener must place on time
available for maintenance.

Even in a small border, single plants of different varieties should not be
used. This gives a jumbled look. Do not set in precise rows but in groups,
as they might grow in nature. Allow enough space for each group to grow
comfortably. Decide which flowers you like best, and let these be the basis
of your planting. Place them in several spots, if you like, down the length
of the border, but don't overdo any one plant.

The longer the border has flowers in bloom, the more you will enjoy it.
Consider the months when each plant will be at its best. Do not confine
yourself to material that blooms all at one time. Aim for a steady
succession of color.

A last bit of advice, don't be afraid to be bold even if it results in some
mistakes. Flowers are easy to move, change or take out altogether. There is
no need to be conservative or confined. Flowers are fast growers and can be
transplanted at almost anytime to help create the desired effect.

-Fig-
Hanging Basket

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUALS
-Text-

Annual flowers live only one growing season during which time they grow,
flower and produce seed, thereby completing their life cycle. Annuals must
be set out or seeded every year since they don't persist. Some varieties
will self sow or naturally reseed themselves. This may be undesirable in
most flowers because the parents of this seed are unknown and hybrid
characteristics will be lost. Plants will scatter everywhere instead of
their designated spot. Examples are alyssum, petunia and impatiens. Some
perennials, plants that live from year to year, are classed with annuals
because they are not winter hardy and must be set out every year; begonias
and snapdragons are examples. Annuals have many positive features. They are
versatile, sturdy and relatively cheap. Plant breeders have produced many
new and improved varieties. Annuals are easy to grow, produce instant color
and most important, they bloom for most of the growing season.

There are a few disadvantages to annuals. They must be set out as plants or
sowed from seed every year which involves some effort and expense. Old
flower heads should beremoved on a weekly basis to insure continuous bloom.
If they are not removed, the plants will produce seed, complete their life
cycle, and die. Many annuals begin to look disreputable by late summer and
need to be cut back for regrowth or replaced.

Annuals offer the gardener a chance to experiment with color, height,
texture, and form. If a mistake is made, it's only for one growing season.
Annuals are useful for filling in spaces until permanent plants are
installed, to extend perennial beds and fill in holes where an earlier
perennial is gone or the next one has yet to bloom; to cover areas where
spring bulbs have bloomed and died back; and to fill planters, window boxes,
and hanging baskets.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,442>
-Title-
 ANNUALS
-SubTitle-
 Culture and Maintenance of Annuals
-Text-

Site Selection  Consider aspects of the site that affect plant growth such
as light, soil characteristics and topography. Different annuals perform
well in full sun, light shade, or heavy shade. The slope of site will affect
temperature and drainage. Texture, drainage, fertility, and pH of the soil
influence plant performance.

Site Preparation  Preparation is best done in the fall. Proper preparation
of soil will enhance success in growing annuals. First, have the soil tested
and adjust the pH if needed. Check and adjust drainage. To do this dig a
hole about 10 inches deep and fill with water. The next day, fill hole with
water again and see how long it remains (should not exceed 8 hours). If
drainage is poor, plan to plant in raised beds. The next step is to dig the
bed. Add 4 to 6" organic matter to heavy clay to improve soil texture. Dig
to a depth of 12 or 18 inches and leave "rough" in fall or early spring.
Finally, in spring add fertilizer, spade again and rake surface smooth.

Seed Selection  To get a good start toward raising vigorous plants, buy good
viable seed packaged for the current year. Seed saved from previous years
usually loses its vigor. It tends to germinate slowly and erratically and
produces poor seedlings. Keep seed dry and cool until planted. If seed must
be stored, place in an air tight container with powdered milk to absorb
excess moisture and refrigerate. When buying seed, look for new varieties
listed as hybrids. Plants from hybrid seed are more uniform in size and more
vigorous than plants of open-pollinated varieties. They usually produce more
flowers with better substance.

Starting Plants Indoors  The best media for starting seeds is loose, well
drained, fine textured, low in nutrients, and free of disease causing fungi,
bacteria, and unwanted seeds. Many commercial products meet these
requirements. Fill clean containers about two-thirds full with potting
medium. Level the medium and moisten it evenly throughout. It should be damp
but not soggy. Make a furrow one-fourth of an inch deep. Sow large seed
directly in the bottom of the furrow. Before sowing small seed, fill the
furrow with vermiculite; sow small seed on the surface of the vermiculite.
Seed may be sown in flats following seed package directions or directly in
individual peat pots or pellets, two seeds to the pot. After seed is sown,
cover all furrows with a thin layer of vermiculite, then water with a fine
mist. Place a sheet of plastic over seeded containers and set them in an
area away from sunlight where the temperature is between 60 and 75 degrees
F. Bottom heat is helpful. As soon as seeds have germinated, remove plastic
sheeting and place seedlings in the light. If natural light is poor,
fluorescent tubes can be used. Place seedlings close to the tubes. After
plastic is removed from container, the new plants need watering and
fertilizing, since most planting material contains little or no plant food.
Use a mild fertilizer solution after plants have been watered. When
seedlings develop two true leaves, thin plants in individual pots to one
seedling per pot. Transplant those in flats to other flats, spacing 1 1/2
inches apart, or to individual pots.

-Fig-
Starting Plants
-Text-

Planting Times  Do not be in a rush to start seeds outdoors or to set out
started plants. As a general rule, delay sowing seed of warm-weather annuals
outdoors or setting out started plants until after the last frost date. Most
such seeds will not germinate well in soils below 60 degrees F. If soil is
too cold when seed is sown, seeds will remain dormant until soil warms and
may rot instead of germinating. Some cold-loving annuals like larkspur or
Shirley poppies should be sown in late fall or very early spring.

Sowing Seed Outdoors  Annuals seeded in the garden frequently fail to
germinate properly because the surface of the soil cakes and prevents entry
of water. To avoid this, sow seed in vermiculite filled furrows. Make
furrows in soil about 1/2 inch deep. If soil is dry, water the furrow, then
fill it with fine vermiculite, sprinkle with water. Then make another
shallow furrow in the vermiculite and sow the seed in this furrow. Sow at
the rate recommended on the package. Cover the seed with a layer of
vermiculite and using a nozzle adjusted for a fine mist, water the seeded
area thoroughly. Keep seed bed well watered or cover with a mulch, such as
newspaper to prevent excess evaporation of water. Remove mulch promptly
after germination starts so that young seedlings will receive adequate
sunlight.

Setting Out Transplants  By setting started plants in the garden you can
have a display of flowers several weeks earlier than if you sow seeds of the
plants. This is especially useful for annuals (such as verbena and scarlet
sage) which germinate slowly or need several months to bloom. You can buy
plants of these or other annuals or you can start your own. Buy only healthy
plants free of pests and diseases. Before setting out transplants, harden
them off by exposing them to outside conditions during the day which will
provide more light and cooler temperatures than they received inside. After
the last frost date, annual plants may be set out. Dig a hole for each plant
large enough to accept its root system comfortably. Lift out each plant from
its flat with a block of soil surrounding its roots. Set the soil block in a
planting hole and backfill it so the plant sets at the same level. Irrigate
each hole with a starter solution of high phosphate fertilizer which is
water soluble. Follow package directions.

-Fig-
Setting Plants
-Text-

If plants are in fiber pots, remove the paper from the outside of the root
mass and set the plant in a prepared planting hole. When setting out plants
in peat pots, set the entire pot in the planting hole but remove the upper
edges of the pot so that all of the peat pot is covered when soil is firmed
around the transplant. If a lip of the peat pot is exposed above the soil
level, it may produce a wick effect, pulling water away from the plant and
into the air. After setting the plants, water them with a starter solution
as described above. Provide protection against excessive sun, wind, or cold
if needed while the plants are getting settled in their new locations.
Inverted pots, newspaper tunnels, or cloaks can be used.

Thinning  When most outdoor grown annuals develop the first pair of true
leaves, they should be thinned to the recommended spacing. This spacing
allows plants enough light, water, nutrients, and space for them to develop
fully above and below the ground. If they have been seeded in
vermiculite-filled furrows, excess seedlings can be transplanted to another
spot without injury. Zinnias are an exception to this rule of thinning. In
many varieties of zinnias, flowers will appear with a large nearly naked
corolla and few colorful petals. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as
Mexican hats. To avoid such plants in your garden, sow two or three seeds at
each planned location. Wait until the plants bloom for the first time, then
remove the plants with this undesirable characteristic. Thin the remaining
plants to the recommended 8 to 12 inch spacing. Another exception to the
rule for thinning is sweet alyssum. This annual is particularly susceptible
to damping-off. To insure a good stand of plants, sow the seed in hills and
do not bother to thin the seedlings.

Watering  Do not rely on summer rainfall to keep flower beds watered. Plan
to irrigate them from the beginning. When watering, moisten the entire bed
thoroughly, but do not water so heavily that the soil becomes soggy. After
watering, allow the soil to dry moderately before watering again. A canvas
soaker hose is excellent for watering beds. Water from the soaker hose seeps
directly into the soil without waste and without splashing leaves and
flowers. The slow-moving water does not disturb the soil or reduce its
capacity to absorb water. Water wands and drip systems are also good.
Sprinklers are not as effective as soaker hoses. Water from sprinklers wets
the flowers and foliage making them susceptible to diseases. Structure of
the soil may be destroyed by impact of water drops falling on its surface;
the soil may puddle or crust, preventing free entry of water and air. The
least effective method for watering is with a hand-held nozzle. Watering
with a nozzle has all the objections of watering with a sprinkler. In
addition, gardeners seldom are patient enough to do a thorough job of
watering with a nozzle; not enough water is applied, and the water that is
applied is usually poorly distributed over the bed.

Mulching  Mulches help keep the soil surface from crusting, aid in
preventing growth of weeds; and organic mulches can add humus to the soil.
Grass clippings make a good mulch for annuals, if they do not mat. Sheet
plastics also may be spread over the soil surface to retard evaporation of
water and to prevent growth of weeds. However, these materials are unsightly
for use in the flower garden.

Weeding (Cultivating) After plants are set out or thinned, cultivate only to
break crusts on the surface of the soil. When the plants begin to grow, stop
cultivating and pull weeds by hand. As annual plants grow, feeder roots
spread between the plants; cultivation is likely to injure these roots. In
addition, cultivation stirs the soil and uncovers weed seeds that then
germinate.

Deadheading (Removing Old Flowers) To maintain vigorous growth of plants,
and assure neatness, remove spent flowers and seed pods. This step is
particularly desirable if you are growing ageratum, calendula, cosmos,
marigold, pansy, scabiosa, or zinnia.

Staking  Tall growing annuals like larkspur, or tall varieties of marigold
or cosmos need support to protect them from strong winds and rain. Tall
plants are supported by stakes of wood, bamboo, or reed large enough to hold
the plants upright but not large enough to be conspicuous. Stakes should be
about 6" shorter than the mature plant so that their presence will not
interfere with the beauty of the bloom. Begin staking when plants are about
one third their mature size. Place stakes close to the plant but take care
not to damage the root system. Secure the stems of the plants to stakes in
several places with paper covered wire or other materials that will not cut
into the stem. Plants with delicate stems (like cosmos) can be supported by
a framework of stakes and strings in criss-crossing patterns.

Fertilizing  When preparing beds for annuals, fertilizer should be added
according to recommendations given by soil sample analysis, or derived from
observation of plants that have grown on the site. Lime may also be needed
if the soil test results indicate. Use dolomitic limestone rather than
hydrated lime. Ideally, lime should be added in the fall so it will have
time to change the pH. Fertilizer should be added in the spring so it will
not leach out before plants can benefit from it.

Once annuals have germinated and begin to grow, additional fertilizers may
be needed. This is especially true if organic mulches are added because
microorganisms decomposing the mulch take up available nitrogen. Thus a
fertilizer high in nitrogen should be used in these situations. A teaspoon
of 10-6-4 per plant every two to three weeks is sufficient. Be sure to work
the fertilizer in around the plants in such a way as to avoid direct contact
between the stems and the fertilizer. Apply fertilizers to damp soil.


-End-
-Title-
 ANNUALS
-SubTitle-
 Controlling Insects and Diseases
-Text-

Insect Pests  Do not apply an insecticide unless it is necessary to prevent
damage to flowers or shrubs. Most insect pests in the garden will not cause
appreciable damage if their predators and parasites are protected by
avoiding unnecessary applications of insecticides. However, if there is a
pest that usually causes serious damage unless an insecticide is used, apply
the insecticide as soon as the infestation appears and begins to increase.

Watch for such insect pests as spider mites, aphids, Japanese beetles and
other beetles, lacebugs and thrips; these are some of the insects most
likely to need prompt treatment with insecticides. Do not treat for soil
insects unless you find numbers of cutworms, white grubs, or wireworms when
preparing the soil for planting.

When using a pesticide be certain that the pest and the flower or shrub are
indicated on the label. Read and follow all directions for use, including
precautions, shown on the label. If pesticides are handled, applied, or
disposed of improperly, they may be injurious to human beings, desirable
animals and fish as well as plants, or flowers and beneficial insects. Use
pesticides only when needed and handle them with care.

Diseases  Since annuals only grow in the garden for one season, diseases are
not as serious a problem as they are for perennials. Select varieties of
plants that are resistant to disease, follow recommended practices for
planting and maintaining annuals and you will avoid most disease problems.
However, there are times when weather conditions are highly favorable and
diseases will occur. If this happens, determine what disease is affecting
the plants, then apply the appropriate pesticide according to label
directions.

Damping-off causes seeds to rot and seedlings to collapse and die. The
disease is carried in soil and may be present on planting containers and
tools. Soil moisture and temperaturenecessary for germination of seeds are
also ideal for development of damping-off. Once the disease appears in a
seed flat, it may travel quickly through the flat and kill all seedlings
planted there. This can be prevented. Before planting, treat the seed with a
fungicide, sterilize the soil, and use sterile containers. Treat the seed by
tearing off the corner of the seed packet, and through the hole in the
packet, inserting about as much fungicide dust as you can pick up on the tip
of the small blade of a penknife. Close the hole by folding over the corner
of the packet, then shake the seed thoroughly to coat it with the fungicide
dust.

Unless you use artificial soilless mixes, sterilize the soil in an oven.
Fill a container or metal tray with moist but not wet soil. Hold it at 180
degrees F for 30 minutes. Do not overheat.

To avoid introducing the damping-off organism on containers, use fiber seed
flats or peat pots. These containers are sterile, inexpensive, and easily
obtained from garden shops. Fiber flats are light and strong. They cost so
little that they can be thrown away after one use. Peat pots can be set out
in the garden along with the plants they contain; roots of the plants grow
through the walls of the pots. Plants grown in peat pots suffer no setback
when they are transplanted to the garden. Larkspur and poppy, which
ordinarily do not tolerate transplanting, can be grown in peat pots
satisfactorily. If wooden boxes or clay flower pots are used for soil
containers, clean them well. Soak clay pots in water and scrub them to
remove all the white fertilizer crust from the outside. Sterilize clay pots
by swabbing them with a solution of 1 part chlorine bleach to 10 parts
water. Allow containers to dry thoroughly before filling them with soil. If,
despite precautions, damping-off appears in seedlings, discard the
containers and soil and start again.

Biennial
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-Image-
A<figure,444>
-Title-
 BIENNIALS
-Text-

Biennials are plants that complete their life cycle in two years of growing
seasons. During the first growing season they produce leaves, usually a
rosette, then in the second growing season, preceded by a cold period, they
produce blooms and die. For the flower gardener, biennials present the
obvious disadvantage of producing only foliage the first year and no blooms.
For this reason, new varieties have been developed that produce early bloom.
"Foxy" is a variety of foxglove that will bloom the first year. Biennial
seeds can be sown in midsummer to produce plants that develop in the fall,
forcing the plant to bloom the next year. Popular biennials are stock and
hollyhock. Cultural practices are basically the same as for annuals except
the plants remain two years.

-Fig-
Biennials

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,445>
-Title-
 PERENNIALS
-Text-

Perennials are plants that live year after year. Trees and shrubs are
perennial. Most garden flowers are herbaceous perennials. This means the
tops of the plants, the leaves, stems, and flowers die back to the ground,
each fall with the first frost or freeze. Every spring, new plant tops arise
from the roots, which persist through the winter. Any plant that lives
through the winter is said to be hardy.


There are advantages to perennials, the most obvious being that they do not
have to be set out, like annuals every year. Some perennials such as
delphiniums have to be replaced every few years. Another advantage is that
with careful planning a perennial flower bed will change colors, as one type
of plant finishes and another variety begins to bloom. Also, since
perennials have a limited blooming period of about 2 to 3 weeks,
deadheading, or removal of old blooms, is not as frequently necessary to
keep them blooming. However they do require pruning and maintenance to keep
them attractive. Their relatively short bloom period is a disadvantage but
by combining them with annuals a continuous colorful show can be provided.
Most require transplanting every 3 years.

-Fig-
Perennial

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,446>
-Title-
 PERENNIALS
-SubTitle-
 Culture and Maintenance of Perennials
-Text-

Site Location  You need to consider many of the same aspects of site
selection for perennials as you do for annuals; sunlight (full sun to heavy
shade), slope of the site (affects temperature and drainage), soil type, and
the role the plants selected will play in the garden. This is especially
important with perennials, as they usually are left in the site for several
years. In general, it is best to plant clumps of perennials rather than one
plant. Large plantings may be made if space allows. An ideal location would
provide a background such as a wall or hedge against which perennials will
stand out while in bloom. In island beds, perennials can provide their own
background if tall ones are planted in the center, and low ones toward the
edges.

Soil Preparation  Preparing the soil is extremely important to perennials.
Many annuals can grow and flower in poorly prepared soil, but few perennials
survive more than one year if the soil is not properly prepared.

For new beds, begin preparing soil in the fall before planting time. Have
the soil tested first. Results will indicate how much lime or acidifier
needs to be added during preparation and how much fertilizer needs to be
added in the spring. Materials to adjust pH need time to work. Before
preparing new beds, check the soil to see that it is well drained, yet has
some water holding capacity. Test for drainage as described in the section
on annuals. If drainage is inadequate, dig furrows along the sides of the
bed and add soil from the furrows to the bed. This raises the level of the
bed above the general level of the soil. Excess water can then seep from the
bed into the furrows. Raised beds may wash during heavy rains. This can be
prevented by surrounding the beds with wooden or masonry walls. Since raised
beds dry out more quickly than flat beds (little moisture moves up into the
bed from the soil below), water beds frequently during the summer. After
forming the beds, spade the soil to a depth of 8 or 10 inches. Turn soil
over completely, incorporating 2 to 4 inches of organic material. Remove
debris and leave rough during the winter.

In the spring, just before planting, spade again. At this spading add
recommended levels of fertilizers. Be sure to work any phosphorous deeply
into the soil, where plant roots can get it. Rake the soil surface smooth.
After raking, the soil is ready for seeding or planting.

Selecting Plants  It is best to select plants with a purpose in mind such as
edging plants, accents for evergreens, masses of color, rock garden
specimens, etc. With specific purposes in mind, you can choose perennials by
considering their characteristics and deciding which plants best meet your
requirements.

For a good display from a limited number of plants in a limited amount of
space, select named varieties. Observe the flowering times of perennials in
your neighborhood. That way you will be able to choose plants that will
flower together and plants that will be showy when little else is in bloom.
The flowering time may vary as much as six weeks from yearto year but plants
of the same kind and their cultivars usually flower at the same time. To
obtain details on particular plants or groups of plants consult plant
societies, specialty books, nurserymen who specialize in herbaceous
perennials, and local botanical gardens.

Plants of many perennials can be bought from local nurserymen. These plants
usually are in bloom when they are offered for sale, which allows you to
select the colors you want. Buy perennial plants that are compact and dark
green. Plants held in warm shopping areas are seldom vigorous and generally
have thin pale yellow stems and leaves. Avoid buying these plants. Buy named
varieties of plants. Disease resistance, heat and cold resistance, growth
habits and colors are known for these plants.

Many perennials do not grow true to type if sown from seed saved from old
plants. If you plant seed you have saved, many off-types of color, flower
form, and plant habit are produced. Purchased seed, whether hybrid or
strains, usually give uniform results. You can sow perennial seeds directly
in the beds where the plants are to bloom or you can start early plants
indoors or in a cold frame and set them out in beds after the weather warms.

Planting Times  Generally, late summer or fall flowering perennials are
planted in the spring while spring flowering perennials are planted in late
summer or early fall. However, it is wise to check exact planting dates for
specific perennials. Regardless of the time of planting, perennials should
be allowed sufficient time to establish themselves before blooming or the
onset of cold weather.

Planting Seed Outdoors  Perennials seeded in the garden frequently fail to
germinate properly because the surface of the soil cakes and prevents entry
of water. To avoid this, sow the seed in vermiculite filled furrows. For
planting directions follow directions in the section on annuals.

Setting Out Plants  Whether you buy plants from a nursery, mail order
source, or start your own indoors, set them out the same way. When the time
comes to set plants out in the garden, remove them from flats by slicing
downward in the soil between the plants. Lift out each plant with a block of
soil surrounding its roots and set the soil block in a planting hole. If the
plants are in fiber pots, remove the fiber from the outside of the root mass
and set the plant in a prepared planting hole. When setting out plants in
peat pots, remove the top edge of the pot to prevent it from drying out and
limiting the root development of the plant. Thoroughly moisten the pot and
its contents to help the roots develop properly. Drench the soil around the
planting hole with a liquid fertilizer 16-12-10 or 20-20-20 mixed 1
tablespoon per gallon of water, to stimulate root growth. Set the moistened
pot in the planting hole and press the soil up around the plant. Allow
plenty of space between plants because perennials need room to develop.
Perennials usually show up best when planted in clumps or groups of plants
of the same variety.

Watering  Since herbaceous perennials grow back from the roots every year,
it is important to encourage healthy deep roots. Proper watering promotes
good root development. Make sure when watering that all the roots are
reached. Follow directions on watering in annual section.

Mulching  Mulch gives an orderly look to the garden, and cuts down on
weeding. Mulches are very useful for maintaining uniform moisture conditions
in the garden. Soil temperatures are modified by mulches to various degrees.
Organic mulches may add some nutrients and humus to the soil, improving its
tilth and moisture-holding capacity. Most organic mulches should be applied
after plants are well established and when there is reasonably good soil
moisture. Inorganic mulches such as plastic films and paper are applied
prior to planting. Black plastic and similar materials should be spread on
land that hasbeen completely prepared for planting and has a high moisture
level. Bark, pine needles and shredded leaves are common organic mulches
used in perennial beds. Gravel and black plastic are inorganic materials to
use. All mulches require care to keep them attractive; litter is very
noticeable. (See Woody Plants chapter for details on mulching materials.)

Perennials should be mulched during the winter months to protect them from
the heaving that results from repeated freezing and thawing of the soil.
However, you must be careful with winter mulching as it can do more harm
than good. Be careful not to pile mulch heavily over the crowns as this
would encourage rotting. Boughs of evergreens give ample protection but
allow air circulation. Apply mulch around the plants only after the soil
temperature has decreased after several killing frosts. If winter mulch is
applied too early, the warmth from the protected soil will cause new growth
to start. Severe damage to the plant can result from new growth being frozen
back. Remove winter mulch as soon as growth starts in the spring. If you
don't, new growth will develop abnormally with long, gangly stems and
insufficient chlorophyll.

Weeding  Follow weeding directions in section on annuals. A few preemergent
herbicides are now registered for use in perennial flowers.

Fertilizing  Regular fertilization is necessary. Perennial plantings can rob
the soil of its natural fertility. However, do not fertilize perennials
heavily. A light fertilization program gives a continuous supply of
nutrients to produce healthy plants. Use 5-10-5 fertilizer. Place fertilizer
in small rings around each plant in March. Repeat twice at six week
intervals. This should be enough to carry plants through the summer. Apply
another treatment of fertilizer to late blooming plants in late summer.
Always water the bed after applying fertilizer. This will wash the
fertilizer off the foliage and prevent burn. It will also make fertilizer
available to the plants immediately.

Deadheading  After perennials have bloomed, spent flowers should be removed.
Cut flower stems down to a healthy leaf or to the ground if there are no
more buds. This will keep the beds looking neat and will prevent plants from
wasting energy setting seed. Delphiniums can be forced to reblossom if cut
back severely after the first bloom.

Disbudding  To gain large blooms from perennials as opposed to more numerous
but smaller blooms, disbud them. In disbudding, small side buds are removed,
which allows the plant to concentrate its energy to produce one or a few
large blooms. Peonies  and chrysanthemums are examples of plants which are
often disbudded.

Staking  Most erect perennials are top heavy and all of the taller ones need
staking. If plants fall over, the stem will function poorly where it has
been bent. If the stem is cracked, disease organisms can penetrate the
break. Stake plants when you set them out so that they will grow to cover
the stakes. Once staked, tall perennials can better withstand hard, driving
rain and wind.

Use stakes made of any material. Select stakes that will be 6 to 12 inches
shorter than the height of the grown plant. Place stakes behind the plants
and sink into the ground far enough to be firm. Loosely tie plants to the
stakes, using paper covered wire, plastic or other soft material. Tie the
plant by making a double loop of the wire with one loop around the plant and
the other around the stake. Never loop the tie around both stake and plant.
The plant will hang to one side and the wire may girdle the stem. Add ties
as the stem lengthens.

The plants in the illustrations at left have been tied too tightly. It is
better to tie the principal branches loosely as shown in the illustrations
on the right.

-Fig-
Staking
-Text-

Fall Care  In the fall, after the foliage of perennials has died down,
remove dead leaves, stems and spent flowers. These materials often harbor
insects and disease causing organisms. Apply winter mulch after the soil
temperature has dropped.


-End-
-Title-
 PERENNIALS
-SubTitle-
 Controlling Insects and Diseases
-Text-

Although perennials in general are healthy plants, there are occasionally
some problems. It is advisable to select resistant varieties. Plant
perennials in conditions of light, wind, spacing, and soil textures which
are suited to them. Remove spent flowers, dead leaves and other plant litter
as these serve as a source of reinfestation. It is advisable to know the
major insect and disease pests (if any) of each specific plant type grown so
that problems can be correctly diagnosed and treated as they arise.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,448>
-Title-
 PERENNIALS
-SubTitle-
 Asexual Propagation of Perennials
-Text-

Division  Most perennials left in the same place for more than 3 years are
likely to be overgrown, overcrowded, with dead unsightly centers and in need
of basic feeding and soil amendment. The center of the clump will grow
poorly, if at all, and the flowers will be sparse. The clump will deplete
the fertility of the soil as the plant crowds itself. To divide mature
clumps of perennials, select only vigorous side shoots from the outer part
of the clump. Discard the center of the clump. Divide the plant into clumps
of three to five shoots each. Be careful not to over divide; too small a
clump will not give much color the first year after replanting. Divide
perennials when the plants are dormant, just before a new season of growth
or in the fall so they can become established before the ground freezes.

-Fig-
Tuber Division
-Text-

Stagger plant divisions so that the whole garden will not be redone at the
same time; good rotation will yield a display of flowers each year. Do not
put all the divisions back into the same space that contained the original
plant. That would place too many plants in a given area. Give extra plants
to friends, plant them elsewhere in the yard, or discard them.

Cuttings  Many plants can be propagated from either tip or root cuttings.
Generally, tip cuttings are easier to propagate than root cuttings.

Select second growth of dianthus, candytuft, and phlox for cuttings. Make
tip cuttings 3 to 6 inches long. Treat the base of the cutting with a root
stimulant. Leave all foliage on the cutting except the part that will be
below the soil line. Insert one cutting per peat pot. Place peat pots of tip
cuttings in a lightly shaded place. Cover with a sheet of clear plastic.
Check regularly to make sure the cuttings do not dry out.

When cuttings do not pull easily out of the soil, they have begun to root.
Make holes in the plastic sheet to increase the exposure of the cuttings to
the air. This will harden the cuttings. Every few days make new holes, or
enlarge the holes.

Make root cuttings of phlox, babysbreath, and oriental poppy. Dig the plants
in late summer after they have bloomed. Select pencil size roots; cut them
into 4 inch sections. Put each piece in a peat pot. Prepare a tray of peat
pots as for seeds, except the soil mix should be 2 parts sand, 1 part soil,
and 1 part peat moss. Water thoroughly. For more information see the chapter
on plant propagation.

-Fig-
Cutting

-End-
-Image-
A<figure,449>
-Title-
 BULBS
-Text-

This is a term loosely used to include corms, tubers, tuberous roots and
rhizomes as well as true bulbs. This section of the chapter will refer to
all of the above as bulbs. However, a true bulb is a complete or nearly
complete miniature of a plant encased in fleshy modified leaves called
scales which contain reserves of food. Corms are the base of a stem that
becomes swollen and solid with nutrients. It has no fleshy scales. The
tuber, which is an underground stem that stores food, differs from the true
bulb or corm in that it has no covering of dry leaves and no basal plant
from which the roots grow. Usually short, fat and rounded, it has a knobby
surface with growth buds, or eyes, from which the shoots of the new plant
emerge. Tuberous roots are the only ones from this group that are real
roots; their food supply is kept in root tissue, not in stem or leaf tissue
as in other bulbs. Rhizomes, which are sometimes called rootstocks are
thickened stems that grow horizontally, weaving their way along or below the
surface of the soil and at intervals sending stems above ground. Many
vegetables are propagated from or produce edible organs of these types;
e.g., tuber, Irish potato; tuberous root, sweet potato; rhizome, Jerusalem
artichoke; bulb, onion.

Bulbs are broadly grouped into spring flowering (January-May) and summer
flowering (June - September). Spring bulbs provide early color before most
annuals and perennials. One of the most popular spring bulbs is tulip. These
are sold by type and variety. Tulips come in all colors except blue. Some of
the most common types are:

     Breeder - bronzed, not clear colors
     Cottage - late blooming
     Darwin - tallest wide flow
     Lily flowered - petals recurve - bell-shape
     Parrot - twisted ruffled petals
     Double - 2 or more rows of petals

Narcissus, daffodils, jonquils are classed by length of corolla in relation
to perianth segments. They come in the colors of white, yellow, red, peach,
but not blue. Many have naturalized in places. Hyacinths produce a large
single spike of many small fragrant flowers, and come in a complete color
range. Crocus are usually grown for early bloom (in snow). There are no
reds.

Selecting spring bulbs of quality is very important because the flower bud
has already developed before the bulb is sold. Size is also important, look
for plump, firm bulbs. Select on a basis of color, and size for intended
purposes, for example small ones for naturalizing and large ones to stand
out as specimen plants. Keep cool (60-65 degrees F.) until planting.

Summer flowering bulbs include:

               amaryllis
               tuberous begonia
               caladium
               day lily
               dahlia
               gladiolus
               lily
               spider lily
-Fig-
Flowering Blubs
-Text-

Most are hardy perennials and the roots over winter successfully. However,
the caladium, and some others may have to be dug and stored.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,450>
-Title-
 BULBS
-SubTitle-
 Culture and Maintenance of Bulbs
-Text-

Storage  If bulbs are bought before planting time, keep them in a cool, dry
place. A temperature of 60 to 65 degrees F is cool enough to prevent bulbs
from drying out until time for planting. Temperatures higher than 70 degrees
F will damage the flower inside spring flowering bulbs. Rhizomes, tubers and
tuberous roots are more easily desiccated than bulbs and corms and should be
stored in peat, perlite or vermiculite.

Site Selection  In selecting a site for planting, consider light,
temperature, soil texture and function. Most bulbs need full sunshine.
Select a planting site that will provide at least 5 to 6 hours of direct
sunlight a day. Bulbs left in the ground year after year should have 8 to 10
hours of daily sunlight for good flowering. Bulbs planted in a southern
exposure near a building or wall, will bloom earlier than bulbs planted in a
northern exposure. Adequate drainage is an important consideration. Most
bulbs and bulb-like plants will not tolerate poor drainage and rot easily if
planted in wet areas. Function must also be kept in mind. If bulbs are being
used to naturalize an area, toss the bulbs then plant them where they fall
to create a scattered effect. Spanish squills will do beautifully, along
with daffodils to achieve a natural effect.

Site Preparation  Good drainage is the most important single factor for
successful bulb growing. Bulb beds should be dug when the soil is fairly
dry. Wet soil packs tightly and retards plant growth. Spade the soil 8 to 12
inches deep. As you dig, remove large stones and building trash, but turn
under all leaves, grass, stems, roots, and anything else that will decay.
Add fertilizer and organic matter to the soil. Use 1 pound of 5-10-10
fertilizer for a 5 by 10 foot area, or a small handful for a cluster of
bulbs. Place a 1 to 2 inchlayer of organic matter over the bed. Thoroughly
mix the fertilizer and organic matter with the soil. For individual planting
holes, loosen the soil below the depth the bulb is to be planted. Add
fertilizer and cover with a layer of soil (bulbs should not contact
fertilizers directly). Set bulb upright in planting hole and cover with
amended soil. Organic fertilizers in wet hot summers retard blooming and
promote disease, especially among gladiolus not dormant then.

Time of Planting  Hardy, spring flowering bulbs are planted in late summer
or early fall. Hardy, fall flowering bulbs such as colchicum are planted in
August. Tender, summer flowering bulbs are planted in the spring after
danger of frost. Lilies are best planted in late fall.

-Fig-
Holland Bulb Planting Chart
-Text-

Depth of Planting  It is best to check correct planting depth for each bulb
with a successful local grower, or other good local source. Bulb catalog and
reference book recommendations for planting may be either too shallow or too
deep depending on soil condition. As a general rule of thumb, bulbs should
be planted two and one half to three times the diameter of the bulb in
depth. It is important not to plant bulbs too shallow as this will encourage
frost heaving.

Watering  Normal rainfall usually provides enough moisture for bulbs. But,
during dry weather, water plants at weekly intervals soaking the ground
thoroughly. Be especially careful not to neglect bulbs after blooming.

Mulching  In the winter, mulch bulbs 2 to 4 inches deep with organic
material such as straw, pine bark, hay or ground leaves. Do not use large
leaves as they may mat tootightly on the ground. A winter mulch prevents
alternate freezing and thawing, which damages bulbs and plant roots. Apply
mulch after cold weather arrives. You may damage the bulbs if you mulch
while soil temperature is still high. Remove mulch as soon as danger of
severe freezing has passed in early spring. If mulch is left on the ground
after new growth starts, tops of new shoots will be pale green or colorless,
and new stems and foliage may be broken.

Fertilizing  After plants bloom, fertilize them lightly with 5-10-10
fertilizer. Use no more than 1 pound for a 5 by 10 foot flower bed. Avoid
high nitrogen fertilizer. Be sure to keep fertilizer off the leaves and away
from roots; it will burn them. In addition to 5-10-10 fertilizer, you can
use bonemeal as an extra source of phosphorus.

Staking  Some tall, heavy flowered bulbs may require staking. If stems are
allowed to fall over, they will be damaged and the flowers will not show to
best advantage. Stake plants when they are emerging but be careful not to
damage the bulb with the stake. For flowers that face one direction, use the
stake to orient the face to the front of the bed.

Deadheading  When flowers fade, cut them off to prevent seed formation.
Seeds take stored food from the bulbs.

Moving  If leaving bulbs in place for bloom next year, do not cut the leaves
after flowering until they start to wither. Green leaves produce food for
plant growth next year. After leaves turn yellow, cut and destroy the stems
and foliage of the plants. Dead foliage left on the ground may carry disease
to new growth the next year. If moving bulbs from one place to another or if
a planting has become crowded and ceased blooming move only after the
foliage has faded. Bulbs dug and moved before foliage fades are useless.

Digging and Storing  Many summer flowering bulbs should be dug and stored as
they are tender. This is done when the leaves on the plants turn yellow. Use
a spading fork to lift the bulbs from the ground. Wash off any soil that
clings to the bulbs, except those that are stored in pots or with the soil
around them. Spread the washed bulbs in a shaded place to dry. When dry,
store them away from sunlight in a cool, dry basement, cellar, garage, or
shed at 60 to 65 degrees F. Avoid temperatures below 50 or above 70 degrees
F. Be sure that air circulates around stored bulbs. Never store bulbs more
than two or three layers deep as they generate heat and cause decay. Leave
the soil on achimenes, begonia, canna, caladium, dahlia, and ismene bulbs.
Store these bulbs in clumps on a slightly moistened layer of peat moss or
sawdust in a cool place. Rinse clean and separate them just before planting.


ANNUALS FOR SPECIAL USES

ANNUALS FOR BEDDING ( Masses and Drifts)

Begonia semperflorens                        Impatiens (shade)
Browallia                                    Lantana
Celosia                                      Lobelia (shade)
Cineraria maritima                           Marigold
Coleus                                       Nicotiana
Dahlia dwarf                                 Petunias
Dianthus                                     Phlox drummondi
Gerbera                                      Salvia splendens
Heliotrope                                   Scabiosa
Hunnemannia                                  Torenia

ANNUALS FOR THE MIXED BORDER

Ageratum                                     Centaureas
Alyssum                                      Cleome
Balsam                                       Cosmos
Bells of Ireland                             Cynoglossum
Campanula                                    Lantana
Marigold                                     Larkspur
Nicotiana                                    Snapdragon
Petunia                                      Statice
Salvia farinacea and splendens               Tahoka-daisy
Wallflower                                   Zinnia

ANNUALS FOR EDGING
Ageratum                                     Myosotis
Alyssum                                      Nierembergia
Begonia semperflorens                        Petunia
Dianthus                                     Phlox drummondi
Daisy, Dahlborg                              Portulaca
Lobelia                                      Torenia
Marigold, dwarf                              Verbena
                                             Vinca

ANNUALS FOR GROUND COVERS

Creeping Zinnia                              Portulaca
(Sanvitalia procumbens)                      Vinca
Myosotis                                     Sweet Alyssum
Nasturtium                                   Thunbergia
                                             Verbena

ANNUALS FOR FOLIAGE

Amaranthus                                   Coleus
Basil                                        Dusty Miller
Castor Bean                                  Kochia

ANNUALS FOR FRAGRANCE

Alyssum                                      Nicotiana
Dianthus                                     Stock
Heliotrope                                   Petunias
Mignonette                                   Phlox
Nasturtiums                                  Sweet peas

ANNUALS FOR FENCES AND TRELLISES

Canary Creeper                               Gourds
Cardinal Climber                             Morning Glory
Cobaea                                       Moonflower
Cypress Vine                                 Scarlet Runner
Sweet Pea                                    Thunbergia

ANNUALS FOR LOW BORDERS

Dwarf Celosia                                Nuggent Marigolds
Dwarf Bedding Dahlias                        Red & Gold Hybrids Marigolds
Kochia                                       Hybrid Petunias
French Marigolds                             Lilliput Zinnias

ANNUALS FOR SCREEN PLANTS

Amaranthus                                   Tall Marigolds
Tall Celosia                                 Tithonia
Cleome                                       Tall Zinnias
Kochia (evergreen)

ANNUALS INTERMEDIATE HEIGHT

Asters                                       Nicotiana
Calendulas                                   Salvia
Cornflowers                                  Scabiosa
Bedding Dahlias                              Cut-and-Come-Again-Zinnias
Gaillardia pulchella
Gloriosa Daisy

ANNUALS FOR WINDOW BOXES OR HANGING BASKETS, URNS OR TUBS
Alyssum                                      Lobelia
Begonia semperflorens                        Nierembergia
Coleus                                       Cascade Petunias
Lantana                                      Thunbergia

ANNUALS FOR THE SEASIDE

Alyssum                                      Statice
Dusty Miller                                 Petunia

ANNUALS FOR THE ROCK GARDEN

Ageratum                                     Coleus
Alyssum                                      Pansy
Begonia semperflorens                        Gazania
Dwarf Celosia                                Lobelia
French Marigolds                             Nugget Marigolds
Nasturtiums                                  Dwarf Petunias
Phlox                                        Portulaca
Torenia (Wishbone Flower)                    Verbena
Dwarf Zinnias

ANNUALS FOR CUT FLOWERS

Asters                                       Gomphrena
Bells of Ireland                             Gypsophila
Carnation                                    Larkspur
Celosia                                      Marigold
Centaurea(Bachelor Buttons)                  Nasturtium
Cosmos                                       Petunias
Cynoglossum                                  Verbena
Dahlia                                       Rudbeckia bicolor
Daisy, Tahoka                                Salpiglossis
Gaillardia pulchella                         Salvia
Gerbera                                      Scabiosa
Zinnia                                       Snapdragons
Statice                                      Tithonia


-End-
-Title-
 ANNUALS FOR SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
-Text-

Annuals tolerant of cool weather   Plant after danger of heavy frost is over
in the spring, except sweet peas, which should be planted just as soon as
the soil is workable. Some varieties can also be sown, with risk, late in
fall, just before the ground freezes, so seed will not germinate until
spring. In the warmer areas of Virginia, plant in fall.

Alyssum                                      Geranium
Aster                                        Gloriosa Daisy Helichrysum
Bells of Ireland                             Larkspur
Calendula                                    Lobelia
Candytuft                                    Nigella
Chrysanthemum (annual)                       Pansy
Clarkia                                      Phlox
Cleome                                       Poppy, Shirley & California
Cornflower                                   Salpiglossis (painted tongue)
Cosmos                                       Salvia farinacea
Cynoglossum                                  Scabiosa
Dianthus                                     Snapdragon
Didiscus (lace flower)                       Statice
Dimorphotheca (African Daisy)                Stock
Gaillardia pulchella                         Sweet Pea

TENDER ANNUALS  Plant when all danger of frost is over in the spring.

Ageratum                                     Marigold
Balsam                                       Morning Glory
Begonia                                      Nasturtium
Celosia                                      Nicotiana
Coleus                                       Petunia
Globe Amaranth                               Salvia
Gourds                                       Verbena
Impatiens                                    Vinca
Zinnia

HEAT RESISTANT ANNUALS

Celosia or Cockscomb
Cleome or Spider flower
Corn flower
Cosmos, especially 'Diablo' and 'Sunset'
Four o'clock
Gaillardia or Blanket Flower (annual)
Geranium
Globe Amaranth
Helichrysum or Strawflower
Larkspur
Lynthrium
Marigolds, especially the triploids and giant hybrids
Morning Glory
Nicotiana or Flowering Tobacco
Nierembergia or Cupflower
Petunia, especially multifloras
Phlox drummondii
Portulaca or Moss Rose
Salvia, red or blue
Scabiosa or Pincushion Flower
Shasta Daisy
Sunflower
Verbena
Zinnia, all kinds, especially the vigorous hybrids

EXTREMELY HEAT RESISTANT ANNUALS

Amaranthus, especially tricolor, 'Joseph's Coat
Four o'Clock
Morning Glory
Ornamental Pepper
Sunflower
Zinnias, various narrow-leaved drought resistant kinds such
      as 'Classic' and 'Mexican'

ANNUALS FOR PARTIAL SHADE

Alyssum                                      Lobelia
Balsam                                       Myosotis
Begonia                                      Nasturtiums
Browallia                                    Nicotiana
Calendula                                    Pansy
Coleus                                       Petunia
Cornflower                                   Snapdragon
Impatiens                                    Torenia
Aster                                        Wallflower

ANNUALS THAT TOLERATE HEAT, DROUGHT AND SANDY SOILS

Alyssum                                      Phlox
Cleome                                       Portulaca
Gaillardia                                   Salvia
Gloriosa Daisy                               Sunflowers
Marigolds                                    Verbena
Petunias                                     Zinnias

-End-
-Title-
 ANNUALS BY COLOR AND HEIGHT
-Text-

Variety                           Color of Bloom                  Height
                                                                 (Inches)

African Daisy                 white, yellow, salmon                 6-12
Ageratum                      blue, white                           4-24
Arnaranthas                   red or red & green                    48-96
Anterrhinum majus             red, orange, yellow                   6-36
                              white, purple
Arctotis                      white, bluish eye                     24
Aster                         yellow, pink red, blue,               18
 (Callistepheus chinesis)     white, lavender
Balsam                        rose, purple, white                   12-18
 (Impatiens balsamina)
Basil,                        grown for red-purple                  15
                              foliage
Browallia                     blue, violet, white                   24
Calendula                     yellow, gold                          12-24
California Poppy              red to yellow                         12
  (Eschscholtzia californica)
Cabbage, flowering            red to white                          8-14
Candytuft (Iberis)            pink,lilac,white                      12-16
Chrysanthemum                 yellow, purple, orange                36
Caster Beans                  red inconspicuous flowers             72-96
Cineraria                     violet, pink, blue, white             10-14
Clarkia                       white, pink, red, pink & red          18
Cock's Comb (Celosia)         yellow to crimson                     12-48
Cornflower                    pink, blue, white                     36
 (Centaurea cyanus)
Coleus                        grown for variegated foliage          8-20
Cosmos                        lilac, red, yellow, white             36-72
Dustymiller                   rose-purple                           24
 (Centaurea cineraria)
Forget-Me-Not                 blue, pink                            12
  (Myosotis)
Four O'Clock                  pink, white, yellow                   24
 (Mirabilis)
Gaillardia pulchella          yellow, orange, red                   15-24
Gloriosa Daisy                yellow, orange, red                   24-30
Gomphrena                     white, pink, purple                   15-30
Heliotrope                    rose                                  10
Impatiens                     red, pink, white, orange              8-24
Larkspur (Delphinium)         blue                                  18-36
Lobelia                       blue, violet, white                   4-18
Lupine                        pink to purple                        24-36
Marigold (Tagetes)            yellow, orange to red-brown           8-48
Mimulas                       yellow and red                        12-30
Nemophila                     blue                                  10
Nicotiana                     red, white                            24-48
Nigella                       white, blue, violet                   12-15
Pansy (Viola)                 blue, purple, white, yellow           8-12
Periwinkle                    rose, white                           18
  (Vinca rosea)
Petunia                       white to rose, purple                 6-8
Phlox drummondii              white, rose, purple                   6-18
Poppy (Papaver)               red, pink, blue, orange               varies
Portulaca                     yellow, white, rose, orange           8
Salvia                        blue, red                             18-36
Scabiosa                      purple, pink, white                   36
Snapdragon                    blue, purple, yellow,                 6-18
  (Antirrhinum)               orange, red
Statice or sea lavender       yellow, rose, violet,                 18-24
  (Limonium)                  white
Strawflower                   white, red, yellow                    36
  (Helichrysum)
Sunflower                     yellow to red-brown                   12-108
  (Helianthus)
Sweet Alyssum                 white                                 3-10
  (Alyssum maritimum)
Sweet Pea                     orange, yellow, rose                  48+(vine)
  (Lathyrus)                  purple, white
Verbena                       white, pink, blue, red                18-24
Vinca                         white, purple, red                    6-18
Torenia                       white, blue, violet                   12
Zinnia                        red, pink, yellow, orange             6-36


-End-
-Title-
 PERENNIALS FOR SPECIAL USE
-Text-

PERENNIALS FOR BORDERS OF PONDS AND STREAMS (Well-drained soil)

Sunny Locations:
Cimicifuga racemosa (Cohosh Bugbane)*
Grasses (Ornamental Grasses)
Iris, in variety
Lythrum Salicaria (Spiked Loosestrife)*
Myosotis scorpioides semperflorens (Dwarf Perpetual Forget-me-not)
Tradescantia virginiana (Spiderwort)*
Trollius europaeus (Globeflower)

Semi-shady Locations:(* also do well)
Anemone hupenhensis or A.x hybrida (Japanese Anemone)
Eupatorium purpureum (Joe-pye-weed)
Iris cristata (Crested Iris)


PERENNIALS FOR BACKGROUND PLANTING

Althaea rosea (Hollyhock)
Aster novae-angliae (New England Aster)
Campanula pyramidalis (Chimney Bellflower)
Cimieifuga racemosa (Cohosh Bugbane)
Delphinium hybrids (Delphinium)
Helenium autumnale (Sneezeweed)
Helianthus Maximiliani (Maximilian Sunflower)
Hibiscus grandiflorus (Great Rosemallow)
Rudbeckia laciniata (Goldenglow) 'hortensia'
Valeriana officinalis (Common Valerian)
Yucca filamentosa (Common Yucca)

PERENNIALS FOR EDGING

Achillea tomentosa (Woolly Yarrow)
Ajuga reptans (Carpet Bugle)
Aurinia saxatilis 'Compacta' (Dwarf Goldentuft)
Arabis caucasica (Wallcress)
Bellis perennis (English Daisy)
Aubrietia deltoidea (Purple Rockcress)
Campanula carpatica (Carpanthian Bellflower)
Cerastium tomentosum (Snow-in-summer)
Dianthus deltoides (Maiden Pink)
Dianthus plumarius (Grass Pink)
Iberis sempervirens (Edging Candytuft)
Papaver nudicaule (Iceland Poppy)
Phlox subulata (Moss Phlox)
Primula veris (Cowslip Primrose)
Sedum stoloniferum (Running Stonecrop)
Armeria sp. (Thrift)
Petrorhagia saxifraga (Tunic flower)
Veronica latifolia (Rock Speedwell)
Viola, in variety (Violet)


PERENNIALS FOR GROUND COVER, BANKS AND TERRACES

Sunny Locations:
Cerastium tomentosum (Snow-in-summer)
Ceratostigma plumbaginoides (Larpente Plumbago)
Coronilla varia (Crownvetch)
Iberis sempervirens (Edging candytuft)
Nepeta mussini (Mussini Mint)
Phlox subulata (Moss Phlox)
Sedum spurium (Running Stonecrop)
Thymus praecox subsp. artieus (Mother-of-thyme)
Veronica latifolia (Rock Speedwell)
Vinca minor (Periwinkle)

Shady Locations:
Aegopodium podograria (Goutweed)
Ajuga reptans (Bugle)
Asperula odoratum (Sweet Woodruff)
Convallaria majalis (Lily-of-the-valley)
Hedera helix (English Ivy)
Pachysandra terminalis (Japanese Pachysandra)
Sedum ternatum (Mountain Stonecrop)

PERENNIALS FOR BOLD OR SUB-TROPICAL EFFECTS

Aruncus dioicus (Spirea)
Acanthus mollis (Artist's Acanthus)
Dipsacus fullonum (Teasel)
Echinops ritro and exaltatus (Globe Thistles)
Elymus arenarius (Sea Lyme grass)
Helianthus salicifolius (Sunflower)
Heracleum laciniatum (Cow-parsnip)
Kniphofia uvaria (Torchlily, Red-hot-poker plant)
Onopordum acanthium (Scoth Thistle)
Yucca filamentosa (Yucca)

PERENNIALS FOR NATURALIZING

Asclepias tuberosa (Butterfly weed)
Aster (various)(Aster)
Cimicifuga racemosa (Cohosh Bugbane)
Convallaria majalis (Lily-of-the-valley)
Hepatica (Roundlobe Hepatica)
Lythrum Salicaria (Spiked loosestrife)
Lobelia cardinalis (Cardinal Flower)
Mertensia virginica (Virginia Bluebells)
Monarda didyma (Bee Balm)
Physostegia virginiana (False Dragonhead, Obedience)
Polemonium reptans (Creeping Polemonium)
Sanguinaria canadensis (Bloodroot)
Smilacina racemosa (Solomon's zig-zag, False spikenard)
Solidago canadensis (Canada Goldenrod)
Trillium grandiflorum (Trillium)


PERENNIALS FOR OLD-FASHIONED GARDENS

Aconitum, in variety (Monkshood)
Althaea rosea (Hollyhock)
Asters, old varieties
Campanula, in variety (Bellflower)
Delphinium x Belladonna (Delphinium)
Dianthus barbatus (Sweet William)
Dianthus plumarius (Grass or Garden Pink)
Dicentra spectabilis (Bleeding-heart)
Dictamnus alba (Dittany or Gas Plant)
Digitalis, in variety (Foxglove)
Hemerocallis lilio asphodelus (Lemon Lily)
Hesperis matronalis (Sweet Rocket)
Lilium candidum (Madonna Lily)
Lilium lancifolium (Tiger Lily)
Lunaria (Honesty)(Biennial)
Mertensia (Mertensia or Blue Bells)
Myosotis, in variety (Forget-me-not)
Paeonia officinalis types (Peony)
Primula veris (Primrose)
Viola odorata (Sweet Violet)

FRAGRANT PERENNIALS

Artemisia abrotanum (Southernwood)
Convallaria majalis (Lily-of-the-Valley)
Dianthus plumarius (Grass Pink)
Dictamnus albus (Dittany or Gas Plant)
Galium odoratum (Sweet woodruff)
Hesperis matronalis (Sweet Rocket)
Hosta plantaginea grandiflora (Funkia or Big Plantain Lily)
Heliotropium arborescens (Heliotrope)
Monarda didyma (Bee Balm)
Paeonia, in variety (Peony)
Phlox paniculata (Phlox)
Rosa species (Roses-Cabbage and Sweet Brier)
Valeriana officinalis (Common Valerian)
Viola cornuta (Tufted Pansy, Horned violet)
Viola odorata (Sweet Violet)
Thymus, in variety (Thyme)
Lavandula vera (True Lavender)

PERENNIALS HAVING ESPECIALLY LONG BLOOMING SEASONS

Anchusa azurea (Bugloss)
Campanula carpatica (Tussock Bellflower)
Delphinium, if cut back
Heuchera sanguinea (Coral Bells)
Iris, fall blooming varieties
Lathyrus latifolius (Perennial Pea)
Lysimachia (Gooseneck Loosestrife)
Border Phlox, if cut back
Scabiosa graminifolia (Pincushion Flower)
Viola tricolor (Johnny-jump-up)

PERENNIALS SUITABLE FOR CUT FLOWERS

Achillea millefolium (Yarrow)
Anemone japonica (Japanese Anemone)
Aster (various)(Aster)
Chrysanthemum coccineum (Painted Lady)
Delphinium hybrids (Delphinium)
Dianthus barbatus (Sweet William)
Dicentra (Bleeding Heart)
Gaillardia aristata (Blanket Flower)
Gypsophila paniculata 'Flore Pleno' (Babysbreath)
Heuchera sanguinea (Coral Bells)
Iris (various)(Iris)
Lysimachia (Gooseneck Loosestrife)
Mertensia virginica (Blue Bells)
Paeonia (various)(Peony)
Rudbeckia (various)(Cone Flower)
Salvia azurea grandiflora (Azure Sage)


-End-
-Title-
 PERENNIALS FOR SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
-Text-

PERENNIALS FOR SHADE

Ajuga (Bugle)
Anemone japonica (Japanese Anemone)
Asperula (Woodruff)
Convallaria majalis (Lily-of-the-Valley)
Dicentra spectabilis (Bleeding-Heart)
Helleborus niger (Christmas rose)
Heuchera sanguinea (Coral Bells)
Hosta, in variety (Plantain Lily)
Mertensia virginica (Virginia Bluebells)
Phlox divaricata
Primula, in variety (Primrose)
Dodecathelon meadia (Shooting Star)
Trillium grandiflorum (Trillium)
Trillium (Trillium)
Trollius europeaus (Globeflower)

PERENNIALS FOR SEMI-SHADE

Anchusa azurea (Bugloss)
Aquilegia hybrids (Columbine)
Campanula rotundifolia (Harebell)
Chelone lyonii (Pink Turtlehead)
Cimieifuga racemosa (Cohosh Bugbane)
Digitalis purpurea (Foxglove)
Doronicum plantagineum (Leopard's bane)
Monarda didyma (Bee-balm)
Physostegia Virginiana (False Dragonhead, Obedience)
Polemonium
Pulmonaria saccharata (Bethlehem Sage)
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum coccineum, Pink Daisy)
Saxifraga (Saxifrage)
Silene caroliniana (Wildpink)

PERENNIALS FOR WET SOILS

Asclepias incarnata (Swamp Milkweed)
Boltonia asteroides (White Boltonia)
*Caltha palustris (Marsh Marigold)
Eupatorium purpureum (Joe-pye-weed)
Hibiscus Moscheutos (Swamp Rose-Mallow)
*Iris Pseudacorus (Yellowflag)
Lobelia cardinalis (Cardinal Flower)
Lysimachia clethroides (Clethra Loosestrife, Gooseneck Loosestrife)
Lythrum Salicaria (Spiked Loosestrife)
Miscanthus sinensis (Eulalia, Ornamental Grass)
Monarda didyma (Bee-balm)
Myosotis scorpioides (True Forget-me-not)
Onoclea sensibilis (Sensitive Fern)
Osmunda cinnamomea (Cinnamon Fern)
*Osmunda regalis (Royal Fern)
Saxifraga pennsylvanica (Penn. or Swamp Saxifrage)
     *May be grown in water.

PERENNIALS FOR POOR SOIL

Achillea millefolium (Milfoil or Yarrow)
Ajuga genevensis (Geneva Bugle)
Aurinia saxatilis (Goldentuft)
Cerastium tomentosum (Snow-in-summer)
Gypsophila paniculata (Baby's breath)
Helianthemum nummularium (Rock or Sun Rose)
Iberis sempervirens (Edging Candytuft)
Linaria vulgaris (Toadflax)
Phlox subulata (Moss Phlox)
Potentilla (Cinquefoil)
Sedum stoloniferum (Running Sedum)
Sempervivum (Roof Houseleek)
Verbascum Thapsus (Mullen)
Veronica rupestris (Creeping Speedwell)
Viola cucullata (Marsh Blue Violet)

PERENNIALS REQUIRING WELL-DRAINED SOIL

Arabis alpina (Alpine Rockcress)
Asclepias tuberosa (Butterflyweed)
Aubrietia deltoidea (Purple Rockcress)
Coreopsis grandiflora (Tickseed)
Dianthus barbatus (Sweet William)
Digitalis purpurea (Common Foxglove)
Echinops Ritro (Steel Globe Thistle)
Eryngium maritmum (Sea-holly)
Globularia trichosantha (Globe Daisy)
Helianthus maximiliani (Maximilian Sunflower)
Iris x germancia (Bearded Iris)
Liatris pycnostachya (Cattail Gayfeather)
Papaver nudicaule (Iceland Poppy)

PERENNIALS FOR DRY, SANDY SOIL

Achillea Ptarmica (Sneezewort)
Anthemis tinctoria (Golden marguerite)
Asclepias tuberosa (Butterflyweed)
Aster novae-angliae (New England Aster)
Coreopsis grandiflora (Tickseed)
Dianthus plumarius (Grass Pink)
Echinops Ritro (Steel Globe Thistle)
Euphorbia corollata (Flowering Spurge)
Helianthus, in variety (Sunflower)
Limonium latifolium (Statice)
Papaver nudicaule (Iceland Poppy)
Rudbeckla laciniata (Goldenglow)
Yucca filamentosa (Common Yucca)


-End-
-Title-
 BLOOM CALENDAR
-Text-

SCIENTIFIC NAME                COMMON NAME            HEIGHT        COLOR
                                                      INCHES

PERENNIALS FOR LATE WINTER

Heleborus niger                Christmas Rose           12          White
Iberis sempervirens            Edging Candytuft         12          White
Sanguinaria canadensis         Bloodroot                8           White
Galanthus nivalis              Common Snowdrop          6           White
Scilla siberica                Siberian Squill          6           Blue
Chionodoxa Luciliae            Glory-of-the-snow        4           Blue
Claytonia virginica            Spring beauty            4           Blue
Crocus vernus                  Dutch Crocus             4           Various
Eranthis hyemalis              Winter Aconite           3           Yellow

PERENNIALS FOR EARLY SPRING

Cheiranthus cheirii            Common Wallflower        24          Yellow
Iberis gibraltarica            Gibraltar Candytuft      18          White
Aquilegia canadensis           American Columbine       18          Red-Yellow
Dodecatheon Meadia             Common Shootingstar      15          Lilac
Bergenia cardifolia            Heartleaf Saxifrage      12          Purple
Pulmonaria angustifolia        Cowslip Lungwort         12          Blue
Mitella diphylla               Coolwort                 12          White
Arabis alpina                  Alpine Rock-cress        12          White
Adonis amurensis               Amur Adonis              12          Yellow
Tulipa (early)                 Tulip                    12          Various
Narcissus (various)            Narcissus                12          Yellow
Leucojum vernum                Spring Snowflake         12          White
Dicentra Cucullaria            Dutchman's Breeches      10          White
Primula elatior                Oxlip Primula            9           Various
Primula veris                  Cowslip                  9           Yellow
Anemone Pulsatilla             Pasqueflower             9           Purple
Viola cornuta                  Horned Violet            8           Various
Viola odorata                  Sweet Violet             8           Violet
Muscari botryoides             Common Grape Hyacinth    8           Blue
Hyacinthus orientalis          Hyacinth                 8           Various
Hepatica americana             Roundleaf Hepatica       6           Blue
Aubrietia deltoidea            Common Aubrietia         6           Purple
Trollius europaeus             Globe Flower             24          Yellow

PERENNIALS FOR LATE SPRING

Dicentra spectabilis           Bleedingheart            36          Pink
Iris germanica                 Iris                     18-36       Various
Thalictrum aquilegifolium      Columbine Meadowrue      36          Purple
Hemerocallis                   Lemon Daylily            36          Yellow
Paeonia officinalis            Common Peony             30          Various
Aquilegia chrysantha           Golden Columbine         24          Yellow
Doronicum cordatum             Caucasian Leopardbane    24          Yellow
Euphorbia epithymoides         Cushion Spurge           24          Yellow
Chrysanthemum coccineum        Painted Lady             24          Various
Trollius europaeus             Common Globeflower       24          Yellow
Aurinia saxatilis              Goldentuft               18          Yellow
Tulipa Gesnerana               Darwin Tulip             18          Various
Gaillardia aristata            Common Peren. Gaillardia 15          Red-Orange
Brunnera macrophylla           Siberian Bugloss         12          Blue
Convallaria majalis            Lily-of-the-valley       12          White
Nepeta Mussinii                Mussini Mint             12          Blue
Phlox divaricata               Blue Phlox               12          Lavender
Galium odoratum                Sweet Woodruff           8           Yellow
Ajuga reptans                  Carpet Bugle             6           Purple
Phlox subulata                 Moss Phlox               6           Pink
Primula                        Primrose                 6           Various
Polemonium reptans             Creeping Polemonium      6           Blue
Ranunculus repens              Creeping Buttercup       6           Yellow
Silene quadrifida              Alpine Catchfly          6           White
Cerastium tomentosum           Snow-in-summer           6           White
Veronica prostrata             Rock Speedwell           4           Blue
Pulmonaria officinalis         Pulmonuria               6-12        Purple

PERENNIALS FOR EARLY SUMMER

Althea rosea                   Hollyhock                72          Various
Astilbe 'Davidii'              David Astilbe            60          Rose
Delphinium hybrids             Larkspur                 24-60       Various
Digitalis purpurea             Common Foxglove          48          Purple
Anchusa azurea                 Italian Bugloss          36          Blue
Gypsophila Bristol Fairy       Babysbreath              36          White
Lupinus polyphyllus            Washington Lupinus       36          Various
Pentstemon barbatus Torreyi    Torrey Pentstemon        36          Scarlet
Papaver orientale              Oriental Poppy           36          Red-Pink
Lilium candidum                Madonna Lily             36          White
Aconitum Napellus              Aconite                  24          Blue-White
Baptisia australis             Blue Wild-indigo         24          Blue
Campanula medium               Canterbury bells         24          Blue
Chrysanthemum maximum          Shasta Daisy             24          White
Platycodon grandiflorus        Balloonflower            24          Blue-Violet
Achillea Ptarmica              Sneezewort               24          White
Lilium pumilum                 Coral Lily               23          Red
Achillea Millefolium           Common Yarrow            18          Rose
Dianthus barbatus              Sweet William            18          Various
Linum perenne                  Perennial Flax           18          Blue
Oenothera fruticosa            Common Sundrops          18          Yellow
Dianthus plumarius             Grass Pink               12          Various
Lychnis viscaria               German catchfly          12          Purple
Papaver nudicaule              Iceland Poppy            12          Various
Thalictrum minus               Maidenhair meadowrue     12          Yellow
Veronica spicata               Spike Speedwell          12          Purple
Astilbe japonica               Japanese Astilbe         12          White
Dianthus deltoides             Maiden Pink              9           Pink
Campanula carpatica            Tussock Bellflower       8           Blue

PERENNIALS FOR MID SUMMER

Macleaya cordata               Pink Plum Poppy          72-96       Cream
PiLilium tigrinum              Tiger Lily               24-60       Orange
Cimicifuga racemosa            Cohosh Bugbane           48          White
Hemerocallis Thunbergi         Japanese Daylily         48          Yellow
Lythrum Salicaria              Purple Loosestrife       48          Rose-Purple
Heliopsis helianthoides        Pitcher Heliopsis        36          Orange
Physostegia virginiana         Obedience                36          Pink
Monarda didyma                 Oswego Beebalm           36          Scarlet
Echinops Ritro                 Steel Globe Thistle      36          Blue
Phlox paniculata               Perennial Phlox          24          Various
Asclepias tuberosa             Butterflyweed            24          Orange
Lychnis chalcedonica           Maltese Cross            24          Scarlet
Lychnis x Haageana             Haage Campion            12          Ora.-Scarlet
Heuchera sanguinea             Coralbells               18          Crimson
Veronica incana                Woolly Speedwell         12          Rosy-purple

PERENNIALS FOR LATE SUMMER AND EARLY FALL

Eupatorium purpureum           Joe-pye-weed             72          Purple
Campanula pyramidalis          Chimney Bellflower       72          Blue
Lilium Henryi                  Henry Lily               60-72       Orange
Artemisia vulgaris             White Mugwort            48          White
Liatris pycnostachya           Cattail Gayfeather       48          Purple
Lilium speciosum               Speciosum Lily           24-48       Pink
Solidago canadensis            Canada Goldenrod         36          Yellow
Rudbeckia fulgida              Showy Coneflower         36          Golden
Lilium superbum                American Turk's cap Lily 24-36       Orange-Red
Veronica longifolia
  subsessilis                  Clumpdwell               24-36       Blue-Purple
Aster spectabilis              Seaside Aster            24          Purple
Liatris spicata                Spike Gayfeather         24          Purple
Stokesia laevis                Stokesia                 12-24       Lav.-white
Limonium latifolium            Bigleaf Sea-lavender     20          Lavender
Hosta plantaginea              White Plantainlily       12-18       White
Colchicum autumnale            Common Autumn Crocus     3-4         Purple
Aster tataricus                Tartarian Aster          60-72       Violet-Blue
Chrysanthemum serotinum        Giant Daisy              60          White
Aconitum carmichaelii          Violet Monkshood         48-60       Blue
Aster novibelgii               New York Aster           36-60       Blue
Salvia azurea grandiflora      Great Azure Sage         48          Blue
Aster novae-angliae            New England Aster        36-48       Various
Helenium autumnale             Common Sneezeweed        36-48       Yellow
Kniphofia Uvaria               Common Torchfly          36          Orange
Echinacea purpurea             Purple Coneflower        36          Purple-Rose
Anemone x hybrida              Japanese Anemone         24-36       Various
Chelone Lyonii                 Pink Turtlehead          24-36       Pink
Aconitum Fischeri              Azure Monkshood          24-36       Blue
Salvia patens                  Gentian Sage             12-24       Blue
Sedum spectabile               Showy Stonecrop          18          Crimson
Anemone hupehensis             Japanese Anemone         12          Rose

-End-
-Title-
 WHAT IS GOOD TOPSOIL?
 Thomas W. Simpson
-SubTitle-
 REFERENCES
 Extension Agronomist, Soils and Land
-Text-

The word"topsoil" means many things to many people. To those involved in
strip mine reclamation, topsoil frequently means any material used as final
cover. Webster's Dictionary defines topsoil as "the upper layer of soil,
usually darker and richer than the subsoil". In Virginia, this "darker and
richer" upper layer of soil is usually only 5 to 15 inches thick and
underlying materials commonly have properties undesirable for use as
topsoil.

     Perhaps the best way to determine properties desirable in topsoil is to
evaluate the planned use of the material. Almost always, topsoil is intended
to be the primary seedbed and rooting zone. In many cases, the topsoil
material will be a major source of fertilizer nutrients and available water.
In addition, topsoiling material must have properties which allow it to be
excavated, transported, and spread with relative ease and with minimal
compaction or smearing.

     Soil properties which affect the seedbed and rooting zone quality are
those related to porosity and aeration. Porosity is the total amount of
space not occupied by solids in the material. Porosities (% pore space) of
45 to 55% are desirable in topsoil materials. Aeration is the expected
amount of the pore space that will be occupied by air. A minimum of 10% of
the pore space should be occupied by air most of the time and 20% is
desirable. Materials with lower porosity or aeration frequently become
oxygen deficient, (waterlogged) which inhibits root development and plant
growth. In severe cases, desirable species may be replaced completely by
undesirable, moisture tolerant species. Care must also be taken to assure
that chemical properties of the soil will not be detrimental to plant
growth. A good liming and fertilization program based on soil test
recommendations is critical. In addition, the topsoil should be tested for
soluble salts although this is rarely a problem with natural soil materials
in Virginia.

     The ability of a soil to hold positively charged nutrients (cations,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, etc.) is a function of the type of material.
In general, clay minerals and very fine organic material (Humus) are the
only soil components capable of "storing" cations in a plant available form.
The ability of a soil to hold water in a plant available form is a function
of the size of pores in the soil. Soils dominated by large pores cannot hold
much water against gravity. Soils dominated by very small pores hold much of
the water so tightly that it is not available to plants. Thus, soils
dominated by medium to fine pores, which hold water against gravity are
desirable. However, some large pores help assure adequate aeration.

     It would be a difficult and costly task to evaluate a soil for all the
properties discussed above. Soil fertility and liming needs and soluble salt
levels should be tested. However, most of the physical properties discussed
above are a function of two basic soil properties, texture (inorganic
particle size distribution) and organic matter content.

     Desirable aeration and porosity relationships, and cation and water
holding capacities usually occur in medium textured soils (10-30% clay) with
more than 1% organic matter. In addition, this material can be excavated,
transported, and spread with minimal problems. Topsoil with higher clay
contents may be in difficult to handle, is more prone to compaction, and may
have poor aeration characteristics, unless high in organic matter. Soils
with less than 10% clay may be droughty and unable to hold cations, unless
high in organic matter. The higher the organic matter content, up to about
10%, the more desirable the material. In fact, with higher organic content,
more clayed or sandy material may be used. Table 1 shows desirable and
acceptable contents of topsoiling material.

     Regardless of how desirable the topsoil is, care must be taken during
digging and spreading. If otherwise suitable material is dug while wet, all
soil structure may be destroyed leading to loss of porosity and even
"puddling". During spreading, regardless of soil moisture content, care must
be taken to minimize smearing by spreading equipment. In addition, traffic
(vehicular and pedestrian) should be minimized immediately after spreading
and limited for some time after spreading. Remember, no matter how careful
you are, you have destroyed some soil structure, which makes the material
more susceptible to compaction.

-End-
-Title-
THE SOIL PROFILE
-Text-

Leaf litter

Mineral horizor at the surface
showing organic matter enrichment

Subsurface horizon showing
depletion of organic matter,
clay, iron, and aluminum
compounds

Subsoil horizon showing enrichment
of clay material, iron, aluminum,
or organic compounds

Horizons of loosened or unconsolidated material

-End-
-Title-
 LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-Text-

Landscape design can be defined as the art of organizing and enriching
outdoor space through the placement of plants and structures in agreeable
and useful relationship with the natural environment.

Merely planting trees and shrubs is not landscaping. Designing a landscape
is an art. Landscaping means creating a plan to make the best use of the
space available in the most attractive way. It means shaping the land to
make the most of the site's natural features and advantages. It means
building such necessary structures as fences, walls, and patios. Finally, it
means selecting and growing the plants that best fit the design.

The smaller the house, grounds and budget, the greater the need for correct
and complete planning, because every square foot of space and every dollar
must produce maximum results. Plan for the best use of the site and minimum
upkeep as well as pleasant appearance.

Plan for complete development. There is no need to develop all of the lot at
once. However, there should be an overall plan so that when any work is done
on the lot, it will be part of the general scheme. Carrying out the
landscape plan is generally a matter of years for plantings need time to
grow. Do not allow a spade of earth to be turned until a grading schedule
has been prepared from a well studied plan for house and lot. To do
otherwise is to sacrifice such things as valuable trees and soil.

-Title-
 ANALYSIS OF SITE AND FAMILY NEEDS
-Text-

The fundamental principle of landscape design is that each development
should be based upon a specific program and that this program should in turn
be based upon: (1) The people who will use it, their cultural needs,
individual desires, and economic abilities; (2) the climate; (3) the site,
its immediate surroundings, topographic and ecological conditions, and all
objects, natural and man-made now existing on the site or planned for the
future; (4) the available materials and methods of fabrication.

The landscaper must study the habits of people, and what they do; understand
their desires and needs and determine what space and materials are available
and how they may be used to accommodate these goals. The first step in
landscape design is to divide available space into use areas: the public
area, the private area, and the service and work area. The public area is
the section that passersby view. It is generally in front of the house and
should present an attractive public view. The living or private area is for
the family and may contain a patio, deck, or porch for outdoor sitting,
entertaining, or dining. A play area may be incorporated depending on the
family's interest and/or the presence and ages of children. A service or
storage and work area should provide a place for garbage, oil tank, garden
tools, etc. that is convenient for use but screened from the other areas.
Also included in this area may be a cut flower bed or vegetable garden if
desired.
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,459>
-Title-
 FACTORS INFLUENCING LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 The Lot and Its Characteristics
-Text-

In laying out a design, preserve all the best natural resources on the site
such as: mature trees, brooks, ponds and rock outcroppings, good soil, turf
and interesting variations in the terrain. These natural elements affect the
ease of construction and landscape possibilities. A careful survey of the
area should be made to determine whether site conditions will be a deterrent
or can be incorporated into a design plan. Examples of problems are thin,
overcrowded trees which should be removed. There might be microenvironmental
problems on a site that require consideration. Examples are low places with
cold air drainage or a spot with poor soil and water drainage.

Changes in elevation can add interest and variety to the home landscape. The
character of the land, its hills, slope and trees should determine the basic
landscape pattern. A hilly wooded lot lends itself to an informal or natural
design, with large areas left in their natural state. In such a setting,
large trees can be retained.

Although natural slope variations are an asset, avoid creating too many of
them artificially. Excess grading of terraces or retaining walls should be
avoided. If these features are necessary to facilitate construction or
control water drainage, they should be designed to detract as little as
possible from the natural terrain.



-Fig-
The Lot and Its Characteristics
-End-
-Title-
 FACTORS INFLUENCING LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Neighborhood Sights and Sounds
-Text-

Keep good views open and screen out the undesirable. Often a shrub or two
will provide all the screening that is necessary. Provide plantings to act
as noise barriers. The principal rooms of the house should look out on the
lawn or the garden. Design special areas to be viewed from favorite windows.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,461>
-Title-
 FACTORS INFLUENCING LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Climate
-Text-

Climate includes sunlight, all forms of precipitation, wind, and
temperature. All these affect the way a house should be placed on a lot, how
the land is used and what is planted. In planning the grounds, don't fight
the climate; capitalize on its advantages. In warm regions, enlarge the
outdoor living area. In cold regions, plant so that the winter scene is
enjoyed from the inside. Evergreens and hedges are picturesque when covered
with snow. Since people respond differently to sun and shade, it is
important to study the amount and location of each on the lot. Sun and shade
patterns change with the seasons and vary each minute of the day. The sun is
higher and shadows are shorter in the summer than in the winter.

Northern exposures receive the least light and therefore are the coolest.
East and West receive more light; western exposures being warmer than
eastern because they receive afternoon light. The southern orientation
receives the most light and tends to be the warmest.

The principal rooms of a house should benefit from winter sun and summer
breeze. This means that the house must be correctly oriented. A plan suited
to one lot will not be correct for a lot facing a different direction.
Sunlight and shade can be controlled by the location of buildings, fences,
and trees. Figure out possible shade from trees and houses on neighbors'
lots also.

Plan future shade from tree plantings with great care in order to keep sunny
areas for garden, summer shade for house and terrace. Deciduous trees (those
that shed their leaves) shade the house in summer and admit the sun in
winter. Place trees off the corners rather than the sides of the house where
they will accent the house and not block views and air circulation from
windows. Remember that an over-planting of trees tends to shut out sun and
air.

-Fig-
Sun and Shade Patterns
-End-
-Title-
 FACTORS INFLUENCING LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Family Activities
-Text-

Use of the land should be a determining factor in landscape design. Analyze
the activities of the family. For example, small children need open lawn for
playing, gardeners need space for growing vegetables and flowers. Make
allowances for future changes. Consider: outdoor living, playing, gardening,
and household servicing. The family routinefollows a general pattern, but
varies with each family's way of living.

-End-
-Title-
 FACTORS INFLUENCING LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Family Growth
-Text-

A successful landscape should be able to age and mature with a family. Don't
plan a landscape whose use will remain static because it will not function
as a family's needs change. A plan for a very young family calls for
inexpensive plantings. There should be open areas in which children and pets
can play. As a family reaches its middle years, more extensive and expensive
plantings can be put in. The children's play area can serve other functions,
the sand box can become a lily pool. As children grow up they require less
play area and less parental supervision; providing both a place and time for
more sophisticated landscaping. With the approach of retirement years, the
landscape should become one of low maintenance. Mature trees and shrubs will
carry the landscape theme, high labor areas such as flower beds should be
minimized. Ramps and walks may replace steps.

-End-
-Title-
 FACTORS INFLUENCING LANDSCAPE DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Cost Effective Maintenance
-Text-

Decide on maintenance standards. For the person who enjoys puttering about
the yard, landscape design may be elaborate. However, in general the simpler
the site, the less there is to maintain. A low maintenance plan is the goal
of most homeowners. This may be achieved to a large extent in the planning
stage by careful attention to the nature of the site. Existing trees,
elevations, and the use to be made of the area should be prime
considerations. Low maintenance may be achieved by adopting one or more of
the following possibilities:
     Have little lawn area.
     Use ground covers or natural pinestraw, barkchips, and other mulches.
     Use paving in heavily traveled areas.
     Provide mowing strips of brick or concrete for flower beds and shrub
           borders.
     Use fences or walls instead of clipped formal hedges for screening.
     Design raised flower beds for easy access and to help control weeds.
     Install an underground irrigation system in areas of low rainfall.
     Have small flower beds. Use flowering trees and shrubs for color.
     Be selective in the choice of plant materials. Some plants require much
           less pruning, spraying and watering than others.
     Use native plant materials.
     Keep the design simple.
     Use mulches for weed control when possible, but, if herbicides become
           necessary, use caution and follow directions.

-End-
-Title-
 DEFINITION OF AREAS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
-SubTitle-
 Private or Outdoor Living Area
-Text-

The private living area or outdoor living room has become an important part
of the American home. No yard is too small to have a private sitting area
where family and guests can gather. Where possible, there should be easy
access from the house to the outdoor area. The ideal arrangement is to have
the living room open onto a porch or terrace, and/or have the kitchen near
the outdoor dining area. The outdoor living room canbe simple. An open,
grassy area enclosed by a wall or shrubs enables the homeowner and guests to
sit outdoors in private, or a more elaborate outdoor living room can be
developed by introducing a series of gardens or garden features.

The outdoor private area can serve the following functions:

             Outdoor entertaining
             Family relaxation
             Recreation
             Outdoor eating
             Aesthetic enjoyment

The following are guidelines to consider when planning major private areas:

Privacy: The area should be enclosed from public view or nearby neighbors.
Properly grouped shrub borders and trees will do this. For a small area, use
a fence to save space. The private area should be screened from work areas,
such as clothes lines, wood piles, garden sheds and other less pleasant
views.

Livable touch:  Furniture should be attractive, designed for outdoor use and
appropriate for the size of the landscaping. Garden accessories should be
kept to a minimum and be simple and unobtrusive.

Year-round interest: The outdoor living area should be planned so that
selection of plant material is varied and there is interest throughout the
year. This is especially true if the area is visible from the house. For
winter interest, select shrubs and trees with colorful bark, evergreen
foliage, or colorful fruit. The rest of the year use flowers, shrubs, and
trees to create interest. Pools, stone steps, paving, walls, bird-feeding
stands, and other architectural features will add interest to the garden.
Architectural details do not change with the seasons, and they give interest
and meaning to the garden throughout the year.

Climate control: Control of weather in the outdoor living area helps to
extend the period of usefulness. Shade trees screen the area from the hot
sun. Windbreaks cut down some of the wind in the fall. An awning or trellis
type roof can protect against inclement weather. A garden pool or fountain
can convey the effect of coolness during the hot summer season.

The terrace or sitting area: The center of activity for a living area is
often a space arranged with garden or patio furniture. It may be a porch,
deck or terrace next to the house, or the special section of the living
area. This latter area might be under the shade of a large tree or in a
shady corner. The sitting center may be either paved or in turf. Flagstone,
brick, concrete blocks, or concrete with redwood dividers are materials
commonly used for surfacing the outdoor terrace. The size of the paved
terrace depends upon its expected use and the type and amount of furniture
desired. An area 10' by 10' will hold four chairs and is about the minimum
size for accommodating four people comfortably. Increase the size if space
is desired for a picnic table, plus a grouping of four to eight chairs. This
area may also include the grill or outdoor cooking area.

The play area: The play area can be a part of the outdoor living area or
separate from it. For very young children, a small area enclosed by a fence
near the kitchen or living area is desirable. A swing, sand box, or other
equipment can be placed here. In yards with a good deal of open lawn space,
there is room for croquet, badminton, or a portable wading pool. A large
tree in the back yard may be ideal for a tree house. A paved driveway or
parking area makes an ideal area for badminton, basketball, or shuffleboard
forolder children, as well as tricycling or roller skating for younger ones.
Since ages of children in a family are always changing, it is necessary to
make design adjustments to meet changing recreational needs.

Enclosed Front Yard as a Private Area: The area in front of the majority of
homes has traditionally been left more or less open so the passing public
can view the home. Plantings, such as hedges or a screen planting of trees
and shrubs along the street in order to make the public area private, have
been used to provide privacy for the front area. Privacy in the front yard
may desirable when a picture window faces the street or when the front yard
is used for outdoor sitting. Where space is limited, a tall attractive fence
may provide privacy and be used as an attractive background for shrubs and
smaller plants.


-End-
-Title-
 DEFINITION OF AREAS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
-SubTitle-
 Service, Work, or Production Areas
-Text-

Space often needs to be provided for permanent clothes lines, garbage cans,
trash burners, air-conditioner units, tool storage, wood storage, vegetable
garden, compost, cutting garden, propagating structures, small greenhouses,
or kennel. Service facilities should not be visible from the outdoor living
area or from the street. However, an exception might be an attractive
greenhouse or tool storage building designed and constructed so that it
blends well into the overall setting, with an interesting composition of
plant material around it. Wood or wire fences, brick or masonry walls, or
plant material alone or in combination are the materials most commonly used
to hide or partially screen service areas.

In a small backyard, it may not always be feasible to completely enclose a
permanent clothes line. Hiding with one or two large shrubs or using a
vine-covered trellis will make the poles less noticeable. Portable clothes
lines are a solution if there is not enough space for permanent drying
areas. When possible, the permanent or portable drying unit should be
located near the laundry center so it will not be necessary to carry wet
clothes far.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,467>
-Title-
 DEFINITION OF AREAS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
-SubTitle-
 Public Area
-Text-

This is the area, generally in the front facing the street, that the public
sees. The landscape in this area should create the illusion of spaciousness.
Keep the lawn open, keep shrubs to side and in foundation plantings. When
selecting shrubs to frame the front door consider their texture, color, size
and shape so they will enhance the total effect of welcoming guests. Tall
trees in the backyard and medium sized ones on the sides and in front will
help accomplish this effect. The house is to be the focal point of the view.

Driveways should be pleasing in appearance, useful, and safe. The
landscaping of many homes is spoiled by poorly designed and maintained
driveways. Some driveways tend to cut up the yard unnecessarily. Parking
areas and turnabouts should be provided when practical. If possible, the
driveway should be hard surfaced because it is neater and requires less
maintenance than unpaved driveways. Do not plant tall shrubbery at a
driveway entrance or allow vegetation to grow so tall that it obstructs the
view of the highway in either direction.

In planning the home grounds, give careful consideration to foot traffic
patterns so there will be easy access from one area to another. This traffic
may be served by walkways, terraces, or open stretches of lawn. In areas of
heavy use, paved surfacing material is best.

Design of the walk system to the front door will often depend on the
location of the front door, where guests' cars will be parked, and the
topography of the land. If guest parkingis at the edge of the street, a
straight walk is probably best if the grade is suitable. When the guest
parking area is planned for the property, the walk might more logically lead
from the guest parking area to the front door. Foot traffic can use the
driveway.

Sometimes the topography of the land will make it desirable to have the
entrance walk start at the edge of the property and curve to the front door
to take advantage of a gradual grade. However, avoid curved walks that have
no apparent reason for curving.

Generally, the walk to the front door parallels the house and joins the
driveway. This design is sometimes used if the driveway entrance grade at
the street is less steep than the area directly in front of the door. This
type of design might eliminate the need for stairs. In running the walk
parallel to the house, be sure sufficient space is left for plant material.

For a residence, make the front walk at least four feet wide. Build walks so
they are safe. Avoid using materials that are rough or raised since it is
possible to trip over or catch one's heel on such materials. Design steps so
they will be safe, especially in wet or icy weather. Make the treads wider
and the risers less tall than the treads and risers used indoors. Install
handrails where needed.
-Fig-
Public Area Walks
-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-Text-

There are no hard and fast rules for landscaping since each design is a
unique creation.Landscaping, as in all art forms, is based on certain
elements and principles of design, which are discussed here.


-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Scale
-Text-

Scale refers to the proportion between two sets of dimensions. Knowing the
eventual or mature size of a plant is critical when locating it near a
building. Plants that grow too large will overwhelm a building. Small
plantings around a large building can be similarly inappropriate. It is
essential, therefore, to know the final size of a particular plant before
using it in a landscape. Both the mature height and spread of a plant should
be considered.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,470>
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Balance
-Text-

Balance in landscaping refers to an aesthetically pleasing integration of
elements. It is a sense of one part being of equal visual weight or mass to
another. There are two types of balance, symmetrical and asymmetrical.
Symmetrical balance is a formal balance. It has an axis with everything on
one side being duplicated or mirrored on the other side. Asymmetrical
balance is balance which is achieved by using different objects to achieve
equilibrium. For example, if there is a very large object on one side of a
seesaw, it can be counterbalanced by using many objects of a smaller size on
the other side of the seesaw or one object of equal size. In each instance,
balance is achieved. This applies to landscaping when there is a large
existing tree or shrub. To achieve visual equilibrium, a grouping or cluster
of smaller plants is used to counterbalance the large existing plant.
Balance may also be achieved through the use of color and texture.
-Fig-
Balance in Landscape
-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Unity
-Text-


A garden with too many ideas expressed in a limited area lacks unity. Too
many showy plants or too many accessories on the lawn would claim more
attention than the house itself. Using too many accent plants or plants with
contrasting textures, form, or color violates the principles of unity. In
order to achieve unity it is necessary to group or arrange different parts
of the design to appear as a single unit. The design should be a pleasant
picture from every angle.


-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Rhythm
-Text-


Rhythm is a repetition of elements which directs the eye through the design.
Rhythm results only when the elements appear in regular measures and in a
definite direction. Rhythm can be expressed in color as well as form.


-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Simplicity
-Text-

Every square foot of landscape does not have to have something in it. Such
objects as bird baths and plastic yellow daisies are often overused in the
landscape. There is a design concept expressed as "less is more." This
statement is especially true regarding landscape design. Keep the landscape
simple and it will look its best. Avoid cluttering the yard with unnecessary
objects. This includes plant material, statuary, and miscellaneous objects.
When too many extras are introduced the yard takes on a messy appearance.
Use statuary or specimen plants with discretion. The simplest landscapes are
often the most attractive. Remember, create spaces, don't fill them up.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,474>
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Accent
-Text-

Accent also referred to as; dominance, focalization, or climax is important
in the total picture. Without accent a design may be dull, static, or
uninteresting. Various parts, if skillfully organized, will lead the eye
towards the focal point. This may be a garden accessory, plant specimen,
plant composition, or water in some form. Emphasis may also be obtained
through use of contrasting texture, color, or form, or by highlighting
portions of a plant composition with garden lights.
-Fig-
Landscape: Accent and Repition
-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Repetition
-Text-

Do not confuse repetition in the landscape with monotony. A row of sheared
hedges lined up in front and down the side of a home is not repetition; it
is monotony. Repetition is something more subtle. For example, the use of
curves in the landscape design. Curves may begin in bed lines in the front
yard, continue in the side yard, and be picked up once more in the backyard.
Alternatively, the repeated use of right angles on a grid design can
successfully be used to achieve unity in the landscape. The right angles may
begin in the front yard perhaps on the sidewalk, then be used in the bed
lines which go around the property, and be picked up again in the backyard.
By subtly repeating such design elements as bed lines in the yard, one can
achieve a continuity or flow to the entire landscape.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,476>
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Harmony
-Text-

Harmony is achieved through a pleasing arrangement of parts.
-Fig-
Landscape: Harmony
-End-
-Image-
A<figure,477>
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Space Dividers, Accents and Transitions
-Text-

An easy method of combining plant and architectural characteristics is the
consideration of space dividers, accents and transitions. These three
elements are present in all successful landscape compositions.

Space dividers define or give privacy to spaces, create the background for
outdoor living activities, and create dominance. Space dividers can be made
up of fences, walls, plants as hedges or plants as borders. Space dividers
must have height, must be arranged in groups that border spaces (open lawn
or patio area), and must contain the most visually uniform characteristics
in the composition.

Transitions form the connecting link between the space dividers and accents,
or between the house and the land. To harmonize these elements, the
transitions must be composed of characteristics that are found in both the
space dividers and accents.

Accents, which should be in the minority of the composition, create interest
by contrasting characteristics with the space dividers. Like sculpture, they
may be displayed in two ways 1) hidden in niches within the space dividers,
or 2) standing free within the room created by the space dividers. In any
design, only one of the two methods should be employed or visual confusion
may result.
-Fig-
Landscape: Dividers
-End-
-Title-
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
-SubTitle-
 Dominance and Contrast
-Text-

In any composition, a majority of dominant or repeated characteristics are
accented by a minority of contrasting characteristics.

For a garden in which a viewer spends little time, the magnitude of contrast
between the dominant characteristics and accents is very strong. Gardens of
this type include entrance courts, streetside foundation plantings,
entrances to public buildings, or plantings seen from the highway. The
magnitude of contrast refers to the degree of change between visual
characteristics such as plant type, height, form, color and texture.
Generally, the volume of dominant characteristics to contrasting features
should be about 80-20 or 90-10 percent. Also, the accents must be
concentrated in one area. Gardens of this type take on a bold, architectural
effect as in many of the contemporary California gardens. The effect can be
grasped and understood at a glance.

For a garden in which a great deal of time is spent, such as a viewing
garden, a private garden off a study, or a dining garden, the magnitude of
dominance to contrast should be about 70-30 percent. The contrast can be
rhythmically placed instead of being concentrated in one area. This type of
garden would be appropriate for relaxation and meditation. It often takes on
a Japanese effect, which is conducive to contemplative study needed to grasp
the essence of the garden.

In no case should the ratio of dominance to contrast drop to a 55-45
percent, for at this point dominance becomes lost and visual confusion
results.

An example of a plant composition containing a strong contrast of space
dividers, transitions, and accents is described as follows: space divider is
formed by a grouping of hemlock, spruce, and white pine (all narrow-leaf
evergreen trees); the accent by a massing of crepe myrtles (flowering
deciduous tree), and the transition by a massing of firethorn (a broad-leaf
evergreen shrub).

     The contrast between the space dividers and the accents is created by:
          1. tree types; evergreen and deciduous.
          2. form; the evergreens are pyramidal as contrasted with the
             rounded crape myrtle.
          3. height; the evergreens grow to at least 40' as contrasted
             with the crape myrtle growing to about 15'.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,479>
-Title-
 DRAWING A LANDSCAPE PLAN
-Text-

The following section provides the information necessary to draw a landscape
plan that embodies the elements of good design. These steps are for those
who want the fun and satisfaction of preparing their own landscape plan.
They are:

             1. Preparing the map.
             2. Deciding how the ground area is to be used.
             3. Placing use areas on the map.
             4. Developing the landscape plan.
             5. Preparing a planting plan.

Completing these steps will enable you to develop a final plan that can be
implemented over several years as time and money permit.

Step 1 - Preparing Baseline Map

Prepare a scale map of the home grounds. Use graph paper and let one square
equal so many feet or draw to scale using a ruler or an engineer's scale.
       Suggested Scale                Small Lot            Large Lot

           Engineer                  1" equals 10'       1" equals 20'
           Ruler                     1" equals 8'        1" equals 16'

The map should include the following:

       *  Property lines.
       *  Undesirable features of home grounds or adjoining property.
       *  North point
       *  Views - point arrows in direction of each good view.
       *  House, garage, other buildings.
       *  Doors, windows, porches, and location of rooms.
       *  Existing trees, rock outcroppings.
       *  Walks and driveways, if already constructed.
       *  Contour of the land, use an arrow to show direction of surface
          water flow.
       *  Scale used.
       *  Location of septic tank or sewer lines.


Step 2 - Deciding the Ground Area

Items listed below are most often included in the final development. Make a
list that suits your individual needs.

  * front lawn area or public area       * outdoor living or private area
  * laundry area                         * children's play area
  * vegetable garden                     * small fruit
  * cooking and eating area              * driveway
  * garden pools                           + guest parking
  * walks                                  + turnabouts
  * flower beds                          * garage
  * List other items particular to your
    land area

Step 3 - Placing Use Areas on the Map

Place the use areas on the map. Fit them together with two considerations,
traffic flow and use. How will people move from one area to another or from
the house to an outside area? Will movement be comfortable? Will the outdoor
area be functional in relation to the house? Will it make use of existing
features such as views or changes in the terrain? Try different combinations
in relation to rooms of the house, surrounding areas, and potential views.


Step 4 - Develop the Landscape Plan

Design driveways, parking areas, and walks.

Indicate where plant masses are needed for (1) separating areas, (2)
screening undesirable views, and (3) providing shade, windbreaks, beauty.

Do not attempt at this point to name the trees and shrubs, but think in
terms of plant masses that will serve a purpose and help tie the various
areas together into a unified plan considering design elements previously
discussed.

In preparing the plan, use landscape symbols to indicate trees and shrub
masses.

Draw symbols to scale to represent the actual amount of space that will be
involved. For example, a white pine tree at maturity will have a spread of
approximately 20'. Make the scale diameter of the symbol in this case 20'.
Indicate on the map where paving, plants and structures will be.

In developing the plan, check to see if the proposed scheme is practical and
if you can answer the following questions satisfactorily:
     a.  Is the driveway design pleasing, useful and safe?
           Have the following been provided for: safe entrance? turnabout?
             guest parking?
           Will guests use the front door?
           Is the coal bin or oil tank handy to the driveway but screened
             from public view?
           Will the proposed drive be too steep?
     b.  Are the walks convenient?
     c.  Will the view be attractive from:
           living room?
           picture window?
           porch?
           dining room?
     d.  Has a living area been provided, and is it screened from:
           neighbors?
           service area?
           buildings?
     e.  Is the clothes line close to the laundry?
     f.  Do all the parts fit together into a unified plan?
     g.  Has a good setting and background, and privacy been provided?
     h.  Are the house and major plants set back in case the highway
         department or local government decides to widen the road or street?
     i.  Will the proposed location of the septic tank and drainage fields
         interfere with planting needed shade trees?


Step 5 - General and Specific Planting Plan

First, for each tree or shrub mass on the plan, make a set of
specifications. These specifications should include:

Height - low, medium, tall Form - spreading, upright, arching, or globe
Purpose - shade, background, hedge, screen, accent, or mass Seasonal
Interest - fruit, flowers, foliage Type - evergreen, broadleaf evergreen,
deciduous Maintenance - subject to insects or plant diseases Cultural Needs

Then, select a plant or group of plants to meet the specifications. Consult
garden books and nursery catalogs, visit a local nursery. Become familiar
with plant material and discuss your plan with nurserymen.

On the map developed in step 4, designate specific plantings.
-Fig-
Property Map
Ground Plan
Landscape Symbols
Property Plan
Planting Plan
-End-
-Title-
 SELECTION OF PLANT MATERIALS
-Text-

Well chosen plantings are necessary to achieve desired landscape effect.
There are hundreds of varieties of trees, shrubs, vines, and perennials to
choose from. Do remember, plants are not merely ornamental accessories. They
make up masses and define space in the yard and, consequently, the
silhouettes which produce the garden design. Therefore, when selecting
plants consider both their cultural needs and aesthetic value.


-End-
-Title-
 SELECTION OF PLANT MATERIALS
-SubTitle-
 Cultural Considerations in Selecting Plants
-Text-

Hardiness  this is the plant's ability to withstand winter and summer
climatic changes; also, its longevity or permanence. Usually a fast growing
plant has a short life span and will consequently need replacing after a few
years.

Soil and moisture conditions  these are important parts of the plant's
environment. Some respond unfavorably when a change occurs in this
environment; for example, some plants can tolerate extreme dry or wet
conditions while others cannot.

Degree of sun or shade  this depends on where the plant is to be located in
the garden Some plants just cannot take the sun while others require full
sun for best display.

Maintenance  When selecting plant materials, consider the more practical
aspect of maintenance. Try to choose trees and shrubs that tend to be
disease and insect resistant.

Aesthetic value  this includes texture, color or foliage, flower, fruit, and
bark. Select colors related to the house exterior, especially if the plant
is used close to the house. Strongly contrasting textures can create
interesting effects.


-End-
-Image-
A<figure,482>
-Title-
 SELECTION OF PLANT MATERIALS
-SubTitle-
 Aesthetic Considerations in Selecting Plants
-Text-

Plant Size   The size which a plant attains at maturity must be considered
when selections are made for the landscape plan. A common mistake is the
selection of plants which soon become too large for their location. The
drastic pruning which then becomes necessary adds to the cost of maintenance
and may reduce the grace and beauty of the specimen. Overgrown plants which
are left unpruned will alter the balance and accent of the design, and may
partially hide the house which they are supposed to complement.

The landscape picture is constantly changing because the plants which give
it form and substance are continually growing. This fact presents a
challenge to the landscape architect which is not found in most other
artistic media. Great care must be exercised in selecting plants which will
immediately create the desired composition, and yet retain an appropriate
size over a long period of years.

Plant Form  Trees and shrubs used in landscaping develop many distinct
forms. The more common forms are (1) prostrate or spreading, (2) round or
oval, (3) vase, (4) pyramidal, and (5) columnar. The form of mature shrubs
and trees usually is more open and spreading than that of young plants. For
example, the head of a young oak tree may be pyramidal in shape, during
middle age the head is an irregular oval, and during old age a large,
massive oak may have a spreading vase form.

Ground covers such as turf, low spreading shrubs, creeping plants, and
prostrate vines areessential materials in landscaping. The principal use of
turf is for the lawn area. Other ground cover plants are commonly used (1)
on banks which are too rough or steep to mow, or (2) under trees where grass
will not grow satisfactorily.

Shrubs are woody plants which grow to a height of 12 to 15 feet. They may
have one or several stems with foliage extending nearly to the ground. The
following are examples of the more common forms of shrubs: (1) Low
spreading: Juniper species. (2) Round or Upright: a large majority of shrubs
fall into this general form (3) Vase: Vanhoutte Spirae. (4) Pyramidal:
Arborvitae species. (5) Columnar: Juniper species.

Trees are woody plants which typically grow more than 15 feet tall and
commonly have only one main stem or trunk. The head or leafy portion of the
tree develops a typical form such as the following examples. (1) Round or
Oval: most common trees such as maple, oak and pine. (2) Vase: Elm. (3)
Pendulous or Weeping: Willow, Cherry and Jasmine. (4) Pyramidal: Spruce, Fir
and hemlock. (5) columnar: Lombardy Poplar.

Trees are long lived and relatively inexpensive in initial cost and
maintenance compared to lawns, flower beds and many other features of the
design. In the past many builders have committed costly errors by destroying
trees in establishing new residential subdivisions. Most real estate
developers now appreciate the value of trees and attempt to save them when
land is graded prior to the construction of houses. Regardless of our
affection for trees we must recognize they do not live forever. Old and
improperly located trees should be removed and new more suitable specimens
should be planted.

Plant Texture  The texture of plant materials is dependent on the size and
disposition of the foliage. Plants with large leaves which are widely spaced
have coarse texture. A plant with small closely spaced leaves has fine
texture. Extremes in texture which prevent harmony in the composition should
be avoided. On the other hand, some variation in texture is needed to give
variety. Texture can be influenced on a seasonal basis depending on whether
the plant is deciduous or evergreen.

Plant Color  Green is the basic color of most plant materials in the
landscape picture.Desirable variety may be secured by using plants with
lighter or darker foliage tones.Accent may be introduced by the selection of
flowering shrubs or tho colorful persistent fruit. Care should be exercised
in the use of particularly showy plants such as Hydrangeas and Blue Spruce.
Such plants may so dominate the landscape as to destroy the balance and
unity of the composition.

For specifics on plant selection see the chapters on Turf, Herbaceous
Plants, and Woody Plants.
-Fig-
Plant Forms
-End-
-Title-
 WHO ARE THE MASTER GARDENER VOLUNTEERS?
-Text-

People all over the country with horticultural skills, a willingness to
learn, and a desire to help others, become Master Gardeners. When the
program was started, Master Gardeners usually did only a few jobs. Answering
phone requests for gardening information and staffing plant clinics were the
more common tasks. In recent years Master Gardener work has diversified.
Thanks to the perceptiveness of Extension Agents working in the program,
your nonhorticultural skills have been recognized and combined with your
gardening interests and knowledge to produce a variety of interesting
volunteer work. This chapter explains the organization of the Extension
Service and your role in that organization, defines many of the jobs Master
Gardeners do, and provides help in developing some of the skills needed for
volunteer work.


-End-
-Title-
 THE COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
-Text-

The Extension Service has always used volunteers to accomplish its goals.
When you are in your Extension office you will find a busy staff working
with volunteers in many program areas in addition to horticulture and
agriculture. Home Economics, 4-H, and Community Resource Development are
some of the areas in which educational services are available and volunteers
play a valuable role. It is important that you know a little about the
Cooperative Extension Service organization with which you are becoming
involved.

Local staff consists of Extension agents, technicians, administrators and
volunteers. Their function is to provide resources and programs for local
residents.

District staff consists of district chairman and program leaders and
provides administrative and program development assistance to the local
staff. There are six districts in Virginia.

State staff consists of specialists, program leaders, administrative leaders
including Associate Deans, and the Vice Provost/Director of Extension.
Specialists provide resource information in specific areas, e.g., soils,
turf, home food production, ornamentals, insects, tree diseases. Program
leaders provide guidance to a general area, e.g., horticulture, agronomy,
plant pathology. Associate deans provide administrative leadership. The
Extension administrators from the State Land Grant Universities, VA Tech and
VA State, provide liaison between the Extension Service and U.S. Department
of Agriculture.

The function of the federal Extension Service is to guide and evaluate state
Extension programs.

-End-
-Title-
 THE COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
-SubTitle-
 Some Important Dates for Extension:
-Text-

1862: The Morrill Act created the Land Grant College and University System
to provide education in the agriculture and mechanical fields.

1887: The Hatch Act provided for the establishment of facilities in each of
the states in order to conduct research needed to improve agriculture and
related areas.

1890: Congress provided for the establishment of an additional 13 colleges
in the southern states for the education of blacks, and a land grant
university was established in the District of Columbia.

1914: The Smith Lever Act provided for the establishment of the Cooperative
Extension Service in order to distribute information developed by the land
grant universities and the research stations to the people where they lived.
The Cooperative Extension Service (CES) differs from the State Department of
Agriculture in structure and function. The function of the Cooperative
Extension Service is educative in nature, providing technical resources and
developmental structure whereby local residents can identify and solve their
concerns. All CES functions are coordinated through the state land grant
university system. The function of the State Department of Agriculture, The
Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (VDACS), is
regulatory or promotional in nature. It is the function of VDACS to regulate
the rules governing the sale of agricultural products, including turf and
ornamentals; to regulate the use of pesticides; to develop procedures for
the control of epidemic pests; and to promote the sale and use of Virginia's
agricultural products. The VDACS is a department of the state government,
and as such is under the direction of the Governor's office.

-End-
-Title-
 RESPONSIBILITIES OF MASTER GARDENER VOLUNTEERS
-Text-

Following their comprehensive training in horticulture, Master Gardeners
have one year from the end of training to complete the agreed upon volunteer
time. Usually the volunteer work is done within the geographical area served
by the unit office conducting the training. Special arrangements can be made
for some task outside one of the units. Master Gardener volunteers are
responsible to an Extension agent to complete and report planned activities.
If daytime employment interferes with volunteer work, arrangements can be
made for work to be done at Extension night or weekend functions. Sometimes
the nature of the volunteer's work is such that it can be done outside the
office, e.g., research, writing, art work. Many activities are interagency
projects, and involve working with parks and recreation departments, nursing
homes, city departments, etc. According to Fred Weaver of the Virginia Tech
Office of Risk Management, as a volunteer for the Extension Service of
Virginia Tech you are covered under Virginia Tech's liability insurance
program. This coverage is in effect at all times while active as an agent of
the university and within the scope of your job or volunteer duties.

The title, Master Gardener, is to be used only by individuals trained in the
Virginia Master Gardener program to assist the Virginia Cooperative
Extension Service and the title is valid only when the volunteer is
participating in the Virginia Master Gardener program. When individuals
cease active participation, their designation as Master Gardener becomes
void.

Master Gardeners should not display credentials or give the appearance of
being a Master Gardener at a place of business unless that place is
designated as a Master Gardener Plant Clinic location by the local Extension
unit. Master Gardeners must not use the title, Master Gardener, in any form
of advertisement. Implying Virginia Cooperative Extension Service
endorsement of any product or place of business is improper. Master Gardener
is a public service program providing unbiased information and the title,
Master Gardener, is to be used only when doing unpaid volunteer work in this
program.

When experienced Master Gardeners speak before groups on horticultural
subjects it is permissible for them to accept unsolicited reimbursements or
gifts. However, it is inappropriate to seek speaking engagements for pay
while participating in an authorized Extension function and using the title,
Master Gardener.

When making recommendations which include the use of chemicals, Virginia
Master Gardeners are to follow the current Virginia Pest Management Guide
series. Use of otherpesticide recommendations is not approved. Cultural
problems which are not specifically covered by Extension recommendations may
be handled by suggesting non-chemical treatments which an experienced Master
Gardener considers appropriate. Questions concerning commercial production
of crops and pest control on such crops are to be referred to the local
agricultural agent.

Master Gardeners must be very careful about chemical recommendations because
the registration and use of pesticides are governed by the E.P.A. and the
Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Under the amended
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (Federal Environmental
Control Act of 1972) it is illegal to use a pesticide on a crop, unless the
crop is listed on the label. You may not exceed the given rate of
application on the label. Fines and other penalties change and vary
according to laws broken.

Record keeping is an important part of a volunteer's responsibilities. These
records can be useful to you at tax preparation time. Data from volunteers
is valuable to the Extension Service in that it provides a record of the
ways in which the public is being served and the volunteers' evaluation of
those activities. Local and state governments are extremely pleased that you
are helping Extension serve the public and want to know on a monthly basis
how much time you are donating. A strong program leads to support that
benefits both Master Gardeners and their clients.

-End-
-Title-
 MASTER GARDENER JOBS
-Text-

As a Master Gardener you have agreed to do work related to horticulture for
your local Extension office. This work can be any of a variety of jobs. This
variety exists because Master Gardeners bring a wealth of expertise to the
program. If you can think of a job that will utilize your talents, please
suggest it to the agent you are working with. Master Gardeners performed
more than 50 different jobs each year in Virginia. Here are some of those
jobs as they appeared in the Master Gardener Annual Report.

Created and maintained demonstration gardens
Gardened with the elderly and handicapped
Worked at county fairs and plant clinics
Made home gardening visits
Conducted a garden project at a halfway house for individuals recently
     released from mental health institutions
Acted as liaison for Extension office in a residential area by answering
     gardening questions and taking soil samples
Produced a monthly home horticulture newsletter
Conducted school gardening programs
Gave talks to groups interested in horticulture
Presented 4-H day-camp demonstrations
Coordinated Master Gardener programs and Advanced MG programs
Instructed Master Gardeners
Coordinated video taping of Master Gardener program on cable TV and appeared
     as guests on televised gardening programs
Participated in on-site lawn clinics
Worked in trial gardens at research station
Conducted garden tours
Planned and implemented public relations projects
Worked on special events projects (Arbor Day, Field Day, Crape Myrtle Festival)
Planned and completed community beautification projects
Educated the public about Gypsy moth
Compiled plant lists for specific areas
Photographed Master Gardener activities
Conducted 4-H vegetable shows
Managed a plant diagnostics lab
Worked as program treasurer
Managed farmers' market
Created and maintained a youth garden
Processed soil samples
Maintained office reference library
Designed brochures
Solicited donations for program printing expenses
Solicited seed donations
Designed and maintained community and school landscapes
Processed Arbor Day essays
Maintained landscape at American Horticulture Society
Conducted vegetable gardening project with young offenders
Contributed to the preparation of the Master Gardener Handbook
Judged school science fairs
Produced slide program
Organized Master Gardener graduation picnic
Volunteered as 4-H leaders
Served as expert to identify woody plant material
Conducted gardening project with Southeast Asian refugees
Translated Extension gardening publications into Cambodian
Conducted gardening project with low income youth
Assisted at registration for Shade Tree Conference
Served on Extension Advisory Committee

-End-
-Title-
 MASTER GARDENER JOBS
-SubTitle-
 Job Descriptions for Volunteers
-Text-

The purpose of the job description is to define for both the paid staff and
the Master Gardener those functions in a specific task that the volunteer
will perform. It specifies the location where the task is to be performed
and how long the task might take to complete. It also states expected
results, what knowledge or skills one must bring to the task and/or what
training will be needed to perform the task. Specific Master Gardener job
descriptions are in the appendix to this chapter.

-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-Text-

As a Master Gardener you will work with all sorts of people. These people
will be coming to you with questions and problems concerning horticulture.
In order to fully understand the client's problem and then suggest a
solution to that problem you must be able to communicate effectively. This
can be a challenge since the object of discussion, the client's garden or
plant, is often not present and you must deduce the problem from a verbal
description of the trouble.

Effective communication is not just a matter of speaking clearly and
listening closely. As you listen to a client's description of his ailing
house plant you are trying to understand a situation that you have not
experienced. It is very easy to leave out details when wedescribe something
that is familiar. The client may not know that the color of the leaf edges
or the proximity of heating ducts to the plant are important clues to the
plant's problem. You can improve communication by asking questions.

By thinking of all the possible symptoms and conditions that might match up
with the described ailing plant, you can pose questions that should yield
enough information to find the solution. It is a good idea to summarize your
findings and present them to the client. Don't be afraid to say something
like, "I am going to describe, in my own words, the condition of your plant
as I understand it. Stop me if I have it wrong." After all, we are not
talking books, we're all merely human and what we mean and what we say are
not always the same. Being human we have ways of interpreting meaning from
voice changes, gestures, facial expression, and general body language as
well as words. The important point is to express our own understanding so
that the client can compare it with his knowledge of the situation.

There is a stumbling block to communication other than incomplete
information from the client and that is the Master Gardener's horticultural
expertise. This can be a problem in at least two ways. The Master Gardener
can know so much about a topic that he or she does not bother to listen to
everything the client has to say. Or, the problem may be identified and
possible solutions discovered but the Master Gardener cannot describe
necessary procedures in terms the client can understand. Germination,
propagation, and fertilization are all very nice terms but they are quite
useless if they draw blank looks. There is nothing wrong with basic,
down-to-earth terms like grow, dig, and water, so go ahead and use them.

Although some people would dispute this statement, no one knows everything.
As a Master Gardener you know a great deal about horticulture but remember
that one of the most important things you know is how to find answers. In
your work at plant clinics or at the Extension office phone, you will have
access to excellent resource material. If your client's problem is too
complex to readily solve with your knowledge and the aid of the resource
material, take the person's name, address, and phone number and then find
the time to answer the question thoroughly or see that it is answered by the
Extension agent or a specialist.


-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-SubTitle-
 Using the Telephone
-Text-

When working with clients by telephone, communication can be even more
difficult because there are no visual clues to meaning. Listen carefully and
ask as many questions as necessary. Be sure to familiarize yourself with the
office procedure for telephone use. Your Extension agent or someone on the
staff should be able to provide you with such information as what to say
when answering the phone and how to log calls.

Every time you make or receive a telephone call as a Master Gardener, you
are representing the Cooperative Extension Service. The impression you
create can be a lasting one and may determine whether or not the person you
are speaking with will continue to turn to the Extension Service for
assistance.

When the telephone rings: Answer promptly, quick service helps build a
reputation of efficiency. Identify yourself, it helps personalize the call
and gets the conversation off to a good start. Be friendly by being a good
listener so that the caller will not have to repeat what is said. Be
considerate by not carrying on two conversations at once. Callers should not
be made to feel they are competing with people in your office for your
attention.

Sound as good as you are. Show that you are wide awake, ready to help the
person on the line. Use simple, straightforward language. Avoid technical
terms and slang. Speak directly into the telephone, pronouncing words
clearly. Talk at a moderate rate and volume, but vary the tone of your
voice.

When you must leave the line to obtain information for the caller, it's
courteous to say, "Will you wait? Or shall I call you back?" If the person
chooses to stay on the line, use the hold button (if your telephone has one)
or lay the receiver down gently. Should it take longer than you expected to
gather material, return to the line every 30 seconds or so to assure the
caller you're working on the request. When you have the information, thank
the caller for waiting. Transfer a call only when necessary, but if you
must, explain why you're connecting the caller with someone else. Be sure
the caller wants to be transferred. If he/she does not, offer to have
someone call back.

When answering for someone else, be tactful. Comments such as "He hasn't
come in yet or she's just stepped out for coffee" can give the wrong
impression. It's better to say: "Mr. Jones is away from his desk right now.
May I ask him to call you?" When you take a message, be sure to write down
the name, time, date and telephone number. Don't hesitate to ask the
individual to spell his name or repeat his number.

You will occasionally speak with a caller who may be having a bad day, and
takes it out on you. Remain calm and don't take the comments personally. As
long as you are trying in a courteous manner to help a caller, you are doing
your job. Retain your sense of humor and give the caller your sincere
attention.

Because people are calling you for information, you need to know how to
utilize Extension publications on horticulture. Printed material is
recognized as a means of saving the time of county staff members and
specialists. However, publications should not be treated as free products.
Find out what the office's policy is on publications and how conservative
you need to be in their distribution. Ordering and distribution of Extension
publications is now computerized and supplies can be obtained quickly.


-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-SubTitle-
 Writing Tips
-Text-

Master Gardeners have plenty of opportunity to use writing skills. Some
Master Gardeners help produce publications for local gardening needs, others
prepare scripts for slide sets, and some write newsletters and columns for
the local newspaper. Timely horticultural information is available to you
for news releases and columns. This information is stored on one of Virginia
Tech's main computers and is easily accessed with the Extension office's
computer terminal. The section on using the computer explains how to obtain
this material.

Organization and simplicity will help you achieve a well written product. A
great deal of time and crumpled paper can be saved by starting with a
clearly defined purpose and outline. An easy way to understand the purpose
of your writing is to create the title. A good title tells, in a few words,
what the subject of the work is. "All about Grapes" indicates a great deal
of material is going to be covered, from the history to varieties, culture,
and uses of the fruit. If you are only writing about the culture or the
pruning, say so. Do not mislead the audience. Once the title is written, you
know how you should limit the topic and what should be covered. The roughest
outline is better than none and its bare bones structure makes it easy to
see the logic of the work you are about to create. It is much easier to
repair holes in the logic at the outline stage than later when hard won
paragraphs or even pages may have to be removed. It's a lot like pruning,
easier done when there are no leaves on the tree. Make an outline after the
topic has been capturedin a title.

After the title and outline are complete the writing can proceed. Address
each topic on the outline and soon the job will be finished. Remember the
idea of a topic sentence for each paragraph. Explain each topic on the
outline and back up what you say with information from professionals. If you
really get stuck, examine the idea you are trying to express. Perhaps there
is nothing more to say about it than the sentence that is already there.
Perhaps it is irrelevant or misplaced in the outline. If all else fails, put
the work aside and go find a garden to play in. A change of scenery and a
little time away from the words can do wonders for clearing the head. When
you come back to the work the problem may be perfectly clear and the
solution obvious.

Simplicity is essential to clear writing. Even though vague phrases invade
business letters, news writing, television and radio, there is no need to
promote the trend. For instance, "We would like for you to stop by our
office" can be replaced with "Please come into our office." The same message
is conveyed and half as many words are used. If you find yourself struggling
over a choice of words, try telling someone what you want to say. As you say
it, listen to yourself, because you are probably using the words you need to
write the same explanation. Avoid slang, jargon, flowery and obscure
vocabulary. You won't go wrong with the simplest English words used
correctly. The goal of good writing is to communicate not to confuse.

An interesting sentence carries a strong verb and few adjectives. If you
must shorten a piece of writing you can sacrifice adjectives and gain
simplicity along with space. Articles (a, an, the) are often unnecessary.
Some languages do not have articles at all, which indicates that we can
easily do without some of ours.

Perhaps the most common misunderstanding about writing is that it can be
easy. While it is true that some people are more adept at writing than
others, those who write well will usually admit that it takes work. Just as
good gardeners must get their hands dirty, good writers spend hours
rewriting and use dictionaries and grammar books constantly. They are not
looking up words you've never heard of either. They are checking the actual
meaning of "cultivate" or whether or not there is a hyphen in "damping-off."
Make sure there is a good dictionary in the office and don't be afraid to
use it.

Sometimes new publications need to be produced or existing ones adapted for
local conditions. If the agent you are working with decides you can develop
new materials for distribution, check office files for old publications
and/or write the appropriate specialist. Some already available materials
may only need slight modification. Remember that proper letterheads and
indicias are necessary on all materials sent out via franking privileges.
After the publication is complete, send a copy to appropriate specialists at
the Horticulture Department at VPI & SU and VSU so that they can be shared
with other units.

When producing new materials from old, be certain not to infringe upon a
copyright. Most Extension materials are not copyrighted and may be used for
Extension purposes. If you want to use copyrighted material or even parts of
that material (this includes art work) written permission must be obtained
from the publisher and often from the author or artist as well.

A very useful publication for Master Gardeners is "Media Handbook for
Volunteer Groups," publication 478-002. It contains helpful information
about the media and how to deal with people in that business, as well as
examples of press releases and public service announcements.


-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-SubTitle-
 Public Presentations
-Text-

Because the Extension Service provides information and educates the
community, you will have plenty of opportunity to appear before the public
in your capacity as a Master Gardener, if you so desire. Not only do Master
Gardeners meet the public at plant clinics but many Master Gardeners become
so knowledgeable about a specific horticultural interest that they are
invited to give talks to clubs and groups. This is a wonderful way to help
Extension as agents are often in demand for such talks. Agents and Master
Gardeners are also called upon to provide workshops, demonstrations, and
tours.

Most public presentations have four components: title, introduction, body,
and summary. The title should be short, descriptive, interest catching if
possible, but most of all, it should tell what the subject is. The
introduction tells the audience who you are and elaborates on the
goal/content of the talk. This part of the presentation is often the key to
success or failure as it sets the tone for the remainder of the program and
should hook the interest of the audience. The body of the presentation
contains the substance and should satisfy the curiosity that brought the
audience to the presentation. Use research approved and supported
information and cite references whenever possible. The summary states the
major points of the presentation in a logical sequence without details. This
part should be short and clear. Following a presentation, be prepared to
answer questions. Repeat questions for the audience when they are difficult
to hear or understand, then answer them.

Public presentations take preparation to be successful. Don't be fooled by a
casual delivery. Many people who appear to be relaxed and able to speak
without effort before groups, have actually spent many hours achieving this
effect by preparing and practicing. To plan a presentation consider: (1) who
the audience is (2) its general knowledge of the subject (3) how technical
the subject is (4) timeliness (5) appropriateness (6) purpose (7) materials,
and (8) length of presentation.

Rehearse after collecting materials, studying and reviewing notes. Here are
check points to observe carefully during rehearsal:

     1. Are charts, graphs, and posters easy to see and read?
     2. Can the audience hear the speaker from anywhere in the room?
     3. Are the materials used in the demonstration arranged so that they
        are accessible and easy to reach without fumbling and delay?
     4. Does the speaker make unnecessary apologies? Avoid saying "This is the
        first time I've done this" or "I'm not used to speaking before groups."
        Do the best job you can. The audience doesn't expect you to be perfect,
        and you are probably much better than you think you are.
     5. If you are giving a demonstration with another person, are the delivery
        and action coordinated or does one team member do so much that the
        other's participation seems unnecessary?

If you are preparing an exhibit for public presentation here are some basic
concepts to keep in mind when planning and setting it up:

     1. Choose one idea which can be explained in a simple, catchy
        statement. Use few printed words.
     2. Have a single center of interest to which the eye is drawn.
     3. Develop the story completely using as few items as possible.
        Clutter is not good for an exhibit.
     4. Create a design which is orderly, interesting, and artistic.
     5. Attract attention with movement, color, light, sound, or a
        clever title and attractive design, but not with all of these.
     6. Make sure that charts, posters, and other visuals are attractive,
        neat, clean, and easily read.
     7. Judge exhibit by asking if it attracts attention, arouses interest,
        conveys a message, is well constructed for a neat and orderly
        appearance.
     8. Select people to tend exhibits who are well informed and can
        meet the public easily and create a favorable impression.

Advertising public presentations is very important. Too often well prepared
programs fail to reach a large audience for lack of adequate advertising.
Word of mouth is not sufficient. Public events can be announced in
newsletters, newspaper feature articles, or in the regular column, or even
as paid advertisements, as radio or television public service announcements,
and on posters displayed in appropriate locations. Sometimes it is helpful
to find a local sponsor, such as a shopping center, a bank, or the chamber
of commerce, to assist in financing and advertising an event. Be certain
that all arrangements with sponsors are clearly defined and responsibilities
are agreed upon ahead of time. When advertising outdoor events, such as
garden tours or community garden walk throughs, if no indoor facilities are
available, include an alternative time and date in case of bad weather.

Preregistration can serve as an indicator of expected attendance. Some
agents report good response for workshops that require pre-payment of
minimal fees to cover costs of materials. Participants appear to be more
motivated and interested after making a financial commitment.

Slides are available for use in public presentations through the slide loan
library. The Virginia Gardener program offers more than 70 slide programs on
various horticultural topics. Slide scripts are available on computer and
can be reviewed before the slides are ordered by accessing the Hort program.
Slides can also be ordered via computer.

If no slide sets are available for your use and there is adequate time for
the project, you may want to produce a slide set. Begin with the same
principles basic to good writing and speaking, clarify the subject, and
identify the audience.

It is best to plan the show and write the script before taking pictures.
Illustrations and photographs should relate directly to the script. Decide
what should be illustrated and prepare a list of objects and scenes to be
photographed. Plan to shoot more pictures than you need and be ready to
shoot retakes. Professional photographers often fill the wastebasket with
rejects before finding the masterpiece we see published. Avoid complicated
slides that show too much.

When presenting a slide program avoid phrases such as "This is a slide of
..." "Here we see. . ." "Now we're looking at. . ." "Next we have. . ."
"This picture you're watching. . . ." Instead, talk about what is in the
picture. Do not leave a scene on the screen too long but never less than
five seconds. Slides shown longer than 1 minute tend to warp. Each time the
topic changes in the script the new subject should be identified
immediately. Do not let the audience sit and wonder why they are suddenly
looking at a wheelbarrow when just a second ago you were discussing beans.
Do not lead up to the point, begin with the point and then explain it. Do
not ask the viewer to recall a prior slide. If you want the audience to see
the same slide twice, at different times in the program, provide two slides.

Be sure to view the slides before the talk so that you can be familiar with
the equipment and to check for upside down and reversed slides. Familiarize
yourself with the scriptbefore the presentation. Reading the script to the
audience yields a monotonous delivery that can be very dull. Answer some
questions as they arise but avoid straying far from the topic.


-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-SubTitle-
 Radio and Television
-Text-

Extension agents have been presenting educational radio and television
programs for many years. If you have an interest or experience in this area
you might want to volunteer to do a program or to work on the production of
a program. Before producing a radio or television program, remember that

while you will reach a large audience with one presentation you will also
increase demand for information from the Extension office as new people will
become aware of its existence.

First, let's look at radio program production. Before approaching a radio
station with your ideas, consider the identity of the audience you want to
reach. What is their age, sex, are they single or married, renters or
homeowners? What time of day are they likely to listen to the radio for
information? Radio stations know who their listeners are and what they like.
It is their business to know this and you can find the best station for your
information by matching your audience with the radio station they are most
likely to hear.

Maximum impact can be obtained by a different program each day in the same
time slot. People can then habitually tune in to find out what gardening
tips you are offering. Plan a message approximately 30 seconds to three
minutes in length. Longer messages cause listeners to lose interest.

After identifying the audience and preparing the program, make arrangements
to meet with the program director at the station you have chosen. Take one
or two sample programs with you. Some stations prefer to use their own
personnel to prerecord messages from a script you have prepared. Others
choose to have you record the message using their facilities. Beware of the
live call-in or talk show format. These can lead to drawn out and
uninteresting rambling sessions and can put the person with the answers on
the spot if the question is unclear or controversial. Plan to record one or
two weeks' worth of programs at each visit to the studio.

Whatever the format, the message should be clear and concise.
     1. Use common English and simple sentence structure.
     2. Keep stories or examples to a minimum, using them only to emphasize
        or clarify a point.
     3. Short (30 seconds to two minutes) time slots should address only
        one topic.
     4. Radio presentations are usually one-way conversations and are most
        effective when delivered in a somewhat conversational manner. Often
        ad-libbing from a carefully prepared set of notes comes across better
        than reading from a script.
     5. Speak clearly, emphasizing important points. Avoid talking fast.
     6. Even in a short message, main points and especially control
        recommendations need to be repeated or else summarized at the end.
     7. Provide a means for obtaining additional information. This may increase
        the office work load but it also increases the audience you are
        reaching. However, it is not a good idea to offer specific publications
        on the radio. The demand may exceed the supply and the station is often
        picked up in other counties or states.

The Virginia Gardener Radio program consists of five radio spots per month.
Each is three minutes long and features Diane Relf, Extension Specialist,
discussing a timely horticulturaltopic. These spots can be used to
supplement agent or Master Gardener broadcasts particularly in areas serving
multiple stations. Distribution of the radio program is handled through the
Extension Information and Media office at Virginia Tech.

Television broadcasts need to be well prepared in advance as do radio
programs. However, the added visual dimension of the medium must be taken
into consideration. Be certain the material you are presenting is best for
television, i.e., it can be made visually informative or entertaining.
Demonstrations are good for television. Interviews can be done on radio.
Television is good when visual examples are useful: healthy versus diseased
plants, characteristic markings on insects, variety of color or petal shape
in flowers. Find out ahead of time if the station can and will use your
slides, films, or video tapes. Before you get to the studio:

      1. Outline the material in a script. It does not have to be a word for
         word account, but should be in logical order and contain all the
         points you want to make.
      2. Approach script writing as a story telling experience. Tell an
         interesting and informative story.
      3. As always, use simple English words correctly. Avoid slang and jargon.
      4. Scripts should be like public presentations made in person. They
         should have a title, introduction, body, and summary.
      5. Use only the visuals that will help tell the story and eliminate
         the others.
      6. Use 35 mm slides for visuals, not snapshots.
      7. Evaluate art work and visual props. You should be able to determine
         the main topic from 6 feet. Use photographs at least 8 by 10 inches
         in size when possible.
      8. Avoid detail in graphs and charts.
      9. Mark on the script where slides and graphics should appear. Be
         prepared to make changes if the director suggests them.
     10. Leave sufficient time to have slides and other graphics processed.
     11. Prepare parts of the demonstration ahead of time if necessary.
     12. Obtain necessary approval and clearances for use of films and slides.
     13. Remember that color contrast may not be clear on black and white
         television sets.  Use light and dark shades for good contrast.
     14. Rehearse in front of a mirror. Check for good timing and detect any
         bad habits (bobbing the head, frowning, fidgeting).
     15. Watch out for bad verbal habits (using too many ah's, a's, or o.k.'s)
         and eliminate them.

A relaxed appearance is best so wear appropriate but comfortable clothing. A
brand new outfit is not the best idea; you may find yourself uncomfortable
and begin to adjust your clothing or look unhappy. Avoid white, plaids,
bright colors, shiny fabrics, and bold patterns. Noisy or shiny jewelry can
distract viewers from the material you are presenting. A fresh hairstyle or
cut can look unnatural. Ask the television station personnel for additional
tips on dress and makeup. Don't feel embarrassed about this admitted concern
for your appearance. Television is a visual medium and the way you look is
an important part of a successful production.

When you get to the studio go over the script with the director. Decide on
cues and positions and make a final check to be certain your slides and
graphics are in order. A quick run through will reveal any upside down or
backward images.

During the filming remember to speak in a natural tone. The more relaxed you
are the better. Imagine you are talking to a person just a few feet away.
Maintain eye contact with the camera unless advised otherwise. If you make
an error, correct it naturally and without fuss. Just as in live
presentations, don't apologize. Tell the viewers of other waysto obtain
information on your subject. Most of all, enjoy the experience and smile.

The Virginia Gardener Television series contains 36 sequential spots
pertaining to vegetable gardening. Each spot is 90 seconds in length and
emphasizes intensive home food production methods utilizing minimum chemical
techniques. Television segments featuring Diane Relf cover the entire
growing season starting with planning in late winter and running through
fall cleanup in October. These tapes can be used to supplement short
programs by agents and Master Gardeners and are available through Virginia
Tech's Extension Information and Media office.


-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-SubTitle-
 Using the Computer
-Text-

If you would like to use the computer to do volunteer work and have or would
like to develop computer skills, the Extension office is equipped with the
hardware, software, and materials that you need to do the job. Every unit
office in Virginia has a micro- computer, an IBM-PC, which does double duty
as a terminal connected by phone line to one of the main computers at
Virginia Tech in Blacksburg.

"The Virginia Gardener" (VG) is both the title of a newsletter you may
already be familiar with, and the name of a program which supplies home
horticulture information to Virginia residents. The Extension Horticulture
Information Directory, on the computer at Virginia Tech, provides
horticultural information in three formats useful for distribution to the
news media: HortFacts, The Virginia Gardener Question Box, the VG Monthly
Notes, and the VG Press Releases. HortFacts is a monthly Virginia Tech
Horticulture Department newsletter distributed to all unit offices in hard
copy and retained for one year in the Hort Directory. Articles may be used
in local media presentations and for formulating recommendations. The VG
Question Box is a compilation of horticultural questions with answers. These
can be used as they appear or reworded into narrative style for use in
newsletters and newspaper columns. The VG Monthly Notes compiles the monthly
hints from previous volumes of the Virginia Gardener Newsletter. These short
hints on timely gardening activities are useful for calendars, radio spots,
and newsletters. The VG Press Releases consist of five press releases
appropriate to the month. All of this information is updated monthly and
appears 60 days prior to the month of use, easily in time for publication
deadlines. This material is easily transferred from the mainframe to the
IBM-PC in the unit office where it can be edited and printed. Simply type
the command HORT while logged onto the mainframe and follow the written
instructions that appear. Directions for transferring files from the
mainframe to the IBM-PC in the Extension office appear in the appendix to
this chapter. In addition, all of the vegetable gardening publications are
available on this computer program as are the scripts of the slide sets.
These can be used in the same fashion as press releases and other HORT
information.

An additional feature which is popular in the spring is the VG Computer
Garden Planning Service. Adapted from computer garden planning software
developed at Purdue University, the computer program provides a complete
personalized plan for a family vegetable garden. Publication 426-490, The
Garden Input Form, can be used in conjunction with this program. The Garden
program can be accessed directly from the Extension office. This is done by
logging onto the Virginia Tech mainframe computer and typing the command:
garden. The program presents a menu of choices and is self explanatory. All
that is needed to successfully run the program for a client is the
information from the Garden Input Form. When demand is great, the forms can
be processed at Virginia Tech making computer input unnecessary at the local
office.

Using the word processing software that is available in the Extension
office, you can writearticles and prepare information for your horticulture
work. A spreadsheet program is also available for use and with it you can
easily keep the records necessary to a good Master Gardener program.
Spreadsheet and word processing software packages have certain similarities
and if you are already familiar with one or the other a little instruction
will soon make you capable.


-End-
-Title-
 COMMUNICATING
-SubTitle-
 The Master Gardener As Manager
-Text-

Master Gardener volunteers make it possible for Extension agents to reach
more people with horticulture programs than would be possible without them.
This expansion of program services makes the agent more efficient but
increases responsibility. That is why it is important that Master Gardeners
manage their own program. While the Extension agent continues to head the
program, a Master Gardener volunteer can act as coordinator of the
activities performed by volunteers. In some units there are several
coordinators, each one being responsible for a different geographic area or
a different program need.

After the Master Gardener program becomes established in an area, volunteer
coordinators can help strengthen the program by participating in the
program's planning and goal setting. By meeting and working with the
Extension agent responsible for the program you can help determine the needs
of the community for horticultural information and the Master Gardener
projects that would meet those needs. It is important at goal setting time
to determine how the program's success will be measured. If Master Gardeners
need to keep records of their work, the volunteer coordinator is then in a
good position to explain the importance of this activity to the other
volunteers and to see that accurate records are obtained.

If you have management skills or think you could become a good manager,
express your interest so that you can be considered for the position of
coordinator. Some mental signals that might mean you are manager material:
are you the one with the suggestions on how to schedule the plant clinics,
staff the jobs that need doing, match workers, outline the tasks to be
completed in order to accomplish the job? The Master Gardener program needs
a volunteer coordinator from the beginning. At the first training session
you may find yourself selected to help with the lecturer's audio visual
equipment or to help corral the students after a break. Coordinators begin
with small jobs like this and take on more complicated tasks as the program
progresses. Veteran Master Gardeners are often involved in decision making
concerning new projects, advanced training, and screening of new Master
Gardeners.


-End-
-Title-
 WORK EVALUATION
-Text-

You, the Master Gardener, and your local Extension Agent should plan to
evaluate your performance of volunteer tasks and in return, the adequacy of
support from the Extension Office. The purpose of this is to ensure your
satisfaction with volunteer work, and to determine whether the tasks you are
performing are worthwhile for you, the community, and the Extension Service.

As a volunteer you should expect the following from the Extension Service
employees for whom you work:

    1. Concise explanation of jobs and opportunities for volunteer service.

    2. Staff guidance and support in accomplishment of tasks.

    3. Maintenance of records of task accomplishments.

    4. Recognition of outstanding accomplishments.

    5. Integration of Master Gardener volunteers as full partners in the
       accomplishment of Extension's mission to the citizens of the community.

    6. Continuous Master Gardener training opportunities.

    7. Periodic evaluation of Master Gardener performance.

The Extension Service, in turn, expects the following from you:

    1. Assistance in developing meaningful jobs and opportunities for Master
       Gardeners.

    2. Timely notice of needs and support from the Extension Staff for
       required tasks.

    3. Reporting of tasks accomplished, number of hours involved, and
       evaluation of tasks at specified reporting time.

    4. An equal partner of the Extension team and conduct that reflects
       credit upon you and the Cooperative Extension Service.

    5. Recruitment of additional individuals for future Master Gardener
       training.

    6. Participation in periodic conferences with an Extension Agent to
       evaluate task(s) performed and Extension's support of Master Gardener
       tasks.


-End-
-Title-
 THE MASTER GARDENER PAYCHECK
-Text-

As you know, volunteers are not paid with money, but we hope that the
gratitude of your fellow paid workers in the Extension office and the
district and state staff will help you feel that your work is appreciated.
Certainly the number of citizens who come to you with plant problems will
indicate that you and your knowledge are needed.

As you do your job you will probably begin to notice some of the pay that
volunteers traditionally enjoy. You are, after all, a Master Gardener, and
your horticultural and communication skills qualify you to do some
interesting work. Your sense of accomplishment and pride in a job well done
are assets that only you can collect.


Thanks to the Virginia/Washington Metro Master Gardener organization for
providing the basic material for this publication, especially the job
descriptions.


-End-
-Title-
 APPENDIX
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR ACCESSING HORT INFORMATION
-Text-

Note: These instructions will make more sense if you work them out at the
computer instead of just reading them.

Using Y term, log on to the Tech mainframe as you usually do. As soon as the
ready message appears on the screen, type in the word HORT and press return.
You will be given a directory entitled Horticulture Newsletters and
Publications including:

     Hort Facts for August
     Virginia Gardener August Notes
     Virginia Gardener August Question Box
     Virginia Gardener August Press Releases
     Vegetable Gardening Publications

Follow the instructions given at the bottom of the screen. For example,
place the cursor at the desired information and press return to see the
information contained in that file on the screen. At this point you can
press PF 13 to transfer the file from the mainframe to your PC. (This is
called downloading.) Of course, there is no PF 13 on your key board. To
create a PF 13 hold down the shift key and press the key labeled F3.

This will cause a new screen of instructions to appear informing you that
the file you want is to be downloaded on disk in the default drive. The A
drive where you currently have the Y term disk is the default drive,
therefore you do not want the file placed on that disk.

To have the information loaded on a disk in B drive, type the word DRIVE
(see last instruction on the screen) and press return. A new screen of
instructions will appear telling you to enter the letter for the drive in
which a disk has been placed to store the information. Be sure there is a
formatted disk in drive B, then type B: and press return.

A new set of instructions will appear including the name and location of the
file to be transferred. Be sure to write down the file name on a scrap of
paper for later use (for example, B: AUGNOTES.HOR). You can now press enter
and begin downloading unless you wish to change the file name or follow
other instructions on the screen.

The screen will be blank except for a message across the bottom of the page
indicating the progress of the downloading. When the file has been down
loaded the first page will again appear on the screen. Press PF4 to exit
that file.

You can now type HORT and repeat the process for the other files or you can
log off. After you log off, remove Y term from the A drive and insert the
Word Perfect disk. Press Control/Break to return to DOS. When the A prompt
appears type WP to enter Word Perfect.

When the blank screen appears press Control/F5. A list of 4 options appears.
Select option 2 (retrieve a DOS file). Type file name (i.e.,
b:AUGNOTES.HOR). Be sure to type the entire name, including B:.

The file information will appear on the screen. You can then alter it in any
way you choose with Word Perfect.To save that document for future work in
Word Perfect press F7 (Exit), Y (yes, to save document), Return (correct
file name), Y (yes, replace old copy of file which is not formatted for Word
Perfect). Y (yes, exit Word Perfect). Shut it down.


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-Title-
 GENERAL POSITION DESCRIPTION
-SubTitle-
 Title:  Master Gardener Volunteer (MG)
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Purpose:  To extend Cooperative Extension's educational programs in the
areas of horticulture, gardening, and small-scale food production through
use of certified volunteer Master Gardeners.

Brief Description of the Position: Answers horticultural questions and
inquiries by telephone; staffs clinics, demonstrations, and/or workshops for
the general public on gardening, trees, shrubs, lawns, plants, insects, and
related topics.

Cooperates with and assists the county Extension staff with preparation and
production of specific educational resources, including media materials and
home horticulture classes. Keeps appropriate records.

Requirements: Available to participate in intensive training program in
plant science.

Available to devote a minimum of       hours of Master Gardener volunteer
service.

Must have knowledge and skills in basic ornamental horticulture, gardening,
and general related areas.

Able to effectively communicate with public by telephone, personal contact,
and/or group contact and through written language.

Responsible to the Extension Agent in charge of the Master Gardener Program.
If someone other than an agent supervises the job it is stated in the
specific job description.

Supervision: The Extension Agent in charge of the Master Gardener Program
provides supervision and support to the volunteer Master Gardener.

The Agent will assign, review, and assess work, provide inservice training
based upon needs of the Master Gardener, provide space, telephone, and other
needed support. The Agent will also provide information on professional
improvement opportunities.


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 Job Title:  VOLUNTEER COORDINATOR
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Location: Extension office.

Duties: Meet with supervising agent weekly to discuss current needs and to
plan and evaluate volunteer management activities.

Assist with recruitment in order to expand involvement of adult and teen
volunteers in Extension program.

Interview prospective volunteers to assess individual objectives and assets.

Discuss proposed volunteer placement with agent.


Maintain volunteer records and assist in preparing reports of volunteer
involvement.

Results: Open communication between Extension agent and MG volunteers,
smooth operation of MG projects.

Training Needs: Computer.

Resources: Office software and hardware.


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 Job Title: DEMONSTRATION GARDENER
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Location: Extension office and garden site.

Duties: Form demonstration garden group/committee and elect a chairman who
will coordinate activities.

Work with Extension agent to locate a site suitable for a demonstration
garden.

Work with Extension agent to develop a plan for the garden, acquire
seed/transplants, prepare soil and plant the garden. Work with
group/committee to establish regular maintenance program (weeding, watering,
insect control, etc.).

Keep records of hours worked and contacts made and report these to Extension
agent.

Expected results: community residents will have access to a garden site
which demonstrates new methods for growing vegetables/annuals as well as new
varieties. Master Gardeners will increase their knowledge of
vegetable/flower growing.

Additional training needed: How to recruit and train volunteers. Practice
garden walk-thru with Extension agent or Master Gardener.

Resources: Publication 426-490 Demonstration Garden Handbook, available in
Extension office or from Dr. Diane Relf, Horticulture Dept., Virginia Tech.


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-Title-
 Job Title: HORTICULTURAL OFFICE ASSISTANT
-Text-

Location: Extension office.
Duties:
 1) Assist with clerical duties necessary for conducting horticultural programs.
    Prepare labels and envelopes for Horticulture mailings
 2) Arrange materials for office display
 3) Maintain and up-date horticultural mailing lists
 4) Inventory, file, label, and distribute materials and supplies
 5) Organize, type, and maintain materials for office files and notebooks
 6) Assist with purging and maintenance of horticulture files
 7) Assist with statistical reports
 8) Prepare materials for distribution in response to requests
 9) Responsible for training a substitute so that there is continuity for the
    Horticulture program
10) Transfer "Hort" information from the main computer at Virginia Tech to a
    floppy disk used on the office computer


Reporting time and duration: Volunteer service can be performed anytime the
Extension office is open for business in blocks of two hours or more. That
time is to be prearranged with agent and/or clerical supervisor.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge and skill in clerical
support functions and enable the Extension office to become more efficient
and effective. Additional training needed: Orientation in various clerical
functions of the Extension office and use of the computer.


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 Job Title: TREE AIDE
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Location: Neighborhood where volunteer resides, within the boundaries of the
local civic association.

Responsible to: City Arborist.

Duties: To note and report specific street tree problems within the
neighborhood, e.g., broken limbs, vandalism, sick trees, insect
infestations. To encourage citizen participation in the care of newly
planted street trees as directed by the arborist.

Reporting time and duration: At the discretion of the volunteer and as
problems arise, however, not more than two weeks should elapse without some
contact with the arborist.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of urban forestry and of
the work of the city, and increase skills in developing citizen
participation programs. Neighborhood will benefit by tree problems being
detected early and by new trees being given a better start. City will
benefit from lowered tree mortality rate.

Additional training needed: Arborist will work with the volunteer to provide
any additional training in specific pest problems.


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 Job Title: VOLUNTEER OFFICE STAFF
-Text-

Location: Extension office.

Duties: Answer questions relating to ornamental horticulture, turf grass,
vegetable gardening, soil testing, disease, insect and weed control,
houseplants and related areas. Provide answers based on Cooperative
Extension Service recommendations, and provide callers with appropriate
publications available from Extension.

Reporting time and duration: Volunteer service can be performed any time
between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m., Monday through Friday, or at any regularly
scheduled time with monthly reporting.

Will make general report daily to agent of types of situations encountered
and recommendations made. Clients with unresolved problems should be
referred to the Extension agent.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of gardening and
residents of the community will have extended resources for gardening
problems.

Additional training needed: Seasonal problem training and office
orientation.


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 Job Title: GARDEN TOUR GUIDE
-Text-

Location: Community garden sites, both public and private

Duties: Set up time and date with leader(s) of community garden site.
Promote the event through bulletin boards, newsletters, etc. During the
tour, provide advice on condition of each garden plot by walking through
garden and answering questions and pointing out situations as observed. All
gardeners at that site should follow the guide to learn from each other.
Topics covered include cultural practices, pest problems, fertilizer and
lime needs, spacing, thinning, harvesting, and successive plantings.

Reporting time and duration: At the discretion of the volunteer, but
reported to the agent prior to walk through. Can be done any time from March
through October during the day, at twilight, or on weekends.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge and scope of vegetable
gardening and participants in community gardening program will experience
greater success and more satisfaction from gardening activities.

Additional training needed: Practice garden walk-thru with Extension agent
and/or Master Gardener experienced in this task.


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 Job Title: HORTICULTURAL NEWS WRITER
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Location: At home and/or the Extension office.

Duties: Develop topical news articles for regular release to newspapers,
radio, and TV, and for a newsletter to be published by the Extension office.
The news releases would go under your by-line as an Extension Master
Gardener. Articles to be developed should be timely and where applicable
have the Extension recommendations for the locality where the article is to
appear. Articles could be of a "how to" or plant variety nature, a warning
of a pest problem and how to manage it, or publicity for a gardening
activity or program in which the readers might want to participate.

Reporting time and duration: At the discretion of the volunteer, but at an
agreed upon time. The nature of the article and the use to be made of the
article should be discussed with the Extension agent prior to submission for
publication.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of gardening and ability
to write news articles and readers will have gardening information relevant
to the area.

Additional training needed: Orientation in media coverage techniques and
exposure to Extension's media resources, especially "HortFacts" which is
available via computer. Use of computer and office word processing software.

Resources: Office computer and Hort directory computer information.


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 Job Title: COUNTY FAIR WORKER
-Text-

Location: Extension office and County Fair site.

Duties: Coordinate activities of volunteers involved in developing an
exhibit for the Fair that will depict the horticultural programs offered to
county residents through the Extension office.

Recruit and schedule volunteers to staff a plant clinic during the hours
that the Fair is open, ensuring that all time periods are covered by at
least two people and that all volunteers fully understand their
responsibilities at the plant clinic (outlined in a separate task
description).

Reporting time and duration: Annual project completed during the months
prior to the fair and throughout the event.

Expected results: A quality exhibit that informs the public of the
activities of the volunteers and the programs available to them through the
Extension office. A plant clinic staffed by volunteers and Extension staff
that provides accurate answers to the public.


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 Job Title: COMMUNITY BEAUTIFICATION PROJECT WORKER
-Text-

Location: Area or community where project will take place.

Duties: Provide technical assistance to a community based beautification
project. Types of assistance could include evaluating sites to be
landscaped; teaching basic landscape planning and drawing landscape plans;
providing advice on plant selection; teaching proper planting techniques,
pruning, repair, and maintenance.

Reporting time and duration: At the discretion of the volunteer and the
group conducting the project. However, the type of project and the
assistance to be provided should be discussed with the Extension agent prior
to beginning the project.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of landscaping and
community involvement, and residents of the community will gain knowledge
needed to successfully carry out a beautification project.


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 Job Title: NEIGHBORHOOD PLANT EXPERT
-Text-

Location: Neighborhood where volunteer resides.

Duties: Answer questions relating to ornamental horticulture, vegetable
gardening, soil testing, disease, insect, and weed control, house plants and
related areas. Provide advice based on Cooperative Extension Service
recommendations, and provide appropriate publications available from
Extension.

Reporting time and duration: Volunteers will work with neighborhood
association to devise a schedule for making their services available.
Example: be available at monthly meetings, take phone calls from 10-12:00
Saturdays, make home visits in the evenings.

Will make general report to agent of types of situations encountered and
recommendations made. Refer to agent, names of persons and nature of
problems that could not be answered.

Expected results: Volunteers will increase their knowledge of gardening and
residents will have extended resources to solve their gardening problems.


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 Job Title: GRAPHIC ARTIST
-Text-

Location: At home and/or Extension office.

Duties: Volunteer will work with supervising person to develop visual aids
to be used in presenting Extension programs. Possible examples:
photographing and assembling slide sets and scripts on particular topics,
e.g., pruning, repotting; drawing posters or flyers on specific subjects or
advertising upcoming Extension programs.

Reporting time and duration: At the discretion of the volunteer. However,
the nature of the material and its use should be discussed with the
Extension agent prior to the beginning of a project.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of gardening and ability
to develop various types of visual materials and the residents of the area
will have more information available on gardening.

Support materials: The materials for preparing visuals (e.g., poster board,
markers, film, paper), will be provided by the supervising agent.


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 Job Title: GARDEN LECTURER
-Text-

Location: Dependent upon group being addressed.

Responsible to: Extension agent or other designated person.

Duties: Volunteers present lectures or demonstrations on horticultural
topics to groups that request them through the supervising agent. Visuals
and supporting materials, if available, will be provided by the supervising
agent.

Reporting time and duration: At the discretion of the volunteer and the
group requesting the program. Information presented under the auspices of
Master Gardeners should agree with current Extension recommendations.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of gardening and ability
to speak before a group. Residents will have expanded resources to provide
horticulture education.

Resources: Slide loan library at Virginia Tech. Seventy slide programs are
available. Slide scripts may be reviewed on the computer before ordering
slides.


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 Job Title: SENIOR CITIZENS PROGRAM AIDE
-Text-

Location: Senior citizen centers, recreation centers, libraries, and other
sites where senior citizens meet.

Duties: Master Gardeners will provide instruction in the culture of indoor
plants, floral design and/or container and raised bed gardening to groups of
senior citizens on a regular basis for a specified period of time. Extension
agents will assist volunteers in establishing an appropriate curriculum for
the respective programs.

  1) Indoor Plant Culture: Set up regular meeting times with recreation
     irectors of senior citizen centers.

     Present short programs/lectures on the general care of indoor plants,
     including watering, light, soil, potting, pest control, etc.

     Conduct plant clinics with senior citizens to diagnose their particular
     horticultural problems.

     Set up a small plant show where senior citizens can exhibit their plants
     or arrange for flowers to be used at meals, parties, or other special
     occasions at the center.

  2) Floral Design: Attend additional training programs on floral design.

     Talk to recreation directors of senior citizen centers and others who
     organize activities for groups of seniors to establish time and dates
     for meetings.

     Demonstrate paper flower construction and techniques of designing with
     fresh, dried and paper flowers.

     Set up a small show where senior citizens can exhibit their floral
     designs.

  3) Container Vegetable Gardening: Work with recreation directors of senior
     citizen centers and others who organize activities for groups of senior
     citizens to secure locations and funding for projects.

     Give series of lectures to senior citizens on container gardening and the
     cultural problems associated with growing vegetables and flowers.

     Set up schedules at each site for the care of container grown plants and
     make plans for the distribution of foods grown to participating seniors.

Reporting time and duration: To be arranged with agent.

Expected results: Senior citizens will have more resources available for
horticultural programs. Master Gardeners will increase their knowledge of
indoor plant culture, floral design, or container gardening as well as
develop skills in communication.

Additional training needed: Floral design, techniques of working with senior
citizens.


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-Title-
 Job Title: 4-H SCHOOL GARDEN COORDINATOR
-Text-

Location: Schools.

Duties: Set up time and date to meet with teachers and students to work on
project. Take needed project materials (already made up) to class. Make at
least one follow-up visit to offer further help if needed. Make an
end-of-project visit with the designated agent or technician, to recognize
the students' work. Projects include outdoor and container vegetable
gardening, windowsill herb gardening, sprouting seeds, etc.

Reporting time and duration: Bi-weekly meetings with responsible agent or
technician. Can be done anytime from September through May, but especially
needed in the spring.


Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of gardening and develop
skills useful in working with children. Teachers and students will be able
to carry out successful gardening projects, and learn to garden on their
own.

Additional training needed: Work with responsible agent or technician on
specific project materials.


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 Job Title: 4-H LEADER
-Text-

Location: Home, Extension office, or in public meeting place.

Duties: Work with community 4-H clubs or start garden 4-H club. Provide
scheduled training and supervision of 4-H projects. Establish recognition
program for 4-Hers.

Reporting time and duration: Same as above.

Expected results: Same as above.

Training: Same as above.


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-Title-
 Job Title: ARBOR DAY COORDINATOR 4-H
-Text-

Location: Local schools.

Duties: Talk with PTA presidents, elementary school principals, garden club
representatives, and designated teachers and solicit their involvement in
observance of national Arbor Day. Serve as coordinator with the responsible
agent or technician and the representatives from participating schools.
Assist in developing program and gathering supplies.

Reporting time and duration: Biweekly meeting during March and April with
responsible agent or technician. This project will run from February through
May 1 of each year.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of trees and their care,
and develop skills in organizing citizen participation events. Students will
be encouraged to understand the importance of trees.

Additional training needed: Orientation on purpose and functions of Arbor
Day.


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-Title-
 Job Title: PLANT CLINIC STAFF
-Text-

Location: Libraries, recreation centers, shopping centers, Extension
offices, or other appropriate locations.

Duties: Master Gardeners will be available at prearranged sites and times to
examine and diagnose plant specimens and problems brought in by citizens and
make recommendations in compliance with Extension recommendations and
approved practices.

   1) Form a plant clinic group/committee and elect a chairman, who will
      coordinate activities.

   2) Work with Extension agent(s) to establish regular sites for plant
      clinics.

   3) Establish the frequency of plant clinics and the number of hours
      Master Gardeners are to spend at the clinic.

   4) Work with Extension agent and Master Gardener graphic artist to create
      plant clinic promotional materials: posters, signs, brochures.

   5) Keep records of all clients seen, problems diagnosed, and recommendations
      given.

   6) Forward to Extension agents any materials which Master Gardeners cannot
      diagnose.

   7) Assist with set up and take down as well as with staffing plant clinics.

Reporting time and duration: Master Gardeners will conduct plant clinics at
specified frequencies, at designated locations and report time spent on
clinic work.

Expected results: Volunteers will increase their knowledge of insect pests,
diseases, cultural problems and diagnostic techniques. Residents will
receive help with horticultural problems.


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-Title-
 Job Title: NEIGHBORHOOD GARDEN OBSERVER
-Text-

Location: Neighborhood where volunteer resides.

Duties: Observe both vegetable and ornamental plants in the neighborhood to
spot insect activity or incidence of disease. Send weekly reports on
observations to the Extension office. Consult references and Extension
agents to identify pests unfamiliar to the observer.

Report time and duration: Observation reports are to be submitted regularly.
Volunteer will receive one-half hour credit for each report submitted.

Expected results: Volunteer will increase knowledge of insect and disease
identification. Extension offices will have up-to-date information for use
in educational programs.

Additional training needed: Scouting techniques, insect and disease
identification.


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-Title-
 Job Title: DISABLED CITIZENS PROGRAM AIDE
-Text-

Location: Facilities which serve disabled populations.

Duties: Master Gardeners will provide horticultural instruction or assist
staff in facilities providing services to physically or mentally disabled
individuals. Exact subject areas covered will be determined by the areas of
interest of the participants and available resources.

Meet with Extension agent and official from facility to determine what type
of programs are desired. Work with Extension agent and facility staff to
develop a curriculum for programs to be presented and establish regular
times and dates for horticultural sessions.

Present programs on house plant culture, floral design, vegetable gardening,
landscape gardening, or other topics in cooperation with staff.

Keep records and report progress of the program to Extension agent.


Develop liaison with county fair staff and encourage plants to be exhibited
at fair. NOTE: This does not imply a separate show category for "plants
grown by the disabled" but recognizes that all are equal participants in
such a show.

Expected results: Participating disabled individuals will have greater
resources for horticultural information available to them. Master Gardeners
will increase their knowledge of indoor plant culture, vegetable gardening,
landscape gardening or whatever area they choose to work in. Master
Gardeners will also expand their skills for working with special
populations.

Reporting time and duration: Arranged with agent, dependent on specific
activity to be performed.

Additional training needed: How to work with disabled persons.


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-Title-
 Job Title: HORTICULTURAL EVENTS COORDINATOR
-Text-

Location: Extension office, program sites, or at home.

Responsible to: Extension agent or other designated person. Work closely
with volunteer coordinator.

Duties: Recruit and coordinate activities of volunteers involved in
developing exhibits, plant clinics for horticultural programs, shows, fairs,
that will depict the horticultural programs offered to city or county
residents through their Extension offices and other topics which are
relevant to current problems in urban horticulture.

Develop exhibits. Master Gardeners working on exhibits will meet with
Extension agents or other designated person and design an appropriate
exhibit, provide leadership to other Master Gardener volunteers,
particularly graphic artists, lecturers, and plant clinic staff. Master
Gardeners will establish subgroups of the main exhibit committee which will
take responsibility for the development of individual portions of the
exhibit, e.g., plant materials. In cooperation with Extension agent or
designated person, Master Gardeners will arrange for the transportation, set
up, and take down of the exhibit on prescribed dates and times.

Expected results: A quality exhibit that informs the public of Extension
Service programs or other appropriate areas in urban horticulture. A plant
clinic staffed by volunteers and Extension staff that provides accurate
answers to the public concerning plant problems.

Reporting time and duration: To be arranged with agent.

Additional training needed: How to involve volunteers in specific tasks. How
to plan, conduct, and evaluate an event.

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